Introduction

The Sanghāraja Sādhucariyāva was written in praise of the

achievements and accomplishments of the 18th century Sri Lankan

monk {Welivita} Saranankara. The text was composed in 1779, one

year after Saranankara’s death. Although the text does not mention

the name of the author, scholars attribute it to Āyittāliyadde

Muhandiram, a Buddhist layperson who joined the third delegation to

Thailand to bring higher ordained monks{footnote-monks who have

performed the upasampada ceremony} to Sri Lanka.1 Records of the

journey of the delegation contained in the Sanghāraja Sādhucariyāva

suggest that only a participant - such as Muhandiram - could have

provided such a detailed account of the journey.

The Sanghāraja Sādhucariyāva is both the biography, ratherand

athe hagiography, of Venerable Saranankara, and is the first text of its

kind in Sri Lanka. As such, it became the model for all subsequent

biographies of Buddhist monks. In addition, the text iswas composed

in colloquial, spoken Sinhala, rather than the formal written language.2

The use of colloquial Sinhala was highly unusual during this period, and

indicates that the author wanted to reach an audience that was not

necessarily highly educated. Interestingly,y this particular colloquial

1 Henpitagedara Piyananda, edt., Sanghāraja Sādhucariyāva, (Colombo: Ratne Pot Prakashakyo, 1969), 5.2 This colloquial Sinhala also reveals the influence of the Tamil language. For example, Ubosataramaya, Vatabuluwa, Purudu Pakkudam, Kacci etc.

Sinhala also includes a few words influenced by the Tamil language.

This . {suggesting that Tamil influence came s either through the

armies of foreign mercenaries brought here to Sri Lanka to fight the

western foreign invaders or through the presence of Hindu Nayakkar

relations in the court of the Kandyan kings and also the Hindu

religious influences in society at large in general. }

The text must first be situated within its historical and cultural

context.3 Buddhism was officially introduced to Sri Lanka in 250 B.C.E.

, The great Indian monarch Asoka sent a delegation headed by his son

Bhikkhu Mahinda, during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa, who

ruled from se capital was in Anurādhapura, in the modern north-central

province of Sri Lanka. The Anurādhapura era spanned from 543 B.C.E.

to 1000 C.E. During this period Buddhism spread throughout the

island, while the center of monastic identity remained in the

Anurādhapura kingdom with the state backed Mahavihare at its apex.

Not long after Buddhism was introduced to the island,

Mahāvihāra became the recognized center of monastic culture. But

only tTwo centuries later, other monasteries will emerge and pose a

challenge to the orthodox Mahāvihāra, however,they are the Jetavana

and Abhayagiriya monasteries. emerged and posed a challenge to the

orthodox Mahāvihāra. According to shifts in the monarchy, each one of

these three centers garnered royal patronage and held power at

different periodstimes. The kingdom of Anurādhapura was ultimately 3 This is the first English translation of this text.

abandoned due to natural disasters and repeated invasions from

Southern India. Thus the capitol of the kingdom shifted several times,

moving first to the southwest and later to the mountainous central

region.4 With the rise of the powerful South Indian empires of Pandya

and Chola, Sri Lanka was embroiled in South Indian politics and

subjected to repeated invasions, and the capital Anuradhapura and

later Pollonaruwa nearby, faced plunder and pillage. The economic

base of the North Central kingdom- the intricate irrigation system- ,

suffered irreparably, and with the increase of world trade in spices and

gems, the capital shifted to the South western area. The capital of the

Sinhala kingdom was finally established at Kotte near modern Colombo

and Sri Lanka became an an important entrepotentrepôt for of the

lucrative trade with the East and for the European powersEuropean

powers in their global search forof exploitation of resources .. Footnote

54

For more than athan a millennia, most Sri Lankan kings assured

the protection of the Buddhism and assisted Buddhist monks in the

transmission of monastic education. Monastic identity was predicated

on allegiance to Nikāyas (sects), primarily those of Mahāvihāra,

Abhayagiri, and Jetavana. There were also monks who belonged to

Āyatana, which were groups gathered under the tutelage of an elder 4 The following outlines the shifts in the centers of monarchic power in Sri Lanka; the name of each period corresponds to the capital city of the Kingdom. Polonnaruva period: 1058 to 1234, Dambadeniya period: 1220 to 1293, Kurunagala period: 1293 to 1347, Gampola period: 1347 to 1412, Kotte period: 1412 to 1580, Sitavaka period: 1530 to 1592, Senkadagala period 1480 to 1706, Kandyan period: 1706 to 1815.

monks. There is no evidence that these groups maintained different

dogmas, practices or rituals.

Despite these divisions, all monastic fraternities conducted

monastic education and tutelage of Buddhist traditions even during

times of political and economic instability.

With the rise of European imperialism, , however, the stability of

the Lankan kingdoms was increasingly threatened as successive waves

of colonialists -–the Portuguesethe Portuguese, in the 16th century,

the, the Dutch in the 17th and later on the British in the 19th and

English - attempted to seize power. The maritime provincesMaritime

Provinces ultimately succumbed to both the Portuguese and the Dutch,

while the seat of Sinhala power was confined to the Kandyan kingdom

of the Central highlands. This lasted until 1815, when it too came

under the sovereignity of the British due to the betrayal of the king by

the Kandyan chiefs.over the island.

European colonialists, primarily very especially the Portuguese,

not only attempted to extract the resources of the country and subdue

the people butpeople, but tried to convert the people to Christianity

through violent means. When the Portuguese established power over

the Southern coastal area, they drove monks out of the area and

burned most of the temples, after looting and desecrating them. To

compel thecompel the people to embrace Christianity

menChristianity, men, women, and children were put to the sword. At

the same time, Catholic missionaries weremissionaries were

converting Buddhists in villages in the lowlands using strong, and at

times violent, inducements as can be seen from both local and

Portuguese sources. As a result, some Buddhist monks left the order

and still others were baptized by the missionaries. Indeed, some

Buddhist monks left the order andorder and still others were baptized

by the missionaries .missionaries. The Dutch and the British tried to

win over converts mostly through conferring monetary

inducements ,inducements, land, and other material gain and

withdrawing all support to the Buddhist establishments.

Later in their invasions of the Kandyan kingdom the Portuguese,

and at times the Dutch oftenDutch, often burnt and razed the capital

city of Kandy and pillaged Buddhist vihares and establishments. The

British, too, in their invasion of Kandy in 1803 and 1815 destroyed

crops razed and burnt and pillaged the king’s palace, and in subduing

the rebellion of 1818 completely depopulated the province of Uva-

Wellassa through a deliberate policy of genocide.

During these troubled political periods of the colonial wars, the

kings of Kandy, much like the kings of the lowland kingdoms until they

before succumbinged to the Portuguese, were compelled to engage in

constant warfare and had little time to concentrate on religious or

cultural matters. From the time of the establishment of Buddhism in Sri

Lanka, royal patronage of the religious establishment was imperative

for its survival and progress; however, very l. Little in the way of royal

attention was directed towards Buddhist monks or the maintenance of

Buddhist temples during this period.

The unsettled state of the country also contributed to social and

economic dislocation. Therefore bBy the outset of the Kandyan period,

(1706 to 1815 C.E.), monastic education had become severely

damaged, leading to a scarcity of a strong traditional monastic lineage.

One noted scholar of the period, Anne M. Blackburn states, “Buddhist

temples remained, and monks often occupied them but no centralized

monastic community existed.”5 It was during this period, the Kandyan

era – circa 1779 - that Sanghāraja Sādhucariyāva was written, in

response to the decline of monastic Buddhism on the island and in

praise of its later resurgence under Saranankara..

The kingdom shifted to the fortress-like hills of Kandy after a

series of wars exhausted their defenses on the coastal area.

Retreating Lankan kings moved their kingdoms away from the low

lands to assure the security of the nation. The Kandyan kingdom

prevailed in Sri Lanka until 1815 when the last king, Sri Vikrama

Rājasimha, was forced to capitulate by the British after nearly two

centuries of conflict.

5 Ann M. Blackburn. Buddhist Learning and Textual Practice in Eighteenth-Century Lanka Monastic Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 36.

{During these troubled political times of the colonial wars, little

royal attention was directed towards Buddhist monks or the

maintenance Buddhist temples. At the same time, Catholic

missionaries were converting Buddhists in villages. Since monastic

education was on the wane, monks were challenged by the theological

questions posed by Christian missionaries. Indeed, some monks left

the order when they could not answer the questions raised by these

missionaries, and still others were baptized in the church.6 { When the

Portuguese established power over the Southern coastal area, they

drove monks out of the area and burned most of the temples, after

looting and desecrating them. }-deleted this here and pasted it earlier

in the document.

During the Kotte ({1412-1580)} and Sitawake period ({1521

to1592}) and the Kandyan era, royal attitudes towards Buddhism

began to change, although thus disturbing the close connections

betweenconnections thebetween the Buddhist establishment and the

kingin ways that brought fear to those living as monks. King

Rājasimha I of the Sitawake kingdom{kingdom (circa 1521 to 1592)}

could not obtain the unreserved support of the Buddhist establishment

in his nationalist war against the Portuguese. He angered the Buddhist

establishment by his tolerance and encouragement of other religions

especially the Savaite faith. {{I have changed this para because the

6 Tiranagama Ratanasara, Sangaraja Vatagota (Colombo: Simasahita Saman Prakashakyo 1912), 5.

new thinking is different –backed by literary sources and folklore and

the writings of Portuguese historians since other conventional sources

of history have been completely obliterated by the foreign colonialists.

}}became angered towards Buddhist monks after he sought them out

to negate the result of his bad (akusala) karma accrued through his act

of patricide. He was furious when the monks replied that this was

impossible, and thus became an adherent of Shiva.

A section of the Sangha without fully understanding the threat to their

religion and country from the foreign invaders, supported Don Juan

Dharmapala without fully understanding the threat to their religion and

country from the foreign invaders. Don Juan Dharmapala who was fully

backed by the Portuguese invaders, who used him as a pawn topawn

to further their interests, thus angering Kking Rajasinghe. The Buddhist

establishment dubbed Rajasinghe a parricide, and carried out a

campaign of disinformation against him. One of the chronicles of Sri

Lanka, the Ccūlavamsa, written by Buddhist monks, explains king

Rajasinghe’s his acrimonious conduct towardsconduct towards monks,

. “He annihilated the Order of the Victor, slew the community of the

Bhikkhus, burned the sacred books, destroyed the monasteries, and

thus barred his way to heaven.” 7 Many monks left the order. under

fear of death. As a result of this persecution, it became difficult to find

7 Wilhelm Geiger, tran., Cūlavamsa: being the more recent part of the mahavamsa (New Delhi: Asian Education Services 1992), 225-226.

fully ordained monks after the king’s death in 1592 C.EA.D. 8 {cite

reference}Footnote here could be added that Rajasinghe was not the

only monarch who executed monks for treason against the state

applying the laws of the land.see Lorna Dewaraja-The Kandyan

Kingdom of Sri Lanka chapter Religion and State page 175 for

examples.cite reference}

The lowlands too at this time came fully under the Portuguese

after the death of Don Juan Dharmapala who bequeathed

hisbequeathed his kingdom to the Portuguese invaders. The

Portuguese intent on conversion razed many of the vihares and

Buddhist monastic centrescenters. The centrecenter of Sri Lankan

resistance to the foreign invaders moved to Kandy under

Rājasinghe’s imha I’s successor,, King King Vimaladharmasūriya

I. People in the lowlands too began to look up to him as their ruler and

protector of Buddhism. The Dalada, or the Tooth Relic, the symbol that

legitimized the right to rule of Sri Lankans kings, was also taken to

Kandy., Wimaladharmasuriya was supportive of Buddhism and made

considerable effort to restore Buddhism to its pristine place in the

country.in Lanka. He brought fully ordained monks from Burma in

1596 C.EA.D. and re-introduced higher ordination which had gone into

abeyance due to the ceaseless Portuguese invasions.,to the

country in 1596 A.D. During this period Portuguese attacks increased 8 Rajasinghe was not the only monarch who executed monks for treason against the state applying the laws of the land. For example, see Lorna Dewaraja-The Kandyan Kingdom of Sri Lanka chapter Religion and State, p. 175

and many lives and much property were destroyed. Though his

successor Wimala Dharmasuriya the 2nd too made similar efforts, they

too were only temporary and could not hold back the deterioration of

the Sangha since the king weredue to the king’s constant occupation

occupied with constantwith warfare. The king’s total attention was

necessary not only for the welfare and maintenance of the Sangha but

also to enforce discipline and maintain rigorous standards of conduct

amongst the Bhikkhus in temples. His presence was necessary to give

leadership to national Buddhist activities and festivals.9 But tThe

Portuguese continued to invade Kandy to stamp out Sinhala resistance

taking the king’s attention with them.

The Ccūlavamsa notes:

They were, all of them, the so-called Parangi [Portuguese], heretical evildoers, cruel and brutal. They spread themselves over several fair provinces, laid waste to field and gardens, burned down houses and villages, destroyed the noble families and in this way brought ruin on Sihala. They broke into the towns, into the relic shrines and monasteries, destroyed the image houses, Bodhi trees, Buddha statues and so on. 10 The king’s total attention was necessary not only for the welfare

and maintenance of the Sangha but also to enforce discipline and

maintain rigorous standards of conduct amongst the Bhikkhus in

temples. His presence was necessary to give leadership to national

9 For more information, see Lorna Dewaraja, The Kandyan Kingdom –chapter Religion and State.10 Geiger, Cūlavamsa, 231.

Buddhist activities and festivals.{see Lorna DewarajaThe Kandyan

Kingdom –chp: Religion and State.}11

.Under these circumstances fully ordained (Upasampadā) monks

disappeared from the island for a 56-year period. {cite reference-see

Lorna Dewaraja page 165 and 166} Buddhist education also ceased to

exist. The Buddhist monks monastic of who lived during this period

“represented a new type of monk peculiar to the early Kandyan period,

not known before that time or since in the history of Buddhism in

Ceylon.”12 Since it was practically impossible to hold an ordination

ceremony the monks who entered the Order did so without the

prescribed rites. They were called Ganninanses –part laymen part

monk{KM de SilvaPage 201-A history of Sri Lanka}.13 They retained

their lay names and continued to engage in secular activitesactivities.

During this period, monks became landowners through royal decree

andnd as political servants their obligation to perform religious

servicespractices began to disappear. Robert Knox, an Englishman,

who was held captive by the Lankan king from 1670 to 1679 and wrote

an account of his experience, noted:

Many of the Vehars [temples] are endowed and have farms belonging to them. And these Tirinanxes [monks] are the Landlords, unto whom the tenants come at a certain time and pay in their rents. {{These farmers [monks] live the

11 For more information, see Lorna Dewaraja, The Kandyan Kingdom –chapter Religion and State.12 Kitsiri Malagoda, Buddhism in Sinhalese Society 1750-1900: A Study of Religious Revival and Change, (Berkeley: University of California Press 1976), 54.13 KM de Silva, A history of Sri Lanka, p. 201

easiest of any people in the Land, for they have nothing to do but at those set times to bring in their dues and so depart, and to keep in repair certain little Vehars in the country.14}}-better delete this part of the quotation as it refers to the tenant farmers of the monks.

It was in this context, during the decline of Buddhism, that

Saranankara began to teach and work for the restoration of

Uupasampadā ordination. Buddhist monkspriests belonged to two

groups: Theras and Ganinnānse. Generally speaking, any monk after

ten or twenty years of higher ordination became a Thera. According to

the Asgiriya Talpatha there were only Samaneras in Asgiriya from 1729

to 1753.15 There were a few Theras in Kandy before Saranankara

launched his reformation.-{Please see Lorna Dewarajachp; Religion

and State-page165 and 166 says that when the head of Asgiriya died

in 1729 until 1753 when the order was ree-stablished there were only

Samaneras .Her footnote 29quotes Asgiriya Talpatha} Even Ssome of

these theras who had been ordained during the reign of King

Vimaladharmasūriya I left the monastic life., while still others became

novices.{cite reference here} for unknown reasons. Those who

werebecame novices under Theras remained novices, and did not

strive to achieve higher ordination . Most viharesTheras were well to

do and maintained estates and . mMany workers earned their daily

income, laboring for the viharagamhese wealthy Theras (.{property 14 Robert Knox, An Historical Relation of Ceylon, (Colombo: M.D. Gunasena & Com. Ltd. 1979), 106.15 Lorna Dewarajachp; Religion and State, p 165 and 166

that was given by the king to maintain vihares). } The sameneras or

novicesTheras therefore remained became novices to protect their

wealth, because their sāmanera or novice status would allowed them

to earn money. As a result, they abandoned many Buddhist rites and

rituals were abandoned and transgressed vinaya rules.

The members of the other monastic group were known as

Ganinnānsela16 (improperly ordained novices). Ganinnahelā, Ganai

and Ganello were synonyms used to introduce these novices.

Typically, the word “Gana” is a formal plural noun used to refer to

groups of monks. Even in modern Sri Lanka, people use this

appellation as an insult to ill-disciplined monks. During the Kandy

period, the Ganinnānsela lived normal lives, much as other laymen.

Though strictly forbidden under vinaya rules tThey married and had

houses next to the temples where their wives and children lived. “The

ganinānse’s wives were referred to as ganegedaras, and their sons as

ganageḍiyo.”17 Sri Lankan historian Kitsiri Malalgoda observes: “The

Ganinnānses clothed themselves in white or saffron cloth instead of

the orthodox robe prescribed for Buddhist monks.”18 .”19 {{Monks

began to wear this special attire to escape from King Rājasimha I’s

cruelty towards Buddhist monks and the tradition continued after the

16 Totagamuwa Vacissara. “Sangharaja Samaya,” in Divaina, [Online] August 2003. Available: http://www.divaina.com17Malalgoda, Buddhism, 58.18 John C. Holt, The Religious World of Kirti Sri: Buddhism, Art and Politics in late medieval Sri Lanaka, (New York: Oxford University Press 1996), 24.19 John C. Holt, The Religious World of Kirti Sri: Buddhism, Art and Politics in late medieval Sri Lanaka, (New York: Oxford University Press 1996), 24.

persecution ended.20. Did this practice start from Rajasinghe’s time?

cite your source for this statement as it is a convenient excuse for the

theras to maintain their luxury life style contrary to Buddhist

vinayaWere there Ganinnanses during the Sitawake kingdom? Why not

delete? It is unnecessary for your argument }} HoweverBut the

lifestyle of the Ganinnānse was not according to Buddhist vinaya or

precepts that laid down exacting standards of conduct for

monks.secret. Food remaining after a dāna ceremony was sent to their

wives. The income from temple lands was shared with their families.

When they wanted to leave the temple, they ordained one of their

family members in order to keep property under their family

ownership.21

Some of these Ganinnanse served the king as officials.22 Titles of

high rank such as Disāpati (provincial chief) and Basnayāka (chief)

were given to Ganinnānse. In fact, King Rājasimha II (d. 1687) sent a

diplomatic delegation of Ganinnānse to the Dutch.{cite reference-

footnote}{Earlier there was the tradition of Buddhist monks advising

the king, but they did not hold office} In addition to their political

tasks, they also preached Dhamrma to devotees. They were well

known for preaching by reciting Jātaka stories in musical language.in

20 Even today, the monks who guard the door of the shrine to the Dalada Maligava wear a white sash around their yellow robes.21 It is interesting to note that Saṅghāraja Sādhucariyāva mentions that even after Saraṇaṁkara established upasampadā some monks continued to ordain their relatives and transfer their property to the newly ordained sāmaṇeras before they died. 22 Malalgoda, Buddhism, 50-51

verse form.{kavi}? Kavi bana is popular even now.} The Ganinnānese

also conducted Pretapūjāva, a practice in which following a funeral, a

Ganinnānese went to the home of the deceased and slept in his bed.

The monk would “converse” with the departed and then advise his

relatives what offerings he had requested them to make to the

Ganinnānese; cattle and land were frequently listed. To complete the

ritual, the Ganinnānese offered to the deceased a plate full of his

favorite food. These practices were performed only to obtain material

gain and werewas completely opposed to orthodox Theravada

Buddhism. The Ganinnānese did go for pindepāta but and did not use

their bowls to receive have food. At one point, King Kīrti Sri Rājasimha

(d. 1782) had to order the monks of Asgiriya and Malwatta temples to

take their food in bowls. As Hindu influence was particularly strong in

the Kandyan era, Ganinnānsela became active in Hindu rituals and

worshipped at Hindu shrines in public. Although their ecclesiastic

monastic {ecclesiastical or eclectic? }behavior was far from that of the

Buddhist orthodoxy they did place great importance on the

preservation of ancient dagabas pagodas, vihares , Buddha statues,

and valuable Buddhist texts.

Wlelivita Saranankara

Thus when Buddhism was in a state of decline in Sri Lanka, the

reform movement came from within the Sangha through a remarkable

samenera- an individual figure, Welivita Saranankara (1698 – 1778

C.E.). Saranankara spearheaded the birth of a a revolutionary

movement for reform and established the called Silvat Samagāma

(virtuous community). In 1698 Saranankara was born into an

aristocratic family in Tumpane, a village in the central{highlands?} of

Sri Lanka. He became a novice under Suriyagoda Unnānse23 with the

permission of his parents when he was twelve years old. Young

Saranankara was soon left bereft all alone when his teacher was

executed on a charge of treachery. He then retreated to the

mountains. Concerned with the plight of the Buddhism and the ill-

disciplined behavior of monks, Saranankara was determined to restore

Upasampadā and traditional monastic practices. He began to study Pali

and Sanskrit, although it was difficult for him to find a teacher

competent in these languages. He learned that a man named Levke

Rālahāmi, who was imprisoned in a village near by -Alagalla, could

teach him. Since it was unlawful to associate with a convict,

Saranankara had to meet Levke Rālahāmi clandestinely and studied

Pali grammar from him while walking through forests paths. During

this period, Saranankara lived in a cave and went to nearby villages for

pindapāta to obtain his daily food. Gradually, his followers grew., in

Aa few numbers at first, but “Saranankara did not feel them competent 23 Another respectful word for monks.

to admit them into the Sangha.”24 He therefore started a “semi-priestly

order,”25 the devotees of which came to be known as the Silvat

Samāgama, or thethe aforementioned virtuous community.

24 D.B. Jayatilaka, “Saranmkara, the last Sangha-Raja of Ceylon” in Divaina, [Online] Rev. September 2003. Available: http://www.divaina.com25 Jayatilaka, divaina.

Saranankara attained sufficient understanding of Buddhist texts

and languages to move forward and begin his campaign for reformhis

transformational efforts. He went to Sathkorale and walked through the

village with his pupils whilste preaching and teaching Buddhism. Soon

people began to pay him attention, as they were much taken up by his

simple mendicant lifestyle. His community rapidly expanded, and

among these were some novices from major temples. Monastic

practices{vinaya rules} that had been abandoned, such as begging

for food, shaven heads and wearing yellow robes were reintroduced.

Sri Lankan scholar D.B. Jayatikaka stated that the sight of these

practices “awakened the zeal” of the people.26 Saranankara’s

reputation grew as a result of his reforms, and he was determined to

take his ideas all the way to the royal city. He put up some kutis27 in

the woods near by the capital, Hanguranketa. The novices of Asgiriya

and Malwatta, the monasteries that held royal patronage and were

considered the closest to the king, were concerned by the

reappearance of these strict orthodox traditional practices. They were

also , and were alarmed by Saranankara’s efforts at reform , and were

also ddisconcerted that he had moved so close to the city. approach to

the city. The monks of Asgiriya and Malwattay temples were furious

when the members of the virtuous community refused their hospitality

and would not acknowledge them as properly ordained Buddhist

26 Jayatilaka, divaina.27 Lodge for monks.

monks. Finally, the angry monks of Asgiriya and Malwattae novices

brought the conflict to the attention of the king, {write here the name

of the king-narendrasinghe?}who had long cultivated political

relationships with the two temples. Thus the king{write here the name

of the king}- decreed that Saranankara and his community had to

respect the monks in major temples. Not overly Undiscouraged,

Saranankara carried on his reformation and engaged in arduous

monastic practices.

Eventually, the royal attitude towards Saranankara changed in

his favor. On the occasion of a visit by a foreign priest to the island,

only Saranankara was able to preach Dhamma in Sanskrit and Pali. The

king{write the name} was pleased by his ability and began to pay

more attention On the occasion of a visit by a foreign priest to the

island, only Saranankara was able to preach Dharma in Sanskrit and

Pali. The king was pleased by his ability and began to pay more

attention to to Saranankara and his virtuous community. A big

monastery {write the name-Niyamankade?}was built with royal

support for the new group and it was used as a Buddhist college.

Malalgoda notes, “In a few years, this institution turned out to be the

progenitor of a renaissance in Sinhalese and Pali literature.”28 Both

laymen and clergy were trained in three languages: Sinhala, Pali and

Sanskrit. A large number of texts were composed as a result. In

addition, many Dhamrma texts that were ha destroyed d been burned

during the reign of Rājasimha I were painstakingly reconstructed by

piecing together parts of scattered books.

Termple-centered Lay Education

With the creation of this new Buddhist center, monastic training

and education was reestablished. According to the Mahāvamsa and the

Hatthavanagalla Vihāravamsa, temple-centered Buddhist education

had been established in Sri Lanka since the introduction of Buddhism 28 Malalgoda, Buddhism, 60.

to the island and was always supported by the kings . Lay boys

received their elementary education in the temple where they were

taught reading , writing , rudimentary mathematics and Buddhism at

the primary level. Pirivenas also provided higher education for the

male laity where Sinhala literary studies, Pali and Sanskrit languages,

,indigenous medicine, astrology and Buddhist scriptures were taught.

{look up KM de Silva-History of Sri Lanka and Malalgoda} Though for

some time education of the laity was disrupted, , however, This

system, however, had fallen out of use long before Saranankara’s

reformation. Yet not long after the new Buddhist center, Niyamakanda,

was constructed, temple-centered education re-emerged throughout

the island. At the beginning of the British period John Davy

commenting on the high literacy among the male population

notedsaid it was the same as in Britain at that time.29 {see Kitsiri

Malalgoda –Buddhism in Sinhalese Society-page 176 footnote 9 cites

John Davy-An Account of the Interior of Ceylon and its inhabitantsp237

and major Jonathan Forbes 1840 Eleven Years in Ceylon vol 2

page245.} ByIn 1855, despite constant British conquests and colonial

invasions and neglect of the temples and monastic centerres, with the

British conquest there were 1700 pansal schools in Sri Lanka.{cited by

KHM Sumathipala1968-History of Education in Ceylon 1796-1965 page

9 footnote 2}29 (see Kitsiri Malalgoda –Buddhism in Sinhalese Society-page 176 footnote 9 cites John Davy-An Account of the Interior of Ceylon and its inhabitantsp237 and major Jonathan Forbes 1840 Eleven Years in Ceylon vol 2 page245.)

Political conditions in Kandy favoured Bhikkhu Saranankara when

kings from the South Indian Nayakkar descent ascended the throne of

Kandy. From the late 17th century it became a matter of policy for the

Sinhala kings to marry from the ruling royal families of Madurai in

South India . One reason was to curb the power of the Sinhala nobles

who often plotted against the king. AlsoBesides, with the collapse of

the lowcountrylow country kingdoms under colonial attack many of the

Sri Lankan royal families became extinct. The royal court of Kandy

followed the matrilineal succession that prevailed in Madurai and

adopted the peculiar system that when the king died childless he was

succeeded by his wife’s brother, and soon the dynasty became

essentially foreign. When King Narendrasinghe, the last Sinhala

Buddhist monarch died childless in 1739, his Madurai chief queen’s

brother, who had been brought up in the Kandyan court and trained by

the bhikkhus and was tutored by Welivita Saranankara, was declared

king and given the nameas Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe . Although a foreigner

and Hindu by birth the king was brought up in the Kandyan court and

was educated and taught Buddhism by Saranankara. Even soHowever,

the king had to win over the people by showing that he was a

devoutted Buddhist, by performing all services to the Buddhist

establishment . Since Sri Vijaya also died childless his eldest brother-

in-law was named the successor and ascended the throne as Kitisri

Rajasinghe perpetuating the South Indian Hindu dynasty. Sri Vijaya

Rajasinghe and Kirtisri Rajasinghe therefore may have supported

Bhikkhu Saranankara ardently for their political survival and so

undertook a programme of helping Saranankara to reform and

resurrect Buddhism while their predecessor, king Narendrasinghe, who

belonged to the older Sinhala dynasty, did not sowas less enthusiastic

in hiscally support of Sarankara’s reform moverment. As monarch

from a foreign dynasty Nayakkar kings needed to identify themselves

with the religion of their subjects. Kirtsri Rajasinghe undertook a

massive programme of restoring and building many vihares all over

the kingdom.

tSaranankara taught Buddhism to both kings, Vijaya Rajasinha

and Kirti Sri Rajasinha{write their names} ,both kings who reigned

during his lifetime, and was considered a symbol of the link between

Buddhist education and the royal family.30 Many other piriven

(monastic educational centers) were built,, among these: Gadalādeniye

Saddharmatilaka Vihāra, Asgiri Vihāraya, Malvatu Vihāraya, Degaldoru

Vihāraya, Dambulu Vihāraya and Gamgārāma Vihāraya.31 As the

building of these many piriven suggest, it wasn’t just Saranankara’s

religious reform that was influential, but his educational reform as well.

s a result of his own studies in the Pali language and in the Darma, and

in order for the religious reforms to be anything more than superficial,

monks were instructed by Saranakara in beginning levels of reading

30 Blackburn, Buddhist, 50.31 Blackburn, Buddhist, 51.

and writing, Pali grammar, the teachings of the Buddha etc. and then

when competent were instructed to go out and teach others. In this

way, Saranankara contributed greatly to a literary revival on the island.

ahe Darma, Saranankara contributed greatly to a literary on the i

“compiled several important religious works, for example: the Munigu Naalankaara, a Sinhalese poem in praise of the Buddha, the Saaraartha Sangraha, a treatise on various doctrinal teachings in uddhism, Abhisambodhi-alankaara, a Pali poem in a hundred stanzas on the life of the Buddha, and the Ruupamaalaa, a work on Pali grammar.” Saranaṅkara spent his life teaching Buddha’s words to lay

devotees, collecting books and studying scriptures about rites and

rituals with many devoted students and disciples. These students

continued his own teachwriting,manslations anntariesa result of

iineage througteaching, writingsslations; among them his closest

disciples Siṭināmaluwe [Dhammajothi] and Ilipängamuwe. . One

important student, Nāyaka Tibbaṭuwāve Buddharakshita, contributed a

translation of Saddhammopayānainto Sinhala as well as the great

chronicle of Sri Lanka known as the Mahāvamsa. Other erudite

scholars offered up translations of important sutras like Kamburupiṭiye

Gunarathana Thera’s translations of Hatthipadopama Sūtra and

Kālakārāma Sūtra with glossaries. Attaragama Banḍāra offered the lay

people as well as the community of monks a wealth of texts such as

Kārakapushpamañjari, Suddhīramukhamanḍa Shabdamālāwa and

Vruttavatāraya. These and many other works of religious and linguistic

importance and influence were composed at these centers through

generous royal support and as a result of Saranakara’s teaching.

In addition to the creation of new texts, commentaries and

translations, Saranankara’s students became very talented in teaching

the Dharma, preaching and important practices. A great number of

Many erudite scholars emerged{some names?} and a wealth of

texts{examples} was composed atdue to these centers through and

generous royal support.

Novitiate training was initiated in these colleges under

Saranankara’s keen guidance. He was aware that the gradual training

system of the Buddhist monastery was necessary to maintain monastic

discipline. Hence the piriven aimed to provide sufficient understanding

of Buddhist texts, and the skills to preach Dharma properly to

Sāmanera monks prior to Upasampadā ordination. Skill-based teaching

paved the way for novices to obtain education and to reinstate the

tradition of Buddhist pupillary education system, which continues toin

the present-day.{footnote explaining pupillary education system--}

Christian preachers could not match the skilled Dhamma preaching of

the highly trained Buddhist monks and this proved a detterrent to

Christian conversion.{see Malalgoda for citing}

Saranankara made sure that monastic studiespractices

conformed to the studentsfollowers’ interests. Some members of the

community were enthusiastic about the study of the Tripitaka and they

focused on textual studies, while the others were interested in

meditation and scrupulous Buddhist vinaya scrupulous practices. Both

groups were trained to give priority to setting a “lofty example of self

denial and simplicity.”32

Thus the training was planned to accord with two aspects of

Buddhist trainings: Ganthadhūra (mastering the Tripiṭaka texts and

teaching them to others) and Vidassanādhūra (dedication of one’s life

to meditation). The Sangharāja Sādhu Cariyā illustrates this training:

He made them read the fourfold precept33, along with the Heranasikha (Precepts for Sāmaṇera), Dinacariyāva (daily routine), Sekhiyā34, as well as commentary on Dhampiyā and Telkatāha Gāthā35. They also read about thirty -four giants who break precepts, the good results of observing precepts, and the evil results of desire. When the Shataka books were done, he made the capable students read Nighanḍuva, Dhātupāthaya, Bālāvatāraya, Padasādaniya, and Varanagilla36 and made them write grammar on the sand. He made them understand nouns, three genders, and the singular and plural forms of the seven cases using numerous examples. He made them listen to Pāli stories. Saranankara spent time making students read and study many books including Pāli Bodhivansaya, Attanagaluvansaya, Abhidhānappradeepikāva, Anāgatavansa37 and making them learn Buddha’s other teachings. He also had them preach to the people, observe five and eight precepts, hold [ceremonies of] offering in the temples, perform acts of worldly welfare and walk throughout five countries [areas] including both

32 Jayatilaka, divaina.33 Practice of the precepts of Pratimoksha (a text of disciplines), 2. practice of the subjugation of the senses, 3. practice of making an honest livelihood and living purely, 4. practice of awareness when eating, drinking, taking medicine and wearing robes.? Disciplinary rules on behavior.34 Disciplinary rules on behavior.35 A Sinhala commentary and texts with Pali stanzas.36 Grammar books for Sinhala, Pali and Sanskrit.37 Texts used to teach Pali literature.

Satara Korala and Denuwara. He prevented them from committing Akusala.38

The Heranasikha and Sekhiya precepts, which mainly focus on

behavioral training, were considered compulsory. In addition, novices

focused on studying Pali since they had to read Buddhist texts in Pali.

Memorizing and reciting selected texts was a primary requirement

before the Sāmanera started reading Tripitaka texts. Some of these

texts were: Shataka, Nighandu, Dhātupātha, Bālāvatarāra,

Padasadāniya and Varanagilla.39 When students were familiar with the

characters, they studied other texts such as Sakaskada (Sanskrit

stanzas), Varanagilla (declension of Pali and Sanskrit nouns and the

conjugation of verbs), Mangul Lakuna (a booklet on Prince Siddhartha’s

auspicious physical characteristics), and Nampota (a list of sacred

sites). These texts provided novices with a basic foundation to read

and understand Sinhala, Pali and Sanskrit.40

After the re-establishment of traditional monastic education for

Buddhist monks, Saranankara still desired to introduce Upasampadā to

Sri Lanka. Even Saranankara himself was not fully ordained, since

there was not the necessary a quorum of Upasampadā monks on the

island who could perform the ceremony ion the island. The strong-

willed Saranankara encouraged the king to send a delegation to 38 Piyananda, edt., Sanghāraja, 22.39 These texts are made in order to improve the ability to basic reading of Pali and Sanskrit languages. 40 These languages continue to be taught using these same texts in Piriven (Buddhist colleges) in modern Sri Lanka.

Thailand or Burma to bring back monks who could perform the

Upasampadā rituals; . hHowever, during the rule of King Narendra

hHis wish was not fulfilled., however, during the rule of King

Narendrasimha.

Not until Sri Vijaya Rājasimha ascended cceded to the throne

was a delegation sent to Thailand. The group included five former

(disrobed) members of the virtuous community, who had given up

robes, along with two royal officials. They left the country in a ship

given to them by the Dutch since the Dutch were intent on pleasing

the king as they feared a resumption of hostilities that could disrupt

trade.. The mission, however, was unsuccessful as all but two

members of the delegation died. The valuable royal gifts were stolen,

and the survivors returned with empty hands. A second group was

sent, and did reach Thailand, but had to return when King Sri Vijaya

Rājasimha died. On their way back, all but one lost their lives.41

Undiscouraged, Saranankara prepared another delegation to set off

to Thailand. The new king, Kīrti Sri Rājasimha, strongly supported him

and the third group left for Thailand with royal gifts. This time the

mission was successful and twenty-one Thai monks landed Sri Lanka in

1746. The first higher ordination ceremony was held at Sīmāmālakaya

in Malwatta temple in 1753.{footnote explaining Simamlakaya would

be of interest}-41 Ratansara, Sangaraja, 18.

After the re-establishment of Upasampadā, large numbers of

monasteries with thousands of monks were built all around the island.

Traditional Buddhist practices and rituals were held through out the

country. Saranankara was awarded the title of Sangharāja, or the

head of the Buddhist order in Sri Lanka. Various Buddhist texts were

written and a large numbers of commentaries were composed lauding

Saranankara’s effort and determination. Many educated monks and

lay people followed his path and worked to restore damaged Buddhist

texts in abandoned monasteries. The monastic structure that had

been absent for nearly 250 years was recognized again and

reinstated.. Bhikhshu leadership in Sinhalese society, which had

virtually disappeared, emerged with a courage colored in full force by

yellow robes.

The establishment of the Siyam Nikāya sect along with Sri

Lanka’s newfound cultural ties to Thailand was a significant result of

Saranankara’s efforts. After the arrival of the Upasampadā monks,

the Thai king sent many rare manuscripts to Sri Lanka, which filled the

libraries of Piriven throughout the country.

The major temples of Siyam Nikāya, Malwatta and Asgiriya, were

officially recognized and these two temples supervised all the shrines

along with their properties all over the island. Ceremonies for lower

ordination {sameneras? entering the Buddhist order ?} and higher

ordination continue to be conducted today in these monasteries. Both

temples haved a long tradition of aristocratic patronage, and continues

to played an important large role in Sri Lankan religious, social and

political history. Their impact on the political arena had been and

continues to bein the present too is was particularly important. .

When Saranankara began his movement, however, this

relationship gradually changed. iInitially, everyone was admitted to

the virtuous community regardless of caste, wealth, or poverty. n Not

long after Saranankara was officially recognized and Upasampadā was

reintroduced, however, caste became a pre-condition for ordination as

a monk.{Isn’t there a particular incident that happened –a Buddhist

monk from a lower caste prostrated before the king and the king was

displeased since tradition decreed that the king pays obeseiance to the

monks not vice versa, and thereafter the caste regulation was applied

to the Siam Nikaya.{see KM de Silva or Malalgoda or Lorna Dewaraj .I

can’t remember where I read it} Historian Lorna.S. Dewaraja notes, “It

is significant that even the first six Bhikkhus who were ordained at the

hands of Upāli not only belonged to the govikulas, (high caste) but

were also selected from aristocratic families within it.”42 Dewaraja

suggests that the selection of monks from only high caste families

consolidated their caste privilege, while at the same time establishing

their hegemony over the low-caste monks who had entered the order

prior to this regulation. 43 King Kīrti Sri Rājasimha, was{himself a

Hindu}, born a Hindu andbut practicedpractised some Hindu customs

which disturbedwas disturbing the purists, specifically -Saranankara

and his followers. He granted money, land and many other privileges

42 K.M. de Silva, ed., History of Sri Lanka: volume II (c.1500 to c.1800): The Kandyan Kingdom and the Nayakkars, 1739-1796 (Sri Lanka: Sri Devi Printers (Pvt.) Limited 1995), 290. 43 Ibid.

to the Siyam Nikaya sect, in order to firmly establish himself as the

legitimate monarch. Wealthy monks and aristocrats used this to their

advantage, however, and schemed to take the throne and establish a

Buddhist king. 44 As Dewaraja notes, “It seems therefore that ever

since the sanmgha recovered from its amorphous state and became a

wealthy and recognized institution it returned into a fertile breeding

place for treason and intrigue.”45 Thus, the rapid progress

establishment of the Siyam Nikāya into a strong and powerful

establishment backed by the State cleared the way towards not only

towards the re-introduction of strict monastic practices rituals but also

towards reinstating certain practices which that Saranankara had

rejected at the beginning of his career. {Wouldn’’nt the strong Hindu

influences in the court where the kings Nayakkar relatives were many

and powerful, have helped to perpetuate claims of caste and Hindu

ritual practices.? } Bequeathing monastic properties to relatives,

limiting Upasampadā to only high caste members of the fraternity, and

engaging in the political arena were practices repudiated by the Pāli

Tripitaka. However, the Sangha’s close relationship with the monarch

always gave them considerable political influence and even from the

44 Buddhist monks along with aristocrats in Kandy launched a conspiracy to assassinate Kitisri Rajasinghe the in order to appoint a Buddhist king from Thailand. It is clear that some Buddhists were not pleased with Sri Lankan kings who descended from Hindu Nayakar lineage and indulged in Hindu practices. This was exemplified by Saraṇaṁkara’s critique of the king’s custom of applying holy ashes on his forehead. He said “it is a dog that lies on ashes.” (Ratanasara, Sangaraja, p. 28, translated by the author).45 Silva, History, 293.{lorna Dewaraja?

early years of the Anuradhapura period, Bhikkhus were advisors to the

monarch.

Therefore, Saranankara ultimately legitimized a hierarchical

monastic system of the type that is categorically rejected in the

Therāvada scriptures. This ultimately raises questions on an

individual level of his intentions, and on a collective level of the

political and social system within which Saranankara’s “revolution”

took place.{Saranankara’s intentions?Why did he conspire to

assassinate the king and replace with a Buddhist monarch? Was it to

have a totally Buddhist king. To build vihares and monastic centres

royal patronage was essential Sranankara would have to please the

king and could not completely wean him away from Hindu practices.

Many of the Buddhist temples built at this time accomodated worship

of Hindu Gods .Hindu influences would have been a part of popular

Buddhism. It was a complex situation.The king chose to ignore

Saranankara’s and tSiyam Nikaya’s complicity in the assassination

attempt.As a king from a totally foreign dynasty he would have

realized the importance of the backing of the Buddhist establishment

to legitimize his claims to the throne and therefore tended to support

elitism in the Sangha.

Nevertheless if not for the reform movement

initiated by Saranankara, Buddhism would have been

gradually obliterated by Hindu practices in a situation

where the court under the Nayakkara kings was

replete with Hindu influences .The Dalada

perehera ,a festival symbolizing the close

relationship between the monarch and the people

and emphasizing their common religion, and

heritage, was at first limited to Hindu devales in

Kandy but it was Saranankara who brought in the the

Tooth Relic{dalada} perehera as the focus of

attention and gave the devales a subsidiary status.Saranankara’s movement that lead to reform in conformity with

the original Theravade practices was to prove a source of inspiration

for the lowcountry monks wtoo. The Siam Nikaye’s insistence on caste

based entry into the order propelled a reformist movement in the 18th

and 19th centuries in the lowlands . With the formation of new Nikayas

where so called lower castes gained entry into the Buddhist Order,

Buddhism became a vibrant force that laterll shaped th e political and

social life of the country.