1.1 Introduction to sentence connectors in English

Sentence combining or sentence connectors have attracted the attention of many scholars and language teachers who are interested in applying linguistic knowledge to classroom setting. This is because considerable knowledge of the use of these items has found to be greatly helpful for improving student’s writing at the junior high school level and the college level (e.g. Mellon 1969, Hunt 1970, Ney 1976 in Mornberg, Daiker and Kerek 1978 and Swan1979). These linking devices are crucial in writing since they turn separate clauses, sentences and paragraphs into connected, well-formed and coherent text or discourse.Sentence connectors, however, have been found to be problematic to the learners of English as a second or foreign language in particular. Bacha and Hanania (1980) reported a preliminary investigation of the use of transitional words in English writing by first-year English communication skills courses at the American university of Beirut. The results indicated that the production of correct and appropriate use of transitional expressions posed the greatest difficulty to their students. Al Bazi (1982) explored the errors committed by the third year Iraqi students of English at the University of Basrah in the use of cohesive devices on supra-sentential level. Her study revealed that her subjects faced at real difficulty in choosing the suitable conjunctions to combine sentences and paragraphs. Al- shatart (1990 as cited in Abu Hatab 1992) studies the errors committed by the Jordanian students majoring in EFL in ten community colleges in Amman and Zarqa in using the various connectors and cohesive devices in writing English composition. The study revealed that the devices and connectors involved were greatly confused and misused by the majority of the subjects and that conjunctions were the most difficult ones and were the most wrongly used.A significant part of the problem in learning the connectives in general and sentence connectors in particular seems to lie in the fact that they have been dealt with by grammarians and language teaching textbook-designers in different ways using different terms and classifications.To begin with, sentence connectors are considers part of conjunctions that join words, phrases, clauses, sentences or paragraphs into continuous discourse. These conjunctions have been classified differently in terms of different criteria. House and Harman(1950:187-194) classifies conjunctions according to their form into simple, compound and phrasal(e.g. and, if , nevertheless, notwithstanding, in case that, provided that; respectively); and according to their function as coordinating conjunctions which join units of

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equal rank(e.g. and , or, but) and subordinating conjunctions which connects units of different ranks (e.g. because, although, since); and correlative conjunctions which are usually used in pairs (e.g. both…and, whether..or.., neither… nor) and according to their meaning that they are capable of denoting such as accumulation, affirmation, cause, etc. Bolinger (1975:121-122) make a distinction between: coordinating conjunctions, adverbial conjunctions which bring adverb clauses into certain logical relationship such as: time, condition, concession with the sentence as a while (e.g. because, while, although); and conjunctive adverb which relate a following sentence to a preceding one in certain logical ways(e.g., besides, instead, accordingly). Halliday and Hassan (1976) view conjunctions as formal cohesive that turn separate sentences or conjunctions into connected discourse. They focused on the semantic and cohesive functions of the conjunctions, and they, accordingly classified them into four categories: additive (e.g., and, moreover, likewise); adversative (e.g., but, yet, instead); casual (e.g., as a result, for this reason, to this end) and temporal (e.g., previously, afterwards, later) (ibid 249-260). Arts and Arts (1982:45) make a distinction between conjunctions on formal and functional grounds only neglecting the meaning they indicate. On the formal ground, conjunctions can either be simple consistent of one word or complex consisting of two or more words. On the functional ground conjunctions can either be coordinating or subordinating. Sentence connectors as a distinct part of conjunctions were investigated separately by Roberts (1964), Qurick et al (1972) and Wishon and Burks (1980). For Roberts sentence connectors connect two sentences indicating some meaning relationship between them. They differ from conjunctions in that they may come within or at the end of the second sentence as well as between sentences,where as conjunctions must occur between sentences. They differ from subordinator in that subordinating make an interest sentence part of matrix sentence where as sentence connectors just connect two base sentences (1964:311). Qurick et al (1972), Qurick and Greenbaum (1973) allocate a separate chapter to sentence connection. For them sentences can be connected in three ways: implications in the semantic content, lexical equivalence, and syntactic devices. The implication in the semantic content occurs when the relationship is implied by the juxtaposition of sentences. Lexical equivalence occurs when successive sentences are expected to show relationship through synonymy, hyponymy, antonymy etc. Syntactic devices involves: time relaters e.g. earlier , simultaneously, later; place relaters e.g. here there the front; logical connectors which involve enumeration (e.g. furthermore,

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finally); addition (e.g. also, two); transition (e.g. as for, regarding); summation (e.g. to sum up, all in all); apposition (e.g. for example, for instance ); inference( e.g. if so, in conclusion); reformulation (e.g. in other words, rather); contrast( e.g. on the contrary, instead); and concession (however, besides). Wishon and Burks(1980 134-136) argue that sentences that are related to each other in meaning may be combined by using four kinds of connectors: coordinate conjunctions, correlative conjunction, conjunctive adverbs and transition expression. Coordinate conjunctions are seven: and , or, nor, but, for, so and yet. The join two or more sentences or the parallel elements of the sentence. Correlative conjunctions are four in number and are usually used in pairs in joins two basic sentences patterns or two parallel elements of any kind, they are: either…. or, neither…..nor, both….and, and not only…but also.. Conjunctive adverbs are used to connect basic sentence patterns and making compound sentences. Unlike the coordinate conjunctions. Conjunctive adverbs are grammatically a part of the sentences they introduce (e.g., however, furthermore, accordingly, thus). Finally transition expression are usually prepositional phrases used as adverbs (e.g., in fact, at the same time, on the contrary, as a result)(ibid: 141-142). 1.2 The problem of the study

The problem to be investigated in the present research is whether our college students

who are study English language at the departments of English still find difficulty in

recognizing the semantic relationship which requires the use of specific sentence

connector, and also the use of proper sentence connecter to express a given semantic

relation on sentence and discourse level.

1.3 List of Sentence Connectors in English

Given below is the list of most commonly used sentence connectors in English with examples: Connectors  Examples  So  I’ve finished my tea; so has he. Yet Murder has no tongue. Yet it will speak.  However   At first he refused to go. Later, however, he decided to go. Too  He is an idler. He is a gambler, too. 

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Equally   I admitted my error. Equally, the other driver made a mistake. Further  The superintendent was suspended for impudence. Further, there was a charge of corruption against him. Moreover  I wonder why you want to marry Maria. She is vain; she is obstinate. Moreover, she is not so rich as you think her to be. Therefore  A is equal to B. B is equal to C. Therefore, A is equal to C. As well There are three houses. I have purchased two already. I’ll buy the third one as well.Neither  The kittens have not been fed; neither has been the puppy.Nor   She can’t do it; nor can I, nor can you, nor can anybody.In any case  He may apologize or not. In any case, I am not going to re- employ him.On the contrary  You say he is my friend. On the contrary, he gave evidence against me in the court.On the other hand  On the one hand he claims to be my friend; on the other hand he is always running me down.

Sentence connectors are words and phrases that connect sentences to help with understanding. Sentence connectors are also known as linking language. There are many types of sentence connectors including time cues, subordinating conjunctions, coordinating conjunctions, introductory words such as "Consequently", "Therefore," and so on.Once one have mastered the basics of correct usage in written English, he will want to express himself in increasingly complex ways. One of the best ways to improve one writing style is to use sentence connectors. Sentence connectors are used to express relationships between ideas and to combine sentences. The use of these connectors will add sophistication to your writing style (Nation,2001:58).

1.4 Types of Connectors in English Grammar  There are different types of connectors in English grammar:1. Co- ordinating conjunctions: combine phrases, clauses and sentences that have equal grammatical function.2. Subordinating conjunctions: combine elements with different grammatical function, usually dependent and independent clauses. 3. Conjunctive adverbs: show logical relationship between two independent sentences.4. Prepositions: Indicate relationship between things mentioned in a sentence (Hymes,1999:89)

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1.4.1 Examples on Connectors in English Grammar   Examples of sentences in which connectors are used: 1. Excessive use of computers is stressful and can be harmful to your health. (co-ordinating conjunction)2.Just as excessive use of computers is stressful, it can be harmful to your health.(subordinating conjunction) 3. Excessive use if computers is stressful; similarly , it can be harmful to your health. (conjunctive adverb) 4.In addition to being stressful, excessive use of computers can be harmful to your health. (preposition)  http://www.tutorvista.com/english/connectors-in-english-grammar  1.5 C onnectors

A connector is a word that is used to join words or sentences.And, as well as, but, or, yet, nevertheless, however, so that, as long as, while, until, as if, because, when, after, though, before. A boy and a girlAn elephant and a giraffeA toy or a bookThe music was loud nevertheless it was enjoyable. 1.6 Types of connectors

1.6.1 C oordinating conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions join together clauses of equal importance. Some examples of coordinating conjunctions are - and, but, or, Use of 'and' ‘And' is used as a conjunction when the words or phrases are of equal importance and both conditions exist. Other words that can be used in place of and are: moreover, in addition to, along with, plus, as well as, further more (Gates, 1997:67)Tom and Harry play hockey A lion and a fox live in this cave. We need some gloves and a ball in addition to bats.The soldiers rose moreover they cheered the leader.We found the thief along with the bags.The gurgling stream along with the howling wind added to the charm of the place.

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Use of 'but' The conjunction 'but' is used to show a contradiction between two phrases. Let's say the first phrase leads you to expect a certain event and the second phrase tells you quite a contradictory outcome. In such an event, but, is used. Other words like: nevertheless, yet, however, can be used in place of 'but'He ran, but he missed the bus.She studied hard but could not score well in the test. The hill was very steep but the old man could climb it easily.Sharon fell from the horse nevertheless she did not cry. The lion was hungry yet it did not attack Androcles. He is from England however he speaks Chinese very well. 

Use of 'Or' When we need to express a choice between two words or phrases we use 'or'. Here only one of the two conditions exists. Would you take a cup of tea or coffee? Shall we buy a book or a toy? Sit on the bench or on the grass.Are you tired or shall we go out for a walk? We can learn to talk English or we can depend on sign language. 

1.6.2 C orrelative conjunctions: Conjunctions used in pairs are correlative conjunctionsEither..... or Either Peter or John has taken the book. Neither.....nor It is neither hot nor tasty. Both.....and My sister is both smart and intelligent. Whether..... or Tell me whether you know the route or not. Not only..... but also Not only is she stupid but also stubborn (Wilkins,1974:88)

1.6.3 C ompound conjunctions Compound conjunctions are groups of words that behave like conjunctions. In order that, on condition that, provided that, as soon as

C onjunction Usage In order that I bought all the books in order that you may study On condition that The teacher excused him on condition that he would not repeat the mistake.Even if  Sarah would not marry him even if he proposed to her.So that I kept away my work so that I could spend time with my  daughters Provided that You can take leave provided that you work overtime later 

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As though  Rex behaves as though he is the boss.As well as  Monica as well as veronica was present thereAs soon as  Mr. Ford plans to pay off his loan as soon as he gets his bonus.As if  It looks as if there is going to be a storm. 

1.6.4 S ubordinating conjunction A subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it depends for its full meaning. The chief subordinating conjunctions are after, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless (Robert,2003:56). I will not go to the market if it rains.The situation 'I will not go to the market' is dependant on the condition 'if it rains'.You could go and play after you have done the dishes.King Midas was unhappy because his daughter turned to gold.You must dig the earth till you find water.

Observe the use of connectors in these sentences:

Lydia likes to sing and dance when she is happy. 

We can paint our house red or white but we must select a good painter. 

Harry is intelligent however he is lazy. He must wake up or he will regret it. 

I left the party because I was bored, moreover it was quite late. 

He was sad and tired along with being very hungry when a wizard appeared and

offered him food however he laid down some conditions. 

He is cheerful though he has worked the whole day. 

I allowed him in as I thought he was a friend but he tried to rob me.

You will do well if you study hard.

My daughters either watch TV or sleep on Sundays.

Susan is very fat but very active.

I met by friend in the park and invited her to tea.

A student must obey or he may leave.

Jane and Peter have been chosen to receive the guest. 

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After the trip Sam came to work but he was very tired.

Bring some sandwiches or you will be hungry.

They jumped over the stream and ran home. 

The dog ran after the rabbit but could not catch him. 

My aunt is ill so I will visit her tomorrow.

The show started as soon as the chief guest arrived.

You will enjoy the concert since you love music. 

This horse will take you to the village you even if he is tired.

He was rowing the boat while I slept.

The bridge fell though it was made of stones. 

You will pass if you work hard. 

He will not try unless he is forced to.

We will come after we complete the work. 

The old man cared for the puppy as though she was his baby.

العربية اللغة في الربط أدوات

العطف ( – أ ) Conjunction حروفFor plural, with or without arrangement (order)

. وعلي --- – – رامي جاء مثال ترتيب بغير أو بترتيب الجمع تفيد الواوAccording to the combination and arrangement and comment without an interval

فعلي --- – – . رامي جاء مثال زمني فاصل بغير والتعقيب والترتيب الجمع تفيد الفاءAccording to the order lax

علي ----- – – ثم رامي جاء مثال التراخي الترتيب تفيد ثم benefit of doubt

. علي ---- – – أو رامي جاء مثال الشك أو التخير تفيد أوAccording to the question asked Appointment

مثال ---- – – – علي أم رامي جاء مثال التعين وطلب االستفهام تفيد أم – 2أم أنذرتهم عليهم سواءتنذرهم لم

According to the strike in two equalعلي ---- – بل رامي جاء متساوين أمرين في اإلضراب تفيد بل

According to the settlement

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راكبا --- – – أم ماشيا أكان سواء رامي جاء مثال التسوية تفيد كانAccrued benefit

- علي ---- – لكن رامي جاء مثاال االستدراك تفيد لكنAccording end

شبع --- – -- حتى رامي أكل مثال الغاية تفيد ,حتى حميدة. ( )148: 1997مصطفى

وإعرابها : الواو أنواعالجملة -- – – – - في موقعها حسب على إعرابها وعلي رامي جاء مثال العطف واوالجملة – – – – - من موقعها حسب على إعرابها األرحام في RرSقT ون لكم لنبين مثال االستئناف واومبتدأ – – – – - –- اإلسميه الجملة على تدخل الحال واو إعرابها راكبا وهو رامي جاء مثال الحال واوحال - نصب محل في وخبر-. وتجرها --- – – – األسماء على تدخل جر حرف إعرابها البروج ذات والسماء مثال القسم واوبأن – – – - فتنصبه المضارع الفعل على تدخل إعرابها بالكرة وتلعب تأكل ال مثال المعيه واو

وجوبا . المضمرةاآللي – – – - الحاسب على الجامعة في طالب وهو الدرس رامي كتب مثال االعتراضية تمام. (واو

)213: 2006حسن,

الفاء : أنواع-. -- – – — الجملة في موقعها حسب على إعرابها فمحمد رامي جاء مثال العاطفة الفاء- — جزم – – حكم حكمها يعلمه الله فإن شئ من تنفقوا وما مثال الشرط جواب في الواقعة الفاء

الفعليناإلعراب – – – - من مكان لها ليس جائزة فله منزلي إلى يحضر من مثال الزائدة الفاء- – — التي ( ) الجملة تكون أن يجب إعرابها الحفرة في فتسقط تسرع ال الجوب فاء السببــية الفاء

أستفهاميه أو منفية تسبقها. وجوابا + المضمرة بأن منصوب مضارع فعل السببية الفاء تأتي ثم طلبيه ,أو :2003الزمشخري(

403(

الفكرة) ( - نفس تحمل الجمل بين للربط كلمات ب- – -- منصوب – مطلق المفعول عن نائب إعرابها بينهما فيما يتوافقان شيئين مع تستعمل أيضا

الفتحة نصبه وعالمةأيضا -- .- نفسمعنى كذلكمعين – - الموضوع حول إضافية معلومات إضافة حاله في تستخدم إلى باإلضافةإلى -- ( )- باإلضافة نفسمعنى جانب إلىالتعليل --- - أو للتشابه أن ,كما الغالييني.( )185/186 ,2003مصطفى: - ( ج ) الموصولة األسماء

: الخاصة الموصولة األسماء- – ... المبنيات – – – – – من هي إعرابها الخ اللتان اللذان الالئي الالتي الذين التي الذي

من – لها محل ال الصلة جمله تسمى تليها التي والجملة الجملة في موقعها حسب على وتعرب . بالياء وتجر وتنصب باأللف ترفع المثنى حالة وفي اإلعراب

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: - ( د ) المشتركة الموصولة األسماء ( ) ( العاقل( للغير ما و للعاقل ,من بحيري.( حسن ).45 :2001سعيد

الجمل : - ( هـ ) بين للربط أدوات:) -أوال( والحصر واإلضراب االستدراك أدوات

: هي االستدراك أدوات-: , Sلكن mلكن

فتنصب : – والخبر المبتدأ على تدخل Sإن أخوات من ونصب استدراك حرف وهي Sلكن. خبرها ويسمى الثاني وترفع أسمها ويسمى األول

وإعربان : : عمالن ولها استدراك حرف mلكنمبتدأ : ألنهما مرفوعين ويبقيان فيهما تؤثر فال وخبر مبتدأ من أسميه جمله على دخلت إذا األول

الحالة . هذي في الفعلية الجملة على دخولها ويجوز وخبر. الفعلية: الجملة على دخولها الحالة هذي في ويجوز حرفعطف تكون أن الثاني

اإلضراب وهي :أداة. قبلها: ذكرت التي الجملة في الموقف في تغير حدوث على للداللة لإلضراب تستعمل فهي بل

/ وهي القصر الحصر :أداة. وخبر: مبتدأ من مكون أسمية جمله بعدها وما فقط حصر أداة فهي ,إنمSا خرمة( ابو )184: 2004عمرر

: - )ثانيا( التفصيل أدوات( ..... وإما ( أمSا

الشرط : ( ) : . بمعنى كانت وإذا االسم إال يليها وال وتوكيد وتفصيل حرفشرط أمSا أوالإعرابها – – الرابطة الجزاء بفاء يقترن جوابها فإن

في والجملة الخبر على الفاء وتدخل مبتدأ يعرب فإنه ضمير أو مرفوع اسم وليها إذا. , ...... فجميل – – وجهه وأما فحلو مذاقه أمSا كالمعروف أر ولم مثال الشـــــــرط جواب جزم محل

المتأخر للفعل به مفعوال أعرب منصوب اسم وليها وإذا

الشك: ( ): – – – – واإلبهام اإلباحة التخير ومعناه التكرار واجب عامل غير تفصيلي حرف وهو إمSا ثانيا : يتجاهله أنه وإمSا يعرفه ال المدير mأن إمSا مثال

- ( الواقع :ثالثا( مخالفه على الدالة األدواتأن – – – مع من بالرغم برغم رغم

النجاح: من واثق فأنا االمتحان صعوبة رغم ,مثال )175: 1986المتوكل (

- ) العربية : و) في النفي أدواتوليس( , , , )اوال : ولن وال لم

وتجزمه : , . المضارع بالفعل مختص وهي وقلب وجزم نفي حرف وهي لم

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أو العلة حرف حذف أو السكون ووضع الضمة حركة بحذف يكون والجزمللماضي يكون بلم النفي في والقلب الخمسة األفعال في النون حذف

تجزمة : . ال ولكنها المضارع الفعل نافية وهي ال . األفعال: وفي المضارع الفعل تنصب وهي واستقبال ونصب نفي حرف وهي لن

للمستقبل يكون للنفي والقلب النون بحذف النصب يكون الخمسةويسمى : ( الثاني وتنصب أسمها ويسمى األول ترفع كان أخوات من وهو ماضجامد فعل ليس

خبرها )

- ( والعطف ثانيا( النفي :عليها أدواتوال( , , ,... ) ال لن لم ال

مثال التكرار أدوات وهيالمسيحية عن حديثة في وال الشريعة عن حديثة في ال دقيقا المؤلف يكن لم

يشربوا ولم يأكلوا فلم الطعام عن أضربوا لقدأسئلتهم على يجيب ولن الصحفيون الوزير يقابل لن

- ( :ثالثا( الجمل ( ) بين الربط في بد ال استعمالبد ما :ال أمر لفعل االضطرار أو الضرورة على تدل

وينجحوا: يكافحوا mأن بد ال كان مثاليطورها mأن من له بد ال ,كان احمد ( وخليل )107: 1999ابوغزالة

- ) : ز) والنتيجة السبب على الدالة الربط أدوات( ... . . ف( لــ نظرا بفضل بسبب

العالي: / السد بناء بسبب بفضل مصر في الزراعية األراضي مساحة ازدادت مثالالزراعية األراضي مساحه ازدادت فقد العالي السد لبناء نظرا

:اوال: جزأين من وتتكون السبب الدالة الربط أدوات. . . . . . . .Sأن بما Sإن إذ Sإن أن حيث من بحيث حيث ألن

. له: عمل ال صغيرا كان أنه وحيث مثال. له: الوحيد العائل أخته كانت بحيث ,مثال واخرون( )202: 2000عمايرة

:ثانيا : النتيجة على الدالة الربط أدوات( . هنا( . . ومن ولهذا لهذا ونتيجة هذا وعلى

. جيدا - اللغة للدراسة للخارج سافر ولهذا االمتحان في رسب لقد مثال

:ثالثا : شابهه وما التعليل على الدالة الربط أدوات( . لئال( . . . . . . لكيال كيما أن أجل من حتى كي لــ

العمل : خطه يناقشمعه لكي االقتصاد الرئيسوزير قابل مثالالبالد: في أموالهم استثمار في يترددوا كيال لألجانب التسهيالت من الكثير الحكومة قدمت مثال

المضارع ---- الفعل تنصب حتى و كي و لــ

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الربط : ح) ( - في مختلفة أدوات( ) :S أال فتصبح بال تدغم النفي حالة وفي المضارع للفعل ناصبه مصدريه أداة mأنبه مفعول نصب محل في مؤول بمصدر يعربان يليها الذي والفعل Sإن إعرابها

المبتدأ : من أساسا المكونة األسميه الجملة على يدخالن توكيد حرفان فهما Sوأن Sإنالثاني ويرفعان األول فينصبان والخبر

الجملة: بداية في تكون أن البد Sإنكالم: يسبقها أن بد ال Sأن

وأقصى: أشد الحياة امتحان Sأن نكتشف الشهادات أكبر على نحصل Sأن بعد مثال

: مفعول أسم أو فاعل اسم أو الصفات مع Sأن و mأن استخدام ..... . . . الخ . Sأن المقرر من Sأن المعروف من Sأن المتوقع من Sأن الثابت من الـــ من

. يسير: حل لها ليس مشكله البيئة تلوث Sأن الثابت من مثال. االمتحان في محمد ينجح Sأن المتوقع من

: والنفي: اإلثبات حالتي في والخشية الخوف بمعنى ألجله المفعول المصدروالغالب وتعللها األولى الثانية تفسر مرتبطتين جملتين بين األدوات وتستخدم

الخوف أو الخشية بمعنى األول نفي نافيه األولى تأتي أنالمادة: في يرسب أن خشية درسه محمد يذاكر مثال

الجنة: يدخل أال خشية الصالة على محمد يحافظ مثال. عليه: أبية غضب خشية أبية كالم محمد يسمع مثال

.... ا مجرور مصدر أو اسم خشيه بعد يكون مالحظة .... منصوب مضارع فعل mأن خشية بعد يكون

.... منصوب مضارع فعل أال مخافة بعد ,يكون )555: 1997حسن(

- ) والفعل ط) بالزمن تتقاربان جملتين بين التأليف على الدالة األدوات.... . اوال : . حتى .... . ..... . ..... mإن ا mحتىإن يكاد ال حتى يكد لم حتى كاد ماالماضي :- الزمن على مايدل- ..... ..... mإن ما يكد لم كاد مامرفوع: + + - مضارع فعل الفاعل كاد ما مثالحفله .- والدح له أقام حتى النجاح على يحصل الطالب كاد ما

الحاضر :- الزمن على يدل ما-. منصوب + + + + مضارع فعل حتى مرفوع مضارع فعل الفاعل يكاد المنصوب + + + + - مضارع فعل حتى الفاعل مجزوم مضارع فعل mإن ما-. علية يدل الذي رمزه المسجد يكون حتى بلدا يدخل اإلسالم يكاد ال

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:ثانيا: والفعل بالزمن تتقاربان جملتين بين التأليف على الدالة األدوات

الماضي : الزمن على الدالةيمض . . . لم على يمضي لم حتى مالبث mأن مالبث

ماضي : + + فعل حتى مصدر أو فاعل أو ماضي فعل mأن مالبث الصيغةمفيدة : غير وأصبحت تغيرت mأن مالبثت الظاهرة هذه ولكن مثال

الحاضر : الزمن على الدالة .... , .... , حتى ... , ... يمضي لن حتى على يمضي لن حتى أن يلبث لن حتى يلبث ال

الجديدة والبحوث النظريات من العديد نجد حتى طويل وقت يمضي ولن مثال

وبعد – _ :ثالثا: قبل الزمان ظرفاسألو: ما قبل إال للناس جاد ما مثال

قدرا: ما بعد إال قط عفا وال مثال

الشرطية :رابعا: الجمل في الشرط أدوات .... ... لو mإن إذا

: هي الجازمة الشرط أدوات , , , , , , , , كيفما, حيثما Sى أن أينما أين متى مهما ما من mإن

: جازمة الغير الشرط أدواتكلما, لو ,إذا والشيباني.( ).169: 2003دغفوس

1.7 Discussion The source of difficulty in recognizing and using sentences connectors has been thought of

differently in the literature on the subject. Kaplan (1967 in Bacha and Hanania 1980) think it lie in the difference between the theoretical system of English and Arabic: the

assumption been that Arabic relies more on coordination than on complex hierarchical relationships. Hawrani (1974 and Carthy 1978 in Bacha and Hanania 1980) suggest that the difficulty appear to stem more directly from a restricted knowledge of linking words in English and the logical relations associated with them. Zamel (1983) holds the view that the problem might be due to the methods used in teaching the connectives which categories them according to function, “thus ignoring their semantic restrictions and giving students erroneous idea that they can be used interchangeably. It seems to the present researcher that the source of difficulty may lie in the fact that this vital area has either been neglected or taught only casually through essay and letter writing or on grammar classes through coordination or subordination

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only the emphasis being on formal relations between phrases and sentences. Reference on semantic and functional relations expressed by these connecters have been seriously neglected.

1.8 Suggestions and Recommendations

Accordingly and as a remedy to overcome the difficulty faced by our learners in using the proper sentence connectors in the appropriate context. The present researcher suggest the following:

1. Owing to its importance in turning separate clauses, sentences and paragraph into units of connected writing and discourse, teaching these connectives should be an essential part of teaching letter and essay writing and not to be restricted to grammar lesson.

2. When presenting sentence connectors:a) Distinction between coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions and

conjunctive adverbs should be made according to their grammatical function. Students should learn that coordinating conjunctions connect independent clauses or sentences without affecting their grammatical structures, subordinating conjunctions turn the independent clauses to which they are appended into subordinate ones and that the conjunctive adverbs have no semantic weight but grammatical function (Zamel, 1983, 25).

b) The semantic function ought to be accounted for as well. Students need to understand the semantic difference that result from replacing for example “and” by “but” ; “nevertheless” by “ therefore”.

3. Emphasis should not be limited to sequences of pairs of sentences. Students should be provided with exercises to work with sentence connectors on sentence and discourse level taking the following into consideration:a( On sentence level

Teachers should provide adequate examples that enable the student to figure out: the nature of the relationship between one clauses or sentence and another; the proper connector that can properly connect the related sentences and make the relationship between them explicit; and whether the use of connectors is syntactically possible. This presentation should be followed by various types of exercise in which students practice the various grammatical and semantic function of the sentence connectors and the syntactic possibilities open to the students to choose from.

b( On discourse level

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Students should be exposed to adequate examples on supra-sentential level. They can be given texts or passages with missing words to be filled with the sentence connectors that are semantically appropriate and syntactically possible.

References

Nation, P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hymes, J. (1999). Connectors in English language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/english/english-i/work-book/connectors.php Gates, L.( 1997).Essentials of Language Teaching. New jersey: New jersey press. Wilkins, D.A. (1974). Linguistics in language teaching. London: Edward Arnold Ltd. Robert, B. (2003). Discourse Analysis. Boston: Bergman Press. Momberg M., Daiker D. and Kerek A, (l978). "Sentence Combing on the College Level:

An Experimental Study". Research in the Teaching of English. Vol.l2, No.3, pp.245—256. Swan, M. B. (l979), "Sentence Combining in College Composition". Research in the

Teaching of English, Vol.l3, No.3, pp.2l7- 224. Bacha, N. S. and E. Hanania (l980), "Difficulty in Learning and Effectiveness of Teaching

Transitional Words: A Study on Arabic- speaking University". TESOL Quarterly, Vol.l4, No.3, pp.25l- 254.

Al Bazi, J. (l982), Linguistic Errors on the Suprasentential level Committed by the Third Year Students of English at Basrah University. Unpublished M.A Thesis. University of Basrah.

Abu-Hatab, W. A. (1992), Discourse Error Analysis of Compositions Written by Community College Students. Unpublished M.A Thesis. University of Jordan.

House, M. C. and Harm S. E. (l950). Descriptive English Grammar. (2nd Edition) USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Eckersley, C. E and Eckersley J. M. (1960), A Comprehensive English Grammar. London: Longman Group Ltd.

Crystal, D. A. (1991), Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. (2nd Edition). Cambridge: CUP.

Bolinger, D. (1975), Aspects of Language. (2nd Edition) New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

Halliday, M. A. and Hasan R. (1976), Cohesion in English. London: Longman. Aarts, Flor and Jan Aats (1982), English Syntactic Structures. Pergamon, Bohn Scheltema

and Holkema.

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Roberts, P. (1964), English Syntax. New York: Harcourt Brace and World Inc. Quirk, R., Greenbaum G., Leech G. and Svartvik J. (1972), A Grammar of Contemporary

English. London: Longman Group Ltd. Wishon, G. E. and Burks J. M. (1980), Let's Write English. New York: American Book

Company. Quirk, R. and Grecnbaum S. (1973), A University Grammar of English. Essex: Longman

Group Ltd. Seliger, H. and Shohamy E. (1989), Second Language Research Methods. Oxford: O.U.P. Brown, J. D. (1995), Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. Cambridge:

CUP. Zamel, V. (1983), "Teaching Those Missing Links in Writing". ELT Journal, Vol.37, No.1,

pp.22-28.

العربية المصادر

1. , , المصرية الشركة الجملة تركيب في والربط االرتباط نظام حميدة مصطفى , , ط, القاهرة لونجمان .148, 1997, 1العربية

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3., ,( ) دار االعراب في المفصل عمر بن محمود القاسم ابي الزمشخري, بيروت, .403, 2003الهالل

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6., , , , , الحديث الكتاب عالم اخرى وبناء النظرية نقد النص نحو خرمة ابو عمرط, 184ص, 2004, 1االردن

7., , , الدار الثقافة دار الوظيفي العربية اللغة نحو في دراسات المتوكل احمد.176ص, 1986البيضاء,

8. , , المصرية الهيئة النص علم الى مدخل احمد خليل وعلي غزالة ابو الهام, , ط القاهرة للكتاب .7ص, 1999, 2العامة

9., , ج الوافي النحو حسن (555, 3عباس ت, عقيل ابن شرح), 769وينظر ه, , بيروتط, العلمية الكتب دار ,1997, 1االلفية الثاني, .61ص المجلد

10.,( ) , ترجمة التواصل في جديد علم اليوم التداولية مورشال وجاك روبول ان, , , . , ط. لبنان العربية المنظمة الشيباني محمد دغفوسد الدين سيف ,171, 1د

.169ص, 2003

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