Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 1: What is Psychology? 1 PSYCHOLOGY What is Psychology? –Psychology is a word deriving

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. KalatChapter 1: What is Psychology?

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PSYCHOLOGY

• What is Psychology?– Psychology is a word deriving from Greek roots:– Psyche – “soul” or “mind,” Logos – “word”

• Psychology is the systematic study of behavior and experience


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The Goals of Psychologists

• Psychologists engage in the study of psychology in order to understand, explain, predict and control behavior

• What are the major philosophical issues that are relevant to this study?– Why we do what we do (causes of behavior).– Relationship of brain activity and the “mind” (Mind-

Brain Problem).– Role of heredity and environment.


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The Major Philosophical Issues

• Free will versus determinism – are the causes of behavior knowable, and is behavior predictable?– Free will is the belief that behavior is caused by an

individual’s independent decision-making• What does independent mean?

– Determinism is the assumption that everything that happens has a cause or determinant in the observable world.

• We can isolate specific determinants of behavior.


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Major Philosophical Issues

• Which perspective holds that behavior is fully predictable? – A determinist assumes everything that happens

has a cause that can be known– A believer in free will assumes that even with

complete information regarding causes and conditions, predictions regarding human behavior can never be fully accurate

– How many of you believe you have free will?


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• The mind-brain problem: - How is experience related to the organ system called the brain?– Thoughts versus Brain activity

• Dualism is the belief that the mind is separate from the brain but somehow controls the brain and through it also the rest of the body

• Monism is the view that conscious experience is generated by and therefore is inseparable from the brain


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• The mind-brain problem– Data from brain imaging research such as PET

(positron emission tomography) suggests that brain activity and mental activity are two aspects of the same thing

– Yet the question is far from resolved


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• The nature-nurture issue– How do differences in behavior relate to

differences in heredity and environment?– Some scientists assume the larger proportion of

differences in potential and behavior are due to the influence of genes

– Others assume that most differences are a result of aspects of the environment such as culture, expectations, and resources

– This issue arises in virtually every field of psychology, and knowledge gained through research seldom provides a simple answer


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What Psychologists Do

• Psychology is an academic, non-medical discipline that includes many branches and specialties– The educational requirements can vary, but

generally involve study beyond the bachelor’s degree

– A master’s degree, or a Ph.D./Psy.D. (doctor of psychology) are common terminal degrees in the discipline


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Figure 1.2 More than one-third of psychologists work in academic settings. The remainder find positions in a variety of settings (based on the data of Chamberlain, 2000).


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• There are many specialties in the broad science of psychology. Psychologists practice within their chosen specialty in 3 main areas:– Teaching and research– Service providers to individuals– Service providers to organizations


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• Teaching and research– Most teaching psychologists work in colleges and

universities– Most psychologists who teach also engage in

research and writing– Some psychologists are employed in full-time

research positions


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• Major categories of psychological research: Biological psychology or neuroscience– A bio-psychologist tries to explain behavior in

terms of biological factors, such as anatomy, electrical and chemical activities in the nervous system, and the effects of drugs, hormones, genetics and evolutionary pressures

– Sample question: How do drug abuse, brain damage, and exposures to environmental toxins change nervous system functioning (and by extension, behavior)?


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• Major categories of psychological research: Evolutionary psychology– An evolutionary psychologist tries to explain

behavior in terms of natural selection pressures promoting behaviors that lead to success in reproduction and survival.

– Sample questions: What forces led to selection for human language abilities? What specific advantages in survival over other animals did language give early humans in the ancestral environment?



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• Major categories of psychological research: Learning and motivation– A psychologist who studies and does research in

this area is interested in how behavior depends on outcomes of past behaviors and on current motivations

– Sample question: Do frequent or consistent rewards for desired behaviors produce better learning than less frequent or less predictable rewards?



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• Major categories of psychological research: Cognitive psychology– A cognitive psychologist studies the processes of

thinking and acquiring knowledge.– Sample question: What do “experts” in a field

know or do that sets them apart from other people?



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• Major categories of psychological research: Developmental psychology– A developmental psychologist studies the

behavioral capacities typical of different ages and how behavior changes with age.

– Sample questions: What do people do or know as adults that they do not know as children? Why did this change occur? Was the change due to biological changes, increased experience, or a combination of these?



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• Major categories of psychological research: Social psychology– A social psychologist studies how an individual

influences and is influenced by other people– Sample question: To what degree do the demands

and expectations of authority figures influence our behavior? How strong is the human tendency to conform?



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Concept Check

• Which area of psychology research is concerned with whether or not punishment is an effective means of eliminating undesirable behaviors? – Learning and motivation

• Which would ask if people will obey an authority figure even when that leader is demanding behavior that might be classified as immoral or wrong? – Social


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• Which psychologist wants to know when language learning occurs most rapidly in children?– Developmental psychologist

• Which psychologist would do research to determine how memories are stored in the brain? – Biological psychologist (Cognitive Neuroscientist)

• Which psychologist would do research to determine how retention and recall of information in a college-level psychology course can be enhanced?– Cognitive psychologist

Concept Check


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• Service providers to individuals – There are many types of psychotherapists,

professionals with training in psychology who specialize in helping people with psychological problem. Psychotherapists are trained in a variety of disciplines.



21Table 1.1 several types of Mental Health Professionals


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• Service providers to individuals – Clinical psychologists have advanced degrees in

psychology, with a specialty in understanding and helping people with mental and emotional problems.

– They receive training in intellectual and psychological testing used in the diagnosis and treatment.



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• Service providers to individuals– Psychiatrists are trained as medical doctors.– In addition to learning the principles of psychology,

they are educated in how to use prescription drugs to treat psychological distress.

– Clinical Psychologist can also receive extensive training in the use of prescription drugs to treat behavioral disorders and can earn perscription privileges.



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• Service providers to individuals– Psychiatric nurses receive standard nursing

education plus additional training in the care of emotionally troubled individuals.

– They usually work in medical clinics and hospitals.



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• Service providers to individuals– Psychiatric and clinical social workers combine

training in traditional social work with specialized knowledge of how to treat emotionally disturbed people and advocate for their well-being within the larger community.



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• Service providers to individuals– Psychoanalysts are psychotherapists who use

mental health treatment strategies that are based on the theories and methods pioneered by Sigmund Freud.

– Freud believed that an unconscious component of the human mind affects our functioning in day-to-day life.



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• Service providers to individuals– Counseling psychologists have an advanced

degree in psychology and help people with educational, vocational, marriage, health, and other important life decisions. They receive training in therapy and some types of psychological testing.



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• Service providers to individuals– Forensic psychologists provide advice and

consultation to those who work in the criminal justice system.



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Concept Check

• Which psychotherapist would help a middle-aged woman trying to transition from work as a homemaker to resuming her college education? – Counseling psychologist

• Which psychotherapist would prescribe a mood stabilizing medication to a patient who shows signs of bipolar affective (emotional) disorder?– Psychiatrist


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• Which psychotherapist might provide ongoing counseling and support for residents of a halfway house for recovering addicts?– Clinical social worker

• Which psychotherapist might be part of the staff of a hospital emergency room, and manage the intake of a patient admitted with acute suicidal thoughts and feelings?– Psychiatric nurse

Concept Check


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• Which psychotherapist might be employed in an inpatient facility for developmentally delayed children and adolescents, doing assessment and psychotherapy?– Clinical psychologist

• Which psychotherapist would try to help a patient discover his or her hidden motivations for an apparently distressing and unacceptable behavior or thought?– Psychoanalyst

Concept Check


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• Service providers to organizations– Industrial/Organizational psychologists study

people’s behavior in the workplace using a combination of social, cognitive, and motivational psychology principles, and often employ psychological tests.

Sample question: Workers in two departments at an aerospace engineering firm have started to withhold information from each other. This has been detrimental to morale and productivity. How can this behavior be stopped without terminating or reassigning any employees? How evvective are virtural meetings?



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• Service providers to organizations– An ergonomist, or human factors specialist,

attempts to facilitate the use of machinery and appliances so that the average user can operate them as efficiently and as safely as possible.

Sample question: How can the design of a clerical workstation in an office be improved to minimize the possibility of repetitive stress related injuries occurring to the employee who occupies it?



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• Service providers to organizations– A school psychologist specializes in the psychological

condition of the students, usually at the kindergarten through secondary school levels.

– School psychologists draw upon a combination of developmental, learning and motivational principles, and often use educational and psychological tests to assist with educational planning for individual students.

Sample question: Does a fourth grade student whose grades have been declining over the past two years have an identifiable learning disability, or is there an issue related to the student’s emotional well-being affecting his performance?



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• Which psychologist would consult in the design of an airplane cockpit to maximize crew efficiency and safety?– Ergonomist

• Which psychologist would evaluate a student for possible placement in a school’s program for gifted children?– School psychologist

Concept Check


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• Which psychologist would work with supervisors at a software development company to improve communication between departments and levels of management?– Industrial/Organizational psychologist

Concept Check


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Majoring in Psychology

• Should you major in psychology?– Although psychology is a popular major, very few

jobs are listed specifically for people with bachelor’s degrees.

– Jobs that would be appropriate for someone who earns a bachelor’s degree in psychology include:

Personnel or human resources specialistHalfway or transitional home staff or supervisorCommunity or social services outreach worker


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• Should you major in psychology?– Psychology will be useful in careers that are not

closely related to psychology, and in your life apart from work as well. Psychology can help you to:

more effectively evaluate evidence presented to you in a variety of situations

improve your learning and retention be aware of the power of social influence and

cultural context



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• Should you major in psychology?– It is also an excellent major for those who are

contemplating further professional education in areas such as business, law, or divinity.



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• Should you major in psychology?– If you want to become a psychologist…You will probably need a doctorate (Ph.D./Psy.D.)You will be in school for up to eight more years. It

is hard to anticipate how the job market will change in the time it takes to complete your degree

You should have an interest in working in health care or educational settings or a willingness to work in a private practice or consulting role



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• Should you major in psychology?– Why take this class or consider majoring in the field? Psychology offers exciting possibilities for improving the

quality of life in many aspects and levels of human existence Psychologists use information covered in this course to help

people understand themselves and make better use of their skills and qualities

It is currently attracting talented persons from an increasingly diverse variety of backgrounds



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• Should you major in psychology?– Whether or not you choose to do more advanced

work, we hope that you will find a long-lasting benefit from your investment of time and energy in this Introduction to Psychology course.



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Psychology Then and Now

• The early era and the roots of psychology– In all cultures, and for thousands of years, people

have wondered about the nature of human thought, action and experience.

– The great writers of every civilization are widely read because they provide us with compelling descriptions and make profound observations of human behavior.


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Figure 1.5a Dates of some important events in psychology and elsewhere. (Based partly on Dewsbury, (2000a)


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Figure 1.5b Dates of some important events in psychology and elsewhere. (Based partly on Dewsbury, (2000a)


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• The early era and the roots of psychology– The first psychological laboratory was established

by William Wundt, Leipzig, Germany in 1879– William Wundt was trained as a physician and did

research on the workings of the senses.– Although other psychology experiments had been

done, this was the first laboratory devoted exclusively to the activities of psychological research.


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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Wundt’s fundamental question was: What are the

components of experience, or mind?– He presented his subjects with a wide variety of

stimuli, and asked them to look within themselves, to introspect. He tried to measure the changes in their experiences as the stimuli changes.



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Wundt and his students did experiments in a wide

range of areas related to psychology, and they wrote prolifically about their findings.

– Most importantly, Wundt demonstrated that it was possible to perform meaningful experiments in the science of psychology.



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Edward Titchener was a student of Wundt who

immigrated to the United States in 1892.– He developed the approach he called

structuralism. – In structuralism, the researcher attempts to

describe the structures that compose the mind, its sensations, feelings and images.



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Titchener presented a stimulus to his subjects and

asked them to analyze its separate features– After Titchener’s death in 1927, his research

methods were abandoned– There was no feasible way to check the accuracy

of his subjects’ observations– As psychology evolved through the 20th century,

psychological researchers became more interested in describing and analyzing readily observable behaviors



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– William James wrote The Principles of Psychology

(1890) – He was keenly interested in what the mind does,

rather than the elements of mind – He rejected the methods of Wundt and Titchener– He wanted to learn how the mind produces

behaviors. He called his approach functionalism


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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Typical questions from a functionalist perspective

include:How does a person recall the answer to a

question?How does a person inhibit an undesirable

impulse?Can a person attend to more than one task at a

time?



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Psychophysics is a term created by early

psychologists working on sensation and sensory experience

– They noticed interesting aspects of the functioning of the senses

– For example, the perception of a stimulus’ intensity is not directly proportional to the actual physical intensity of the stimulus.


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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Psychophysics attempts to provide a mathematical

description of the relationship between the actual physical properties of the stimulus and its perceived properties

– A sound that is half as loud (in physical terms, in decibels) as another sound may not sound that way to the listener



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– The works of Darwin had an enormous impact: The

Origin of Species (1859); The Descent of Man (1871) – By presenting compelling evidence that humans and

other animal species were related, Charles Darwin forced scientists and thoughtful people working in many disciplines to consider the basic features held in common by many or all animals, such as thinking and intelligence.

– Comparative psychologists, who use this perspective, are specialists who compare different animal species.



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Early comparative psychologists devised a

number of experiments to try to measure animal intelligence, such as:

The delayed response problemThe detour problemThe pattern recognition problems



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Figure 1.8 Early comparative psychologists assessed animal intelligence with the delayed response problem. A stimulus was presented and a delay ensued; then the animal was expected to respond to the remembered stimulus. Variations on this delayed-response task are still used today.


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Figure 1.9 Another task popular among early comparative psychologists was the detour problem. An animal needed to first go away from the food in order to move toward it.


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Figure 1.10 Zebras learn rapidly when they have to compare stripe patters (Giebel 1958). How “smart” a species is perceived to be depends on what ability or skill is being tested


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• The early era and the roots of psychology– According to the research of comparative

psychologists, some species appeared to be gifted in one set of tasks and highly deficient in another.


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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Eventually the inconsistencies in performance

between different tasks across a single species suggested to comparative psychologists that questions about animal intelligence might be meaningless.

– This issue is similar to problems that we currently are encountering in the controversial area of measuring human intelligence.



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Francis Galton was one of the first scientists to try to

measure human intelligence and determine to what extent heredity influenced variations in human cognitive abilities.

– He studied the sons of accomplished men and found that the offspring of the talented and famous had a high probability of being accomplished too.

– He explained this as due chiefly to the influence of heredity.

– Galton tried to develop an intelligence test, but did not succeed.



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– Alfred Binet devised the first useful intelligence test in

1905, at the behest of the French government, for use in identifying children in the public school system who might be in need of special services

– His test was imported to the United States after his death, and was the “template” for the development of many IQ and other psychological tests

– Some of the most interesting questions you will encounter in this course will involve whether it is truly possible to measure these qualities, or to fully understand what they are



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– While structuralism was abandoned because of

problems with subjectivity, behaviorism is a field of psychology that concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not mental processes

– Behaviorists primarily seek to study the observable behaviors associated with what is generally referred to as learning.



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– “Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely

objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.”

John B. Watson, 1913



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– The earliest researchers in the field of behaviorism

and learning expected to find that it operated using simple, basic and predictable laws, comparable to Newton’s physical laws of the universe

– Much as Newton’s “majestic clockwork” has given way to the more random and unpredictable world of modern quantum physics, the specialty of behaviorism has revealed some laws of behavior, but also major complications arising from other processes (such as the influence of cognition and motivation)



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– The early questions posed by behaviorists in the mid-20th

century have given way to complex questions about how humans learn to be aggressive and violent

– This is just one of many interesting questions with complex answers that have yet to be fully revealed

– Even modern behaviorists have left behind the hope of discovering “simple universal principles of behavior.” But the principles of behaviorism are still interesting and useful, as you will soon see



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• The early era and the roots of psychology– In presenting psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud

revolutionized psychology by proposing the existence of an “unconscious mind” rooted in our animal origins

– He worked with his patients to understand how this hidden part of the mind influenced their mood and behavior by analyzing their dreams, fantasies, and perceptions of their own early childhood experiences

– Although much of psychoanalytic theory has been rejected as unscientific, psychology is still heavily influenced by Freud’s ideas about treatment of psychological distress



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Recent Trends in Psychology

• Modern clinical psychology– The trauma experienced by so many soldiers in World War II

provided ample opportunity for the further development of psychoanalysis and innovation in new methods of psychotherapy.

– Behaviorists used rewards and other principles of learning in treating psychological distress.

– Other fields of psychology that eventually made contributions to therapy as the 20th Century progressed include humanistic and cognitive psychology.


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• Academic and applied psychology– Although many researchers have abandoned the

study of consciousnesses or self, there is still abundant research being done on cognition.

– Applied fields of psychology are booming. These include:

Health psychology (addiction, stress, nutrition.)Forensic psychology (dealing with issues of

mental competence for trial, and accuracy of eyewitness testimony.)



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• The role of women in psychology– What about the history of women in psychology? In the

early days of psychology, opportunities for women were limited as they were in so many areas at the time

– Mary Calkins was one of the pioneering women in the field. Her graduate education in psychology at Harvard was paid for as part of her teaching salary at Wellesley College

– Calkins never received the Ph.D that she earned from Harvard, but she went on to do research, study memory, and serve as the president of the American Psychological Association.



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• Cross-cultural psychology and human diversity– In examining a variety of issues related to

psychology, scientists have become more conscious of cultural context over the past three decades

– Psychologists now recognize, for example that mental illness is at least partly culturally and socially defined

– What is considered psychologically adaptive is defined by the culture in which one is raised



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• Cross-cultural psychology and human diversity– An observation that supports these ideas is that

homosexuality once was considered a psychological disorder. It is no longer considered a legitimate mental illness in our culture, whatever controversy continues about issues of sexual orientation.

– Psychoanalytic theories of child development seem irrelevant in world cultures where children are fathered by one man but raised by his brother.


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• An evolving science:– We have changed radically as a species, and we

have changed our world over the past century. This fact is having major consequences for our day-to-day functioning and long-term survival.

– Psychology cannot always provide simple answers and solutions. But psychologists are working to help us understand ourselves better, find the best solutions and change ourselves when it is in our best interest to do so.


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• We will cover Chapter 2 tomorrow.– After the Chapter 1 Quiz.

Documents

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 1: What is Psychology? 1 PSYCHOLOGY What is Psychology? –Psychology is a word deriving