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INTRODUCTION TO WEB TECHNOLOGY (TIT-503)UNIT IIntroduction and Web Development StrategiesHistory of Web, Protocols governing Web, Creating Websites for individual and Corporate World, Cyber LawsWeb Applications, Writing Web Projects, Identification of Objects, Target Users, Web Team,Planning and Process Development.
INTRODUCTION AND WEB DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES / WEB TEAM
Internet or commonly known as WEB is defined as a network of
networks. The statement ‘NETWORK OF NETWORK’ contains a
hidden definition in itself. As we know that in the early stage of
development in networks only homogenous systems were able to
communicate. But, as the technology has grown, new technology
devices and software had emerged which allow heterogeneous
network to behave like a common group. Internet is collection of
such heterogeneous/homogeneous networks. The technologies in
internet allow one network to communicate with another
transparently. These days internet is covering almost all aspects of
humans daily life and therefore well defined strategies are required
to develop as well as use this emerging technology. Emerging of
E-commerce and it’s vast use by banks and other corporate had
lead to think about these development strategies a lot. These
development and use is under a law commonly known as CYBER
LAW (Will be dealing in detail later on) and
organizations/individuals are bound to follow these rules and
regulations.
Prior to the widespread inter-networking that led to the Internet,
most communication networks were limited by their nature to only
allow communications between the stations on the network, and
the prevalent computer networking method was based on the
central mainframe method. In the 1960s, computer researchers,
Levi C. Finch and Robert W. Taylor pioneered calls for a joined-
up global network to address interoperability problems.
Concurrently, several research programs began to research
principles of networking between separate physical networks, and
this led to the development of Packet switching. These included
Donald Davies (NPL), Paul Baran (RAND Corporation), and
Leonard Kleinrock's MIT and UCLA research programs.
This led to the development of several packet switched networking
solutions in the late 1960s and 1970s, including ARPANET, and
X.25. Additionally, public access and hobbyist networking systems
grew in popularity, including UUCP. They were however still
disjointed separate networks, served only by limited gateways
between networks. This led to the application of packet switching
to develop a protocol for inter-networking, where multiple
different networks could be joined together into a super-framework
of networks. By defining a simple common network system, the
Internet protocol suite, the concept of the network could be
separated from its physical implementation. This spread of inter-
network began to form into the idea of a global inter-network that
would be called 'The Internet', and this began to quickly spread as
existing networks were converted to become compatible with this.
This spread quickly across the advanced telecommunication
networks of the western world, and then began to penetrate into the
rest of the world as it became the de-facto international standard
and global network. However, the disparity of growth led to a
Digital divide that is still a concern today.
Following commercialization and introduction of privately run
Internet Service Providers in the 1980s, and its expansion into
popular use in the 1990s, the Internet has had a drastic impact on
culture and commerce. This includes the rise of near instant
communication by e-mail, text based discussion forums, the World
Wide Web. Investor speculation in new markets provided by these
innovations would also lead to the inflation and collapse of the
Dot-com bubble, a major market collapse. But despite this, growth
of the Internet continued, and still does.
HISTORY OF WEB AND WEB GOVERNING
PROTOCOLS
In the 1950s and early 1960s, prior to the widespread inter-
networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks
were limited by their nature to only allow communications
between the stations on the network. Some networks had gateways
or bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or
built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer
networking method was based on the central mainframe method,
simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long leased lines.
This method was used in the 1950s by Project RAND to support
researchers such as Herbert Simon, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
when collaborating across the continent with researchers in
Sullivan, Illinois, on automated theorem proving and artificial
intelligence.
In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of the United
States Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects
Agency, now known as DARPA, within the information
processing office. There he formed an informal group within
DARPA to further computer research. As part of the information
processing office's role, three network terminals had been installed:
one for System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, one for
Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley and one for
the Compatible Time-Sharing System project at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT). Licklider's identified need for inter-
networking would be made obviously evident by the problems this
caused.
At the tip of the inter-networking problem lay the issue of
connecting separate physical networks to form one logical
network, with much wasted capacity inside the assorted separate
networks. During the 1960s, Donald Davies (NPL), Paul Baran
(RAND Corporation), and Leonard Kleinrock (MIT) developed
and implemented packet switching. The notion that the Internet
was developed to survive a nuclear attack has its roots in the early
theories developed by RAND, but is an urban legend, not
supported by any Internet Engineering Task Force or other
document. Early networks used for the command and control of
nuclear forces were message switched, not packet-switched,
although current strategic military networks are, indeed, packet-
switching and connectionless. Baran's research had approached
packet switching from studies of decentralisation to avoid combat
damage compromising the entire network.
Promoted to the head of the information processing office at
DARPA, Robert Taylor intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an
interconnected networking system. Bringing in Larry Roberts from
MIT, he initiated a project to build such a network. The first
ARPANET link was established between the University of
California, Los Angeles and the Stanford Research Institute on
22:30 hours on October 29, 1969. By 5 December 1969, a 4-node
network was connected by adding the University of Utah and the
University of California, Santa Barbara. Building on ideas
developed in ALOHAnet, the ARPANET grew rapidly. By 1981,
the number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host being
added approximately every twenty days.
ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the
Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used.
ARPANET development was centered around the Request for
Comments (RFC) process, still used today for proposing and
distributing Internet Protocols and Systems. RFC 1, entitled "Host
Software", was written by Steve Crocker from the University of
California, Los Angeles, and published on April 7, 1969. These
early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer
Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing.
International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse. For
various political reasons, European developers were concerned
with developing the X.25 networks. Notable exceptions were the
Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in 1972, followed in 1973
by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and
University College London.
X.25 AND PUBLIC ACCESS
Main articles: X.25, Bulletin board system, and FidoNet
Following on from ARPA's research, packet switching network
standards were developed by the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 and related standards. In 1974,
X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British
academic and research sites, which later became JANET. The
initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976. This
standard was based on the concept of virtual circuits.
The British Post Office, Western Union International and Tymnet
collaborated to create the first international packet switched
network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service
(IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to
cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it
provided a worldwide networking infrastructure.[7]
Unlike ARPAnet, X.25 was also commonly available for business
use. Telenet offered its Telemail electronic mail service, but this
was oriented to enterprise use rather than the general email of
ARPANET.
The first dial-in public networks used asynchronous TTY terminal
protocols to reach a concentrator operated by the public network.
Some public networks, such as CompuServe used X.25 to
multiplex the terminal sessions into their packet-switched
backbones, while others, such as Tymnet, used proprietary
protocols. In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer
electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal
computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as
the first to offer real-time chat with its CB Simulator. There were
also the America Online (AOL) and Prodigy dial in networks and
many bulletin board system (BBS) networks such as FidoNet.
FidoNet in particular was popular amongst hobbyist computer
users, many of them hackers and amateur radio operators.
UUCP( Main articles: UUCP and Usenet )
In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott and Jim
Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple Bourne shell scripts to
transfer news and messages on a serial line with nearby University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the
software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news
rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also
created gateways and links between FidoNet and dial-up BBS
hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs
involved, and ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or
even ARPANET connections. By 1981 the number of UUCP hosts
had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984.
Merging the networks and creating the Internet (TCP/IP)
INTERNET PROTOCOL SUITE
With so many different network methods, something was needed
to unify them. Robert E. Kahn of DARPA and ARPANET
recruited Vinton Cerf of Stanford University to work with him on
the problem. By 1973, they had soon worked out a fundamental
reformulation, where the differences between network protocols
were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and instead
of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the
ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits Hubert
Zimmerman, Gerard LeLann and Louis Pouzin (designer of the
CYCLADES network) with important work on this design.[8]
At this time, the earliest known use of the term Internet was by
Vinton Cerf, who wrote:
“Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program”. With
the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became
possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their
characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem.
DARPA agreed to fund development of prototype software, and
after several years of work, the first somewhat crude demonstration
of a gateway between the Packet Radio network in the SF Bay area
and the ARPANET was conducted. On November 22, 1977 a three
network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET,
the Packet Radio Network and the Atlantic Packet Satellite
network—all sponsored by DARPA. Stemming from the first
specifications of TCP in 1974, TCP/IP emerged in mid-late 1978
in nearly final form. By 1981, the associated standards were
published as RFCs 791, 792 and 793 and adopted for use. DARPA
sponsored or encouraged the development of TCP/IP
implementations for many operating systems and then scheduled a
migration of all hosts on all of its packet networks to TCP/IP. On 1
January 1983, TCP/IP protocols became the only approved
protocol on the ARPANET, replacing the earlier NCP protocol.
ARPANET to Several Federal Wide Area Networks: MILNET,
NSI, and NSFNet
ARPANET and NSFNet
After the ARPANET had been up and running for several years,
ARPA looked for another agency to hand off the network to;
ARPA's primary mission was funding cutting edge research and
development, not running a communications utility. Eventually, in
July 1975, the network had been turned over to the Defense
Communications Agency, also part of the Department of Defense.
In 1983, the U.S. military portion of the ARPANET was broken
off as a separate network, the MILNET. MILNET subsequently
became the unclassified but military-only NIPRNET, in parallel
with the SECRET-level SIPRNET and JWICS for TOP SECRET
and above. NIPRNET does have controlled security gateways to
the public Internet.
The networks based around the ARPANET were government
funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such as
research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden. This
initially restricted connections to military sites and universities.
During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational
institutions, and even to a growing number of companies such as
Digital Equipment Corporation and Hewlett-Packard, which were
participating in research projects or providing services to those
who were.
Several other branches of the U.S. government, the National
Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA), the National Science
Foundation (NSF), and the Department of Energy (DOE) became
heavily involved in internet research and started development of a
successor to ARPANET. In the mid 1980s all three of these
branches developed the first Wide Area Networks based on
TCP/IP. NASA developed the NASA Science Network, NSF
developed CSNET and DOE evolved the Energy Sciences
Network or ESNet.
More explicitly, NASA developed a TCP/IP based Wide Area
Network, NASA Science Network (NSN), in the mid 1980s
connecting space scientists to data and information stored
anywhere in the world. In 1989, the DECnet-based Space Physics
Analysis Network (SPAN) and the TCP/IP-based NASA Science
Network (NSN) were brought together at NASA Ames Research
Center creating the first multiprotocol wide area network called the
NASA Science Internet, or NSI. NSI was established to provide a
total integrated communications infrastructure to the NASA
scientific community for the advancement of earth, space and life
sciences. As a high-speed, multiprotocol, international network,
NSI provided connectivity to over 20,000 scientists across all
seven continents.
In 1984 NSF developed CSNET exclusively based on TCP/IP.
CSNET connected with ARPANET using TCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP
over X.25, but it also supported departments without sophisticated
network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange. This
grew into the NSFNet backbone, established in 1986, and intended
to connect and provide access to a number of supercomputing
centers established by the NSF.[12]
TRANSITION TOWARD AN INTERNET
The term "Internet" was adopted in the first RFC published on the
TCP protocol (RFC 675: Internet Transmission Control Program,
December 1974). It was around the time when ARPANET was
interlinked with NSFNet, that the term Internet came into more
general use,[14] with "an internet" meaning any network using
TCP/IP. "The Internet" came to mean a global and large network
using TCP/IP. Previously "internet" and "internetwork" had been
used interchangeably, and "internet protocol" had been used to
refer to other networking systems such as Xerox Network Services.
As interest in wide spread networking grew and new applications
for it arrived, the Internet's technologies spread throughout the rest
of the world. TCP/IP's network-agnostic approach meant that it
was easy to use any existing network infrastructure, such as the
IPSS X.25 network, to carry Internet traffic. In 1984, University
College London replaced its transatlantic satellite links with
TCP/IP over IPSS.
Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet started to create
simple gateways to allow transfer of e-mail, at that time the most
important application. Sites which only had intermittent
connections used UUCP or FidoNet and relied on the gateways
between these networks and the Internet. Some gateway services
went beyond simple e-mail peering, such as allowing access to
FTP sites via UUCP or e-mail.
TCP/IP BECOMES WORLDWIDE
The first ARPANET connection outside the US was established to
NORSAR in Norway in 1973, just ahead of the connection to
Great Britain. These links were all converted to TCP/IP in 1982, at
the same time as the rest of the Arpanet.
[edit] CERN, the European internet, the link to the Pacific and
beyond
Between 1984 and 1988 CERN began installation and operation of
TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems,
workstations, PC's and an accelerator control system. CERN
continued to operate a limited self-developed system CERNET
internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network
protocols externally. There was considerable resistance in Europe
towards more widespread use of TCP/IP and the CERN TCP/IP
intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989.
In 1988 Daniel Karrenberg, from CWI in Amsterdam, visited Ben
Segal, CERN's TCP/IP Coordinator, looking for advice about the
transition of the European side of the UUCP Usenet network
(much of which ran over X.25 links) over to TCP/IP. In 1987, Ben
Segal had met with Len Bosack from the then still small company
Cisco about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and was
able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco for the
appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the
Internet across the existing UUCP networks, and in 1989 CERN
opened its first external TCP/IP connections. This coincided with
the creation of Réseaux IP Européens (RIPE), initially a group of
IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out co-
ordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally
registered as a cooperative in Amsterdam.
At the same time as the rise of internetworking in Europe, ad hoc
networking to ARPA and in-between Australian universities
formed, based on various technologies such as X.25 and
UUCPNet. These were limited in their connection to the global
networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP
dial-up or X.25 connections. In 1989, Australian universities
joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their
networking infrastructures. AARNet was formed in 1989 by the
Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee and provided a dedicated
IP based network for Australia.
The Internet began to penetrate Asia in the late 1980s. Japan,
which had built the UUCP-based network JUNET in 1984,
connected to NSFNet in 1989. It hosted the annual meeting of the
Internet Society, INET'92, in Kobe. Singapore developed
TECHNET in 1990, and Thailand gained a global Internet
connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in
1992.
DIGITAL DIVIDE
While developed countries with technological infrastructures were
joining the Internet, developing countries began to experience a
digital divide separating them from the Internet. On an essentially
continental basis, they are building organizations for Internet
resource administration and sharing operational experience, as
more and more transmission facilities go into place.
AFRICA
At the beginning of the 1990s, African countries relied upon X.25
IPSS and 2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and
internetwork computer communications. In 1996 a USAID funded
project, the Leland initiative, started work on developing full
Internet connectivity for the continent. Guinea, Mozambique,
Madagascar and Rwanda gained satellite earth stations in 1997,
followed by Côte d'Ivoire and Benin in 1998.
Africa is building an Internet infrastructure. AfriNIC,
headquartered in Mauritius, manages IP address allocation for the
continent. As do the other Internet regions, there is an operational
forum, the Internet Community of Operational Networking
Specialists.
There are a wide range of programs both to provide high-
performance transmission plant, and the western and southern
coasts have undersea optical cable. High-speed cables join North
Africa and the Horn of Africa to intercontinental cable systems.
Undersea cable development is slower for East Africa; the original
joint effort between New Partnership for Africa's Development
(NEPAD) and the East Africa Submarine System (Eassy) has
broken off and may become two efforts.
ASIA AND OCEANIA
The Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC),
headquartered in Australia, manages IP address allocation for the
continent. APNIC sponsors an operational forum, the Asia-Pacific
Regional Internet Conference on Operational Technologies
(APRICOT).
In 1991, the People's Republic of China saw its first TCP/IP
college network, Tsinghua University's TUNET. The PRC went on
to make its first global Internet connection in 1995, between the
Beijing Electro-Spectrometer Collaboration and Stanford
University's Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on
to implement its own digital divide by implementing a country-
wide content filter.
LATIN AMERICA
As with the other regions, the Latin American and Caribbean
Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) manages the IP address
space and other resources for its area. LACNIC, headquartered in
Uruguay, operates DNS root, reverse DNS, and other key services.
OPENING THE NETWORK TO COMMERCE
The interest in commercial use of the Internet became a hotly
debated topic. Although commercial use was forbidden, the exact
definition of commercial use could be unclear and subjective.
UUCPNet and the X.25 IPSS had no such restrictions, which
would eventually see the official barring of UUCPNet use of
ARPANET and NSFNet connections. Some UUCP links still
remained connecting to these networks however, as administrators
cast a blind eye to their operation.
During the late 1980s, the first Internet service provider (ISP)
companies were formed. Companies like PSINet, UUNET,
Netcom, and Portal Software were formed to provide service to the
regional research networks and provide alternate network access,
UUCP-based email and Usenet News to the public. The first dial-
up on the West Coast, was Best Internet[22] - now Verio, opened
in 1986. The first dialup ISP in the East was world.std.com,
opened in 1989.
This caused controversy amongst university users, who were
outraged at the idea of noneducational use of their networks.
Eventually, it was the commercial Internet service providers who
brought prices low enough that junior colleges and other schools
could afford to participate in the new arenas of education and
research.
By 1990, ARPANET had been overtaken and replaced by newer
networking technologies and the project came to a close. In 1994,
the NSFNet, now renamed ANSNET (Advanced Networks and
Services) and allowing non-profit corporations access, lost its
standing as the backbone of the Internet. Both government
institutions and competing commercial providers created their own
backbones and interconnections. Regional network access points
(NAPs) became the primary interconnections between the many
networks and the final commercial restrictions ended.
IETF AND A STANDARD FOR STANDARDS
The Internet has developed a significant subculture dedicated to
the idea that the Internet is not owned or controlled by any one
person, company, group, or organization. Nevertheless, some
standardization and control is necessary for the system to function.
The liberal Request for Comments (RFC) publication procedure
engendered confusion about the Internet standardization process,
and led to more formalization of official accepted standards. The
IETF started in January of 1985 as a quarterly meeting of U.S.
government funded researchers. Representatives from non-
government vendors were invited starting with the fourth IETF
meeting in October of that year.
Acceptance of an RFC by the RFC Editor for publication does not
automatically make the RFC into a standard. It may be recognized
as such by the IETF only after experimentation, use, and
acceptance have proved it to be worthy of that designation. Official
standards are numbered with a prefix "STD" and a number, similar
to the RFC naming style. However, even after becoming a
standard, most are still commonly referred to by their RFC
number.
In 1992, the Internet Society, a professional membership society,
was formed and the IETF was transferred to operation under it as
an independent international standards body.
NIC, InterNIC, IANA and ICANN
The first central authority to coordinate the operation of the
network was the Network Information Centre (NIC) at Stanford
Research Institute (SRI) in Menlo Park, California. In 1972,
management of these issues was given to the newly created
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). In addition to his
role as the RFC Editor, Jon Postel worked as the manager of IANA
until his death in 1998.
As the early ARPANET grew, hosts were referred to by names,
and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from SRI
International to each host on the network. As the network grew,
this became cumbersome. A technical solution came in the form of
the Domain Name System, created by Paul Mockapetris. The
Defense Data Network—Network Information Center (DDN-NIC)
at SRI handled all registration services, including the top-level
domains (TLDs) of .mil, .gov, .edu, .org, .net, .com and .us, root
nameserver administration and Internet number assignments under
a United States Department of Defense contract.[23] In 1991, the
Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded the
administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up
until this point) to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it
to the small private-sector Network Solutions, Inc.
Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was
coming from non-military sources, it was decided that the
Department of Defense would no longer fund registration services
outside of the .mil TLD. In 1993 the U.S. National Science
Foundation, after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created
the InterNIC to manage the allocations of addresses and
management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to
three organizations. Registration Services would be provided by
Network Solutions; Directory and Database Services would be
provided by AT&T; and Information Services would be provided
by General Atomics.
In 1998 both IANA and InterNIC were reorganized under the
control of ICANN, a California non-profit corporation contracted
by the US Department of Commerce to manage a number of
Internet-related tasks. The role of operating the DNS system was
privatized and opened up to competition, while the central
management of name allocations would be awarded on a contract
tender basis.
USE AND CULTURE
E-mail and Usenet
E-mail is often called the killer application of the Internet.
However, it actually predates the Internet and was a crucial tool in
creating it. E-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a
time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate. Although the
history is unclear, among the first systems to have such a facility
were SDC's Q32 and MIT's CTSS.
The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the
evolution of e-mail. There is one report indicating experimental
inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly after ARPANET's
creation. In 1971 Ray Tomlinson created what was to become the
standard Internet e-mail address format, using the @ sign to
separate user names from host names.
A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among
groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission
systems, such as UUCP and IBM's VNET e-mail system. E-mail
could be passed this way between a number of networks, including
ARPANET, BITNET and NSFNet, as well as to hosts connected
directly to other sites via UUCP.
In addition, UUCP allowed the publication of text files that could
be read by many others. The News software developed by Steve
Daniel and Tom Truscott in 1979 was used to distribute news and
bulletin board-like messages. This quickly grew into discussion
groups, known as newsgroups, on a wide range of topics. On
ARPANET and NSFNet similar discussion groups would form via
mailing lists, discussing both technical issues and more culturally
focused topics (such as science fiction, discussed on the sflovers
mailing list).
From gopher to the WWW
As the Internet grew through the 1980s and early 1990s, many
people realized the increasing need to be able to find and organize
files and information. Projects such as Gopher, WAIS, and the FTP
Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data.
Unfortunately, these projects fell short in being able to
accommodate all the existing data types and in being able to grow
without bottlenecks.[citation needed]
One of the most promising user interface paradigms during this
period was hypertext. The technology had been inspired by
Vannevar Bush's "Memex" and developed through Ted Nelson's
research on Project Xanadu and Douglas Engelbart's research on
NLS. Many small self-contained hypertext systems had been
created before, such as Apple Computer's HyperCard. Gopher
became the first commonly-used hypertext interface to the Internet.
While Gopher menu items were examples of hypertext, they were
not commonly perceived in that way.
In 1989, whilst working at CERN, Tim Berners-Lee invented a
network-based implementation of the hypertext concept. By
releasing his invention to public use, he ensured the technology
would become widespread. One early popular web browser,
modeled after HyperCard, was ViolaWWW.
Scholars generally agree,[citation needed] however, that the
turning point for the World Wide Web began with the introduction
of the Mosaic web browser in 1993, a graphical browser developed
by a team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications
at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC),
led by Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic came from the High-
Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a funding
program initiated by then-Senator Al Gore's High Performance
Computing and Communication Act of 1991 also known as the
Gore Bill . Indeed, Mosaic's graphical interface soon became more
popular than Gopher, which at the time was primarily text-based,
and the WWW became the preferred interface for accessing the
Internet. (Gore's reference to his role in "creating the Internet",
however, was ridiculed in his presidential election campaign. See
the full article Al Gore and information technology).
Mosaic was eventually superseded in 1994 by Andreessen's
Netscape Navigator, which replaced Mosaic as the world's most
popular browser. While it held this title for some time, eventually
competition from Internet Explorer and a variety of other browsers
almost completely displaced it. Another important event held on
January 11, 1994, was The Superhighway Summit at UCLA's
Royce Hall. This was the "first public conference bringing together
all of the major industry, government and academic leaders in the
field [and] also began the national dialogue about the Information
Superhighway and its implications."
24 Hours in Cyberspace, the "the largest one-day online event"
(February 8, 1996) up to that date, took place on the then-active
website, cyber24.com. It was headed by photographer Rick
Smolan.A photographic exhibition was unveiled at the
Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History
on 23 January 1997, featuring 70 photos from the project.[40]
Search engines
Even before the World Wide Web, there were search engines that
attempted to organize the Internet. The first of these was the
Archie search engine from McGill University in 1990, followed in
1991 by WAIS and Gopher. All three of those systems predated
the invention of the World Wide Web but all continued to index
the Web and the rest of the Internet for several years after the Web
appeared. There are still Gopher servers as of 2006, although there
are a great many more web servers.
As the Web grew, search engines and Web directories were created
to track pages on the Web and allow people to find things. The first
full-text Web search engine was WebCrawler in 1994. Before
WebCrawler, only Web page titles were searched. Another early
search engine, Lycos, was created in 1993 as a university project,
and was the first to achieve commercial success. During the late
1990s, both Web directories and Web search engines were popular
—Yahoo! (founded 1995) and Altavista (founded 1995) were the
respective industry leaders.
By August 2001, the directory model had begun to give way to
search engines, tracking the rise of Google (founded 1998), which
had developed new approaches to relevancy ranking. Directory
features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to
search engines.
Database size, which had been a significant marketing feature
through the early 2000s, was similarly displaced by emphasis on
relevancy ranking, the methods by which search engines attempt to
sort the best results first. Relevancy ranking first became a major
issue circa 1996, when it became apparent that it was impractical
to review full lists of results. Consequently, algorithms for
relevancy ranking have continuously improved. Google's
PageRank method for ordering the results has received the most
press, but all major search engines continually refine their ranking
methodologies with a view toward improving the ordering of
results. As of 2006, search engine rankings are more important
than ever, so much so that an industry has developed ("search
engine optimizers", or "SEO") to help web-developers improve
their search ranking, and an entire body of case law has developed
around matters that affect search engine rankings, such as use of
trademarks in metatags. The sale of search rankings by some
search engines has also created controversy among librarians and
consumer advocates.
Dot-com bubble
The suddenly low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the
possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same
moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established
business dogma in advertising, mail-order sales, customer
relationship management, and many more areas. The web was a
new killer app—it could bring together unrelated buyers and
sellers in seamless and low-cost ways. Visionaries around the
world developed new business models, and ran to their nearest
venture capitalist. Of course some of the new entrepreneurs were
truly talented at business administration, sales, and growth; but the
majority were just people with ideas, and didn't manage the capital
influx prudently. Additionally, many dot-com business plans were
predicated on the assumption that by using the Internet, they would
bypass the distribution channels of existing businesses and
therefore not have to compete with them; when the established
businesses with strong existing brands developed their own
Internet presence, these hopes were shattered, and the newcomers
were left attempting to break into markets dominated by larger,
more established businesses. Many did not have the ability to do
so.
The dot-com bubble burst on March 10, 2000, when the
technology heavy NASDAQ Composite index peaked at 5048.62
(intra-day peak 5132.52), more than double its value just a year
before. By 2001, the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A
majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt
through their venture capital and IPO capital, often without ever
making a profit.
Worldwide Online Population Forecast
In its "Worldwide Online Population Forecast, 2006 to 2011,"
JupiterResearch anticipates that a 38 percent increase in the
number of people with online access will mean that, by 2011, 22
percent of the Earth's population will surf the Internet regularly.
JupiterResearch says the worldwide online population will increase
at a compound annual growth rate of 6.6 percent during the next
five years, far outpacing the 1.1 percent compound annual growth
rate for the planet's population as a whole. The report says 1.1
billion people currently enjoy regular access to the Web.
North America will remain on top in terms of the number of people
with online access. According to JupiterResearch, online
penetration rates on the continent will increase from the current 70
percent of the overall North American population to 76 percent by
2011. However, Internet adoption has "matured," and its adoption
pace has slowed, in more developed countries including the United
States, Canada, Japan and much of Western Europe, notes the
report.
As the online population of the United States and Canada grows by
about only 3 percent, explosive adoption rates in China and India
will take place, says JupiterResearch. The report says China should
reach an online penetration rate of 17 percent by 2011 and India
should hit 7 percent during the same time frame. This growth is
directly related to infrastructure development and increased
consumer purchasing power, notes JupiterResearch.
By 2011, Asians will make up about 42 percent of the world's
population with regular Internet access, 5 percent more than today,
says the study.
Penetration levels similar to North America's are found in
Scandinavia and bigger Western European nations such as the
United Kingdom and Germany, but JupiterResearch says that a
number of Central European countries "are relative Internet
laggards."
Brazil "with its soaring economy," is predicted by JupiterResearch
to experience a 9 percent compound annual growth rate, the fastest
in Latin America, but China and India are likely to do the most to
boost the world's online penetration in the near future.
For the study, JupiterResearch defined "online users" as people
who regularly access the Internet by "dedicated Internet access"
devices. Those devices do not include cell phones.[41]
Historiography
Some concerns have been raised over the historiography of the
Internet's development. This is due to lack of centralised
documentation for much of the early developments that led to the
Internet.
"The Arpanet period is somewhat well documented because the
corporation in charge - BBN - left a physical record. Moving into
the NSFNET era, it became an extraordinarily decentralised
process. The record exists in people's basements, in closets. [...] So
much of what happened was done verbally and on the basis of
individual trust." —Doug Gale
Cyberlaws
Why Cyberlaws In India India became independent on 15th August, 1947. In the 49th year of Indian independence, Internet was commercially introduced in our country. The beginnings of Internet were extremely small and the growth of subscribers painfully slow. However as Internet has grown in our country, the need has been felt to enact the relevant Cyberlaws which are necessary to regulate Internet in India. This need for cyberlaws was propelled by numerous factors.
Firstly, India has an extremely detailed and well-defined legal system in place. Numerous laws have been enacted and implemented and the foremost amongst them is The Constitution of India. We have interalia, amongst others, the Indian Penal Code, the Indian Evidence Act 1872, the Banker's Book Evidence Act, 1891 and the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, the Companies Act, and so on. However the arrival of Internet signalled the beginning of the rise of new and complex legal issues. It may be pertinent to mention that all the existing laws in place in India were enacted way back keeping in mind the relevant political, social, economic, and cultural scenario of that relevant time. Nobody then could really visualize about the Internet. Despite the brilliant acumen of our master draftsmen, the requirements of cyberspace could hardly ever be anticipated. As such, the coming of the Internet led to the emergence of numerous ticklish legal issues and problems which necessitated the enactment of Cyberlaws.
Secondly, the existing laws of India, even with the most benevolent and liberal interpretation, could not be interpreted in the light of the emerging cyberspace, to include all aspects relating to different activities in cyberspace. In fact, the practical experience and the wisdom of judgment found that it shall not be without major perils and pitfalls, if the existing laws were to be interpreted in the scenario of emerging cyberspace, without enacting new cyberlaws. As such, the need for enactment of relevant cyberlaws.
Thirdly, none of the existing laws gave any legal validity or sanction to the activities in Cyberspace. For example, the Net is used by a large majority of users for email. Yet till today, email is not "legal" in our country. There is no law in the country, which gives legal validity, and sanction to email. Courts and
judiciary in our country have been reluctant to grant judicial recognition to the legality of email in the absence of any specific law having been enacted by the Parliament. As such the need has arisen for Cyberlaw.
Fourthly, Internet requires an enabling and supportive legal infrastructure in tune with the times. This legal infrastructure can only be given by the enactment of the relevant Cyberlaws as the traditional laws have failed to grant the same. E-commerce, the biggest future of Internet, can only be possible if necessary legal infrastructure compliments the same to enable its vibrant growth.
All these and other varied considerations created the conducive atmosphere for the need for enacting relevant cyberlaws in India. The Government of India responded by coming up with the draft of the first Cyberlaw of India - The Information Technology Bill, 1999. One question that is often asked is why should we have Cyberlaw in India, when a large chunk of the Indian population is below the poverty line and is residing in rural areas ? More than anything else, India, by its sheer numbers, as also by virtue of its extremely talented and ever growing IT population, is likely to become a very important Internet market in the future and it is important that we legislate Cyberlaws in India to provide for a sound legal and technical frame work which, in turn, could be a catalyst for growth and success of the Internet Revolution in India. SUPPORTIVE CYBER LAW
• Existing Statutes
1. Communications and Multimedia Act 1998(CMA)
2. Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission Act
1998
3. Digital Signature Act 1997
4. Computer Crimes Act 1997
5. Copyright Act (Amendment) Act 1997
6. Telemedicine Act 1997
7. Optical Discs Act 2000
• Amendments of Statutes
1. Communications and Multimedia (Amendment) Bill 2004
2. Communications and Multimedia Commission
(Amendment) Bill 2004.
• Proposed Statutes
1. Personal Data Protection Act
2. Electronic Transactions Act (ETA)
3. E-Government Activities Act (EGA)
4. New Subsidiary Legislations
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK (NEW LICENSING STRUCTURE)
LICENCE
o INDIVIDUAL / CLASS
Network Facilities
Network Services
Content Application Services
Application Services
LICENSES ISSUED UNDER ACT 588
LICENSE INDIVIDUAL CLASS
Network Facilities Provider (NFP) 31 24
MAIN FEATURESMAIN FEATURESMAIN FEATURESMAIN FEATURES
COMMUNICATIONS AND MULTIMEDIA ACT 1998
The “mother” cyber law that provides for legislative, regulatory and institutional framework to cater for the convergence of the telecommunications, broadcasting and computing industries.
Pro-CompetitionTransparent
Less Regulation
Flexible and GenericEmphasize Process RatherEmphasize Process Rather than Contentthan ContentIndustry Self-DisciplineIndustry Self-DisciplineRegulatory ForebearanceRegulatory Forebearance
Network Service Provider (NSP) 30 24
Application Service Provider (ASP) 80 95
Content Application Service Provider (CASP) 20 -
TOTAL 161 143
NEW AND MIGRATION LICENSES UNDER ACT 588 (INDIVIDUAL LICENSES)
LICENSES MIGRATION NEW TOTAL
Network Facilities Provider
(NFP)
20 11 31
Network Service Provider
(NSP)
19 11 30
Application Service Provider
(ASP)
16 64 80
Content Application Service
Provider (CASP)
19 1 20
Total 74 87 161
DEVELOPMENT SINCE ACT 588
1. VISIBLE INCREASE IN CELLULAR PENETRATION
-From 12% or 2.7 million subscribers in 1999 to 43.6% or
11 million subscribers in 2003*
2. INCREASE IN INTERNET USERS
- From 2.0 million in 1999 to 8.7 million in 2003*
3. MORE CHOICES FOR CONSUMERS AND LOWER
COSTS OF SERVICES
- Streamyx service reduced by 30%
- Lower charges for mobile services
- More “free to air” TV stations – Channel 9, 8TV
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
MINISTER
MCMC
INDUSTRY FORUMS
MECM
TRIBUNAL
Power to establish an independent body to:
1. Enforce legislation (CMA 1998)
2. Regulate industry
3. Promote Industry Development
4. Promote Industry Self-Regulation
COMMUNICATIONS AND MULTIMEDIA COMMISSION ACT 1998
An Act to legalise digital signature
Facilitate e-commerce and secure on- line transaction through the use of digital signatures
Establishment of Certification Authority as the body responsible in issuing PKI, Private key, warranties and liabilities.
DIGITAL SIGNATURE ACT 1997
The Act provides for:
protection to companies, government and individuals from computer crimes in the digital era;
clear definitions on criminal activities related to use of computers such as cyber fraud, illegal access, interceptions, and illegal use of computers.
COMPUTER CRIME ACT 1997
COMPUTER CRIME ACT 1997
Under-reporting of cyber crimes:
Maintaining their business and making profit;
Unwillingness to go through the legal process;
Expose confidential business information;
No provision for victim to receive restitution for the
damage suffered.
The Act provides for:
protection to companies, government and individuals from computer crimes in the digital era;
clear definitions on criminal activities related to use of computers such as cyber fraud, illegal access, interceptions, and illegal use of computers.
COMPUTER CRIME ACT 1997
COPYRIGHT ACT(A) 1997
Provides protection for multimedia works.
Reflects up-to-date developments in copy rights issue.
Clarify legal issues in digital transmission, use of multimedia and
its components.
TELEMEDICNE ACT(A) 1997
Provisions to regulate telemedicine activities:
Registration for practitioners;
Telemedicine practices by foreign practitioners; and
Medical data management and electronic
prescription
CELLULAR PENETRATION BETWEEN CELLULAR PENETRATION BETWEEN SELECTED COUNTRIES 2002SELECTED COUNTRIES 2002
84.4979.14
67.9562.11
48.81
37.3
26.04
16.09
1.220
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
UK Singapore Korea, Rep Japan USA Malaysia Thailand China India
Source: ITU@2003
COMPUTER AND INTERNET PENETRATIONCOMPUTER AND INTERNET PENETRATION
Computer Ownership - 4.2 Juta (16.7 %)Internet Penetration - 2.9 Juta (11.4 %)
Sumber : MCMC
6.1
7.99.4
12.5
14.5
16.7
1.82.9
7.1
8.8
10.511.4
-
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
%
PCs Internet subscribers
INTERNET PENETRATION BETWEEN INTERNET PENETRATION BETWEEN SELECTED COUNTRIES 2002SELECTED COUNTRIES 2002
Source: ITU@2003
55.2 54.0 53.8
44.940.6
31.6
7.84.6
1.6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Korea, Rep Singapore USA Japan UK Malaysia Thailand China India
AMENDMENT OF STATUTES.
THE COMMUNICATIONS AND MULTIMEDIA
(AMENDMENT) BILL 2003
PURPOSE OF AMENDMENTS:
TO INSERT THE NECESSARY SUBSTANTIVE
PROVISIONS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN
INDEPENDENT APPEAL TRIBUNAL; AND
0
5
10
15
20
25
% 19.29 13.3 9.15 6.13 0.12 0.08 0.05 0.02
South Korea Hong Kong Taiwan Singapore China MALAYSIA Thailand India
BROADBAND PENETRATION RATES (%) BROADBAND PENETRATION RATES (%) AMONG SELECTED ASIAN COUNTRIES IN AMONG SELECTED ASIAN COUNTRIES IN
20022002
Source: Frost & Sullivan
1.5m
14.5m
196k
19k
465k
640k
TO STRENGHTHEN THE CURRENT REGULATORY
AND LICENSING REGIME.
AMENDMENTS - SUBSIDIARY LEGISLATIONS UNDER
THE COMMUNICATIONS AND MULTIMEDIA ACT 1998
Communications and Multimedia (Licensing) Regulations 2000;
Communications and Multimedia (Spectrum) Regulations 2000;
Communications and Multimedia (Technical Standards)
Regulations 2000;
Communications and Multimedia (Spectrum) (Exemption) Order
2000;
Communications and Multimedia (Licensing) (Exemption) Order
2000
Communications and Multimedia (USP) Regulations 2002
Communications and Multimedia (Rates) Rules 2002
Notification of Issuance of Class Assignments
ENACTMENT OF NEW LAWS
To provide legal certainty for e-transactions undertaken by
businesses or Government, two new legislations will be
introduced:-
- Electronic Transactions Bill – to address electronic
transactions and communications.
- E-Government Activities Bill – to support and
promote electronic government.
ENSURING ON-LINE TRUST AND CONFIDENCEENSURING ON-LINE TRUST AND CONFIDENCE
Two aspects related to on-line trust and confidence: -
Privacy and personal data protection (PDP); and
Security of electronic transactions.
PRIVACY AND INFORMATION SECURITY
PDP -Protect personal data
PDP -Protect personal data
Promote secured
electronic environment
Encourage electronic
transactions
Enhance consumer trust and confidence
PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION BILLPERSONAL DATA PROTECTION BILL
WEB APPLICATION/WRITING WEB PROJECTS/ WEB OBJECTS/ WEB USERS
In software engineering, a Web application is an application that is accessed via Web browser over a network such as the Internet or an intranet. It is also a computer software application that is coded in a browser-supported language (such as HTML, JavaScript, Java, etc.) and reliant on a common web browser to render the application executable.
Web applications are popular due to the ubiquity of a client, sometimes called a thin client. The ability to update and maintain Web applications without distributing and installing software on potentially thousands of client computers is a key reason for their popularity. Common Web applications include Webmail, online retail sales, online auctions, wikis, discussion boards, Weblogs, MMORPGs and many other functions.
History
In earlier types of client-server computing, each application had its own client program which served as its user interface and had to be separately installed on each user's personal computer. An upgrade to the server part of the application would typically require an upgrade to the clients installed on each user workstation, adding to the support cost and decreasing productivity.
In contrast, Web applications dynamically generate a series of Web documents in a standard format supported by common browsers such as HTML/XHTML. Client-side scripting in a standard language such as JavaScript is commonly included to add dynamic elements to the user interface. Generally, each individual Web page is delivered to the client as a static document, but the sequence of pages can provide an interactive
Roles to play for individuals, industry, and government.
Individuals should be able to make informed choices and be protected from harm & fraud
Industry should ensure fair information practices.
In some areas, Governments must choose whether to limit individual control over data to achieve larger societal benefits (e.g. security, health etc.).
A balanced approach enables individuals to benefit from responsible commercial uses of personal information
Privacy is a Shared ResponsibilityPrivacy is a Shared Responsibility
experience, as user input is returned through Web form elements embedded in the page markup. During the session, the Web browser interprets and displays the pages, and acts as the universal client for any Web application.
Interface
Webconverger operating system provides an interface for web applications.
The Web interface places very few limits on client functionality. Through Java, JavaScript, DHTML, Flash and other technologies, application-specific methods such as drawing on the screen, playing audio, and access to the keyboard and mouse are all possible. Many services have worked to combine all of these into a more familiar interface that adopts the appearance of an operating system. General purpose techniques such as drag and drop are also supported by these technologies. Web developers often use client-side scripting to add functionality, especially to create an interactive experience that does not require page reloading (which many users find disruptive)[citation needed]. Recently, technologies have been developed to coordinate client-side scripting with server-side technologies such as PHP. Ajax, a web development technique using a combination of various technologies, is an example of technology which creates a more interactive experience.
Technical considerations
A significant advantage of building Web applications to support standard browser features is that they should perform as specified regardless of the operating system or OS version installed on a given client. Rather than creating clients for MS Windows, Mac OS X, GNU/Linux, and other operating systems, the application can be written once and deployed almost anywhere. However, inconsistent implementations of the HTML, CSS, DOM and other browser specifications can cause problems in web application development and support. Additionally, the ability of users to customize many of the display settings of their browser (such as selecting different font sizes, colors, and typefaces, or disabling scripting support) can interfere with consistent implementation of a Web application.
Another approach is to use Adobe Flash or Java applets to provide some or all of the user interface. Since most Web browsers include support for these technologies (usually through plug-ins), Flash- or Java-based applications can be implemented with much of the same ease of deployment. Because they allow the programmer greater control over the interface, they bypass many browser-configuration issues, although incompatibilities between Java or Flash implementations on the client can introduce different complications. Because of their architectural similarities to traditional client-server applications, with a somewhat "thick" client, there is some dispute over whether to call
systems of this sort "Web applications"; an alternative term is "Rich Internet Application" (RIA).
Structure
Though many variations are possible, a Web application is commonly structured as a three-tiered application. In its most common form, a Web browser is the first tier, an engine using some dynamic Web content technology (such as ASP, ASP.NET, CGI, ColdFusion, JSP/Java, PHP,embPerl, Python, or Ruby on Rails) is the middle tier, and a database is the third tier. The Web browser sends requests to the middle tier, which services them by making queries and updates against the database and generates a user interface.
But there are some who view a web application as a Two-Tier architecture.
Business use
An emerging strategy for application software companies is to provide Web access to software previously distributed as local applications. Depending on the type of application, it may require the development of an entirely different browser-based interface, or merely adapting an existing application to use different presentation technology. These programs allow the user to pay a monthly or yearly fee for use of a software application without having to install it on a local hard drive. A company which follows this strategy is known as an application service provider (ASP), and ASPs are currently receiving much attention in the software industry.
Writing Web applications
There are many Web application frameworks which facilitate rapid application development by allowing the programmer to define a high-level description of the program. In addition, there is potential for the development of applications on Internet operating systems, although currently there are not many viable platforms that fit this model.
The use of Web application frameworks can often reduce the number of errors in a program, both by making the code more simple, and by allowing one team to concentrate just on the framework. In applications which are exposed to constant hacking attempts on the Internet, security-related problems caused by errors in the program are a big issue. Frameworks may also promote the use of best practices such as GET after POST.
Web Application Security
The Web Application Security Consortium (WASC) and OWASP are projects developed with the intention of documenting how to avoid security problems in Web applications. A
Web Application Security Scanner is specialized software for detecting security problems in web applications.
Applications
Wikipedia application running in Mozilla Firefox.
Browser applications typically include simple office software (word processors, spreadsheets, and presentation tools) and can also include more advanced application such as project management software, CAD Design Software, and point-of-sale applications.
Examples
Word processor and Spreadsheet: Google Docs & Spreadsheets
CRM Software: SalesForce.com
Benefits
Browser Applications typically require little or no disk space, upgrade automatically with new features, integrate easily into other web procedures, such as email and searching. They also provide cross-platform compatibility (i.e Mac or Windows) because they operate within a web browser window.
Disadvantages
Standards compliance is an issue with any non-typical office document creator, which causes problems when file sharing and collaboration becomes critical. Also, Browser Applications rely on application files accessed on remote servers through the internet. Therefore, when connection is interrupted, the application is no longer usable. Google Gears is a beta platform to combat this issue and improve the usability of Browser Applications.
As the Internet grew into a major player on the global economic
front, so did the number of investors who were interested in its
development. So, you may wonder, how does the Internet
continue to play a major role in communications, media and
news? The key words are: Web Application Projects.
Web applications are business strategies and policies
implemented on the Web through the use of User, Business and
Data services. These tools are where the future lies. In this
article, I'll take you through the essential phases in the life cycle
of a Web application project, explain what options you have, and
help you formulate a plan for successful Web application
endeavors of your own. First, though, let's take a brief overview
of Web applications.
Who Needs Web Applications and Why?
There are many entities that require applications for the Web-
one example would be Business-to-Business interaction. Many
companies in the world today demand to do business with each
other over secure and private networks. This process is
becoming increasingly popular with a lot of overseas companies
who outsource projects to each other. From the simple process
of transferring funds into a bank account, to deploying a large
scale Web services network that updates pricing information
globally, the adoption of a Web applications infrastructure is vital
for many businesses.
The Web Application Model
The Web application model, like many software development
models, is constructed upon 3 tiers: User Services, Business
Services and Data Services. This model breaks an application
into a network of consumers and suppliers of services.
The User Service tier creates a visual gateway for the consumer
to interact with the application. This can range from basic HTML
and DHTML to complex COM components and Java applets.
The user services then grab business logic and procedures from
the Business Services. This tier can range from Web scripting in
ASP/PHP/JSP to server side programming such as TCL, CORBA
and PERL, that allows the user to perform complex actions
through a Web interface.
The final tier is the Data Service layer. Data services store,
retrieve and update information at a high level. Databases, file
systems, and writeable media are all examples of Data storage
and retrieval devices. For Web applications, however, databases
are most practical. Databases allow developers to store, retrieve,
add to, and update categorical information in a systematic and
organized fashion.
Choosing the Right Project
Choosing the right types of projects to work on is an extremely
important part of the Web application development plan.
Assessing your resources, technical skills, and publishing
capabilities should be your first goal. Taking the 3 tiers into
consideration, devise a list of all available resources that can be
categorically assigned to each tier.
The next consideration should be the cost. Do you have a budget
with which to complete this project? How much will it cost you to
design, develop and deliver a complete project with a fair
amount of success? These are questions that should be
answered before you sign any deals or contracts.
Let's look at an example. A company called ABC needs to
develop a Web application that will display sales information
created by different sales agents. The data is updated daily
through a completely automated process from all 3 service tiers.
The client tells you that this entire project must be done in
ASP/SQL server and that you should host the application as well.
After assessing all your resources, you and your team come to a
conclusion that the company is unable to do data backups on a
daily basis. After further discussion, you realize that this is a very
important part of the setup for your client, and you should not
risk taking a chance with the project. It's very likely that you will
be more prepared next time around, when a similar project lands
on your desk, so you decline the job and recommend someone
else who has the capabilities to do it right now.
The Phases in a Web Application Project
The Web application development process has 4 phases:
1. Envisioning the nature and direction of the project
2. Devising the plan
3. Development
4. Testing, support and stability
Let's look at each of these in more detail.
1. Envisioning the nature and direction of the
project
In this phase, the management and developers assigned to
the project come together and establish the goals that the
solution must achieve. This includes recognizing the
limitations that are placed on the project, scheduling, and
versioning of the application. By the end of this phase,
there should be clear documentation on what the
application will achieve.
2. Devising the plan
In this phase, you and your team must determine the
"how's" of the application.
What scripting language is most appropriate, which
features must be included, and how long will it take? These
are some of the questions that must be answered through
this planning phase. The main tangents at this point are
the project plan and functional specification. The project
plan determines a timeframe of events and tasks, while
the functional specification outlines in detail how the
application will function and flow.
3. Development
Once the project plan and functional specification are
ready, a baseline is set for the development work to begin.
The programmer/s or Web developer/s begin coding,
testing and publishing data. This phase establishes the
data variables, entities and coding procedures that will be
used throughout the remainder of the project. A milestone
document is prepared by the development team, which is
then handed to management for review.
4. Testing, support and stability
The stability phase of the application project mainly
focuses on testing and the removal of bugs, discrepancies
and network issues that may otherwise cause the
application to fail. It is here that policies and procedures
are established for a successful support system.
Planning for a Successful Web Development Project
In order to drastically minimize the risk of project failure, I've
always approached my application development projects in the
following sequence.
1. Identify business logic and entities
Start by gathering information on everything you have. If you are
going to be working with databases, begin by enumerating how
many entities will be used in the business logic. For example, if
your program implements sales data, a sales ticket would be an
entity.
Once you've identified all your entities, establish a clear
guideline for their relationships. This can be done via
presentations, flowcharts or even reports.
2. Create a functional specification and project plan
This part, in my opinion, is the most important part of the
project. Functional specifications (or functional specs) are a map,
or blueprint for how you want a particular Web application to
look and work. The spec details what the finished product will do,
user interaction, and its look and feel.
An advantage of writing a functional spec is that it streamlines
the development process. It takes discrepancies and guesswork
out of the programming process, because the level of detail that
goes into the plan makes it possible to minimize the
misunderstanding that's usually associated with project mishaps.
See examples of well written functional specs at RayComm.com.
Once the functional spec is finished, a project plan must be
devised. A project plan is a timeline of tasks and events that will
take place during the project. The project or program manager is
normally the person who creates a project plan, and their
primary focus is to detail task notes while being able to
accommodate scheduling and resource information. You can
download a sample Excel file for a project plan at
Method123.com.
3. Bring the application model into play
As discussed earlier, the application model consists of 3 tiers -
The User, Business and Data service tiers, each of which serves a
substantial purpose.
Practically speaking, it's always best to start with the data tier,
because you've already identified your entities and understand
their relationships. The data tier can be an SQL server database,
a text file, or even the powerful and robust Oracle. Create tables,
relationships, jobs, and procedures depending on what platform
you have chosen. If the data is a warehouse (i.e. the data
already exists and does not depend on real time interaction),
then make sure that new and additional data can be added
securely and in a scalable fashion.
A quick tip: using views in SQL server/Oracle can improve
dramatically the productivity and performance of your
application. They increase speed because they are "stored
queries" that don't have a physical existence.
The Business services tier, in my opinion, is the heart of the
application. It involves the implementation of business logic into
the scripting or programming language.
At this stage, make sure you've already set up your environment
for testing and debugging. Always test on at least 2 instances in
your application, after all, what may work perfectly for you, may
not do so well on other platforms or machines. ASP, XML, PHP,
JSP and CGI are some examples of server side scripting
languages used at the business service level. Whichever
language you choose, make sure that it's capable of handling all
the business logic presented in the functional specification.
The last is the user tier, which is absolutely vital for the
interactive and strategic elements in the application. It provides
the user with a visual gateway to the business service by placing
images, icons, graphics and layout elements in strategic areas of
interest, most commonly, based on management research. If
you'll be developing the user tier yourself, be sure to have
studied your competition. The last thing you need is for your
application to look exactly the same as someone else's.
4. Develop a support scheme
Being able to support and stabilize your application is very
important. Define a procedure call for cases of failure, mishaps
or even downtime. Give your customers the ability to contact
you in the case of an emergency relating to the program.
A good example of a support scheme is a ticket tracking system.
This system allows users to file cases pertaining to a support
request and the support team, then makes the case track able.
This means that the request is identifiable by a unique code or
number. Although ticket-tracking systems are normally used by
hosting companies or large scale ASP's (Application Service
Providers), they still serve a valuable purpose in helping keep the
application stable.