Introduction to the Counseling Profession Chapter 6 Research and Writing in Counseling

Introduction to the Counseling Profession

Chapter 6

Research and Writing in Counseling

Chapter Topics

Introduction“Some students have difficulty distinguishing between literature that reports original empirical research with anecdotal reports, theoretical articles, literature reviews, and descriptions of programs, practice strategies, or standards.”

Galvan (1999) attributed students’ apprehensions to their lack of previous training regarding how to:

a) Search databases for reports of original research and related theoretical literature.

b) Analyze these particular types of literature.c) Synthesize them into cohesive essays

Furthermore, novice students may find it difficult to conceptualize how research relates to the theory and practice of counseling.

Definitions and Types of Research“Many professionals in counselor education believe that research is the backbone of counseling practice and theory. Some authors go as far as to suggest that practice, research, writing, and publishing are the obligations of the professional counselor.”

Definitions

Primary Sources: Research reports are considered to be original (primary sources) when they highlight initial results, including details about methodology, findings, implications, limitations, and conclusions.

Secondary Sources: Are generated by someone other than the researcher and often include general descriptions of findings with only minor details about methodology.

Definitions and Types of Research“There have been many controversial discussions and open debates regarding the usefulness of quantitative and qualitative methodology in counseling. In the past two decades, many experts have contended and illustrated that both methodologies are important as the profession of counseling is in a constant state of transition in which the eclectic and subjective nature of humanity is appreciated.”

Definitions

Quantitative: Quantitative research involves a systematic, logical, reductive, and empirically focused manner of interpreting information.

Qualitative: Qualitative research includes various non-numerical methods of investigating human experience and behavior.

Definitions and Types of ResearchQuantitative

Researchers who use quantitative methodology utilize their worldview to develop hypotheses and test relationships of clearly defined variables that can be measured.

The goal is to gather information, reduce it through valid and reliable instrumentation, and produce numerical results in the form of statistics.

The goal of many statistical operations is to test the hypotheses and determine whether there is a relationship between variables.

In general, quantitative researchers seek a statistical way to determine whether a cause and effect relationship exists between two or more variables.

Definitions and Types of ResearchQuantitative

In order to infer causal relationships, quantitative researchers believe that it is possible to extrapolate their personal values from the research process.

Researchers attempt to isolate specific factors, focus their investigations on predetermined variables, and control other variables that may interfere with the research process or alter researchers’ hypotheses.

True experimental designs use randomization procedures that allow greater generalizability and are higher valued in clinical trials and outcome research.

Definitions and Types of ResearchQualitative

Qualitative research is process-oriented, looks to explore why and how people behave, think, and make meaning as they do, and is conducted through an intense and/or prolonged contact with a life situation.

Researchers attempt to capture data based on the perceptions of those being investigated. This is accomplished through a process of deep attentiveness, empathic understanding, and suspending or “bracketing” preconceptions about the topics under exploration.

Qualitative data analysis is done primarily with words and entails a process through which information is explicated from narratives describing a particular setting, way of life, action, process, or manner of accounting for and managing one’s life.


The objectives of qualitative research are to:

Develop theory that is based on rich description resulting from documentation, description, and identification of patterns and relationships between concepts.

Identify the essence of experience.

Describe process.

Understand meaning, context, and process.


The objectives of qualitative research (continued):

Develop causal explanations.

Explore and identify phenomena.

Create theoretical explanations of reality.

Describe theory and practice.

Definitions and Types of Research“Many researchers have moved to meta-analysis and meta-studies to explore trends and themes in research design over time.”

Meta-Analysis

Involves the systematic exploration of studies published whereby researchers explore characteristics about the research design and the researchers, reveal trends that are emerging in the research and literature, and that are used to describe case-examples of how research is designed and implemented.

Utilizes specific set of procedures for statistically aggregating and evaluating effect size estimates from clinical trials on a topic of interest.

Literature Review and Conducting Research

“Students are advised to pick a topic that can be kept narrow, is well defined, and within an area that sparks personal interest. Ideas can be generated from classroom lectures, discussions, textbooks, professional association newsletters and websites, or current issues prevalent in the field of counseling.”

Steps for the Literature Review

Selecting a topic and searching for literature:

Narrow and define the topicCreate a topic statementSearch the Electronic Databases, Internet, and Professional JournalsStart with the most recent publications and work backwards.Utilize the reference page of the articles for future directions to search.Identify the most prominent research and literature related to the topic.


“Once students have secured a significant amount of literature regarding a chosen topic, they are faced with the task of organizing various pieces of information into one comprehensive essay.”


Organizing the Literature:

Develop a realistic timeline.

Revisit the overall purpose of the project or paper.

Read the abstract and first few paragraphs of each article for overview.

Explore the hypothesis section of the article and evaluate the hypothesis, research questions, and purpose.

Cluster all articles into separate stacks that appear to correspond with common themes emerging from the information collected.



Organizing the Literature (Continued):

Revisit organizational schema and begin to organize in greater detail.

Develop a personalized format for recording notes and build a conceptual map that highlights common themes throughout all of the articles.

Focus on explicit definitions and terms used by the authors.

Note differences and similarities among various authors.

Explore methodological strengths and weaknesses.

Focus on major trends, themes, or patterns in the results of the literature.

Identify and explore gaps that exist.


“During their organization of literature, students are encouraged to briefly explore the methodological section of the manuscripts collected. This includes an analysis of the methodology in terms of data collection and analysis procedures.”


Analyzing the Literature (Quantitative Research)

Orient yourself to common themes in the literature regarding effective use of quantitative methodology.

Is the researcher’s hypotheses logical and consistent throughout the manuscript?

Did the researcher maintain objectivity? Did the researcher use random selection for participants? How large was the researcher’s sample size?



Analyzing the Literature (Quantitative Research) (continued)

Identify the variables under study.

Were confounding variables controlled?

Did the researcher give a detailed description of the data collection and analysis process?

Were the instruments used to operationalize the variables valid and reliable?

Were the correct statistical procedures used to analyze the data?

Were the findings reliable and valid?


“Similar to quantitative research, good practice in qualitative research must address questions of reliability and validity, yet these terms are replaced with parallel terms including dependability, trustworthiness, and authenticity in qualitative research.”


Analyzing the Literature (Qualitative Research)

Familiarize yourself with the following qualitative concepts:

Is there a statement of a general purpose without imposing rigid, specific goals, and hypotheses to guide a study?

Did the researcher disclose his or her philosophical orientation and personal biases regarding the social and cultural context of the investigation?



Analyzing the Literature (Qualitative Research) (continued)

Did the researcher use purposive and theoretical sampling procedures to select research participants?

Did the researcher use descriptions of the internal process of the investigation?

Did the researcher have prolonged engagement of the investigators with the material/people being studied?

Were the results presented predominately or exclusively in words, narratives, or stories with an emphasis on understanding research

participants’ experiences and perspectives?



Analyzing the Literature (Qualitative Research) (continued)

Did the researcher use rich descriptions so that researchers are able to ground his or her interpretations in the data by illustrating concepts through interview excerpts or describing relationships of data to theoretical concepts?

Did the researcher use triangulation procedures to confirm and verify findings?



Analyzing the Literature (Other Factors in Determining Quality)

Was the study experimental or non-experimental?

Did researchers address issues of validity and reliability (Quantitative Research) or trustworthiness, credibility, thoroughness, and comprehensiveness (Qualitative Research)?

How did researchers arrive at their sample size? Was this valid?

“Differences between methodologies and unique measures to ensure trustworthiness of findings are important and must be understood in order to effectively evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a study.”



Analyzing the Literature (Other Factors in Determining Quality)

Did researchers demonstrate bias in the process?

What were the limitations of the study?

What were the implications of the study?



Structuring the Literature Review and Developing the Essay

Students need to clarify their purpose, choice of voice, and the audience to whom they are writing.

Organize your ideas into an outline or structured plan.

Integrate various sources into a comprehensive summary and then clarify how all of this information is related.

“Students are encouraged to look at the development of a literature review as a process with a planning phase, a construction phase, and a refining phase.”



Structuring the Literature Review and Developing the Essay (continued)

Students need to clarify their purpose, choice of voice, and the audience to whom they are writing.

Organize your ideas into an outline or structured plan.

Integrate various sources into a comprehensive summary and then clarify how all of this information is related.

Next, students are encouraged to articulate their assertions, contentions, or propositions regarding the literature and research they have reviewed.



Structuring the Literature Review and Developing the Essay (continued)

Students should focus on building a comprehensive and clear discussion of their line of argumentation under subheadings in the outline to define and describe each concept, clarify interrelationships among concepts, discuss connections to the topic, and discuss relationships among various studies or sources.


Writing the Literature Review

Transfer concepts from that outline into a narrative with transitions, continuity, and appropriate grammar.

Introduce the topic with the identification of the broad area under review moving from a general topic to specific concepts and ideas.

“Once students have developed a detailed outline including specific headings, subheadings, and concepts, they are ready to construct the first draft. This first draft is intended to serve as a rehearsal and an opportunity to explore initial attempts at articulating the context and arrangement of information and ideas.”


Writing the Literature Review (continued)

Indicate the importance of the topic and comment on the timeliness in terms of a specific context.

Explain why the topic is important and what issues are currently faced by the field of counseling as a result of the topic.

Justify comments regarding how you determined a gap in literature and why you believe the topic is of importance.



Multicultural Considerations

Students should be mindful of multicultural considerations when they are writing their papers. For example, appropriate terminology must be utilized when describing gender, racial and ethnic groups, geographic locations, socioeconomic characteristics, etc.

“When writing and conducting research, students are encouraged to consider various multicultural considerations. Such considerations can include, but are not limited to the way researchers attend to gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc…”



Legal and Ethical Considerations

Due to the ethical and legal implications of proper referencing, when in doubt, students should review guidelines in the most recent edition of the American Counseling Association’s (ACA) Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice (2005) and the American Psychological Association’s (APA) style manual.

Understand and avoid plagiarism.

“Copyright laws acknowledge that individuals own ideas once they have created them. Students must give credit to sources via proper referencing and citation when they use the words and creations of others.”



Creating a Comprehensive Essay

Carefully proof your manuscript.

Allow peers to proof read your manuscript.

Schedule daily writing tasks.

“Szuchman (2002) indicated that the writing process inherently includes the following process of revision: (a) first draft, (b) first rewrite, (c) second rewrite, (d) third inspection, and (e) the final touches.”


Designing a Plan for Conducting Research

Legal and Ethical Considerations

Studies must be rigorously and carefully designed or they may be considered to be unethical due to the waste of time and potential harm they can pose to participants and researchers.

Researchers must protect research participants from harm.

Researchers affiliated with universities must get approval from their Institutional Review Board (IRB).

Program Evaluation

Counselors are asked to be accountable and produce evidence indicating the effectiveness of their practice.

Counselors are encouraged to utilize data collection procedures outlined in both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to attain various forms of information that testify to their effectiveness.

Depending on the unique styles and settings of counselors, they should select methodological procedures that fit their individual, school, and agency needs.

“Program evaluations are based on whether the goals for implementation of a counseling program are being met and whether clients are getting what they need from the counseling experience.”

Documents

Introduction to the Counseling Profession Chapter 6 Research and Writing in Counseling