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Introduction to Qualitative Research Airin Roshita, MSc, PhD

Introduction to Qualitative Methods

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Introductory material for studying qualitative methods in research for undergraduate students.

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  • Introduction to Qualitative ResearchAirin Roshita, MSc, PhD

  • Introduction to qualitative research

    2 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • 3Source: Kielmann, Cataldo and Seeley, 2011, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methodology

  • What is a qualitative study?

    4

    It is used to

    understand peoples behaviour in everyday life

    Social reality

    Emotion, feelings

    Life experiences

    Focus on in-depth understanding of the context of a

    phenomenon

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • What is a qualitative study?

    5

    Asking questions of what, how or

    why

    rather than

    how many or how much

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • What is a qualitative study?

    6

    Qualitative research is a situated activity that

    locates the observer in the world

    Researchers turn the world into a series of

    representations, including field notes,

    interviews, conversations, photographs,

    recordings and memo

    Study things in their natural setting

    (Denzin and Lincoln 2005, p.3)

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • 7Practical Questions

    Epidemiology

    How much disease is there?

    What risk factors are associated

    with the disease?

    What is the measurable risk

    of obtaining

    specific outcome?

    Anthropology

    How is illness recognised and

    classified?

    What do risk factors mean in a

    given context?

    How do people interpret, respond

    to and cope with

    risk and illness?

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Research paradigmsElements Quantitative Qualitative

    Ontology

    (nature of reality)

    Singular: reject or fail to reject

    the hypotheses

    Multiple reality

    Epistemology

    (relationship)

    distant, impartial and remain

    emotionally detached

    uninvolved with the objects of

    the study

    Close with those being

    research

    Axiology (values) eliminate biases Values biases

    No context-free

    generalization

    Methodology

    (process)

    deductive : from general to

    specific

    Inductive: from specific to

    general

    Rhetoric

    (language)

    formal style : agreed-on

    definitions of variables

    writing style: impersonal passive

    voice and technical terminology

    detail, rich, thick description,

    informal

    8 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • What characterises qualitative research?

    9

    Approach

    Humanistic: focus on the personal, the subjective and

    experiential basis of knowledge and practice

    Holistic: looks for how different parts relate to the whole;

    focus on meaning within context

    Interpretive: seeks to understand and make sense of

    phenomena in terms of meaning

    Reflexive: recognises that researchers personal history,

    biography, and characteristics shape the research and the data

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • What characterises qualitative research?

    10

    Methodology

    Open-ended and in-depth

    Flexible: use of multiple methods (triangulation) and

    iteration

    Naturalistic: studying things in their natural settings

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • The iterative qualitative research

    process

    11

    Aim and objectives/research question

    Study design and

    sampling

    Data collection

    Data analysis

    Interpretation/analysis

    Use of result for

    program

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Why doing a qualitative study?

    12

    The flexibility of qualitative data

    Allows the discovery of unexpectedly

    important topics (not limited to a pre-defined

    set of questions)

    Research question and data collection method

    may be modified when new information is

    collected

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Why doing a qualitative study?

    13

    Cultural re-interpretation

    Happens in quantitative survey when questions

    are not meaningful to respondents in the

    intended way

    Questions evoke special meaning and

    association unknown by researchers

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Why doing a qualitative study?

    14

    Contextual bias

    Survey research rely to only one context

    Assumes that peoples behavior and attitudes are the same

    from one context to another

    Sex of the interviewer

    The presence of other individual during interview

    The place where the interview takes place

    The sensitivity of the interview topics

    The flexibility of qualitative research allows researcher to

    reduce contextual bias

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • 15

    Quantitative data (results from asking how much?)- counts

    - measurements

    - closed-ended questions

    - structured observations

    Qualitative (often answers the questions "why" or how"?) - text

    - maps

    - drawings

    - tape-recordings

    - photographs

    - video-recordings

    Types of data

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • 16

    Less Rich RichCONTEXT

    Numbers More Structured Less Dynamic/Flexible Large Less Depth

    Random Single

    Words Less Structured More Dynamic/Flexible Small More Depth Mostly purposive Multiple (Triangulation)

    METHODS

    Outsiders Perspective (Etic)

    Confirmatory

    Hypothesis-Testing

    Insiders Perspective (Emic) Exploratory

    Hypothesis-Generating

    GENERAL

    QUANTITATIVEQUALITATIVE

    Comparing Approaches

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Approaches of qualitative studies

    4 Feb 2013Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya17

    Creswell (2007):

    Narrative study

    Phenomenological research

    Grounded theory research

    Ethnographic research

    Case study research

  • Narrative study

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya18

    Describes individual experiences

    narrative is understood as a spoken or written text

    giving an account of an event/action or series of

    events/actions, chronologically connected

    Focusing on studying one or two individuals, gathering

    data through the collection of their stories

    E.g. study Life history

  • Phenomenological research

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya19

    Describes the meaning for several individuals of their

    lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon

    Focus on what all participants have in common as they

    experience a phenomenon (e.g. grief).

    Involves in-depth interviews and multiple interviews with

    participants who have experienced the phenomenon

    Knowing some common experience useful for e.g. teachers, therapist, health personnel, policy makers

  • Grounded theory research

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya20

    The intent to move beyond description, to generate and discover a theory

    Participants would all have experienced the process developing a theory might help explain practice or

    provide a framework for further research

    The theory is grounded in data

    Generation of theory (complete with diagram and

    hypotheses) of actions, interactions, or processing

    through interrelating categories of information

    Used when a theory is not available to explain a process

  • Ethnographic research

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya21

    Focus on an entire cultural group (e.g. teachers at entire

    schools, a social workers in the whole community)

    Describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns

    of values, beliefs and languages of a culture-sharing group

    Most often through participants observation immersed in the day to day lives of the people

    Intensive, prolonged time in the field

  • Case study research

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya22

    Study of an issue explored through one or more cases

    within a bounded system

    Reports a case description and case-based themes

    Popular in psychology, medicine, law and political science

    Good when researchers has clearly identifiable cases with

    boundaries challenges

  • 23

    The qualitative-quantitative continuum

    How do I choose a method?

    Unstructured Semi-structured Structured

    Unfamiliar Familiar

    The purpose of the data collection is to.

    Explain a problem Describe/measure a problem

    The study of situation or problem is

    Complex, sensitive Simple, not sensitive

    The setting is

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Case Study

    DESCRIPTIVE EXPLORATORY EXPERIMENTAL

    Describe Populations Find Relationship Cause and Effect

    Development Research

    Normative Research

    Qualitative Research

    Correlation Research

    Survey Research

    Cohort / Case - Control Research

    True Experiment / Randomized Controlled Trial

    Quasi Experimental Designs

    Sequential Clinical Trial

    Single Subject Designs

    Predictive Research

    Evaluation Research Evaluation Research

    Methodological Research

    Reliability Validity

    Secondary Analysis Meta Analysis

    Historical Analysis

    A continuum of research

    24 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Validity and reliability issues

    25

    Internal validity how truthful

    External validity can be generalized?

    Reliability can be replicated?

    Objectivity reflected by the subjects not the researchers

    Credibility valid within the setting, population, conceptual framework

    Transferability applicability of findings to another context

    Dependability very different from reliability social world is always changing, it will depend on the context

    Confirmability finding can be confirmed by others

    a research partner

    constant negative search

    value-free note taking

    documenting all research design decision

    QUALITATIVE RESEARCHQUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Sample size in qualitative research

    26

    numbers are unimportant?

    Sample size may be too small to support claims

    Too large to permit the deep, case-oriented analysis

    Determining adequate sample size in qualitative research

    is ultimately a matter of judgment and experience in

    evaluating the quality of the information collected against

    the uses to which it will be put, the particular research

    method and purposeful sampling strategy employed, and

    the research product intended.

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Sample size in qualitative research

    27

    Saturation concept:

    The collection of new data does not shed any further light on the issue under investigation.

    Debate on the concept of saturation:

    Researchers claims to achieve saturation but can not prove it

    saturation is claimed in any number of qualitative research reports without any overt description of what it means or how it was achieved.

    Depends on the experience of the researcher inexperienced researcher claim saturation quickly, experienced researcher explore more details

    Saturation should be more concerned with reaching the point where it becomes "counter-productive" and that "the new" is discovered does not necessarily add anything to the overall story, model, theory or framework

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Sample size in qualitative research

    28

    Seven factors that might affect the potential size of a sample:

    the heterogeneity of the population;

    the number of selection criteria;

    the extent to which 'nesting' of criteria is needed;

    groups of special interest that require intensive study;

    multiple samples within one study;

    types of data collection methods use;

    the budget and resources available

    (RITCHIE et al. 2003, p.84)

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Sampling Method

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya29

    Based on research questions and objectives

    The study process

    Iterative process of qualitative study alter sampling method?

    Variations needed

    Culture and study setting

  • Sampling Method

    4 Feb 2013Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya30

    Purposive sampling

    Snowball sampling

    Stratified purposive sampling

    Extreme or deviant case sampling

    Intensity sampling rich cases

    Maximum variation sampling

  • Overview of qualitative methods

    31

    Interviews

    Unstructured Semi-structured Structured

    Narrative interviewsKey informant interviews

    Guideline interviewsFocus Group discussions

    Special interview

    Observations

    Unstructured Semi-structured Structured

    Participant observation Guideline observation Spot-checks

    Participatory Methods

    Unstructured Semi-structured Structured

    Social mappingBody mapping

    Role playStory-lines

    Free listPile sort

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

    4 Feb 2013

  • Triangulation

    32

    Combination of methodologies (methods, sources of data) to investigate the same phenomenon

    Example:

    Understanding the quality of nutrition rehabilitation programs records

    observations

    interviews with mothers

    interviews with program staff

    interviews with NGO staff

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Purpose of triangulation

    33

    To cross-validate data? Not necessarilysocial scientists argue that

    each method provides a different approach to reality, and will reveal different, sometimes conflicting aspects of the phenomenon under investigation

    Attempts to overcome the subjectivity of qualitative data

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • 34

    A: Im touching a hand fanB: Im touching a snake!!

    C: Im touching a tree trunk.

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

    4 Feb 2013

  • Types of triangulation

    35

    Data source triangulation (can be over

    time, across spaces)

    Investigator triangulation: more than one

    observer or interviewer involved

    Methodological triangulation

    Theory triangulation (rare!)

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Keys to successful qualitative

    research

    36

    The art of asking why?

    The art of listening

    The art of observing

    Research as a creative process of investigation

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Qualitative and quantitative

    researches are complementary

    37

    Qualitative can facilitate quantitative by

    identifying topics for survey

    Qualitative can help to interpret and give

    meaning to quantitative research findings

    Quantitative can facilitate qualitative by generalizing findings to a large sample

    identifying groups that warrant in-depth investigation

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Mixed Method Research Many definitions exist

    Research Approach that:

    is used for questions that require real-life contextual understandings, multi-level perspectives, and cultural influences;

    employs rigorous quantitative research assessing magnitude and frequency of constructs and rigorous qualitative research exploring the meaning and understanding of constructs;

    intentionally integrating or combining these methods to draw on the strengths of each

    38 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Understanding of illness requires expansion

    illness emerges from interactions with other multi-sectoral factors: biology, physical environment, socio-economic environment and psychological state of the studied group

    Difficulty in defining a relevant variable and expressing it in numerical terms

    Mixed Methods in health researchCan be overcome by

    multivariate analysis at certain

    points

    the result can also be improved by understanding

    more about the topic under study:

    o the experience of the respondent

    o their behaviour

    o how they interpret their experience

    o whether they change their behaviour

    The mixed methods are beneficial in

    solving a problem

    39 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Why mixed methods?

    Method

    interdependent/combinant

    Method

    independent

    To cross-validate or triangulate:

    combine two or more

    theories or sources of data

    to study the same

    phenomenon a more complete understanding

    To complement results by

    using the strengths of one

    method to enhance the other

    40 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Mixed methods in various stages of

    research

    Defining the research questions and addressing the range of

    research objectives

    E.g.: in an intervention study

    Qualitative: to explore how the intervention is used in practice

    Quantitative: to measure the outcome

    Data analysis

    Interpretation of the findings

    E.g.: qualitative method can be used to explain relationships

    between variables, explore puzzling or contradictory results

    arising from the quantitative study

    41 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Ways to connect the data

    Merging data - Combines the qualitative data in the form of texts or images with the quantitative data in the form of numeric information.

    Connecting data - Analyzes one dataset (e.g., a quantitative survey), and then using the information to inform the subsequent data collection (e.g., interview questions, identification of participants to interview).

    Embedding data - A dataset of secondary priority is embedded within a larger, primary design. e.g. collection of supplemental qualitative data about how participants are experiencing an intervention during an experimental trial.

    42 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • 43 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

    4 Feb 2013

  • Experimental designs examples Convergent (or parallel or concurrent) designs: For example, an

    investigator might collect both quantitative correlational data as well as

    qualitative individual or group interview data and combine the two to best

    understand participants experiences with a health promotion plan.

    Sequential (or explanatory sequential or exploratory sequential)

    designs: For example, the use of group interview data themes to design a

    questionnaire about the risks involved in a treatment for diabetes might be

    followed by an administration of the instrument to a large sample to

    determine whether the scales can be generalized.

    Embedded (or nested) designs: For example, an experimental study of

    outcomes from an alcohol prevention program might be followed by

    individual interviews with participants from the experimental group to help

    determine why the program worked.

    44 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya

  • Ethical issues

    45

    Which one to choose?

    Being disclosed to respect the informant Vs getting

    credible response from the informant

    Getting to personally involved with the welfare of the

    informant Vs being a bit of ignorant

    Topics assessed may be sensitive issues

    The ethics of taking and publishing photographs

    Talking to victims and vulnerable informants

    Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya