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Introductory material for studying qualitative methods in research for undergraduate students.
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Introduction to Qualitative ResearchAirin Roshita, MSc, PhD
Introduction to qualitative research
2 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
3Source: Kielmann, Cataldo and Seeley, 2011, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methodology
What is a qualitative study?
4
It is used to
understand peoples behaviour in everyday life
Social reality
Emotion, feelings
Life experiences
Focus on in-depth understanding of the context of a
phenomenon
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
What is a qualitative study?
5
Asking questions of what, how or
why
rather than
how many or how much
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
What is a qualitative study?
6
Qualitative research is a situated activity that
locates the observer in the world
Researchers turn the world into a series of
representations, including field notes,
interviews, conversations, photographs,
recordings and memo
Study things in their natural setting
(Denzin and Lincoln 2005, p.3)
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
7Practical Questions
Epidemiology
How much disease is there?
What risk factors are associated
with the disease?
What is the measurable risk
of obtaining
specific outcome?
Anthropology
How is illness recognised and
classified?
What do risk factors mean in a
given context?
How do people interpret, respond
to and cope with
risk and illness?
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Research paradigmsElements Quantitative Qualitative
Ontology
(nature of reality)
Singular: reject or fail to reject
the hypotheses
Multiple reality
Epistemology
(relationship)
distant, impartial and remain
emotionally detached
uninvolved with the objects of
the study
Close with those being
research
Axiology (values) eliminate biases Values biases
No context-free
generalization
Methodology
(process)
deductive : from general to
specific
Inductive: from specific to
general
Rhetoric
(language)
formal style : agreed-on
definitions of variables
writing style: impersonal passive
voice and technical terminology
detail, rich, thick description,
informal
8 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
What characterises qualitative research?
9
Approach
Humanistic: focus on the personal, the subjective and
experiential basis of knowledge and practice
Holistic: looks for how different parts relate to the whole;
focus on meaning within context
Interpretive: seeks to understand and make sense of
phenomena in terms of meaning
Reflexive: recognises that researchers personal history,
biography, and characteristics shape the research and the data
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
What characterises qualitative research?
10
Methodology
Open-ended and in-depth
Flexible: use of multiple methods (triangulation) and
iteration
Naturalistic: studying things in their natural settings
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
The iterative qualitative research
process
11
Aim and objectives/research question
Study design and
sampling
Data collection
Data analysis
Interpretation/analysis
Use of result for
program
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Why doing a qualitative study?
12
The flexibility of qualitative data
Allows the discovery of unexpectedly
important topics (not limited to a pre-defined
set of questions)
Research question and data collection method
may be modified when new information is
collected
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Why doing a qualitative study?
13
Cultural re-interpretation
Happens in quantitative survey when questions
are not meaningful to respondents in the
intended way
Questions evoke special meaning and
association unknown by researchers
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Why doing a qualitative study?
14
Contextual bias
Survey research rely to only one context
Assumes that peoples behavior and attitudes are the same
from one context to another
Sex of the interviewer
The presence of other individual during interview
The place where the interview takes place
The sensitivity of the interview topics
The flexibility of qualitative research allows researcher to
reduce contextual bias
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
15
Quantitative data (results from asking how much?)- counts
- measurements
- closed-ended questions
- structured observations
Qualitative (often answers the questions "why" or how"?) - text
- maps
- drawings
- tape-recordings
- photographs
- video-recordings
Types of data
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
16
Less Rich RichCONTEXT
Numbers More Structured Less Dynamic/Flexible Large Less Depth
Random Single
Words Less Structured More Dynamic/Flexible Small More Depth Mostly purposive Multiple (Triangulation)
METHODS
Outsiders Perspective (Etic)
Confirmatory
Hypothesis-Testing
Insiders Perspective (Emic) Exploratory
Hypothesis-Generating
GENERAL
QUANTITATIVEQUALITATIVE
Comparing Approaches
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Approaches of qualitative studies
4 Feb 2013Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya17
Creswell (2007):
Narrative study
Phenomenological research
Grounded theory research
Ethnographic research
Case study research
Narrative study
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya18
Describes individual experiences
narrative is understood as a spoken or written text
giving an account of an event/action or series of
events/actions, chronologically connected
Focusing on studying one or two individuals, gathering
data through the collection of their stories
E.g. study Life history
Phenomenological research
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya19
Describes the meaning for several individuals of their
lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon
Focus on what all participants have in common as they
experience a phenomenon (e.g. grief).
Involves in-depth interviews and multiple interviews with
participants who have experienced the phenomenon
Knowing some common experience useful for e.g. teachers, therapist, health personnel, policy makers
Grounded theory research
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya20
The intent to move beyond description, to generate and discover a theory
Participants would all have experienced the process developing a theory might help explain practice or
provide a framework for further research
The theory is grounded in data
Generation of theory (complete with diagram and
hypotheses) of actions, interactions, or processing
through interrelating categories of information
Used when a theory is not available to explain a process
Ethnographic research
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya21
Focus on an entire cultural group (e.g. teachers at entire
schools, a social workers in the whole community)
Describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns
of values, beliefs and languages of a culture-sharing group
Most often through participants observation immersed in the day to day lives of the people
Intensive, prolonged time in the field
Case study research
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya22
Study of an issue explored through one or more cases
within a bounded system
Reports a case description and case-based themes
Popular in psychology, medicine, law and political science
Good when researchers has clearly identifiable cases with
boundaries challenges
23
The qualitative-quantitative continuum
How do I choose a method?
Unstructured Semi-structured Structured
Unfamiliar Familiar
The purpose of the data collection is to.
Explain a problem Describe/measure a problem
The study of situation or problem is
Complex, sensitive Simple, not sensitive
The setting is
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Case Study
DESCRIPTIVE EXPLORATORY EXPERIMENTAL
Describe Populations Find Relationship Cause and Effect
Development Research
Normative Research
Qualitative Research
Correlation Research
Survey Research
Cohort / Case - Control Research
True Experiment / Randomized Controlled Trial
Quasi Experimental Designs
Sequential Clinical Trial
Single Subject Designs
Predictive Research
Evaluation Research Evaluation Research
Methodological Research
Reliability Validity
Secondary Analysis Meta Analysis
Historical Analysis
A continuum of research
24 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Validity and reliability issues
25
Internal validity how truthful
External validity can be generalized?
Reliability can be replicated?
Objectivity reflected by the subjects not the researchers
Credibility valid within the setting, population, conceptual framework
Transferability applicability of findings to another context
Dependability very different from reliability social world is always changing, it will depend on the context
Confirmability finding can be confirmed by others
a research partner
constant negative search
value-free note taking
documenting all research design decision
QUALITATIVE RESEARCHQUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Sample size in qualitative research
26
numbers are unimportant?
Sample size may be too small to support claims
Too large to permit the deep, case-oriented analysis
Determining adequate sample size in qualitative research
is ultimately a matter of judgment and experience in
evaluating the quality of the information collected against
the uses to which it will be put, the particular research
method and purposeful sampling strategy employed, and
the research product intended.
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Sample size in qualitative research
27
Saturation concept:
The collection of new data does not shed any further light on the issue under investigation.
Debate on the concept of saturation:
Researchers claims to achieve saturation but can not prove it
saturation is claimed in any number of qualitative research reports without any overt description of what it means or how it was achieved.
Depends on the experience of the researcher inexperienced researcher claim saturation quickly, experienced researcher explore more details
Saturation should be more concerned with reaching the point where it becomes "counter-productive" and that "the new" is discovered does not necessarily add anything to the overall story, model, theory or framework
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Sample size in qualitative research
28
Seven factors that might affect the potential size of a sample:
the heterogeneity of the population;
the number of selection criteria;
the extent to which 'nesting' of criteria is needed;
groups of special interest that require intensive study;
multiple samples within one study;
types of data collection methods use;
the budget and resources available
(RITCHIE et al. 2003, p.84)
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Sampling Method
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya29
Based on research questions and objectives
The study process
Iterative process of qualitative study alter sampling method?
Variations needed
Culture and study setting
Sampling Method
4 Feb 2013Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya30
Purposive sampling
Snowball sampling
Stratified purposive sampling
Extreme or deviant case sampling
Intensity sampling rich cases
Maximum variation sampling
Overview of qualitative methods
31
Interviews
Unstructured Semi-structured Structured
Narrative interviewsKey informant interviews
Guideline interviewsFocus Group discussions
Special interview
Observations
Unstructured Semi-structured Structured
Participant observation Guideline observation Spot-checks
Participatory Methods
Unstructured Semi-structured Structured
Social mappingBody mapping
Role playStory-lines
Free listPile sort
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
4 Feb 2013
Triangulation
32
Combination of methodologies (methods, sources of data) to investigate the same phenomenon
Example:
Understanding the quality of nutrition rehabilitation programs records
observations
interviews with mothers
interviews with program staff
interviews with NGO staff
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Purpose of triangulation
33
To cross-validate data? Not necessarilysocial scientists argue that
each method provides a different approach to reality, and will reveal different, sometimes conflicting aspects of the phenomenon under investigation
Attempts to overcome the subjectivity of qualitative data
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
34
A: Im touching a hand fanB: Im touching a snake!!
C: Im touching a tree trunk.
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
4 Feb 2013
Types of triangulation
35
Data source triangulation (can be over
time, across spaces)
Investigator triangulation: more than one
observer or interviewer involved
Methodological triangulation
Theory triangulation (rare!)
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Keys to successful qualitative
research
36
The art of asking why?
The art of listening
The art of observing
Research as a creative process of investigation
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Qualitative and quantitative
researches are complementary
37
Qualitative can facilitate quantitative by
identifying topics for survey
Qualitative can help to interpret and give
meaning to quantitative research findings
Quantitative can facilitate qualitative by generalizing findings to a large sample
identifying groups that warrant in-depth investigation
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Mixed Method Research Many definitions exist
Research Approach that:
is used for questions that require real-life contextual understandings, multi-level perspectives, and cultural influences;
employs rigorous quantitative research assessing magnitude and frequency of constructs and rigorous qualitative research exploring the meaning and understanding of constructs;
intentionally integrating or combining these methods to draw on the strengths of each
38 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Understanding of illness requires expansion
illness emerges from interactions with other multi-sectoral factors: biology, physical environment, socio-economic environment and psychological state of the studied group
Difficulty in defining a relevant variable and expressing it in numerical terms
Mixed Methods in health researchCan be overcome by
multivariate analysis at certain
points
the result can also be improved by understanding
more about the topic under study:
o the experience of the respondent
o their behaviour
o how they interpret their experience
o whether they change their behaviour
The mixed methods are beneficial in
solving a problem
39 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Why mixed methods?
Method
interdependent/combinant
Method
independent
To cross-validate or triangulate:
combine two or more
theories or sources of data
to study the same
phenomenon a more complete understanding
To complement results by
using the strengths of one
method to enhance the other
40 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Mixed methods in various stages of
research
Defining the research questions and addressing the range of
research objectives
E.g.: in an intervention study
Qualitative: to explore how the intervention is used in practice
Quantitative: to measure the outcome
Data analysis
Interpretation of the findings
E.g.: qualitative method can be used to explain relationships
between variables, explore puzzling or contradictory results
arising from the quantitative study
41 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Ways to connect the data
Merging data - Combines the qualitative data in the form of texts or images with the quantitative data in the form of numeric information.
Connecting data - Analyzes one dataset (e.g., a quantitative survey), and then using the information to inform the subsequent data collection (e.g., interview questions, identification of participants to interview).
Embedding data - A dataset of secondary priority is embedded within a larger, primary design. e.g. collection of supplemental qualitative data about how participants are experiencing an intervention during an experimental trial.
42 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
43 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
4 Feb 2013
Experimental designs examples Convergent (or parallel or concurrent) designs: For example, an
investigator might collect both quantitative correlational data as well as
qualitative individual or group interview data and combine the two to best
understand participants experiences with a health promotion plan.
Sequential (or explanatory sequential or exploratory sequential)
designs: For example, the use of group interview data themes to design a
questionnaire about the risks involved in a treatment for diabetes might be
followed by an administration of the instrument to a large sample to
determine whether the scales can be generalized.
Embedded (or nested) designs: For example, an experimental study of
outcomes from an alcohol prevention program might be followed by
individual interviews with participants from the experimental group to help
determine why the program worked.
44 Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya
Ethical issues
45
Which one to choose?
Being disclosed to respect the informant Vs getting
credible response from the informant
Getting to personally involved with the welfare of the
informant Vs being a bit of ignorant
Topics assessed may be sensitive issues
The ethics of taking and publishing photographs
Talking to victims and vulnerable informants
Airin Roshita-Course Qualitative Methodology-Univ Brawijaya