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1Introduction
1
• Sensation and perception
– The processes by which physical energyimpinging on the senses is converted intoelectrochemical energy by the senses, transmittedto the brain for adaptive interaction with theenvironment.
1 Introduction
• Early Philosophy of Perception
• Nativism and Empiricism
• Psychophysics
• Biology of Perception
1 Early Philosophy of Perception
• Plato’s “The Allegory of the Cave” (380 BCE)
1 Early Philosophy of Perception (cont’d)
• perceptual system as a filter
• What kind of filter?
– perception and thereby “sense of reality“ evolved:
• survival
• individual animals rely on different types ofenergy
• sensory ability “tailored to” the environment
• we are selective perceivers
1 Early Philosophy of Perception (cont’d)
• some species sense energies that humans cannot:
– bees see ultraviolet lights
– rattlesnakes sense infrared energy
– dogs and cats can sense sounds with higherfrequencies
– birds, turtles, and amphibians use magnetic fieldsto navigate
– elephants can hear very low-frequency sounds,which are used to communicate
2
1 Some Animals are Able to Sense Stimuli that Humans Cannot 1 Early Philosophy of Perception (cont’d)
• Heraclitus (540–480 BCE): “You can never step intothe same river twice.”
– both world and perceiver are constantly changing
– idea that perceiver cannot perceive the sameevent in exactly the same manner each time
1 Early Philosophy of Perception (cont’d)
• Adaptation: A reduction in response caused by prioror continuing stimulation
– light over time ….
• sun to dark basement
• dark basement to sun
1 Early Philosophy of Perception (cont’d)
• Democritus (460–370 BC): The world is made up ofatoms that collide with one another, and thesensations caused by these make contact with oursense organs
– perception is the result of the physical interactionbetween the world and our bodies
– primary qualities and secondary qualities
• touch versus vision
1 Early Philosophy of Perception (cont’d)
• Sensory transducer:
– receptor that converts physical energy from theenvironment to neural activity
1 Nativism and Empiricism
• Approaches to perception
– nativism
• the mind produces ideas that are not derivedfrom external sources
– innate and created ideas
– empiricism
• experience from the senses is the only sourceof knowledge
3
1 Nativism and Empiricism (cont’d)
• Descartes’ (1596–1650) dualist view of the world
– mind–body dualism: originated by Descartes, theidea positing the existence of two distinctprinciples of being in the universe: spirit/soul andmatter/body
1 Nativism and Empiricism (cont’d)
• dualism
– mind and body exist “separably”
• monism
– mind and matter are formed from, or reducible to,a single ultimate substance or principle of being
1 Nativism and Empiricism (cont’d)
• materialism
– physical matter is the only reality, and everythingincluding the mind can be explained in terms ofmatter and physical phenomena. Materialism is atype of monism.
1 Nativism and Empiricism (cont’d)
• empiricism:
– experience from the senses is the only source ofknowledge
1 Nativism and Empiricism (cont’d)
• Hobbes (1588–1678) believed that everything thatcould ever be known or even imagined had to belearned through the senses
1 Nativism and Empiricism (cont’d)
• Locke (1632–1704) sought to explain how allthoughts, even complex ones, could be constructedfrom experience with a collection of sensations
– tabula rasa
• recovery from blindness
– What can you “see”?
4
1 Nativism and Empiricism (cont’d)
• Berkeley (1685–1753) studied waysin which perception is limited by theinformation available to us throughour eyes
– all of our knowledge aboutthe world comes fromexperience, even ifperception is limited
– “distance of objects”
–infer distances fromcues in the image
– “To be is to be perceived”
1 The Dawn of Psychophysics
• Fechner (1801–1887) invented “psychophysics,”founder of experimental psychology
– work relating changes in the physical world tochanges in our psychological experiences
1 The Dawn of Psychophysics (cont’d)
• psychophysics
– the science of defining quantitative relationshipsbetween physical and psychological (subjective)events
1 The Dawn of Psychophysics (cont’d)
• Weber (1795–1878) discovered that the smallestchange in a stimulus, such as the weight of an object,that can be detected is a constant proportion of thestimulus level—“Weber’s Law”
1 The Dawn of Psychophysics (cont’d)
• JND (Just Noticeable Difference): The smallestdetectable difference between two stimuli, or theminimum change in a stimulus that can be correctlyjudged as different from a reference stimulus. Alsoknown as difference threshold
1
• How much weight must you add to a:
– tea cup ?
– 10lb bag of sugar?
• How much light must you add to a:
– flashlight in basement?
– flashlight in outdoor sunlight?
• Knock on door (with/without background)
5
1
Weber Fraction
k = ΔI/Ik = constant
I = intensity of the standard
Example100 gram weight103 gram weight3 grams = JNDk = 3/100 = .03
True: yes if the standard is not too close to the threshold
1 The Dawn of Psychophysics (cont’d)
• Fechner’s Law:
– A principle describing the relationship betweenstimulus magnitude and resulting sensationmagnitude such that the magnitude of subjectivesensation increases proportionally to the logarithmof the stimulus intensity
– S = k log R
• S = perceived stimulus intensity (sensation)
• R = stimulus intensity (reality)
1 Fechner’s Law
1Psychophysical Methods
1 Overview
• Classical Threshold Theory
– Absolute threshold (Fechner, 1860)
• Difference Threshold
– Weber (1834)
• Above Threshold
– Magnitude estimation (Stevens, 1950’s)
• Signal Detection Theory
– Green and Swets (1960’s)
1Quantitative
• Physical stimulus
– Detection -> absolute threshold
• Two physical stimuli
– Discrimination -> difference threshold
• Above detection/discrimination
– Psychophysical function
• magnitude of physical
• magnitude of the perceptual
6
1Detection
1 The Dawn of Psychophysics (cont’d)
• DETECTION
– absolute threshold
• minimum amount of stimulation necessary for aperson to detect a stimulus 50% of the time
– e.g.,
» how much intensity do you need todetect a light at 500µ
1Absolute Detection Threshold
• Questions– Least intense sound I can hear?
– Least intense light I can see?
– Smallest concentration of chemical I can taste?
1Assumption
• Intensity exists for each observer, above which theobserver detects the stimulus, below which, theobserver does not detect the stimulus
100
0
Physical intensity
% detect
1 1
Methods for Determining Detection Threshold
• Method of limits
• Methods of constant stimuli
• Method of adjustment
Methods
7
1Method of Limits
• 5-9 stimuli varying in intensity– Least never detected
– Most always detected
• present in ascending/descending order
• observer responds when he/she detects
• data - function
– Percent detection as f(stimulus intensity)
• threshold - arbitrary but often 50% or 75%
Method of Limits 1 Method of Limits
1Method of Limits
• Example use???
• Eye doctor….
• Potential problems?
1Method of Constant Stimuli
• 5-9 stimuli varying in intensity– Least never detected
– Most always detected
• present in random order
• observer reports which he/she detects
• data - function
– Percent detection as f(stimulus intensity)
Method of Common Stimuli
1 Method of Constant Stimuli 1Method of Adjustment
• observer adjusts an analog device that controlsstimulus intensity until he/she just detects stimulus…
• Multiple trials can be used
• Example
– Von Bekesy audiometer
Method of Adjustment
8
1Evaluation
• Accuracy– constant stimuli
• Speed
– adjustment
1Discrimination
1 The Dawn of Psychophysics (cont’d)
• DISCRIMINATION
– minimum difference at which two stimuli can bedistinguished
• examples
– two-point threshold
– two different frequencies
– two different colors
1Methods
• Discrimination threshold
• Reliably discriminate between two stimuli
100
0
Physical intensity change
% different
1Weber’s Weight Study
• Smallest difference in weight that can be reliablydiscriminated
• Just noticeable difference (JND)
• Weight difference that was discriminable depends onthe reference weight
1Above Threshold
9
1Above Threshold
• Directly relating the physical and the psychological
– Magnitude Estimation Method
– Steven’s Power Law to describe findings
1Magnitude Estimation
• Present a standard stimulus
• Rate it as having an intensity of x
• Present a comparison stimulus
• How intense is it?
• Possible results….
1
Physical Intensity
Psychological Intensity
Linear response
1
Physical Intensity
Psychological Intensity
Response Compression
1
Physical Intensity
Psychological Intensity
Response Expansion
1 Magnitude Estimation
10
1
Steven’s Power Law
ψ = kµn
ψ = perceptionk = constant
µ = Physical stimulus intensity
n = 1 linearn > 1 response expansion
n < 1 response compression
1Signal Detection Theory
1What is wrong with Classical Absolute Threshold
Theory?
100
0
Physical intensity
% detect
100
0
Physical intensity
% detect
Subject A
Subject B
1Who is the better detector?
• Subject B detects stimulus intensities smaller thanthose detected by Subject A
• But…..
• The problem of guessing?????
1Decision Bias
• Can you trust a subject’s response?
• Not really…..
1Decision Bias Factors
• individual differences (in personality)
– liberal responders
– conservative responders
• task demands
– conservative
– liberal
11
1
Response = f(detection ability and decision making)
We want to know detection ability independentof decision making factors (response bias)
1Method -> Practical
• Trick subject
• include null (“dummy” trials)
• measure bias directly
– the number of “dummy trials” the S falls for
1
reality
response
stimulus no stimulus
“yes”
“no”
hit false alarm
misscorrectrejection
=100% =100%
=bias “yes”
=bias “no”
1 Things to remember
• reality adds up to 100%
• accuracy is on the diagonal
• bias is in the rows
1
response
signal + noise noise
“yes”
“no”
hit false alarm
misscorrectrejection
d’ = z(hit rate) - z(false alarm rate)1
Signal Detection Theory
• Model of the detector and/or discriminator
– Green and Swets (1966)
12
1Model Components
• Amorphous perceptual continuum
Perceptual Continuum
1Model Components
• Noise model - normally distributed
• Instantaneously varying….
• physiological?
Perceptual Continuum
N
1
• Add constant strength signal to the noise
Perceptual Continuum
N N+S
1
• Add constant strength BIG signal (gunshot)
Perceptual Continuum
N N+S
1
• Add constant strength TINY signal (pin drop)
Perceptual Continuum
N N+S
1
• Decision threshold β, or criterion C
Perceptual Continuum
N N+S
Say “yes”Say “no”
13
1Model Components
• Decision threshold β
Perceptual Continuum
N N+S
Say “yes”Say “no”
Liberal responder
1
• Decision threshold β
Perceptual Continuum
N N+S
Say “yes”Say “no”
Conservative responder
1
hits
“hits” - yes to a stimulus event (S+N)
1
False alarms
“false alarms” - yes to non-event (N)
1
Correct rejections
“correct rejection” - no to a non-event (N)
1
Misses
“misses” - no to a stimulus event (S+N)
14
1
Perceptual Continuum
1Model Measures
Perceptual ContinuumSay “yes”Say “no”
d’ = z(hit rate) - z(false alarm rate)
d’
1Model Measures
Perceptual ContinuumSay “yes”Say “no”
C = -.5(z(hit rate) + z(false alarm rate))
d’
1
d’ is the perceptual distance between themean of the noise and the signal+noise distributions….
Perceptual magnitude of the signal for the detector
1Most important thing
• A response bias free measure of the accuracy ofdetection
• Because you measure bias and parcel it out
Response = f(detection ability and decision making)
Response = f(d’ and C)
1How response data changes
with β shift
Perceptual ContinuumSay “yes”Say “no”
d’
hit and false alarm?A
100 60
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1
Perceptual ContinuumSay “yes”Say “no”
d’
hit and false alarm?B
90 40
1
Perceptual ContinuumSay “yes”Say “no”
d’
hit and false alarm?C
80 10
1
Perceptual ContinuumSay “yes”Say “no”
d’
hit and false alarm?D
60 0
1
p(hit)
p(false alarm)
AB
C
D
Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curve
1 Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) 1Model
• Why this works…..
• Assumptions about normality….
16
1Concrete Example
• Air port metal detectors…..
• Noise - non-gun-carrying passenger
• Signal - passengers with guns
• Detect
• Theory
• Threshold...
1DetectionExample 1
• Ice cream and low fat ice cream
• Experiment = 200 trials
– 100 with fat
– 100 without fat
1
response
signal + noise noise
“yes”
“no”
hit60
false alarm10
miss40
correctrejection90
d’ = z(hit rate) - z(false alarm rate)1
Model Measures
Perceptual ContinuumSay “high fat”Say “low fat”
d’ = z(high fat rate) - z(low fat rate)
d’
1
response
high fat low fat
“high fat”
“low fat”
hit60
false alarm10
miss40
correctrejection90
1
• d’ = z(hit rate) - z (false alarm rate)
• d’ = z (.60) - z(.10)
• 1.53 = .25 -- 1.28
• d’ is in z-score units
• High d’?
• Low d’?
• Negative d’?
17
1
Conclusions….
1Final Considerations
• Cautions
– Normality assumptions?
• Non-parametric versions (A’)
– Non-linearity in the extreme values
– corrections for these
1 Signal Detection Theory (Part 1) 1 Signal Detection Theory (Part 2)
1 Signal Detection Theory (Part 3) 1 Signal Detection Theory (Part 4)
18
1Biology of Perception
1 Biology of Perception
• Doctrine of specific nerve energies
– (Müller, 1801–1858):
• nature of a sensation depends on whichsensory fibers are stimulated, not on how fibersare stimulated
1 Biology of Perception (cont’d)
• Cranial nerves: Twelve pairs of nerves that originatein the brain stem and reach the periphery throughopenings in the skull
– Pure sensory
• olfactory (I) nerves
• optic (II) nerves
• Auditory (vesitbular-cochlear) (VIII) nerves
– Eye movements
• Oculomotor (III)
• Trochlear (IV) nerves
• Abducens (VI) nerves
1 The Twelve Cranial Nerves
1 Biology of Perception (cont’d)
• Helmholtz (1821–1894): Studied activity of neurons;how fast they transmit signals
– Resonators, ophthalmoscope
1