INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM-SOLVING

Introduction to Problem Solving What is Problem Solving? Positive Problem Solving What is a Problem? Types of Problems What is a Solution? Types of Solutions Complex Problem Solving Stages of Problem Solving

What is Problem Solving? Problem Solving is the cognitive

psychological process of solving problems.

In simple terms, problem solving is the process of moving towards a goal when the path to that goal is uncertain.

One solves a problem every time they achieve something without having previously known how to do so. It ranges from something as simple as correctly solving an algebraic equation, to tackling the crisis of crime and violence on our streets.

Problem Solving The key components of the process of

problem solving are: The Problem – a situation or scenario

creating difficulty The Answer – a remedy for the difficulty

that the problem requires The Method – the means used to get an

answer The Solution – the whole process of solving

the problem, including the method of obtaining an answer and the answer itself

Problem Solving Problem solving is a ubiquitous feature of human

functioning. Human beings are required to solve problems on a daily basis, from emotional issues in their personal lives, to business problems in their capacity as employees or organisational stakeholders, to political problems that may concern society as a whole.

What constitutes problem solving varies from person to person. For example:

Young Children overcome the problem of immobility by learning to walk.

Students have to pass examinations. Business Managers are concerned with meeting

deadlines or production levels. Information Systems developers need to fulfil project

requirements when applying technological solutions.

Problem Solving Therefore the degree of complexity in the problem

solving process involves an interaction of a person's experience and the demands of the task.

Once we have mastered a skill, fully overcome a challenge or achieved the required objective or goal, we are no longer engaged in problem solving.

For a task to require problem solving again, novel elements or new circumstances must be introduced or the level of challenge must be raised.

Positive Problem Solving There is a natural misconception that all problems

have a negative impact, and therefore problem solving is a resource-wasting process.

However many problems and their subsequent solution are healthy and have benefits for the individual, organisation or society as a whole.

We learn and develop by overcoming obstacles and challenges. Problem Solving serves as a form of motivation. Successful resolution of a problem may be celebrated as such.

Developing a positive, enthusiastic attitude towards problems can transform one into a happier, saner, more confident person who feels much more in control.

Positive Problem Solving1. A problem is an opportunity for improvement.

A problem can be a real break, the stroke of luck, an opportunity knocking or a chance to get out of the rut of the everyday and make yourself or some situation better. Note that problems need not arrive as a result of external factors or bad events. Any new awareness you have that allows you to see possibilities for improvement brings a “problem” for you to solve. This is why the most creative or innovative people are “problem seekers” rather than “problem avoiders.”

Positive Problem Solving2. A problem is the difference between your current

state and your goal state.A problem can result from new knowledge or thinking. When you know where you are and where you want to be, you have a problem to solve in getting there. When you can identify the difference between what you have and what you want, you have defined your problem and can aim towards your goal.

3. A problem results from the recognition of an imperfect present and belief in the possibility of a better future.Hope produces problems - the belief that your hopes can be achieved will give you the willingness to aim towards a better future. Your hopes challenge you, and a challenge is another definition of a problem.

What Is A Problem?Some definitions of a problem include:1. A question to be considered, solved, or

answered: a mathematical problem; the problem of how to arrange transportation.

2. A situation, matter, or person that presents perplexity or difficulty: the elderly man was having problems breathing; he considered the main problem to be his boss.

3. A misgiving, objection, or complaint: I have a problem with his attitude.

4. A state of difficulty that needs to be resolved: she and her husband are having problems; urban problems such as traffic congestion and smog.

5. A source of difficulty or trouble: one problem after another delayed the job.

Types of Problems1. Well-defined problems

In a well-defined problem, it is clear what the problem is and the solution is clearly specified as well. That is, the solution can be recognized clearly when arrived at.

Well defined problems often have generally known solutions. They are solved using standard methods, methods of similar problems, or methods of analogous problems.

Problem → Analogous standard problem → Analogous standard solution → Solution

Examples include: crossword puzzles, simple games, and lower level mathematics, science or engineering.

Types of Problems2. Ill-defined problems

In an ill-defined problem, it is not clear from the beginning what the problem is and thus, what a solution will be. Therefore, prior to finding a solution, one must establish what the real problem is. Specifying and solving the problem develop in parallel and drive each other.

Ill-defined problems usually have unknown solutions. The solutions found are often such that they could still be improved and it is up to the problem solver to decide when enough is enough.

Ill-defined problems include: Computationally intractable problems Approximate solutions Unexplored problem domains

Types of Problems3. Wicked problems

Wicked problems are similar to ill-defined problems, just much worse. Furthermore solutions are very difficult, if at all possible, to recognize.

Defining or establishing the problem is “the problem”.

Wicked problems often contain contradictory requirements and change over time.

There is uncertainty if the offered solution is the best solution or is even a solution in the first place.

A wicked problem requires an inventive, creative or insightful solution.

What is a Solution? One often thinks of “solving a problem” in the sense

of making it go away, so that the problem no longer exists. This indeed is one kind of solution, but it is not the only kind. Some problems cannot be eliminated entirely, for example the occurrence of illness. One can, however, create solutions that will make each of these problems less harmful.

A solution is defined as: the management of a problem in a way that successfully meets the goals established for treating it. Sometimes the goal will be to eliminate the problem entirely; sometimes the goal will be only to treat the effects of the problem.

Types of Solution There are two basic approaches to solving

problems:1. the cause or source of the problem is attacked

– a “stop it” approach.2. the effects or symptoms of the problem are

attacked – a “mop it” approach.

STOP ITA stop-it approach is designed to cure a problem, so that, insofar as possible, the problem no longer exists. There are three forms: prevention, elimination and reduction.

Types of Solution Prevention

Preventing a problem from occurring (or recurring) is the ideal solution. The prevention approach is often a difficult one to apply because it requires predictive foresight (“this might be a problem someday if we don't act now”) and it is often costly. And, of course, most problems crash into us unexpectedly or for some other reason cannot be prevented.

Types of Solution Elimination

Eliminating a problem once and for all is also an excellent way of attacking a problem. Elimination solutions should be considered in nearly every problem situation. However elimination solutions can be expensive and politically unpopular so they are not always feasible, for example, the introduction of the smoking ban in bars and restaurants.

ReductionSome problems, like trash production, cannot be eliminated entirely. In such cases, a strategy of reduction can be highly effective. Almost any problem can be made less of one by reducing its size, for example, recycling lessens the amount of waste going into landfill.

Types of Solution MOP IT

A mop-it approach focuses on the effects of a problem.

TreatmentHere the damage caused by the problem is repaired or treated. Note two things: (1) by itself a treat-it solution is not going to be nearly as effective as some form of stop-it solution and (2) treat-it solutions are often needed in addition to an elimination or reduction form of solution.

Types of Solution Tolerance

The effects of the problem are put up with. Such effects are taken for granted and measures are taken to endure them.

Redirection Here the problem is deflected. Sometimes the

problem will simply be redefined as not a problem. A problem is a problem only when someone defines it as such.

Problem Solving Well-defined problems are rarely overly concerning

issues.

Usually there is a simple process or procedure for dealing with well-defined problems.

Algorithms are step-by-step problem-solving procedures, especially an established, recursive computational procedure for solving a problem in a finite number of steps.

Algorithms are most closely associated with computer programming where they are used to solve common, recurrent problems, for example searching or sorting a collection of data.

Problem Solving Heuristics are general ‘rules-of-thumb’ or

simplifications that serve as a guide in the solution of a problem.

Heuristics are usually picked up incidentally rather than identified explicitly, maximizing what you already know and have experienced.

Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not guarantee optimal, or even feasible solutions, and are often used with no theoretical guarantee since one is applying a process of “knowing by trying rather” than following some preestablished formula.

While heuristics are suited to the solution of well-defined problems, they may also be applied to more complex problem domains.

Complex Problem Solving

Business and organisations are usually faced with much more complex or difficult problem situations that would more commonly be classified as ill-defined or wicked.

Some Examples include: Cash Flow Difficulties High Labour Turnover Quality Assurance Conflict Resolution

Such problems are firstly difficult to define and, furthermore, extremely complex to resolve satisfactorily.

Characteristics of Complex Problem

Solving1. The problem cannot be understood until a

solution has been developed There is no definitive statement of “The Problem.”

The problem is an ill-structured, evolving set of interlocking issues and constraints.

One cannot understand the problem without knowing about its context.

One cannot meaningfully search for information without the orientation of a solution concept.

One cannot first understand, then solve. What “the Problem” is depends on who you ask –

different stakeholders have different views about what the problem is and what constitutes an acceptable solution.

Characteristics of Complex Problem

Solving2. Complex problems have no stopping rule

Since there is no definitive “Problem”, there is also no definitive “Solution.”

The problem solving process ends when you run out of resources, such as time, money, or energy, not when some optimal or “final and correct” solution emerges.

For example, due to time or budget constraints, an information system development may have to be scaled down by excluding less essential functionality to assure implementation of an adequate solution.

Herb Simon, Nobel laureate in economics, called this “satisficing” - stopping when you have a solution that is “good enough”.

Characteristics of Complex Problem

Solving3. Solutions to complex problems are neither

entirely right nor wrong The determination of solution quality is not objective

and cannot be derived from following a formula. Solutions are assessed in a social context in which

many parties are equally equipped, interested or entitled to judge them as better, worse, good enough or not good enough.

Such judgements are likely to vary widely and depend on the stakeholders’ independent values and goals.

The introduction of the smoking ban in pubs and restaurants to address the problem of passive smoking has met with applause from some quarters and contempt from others.

Characteristics of Complex Problem

Solving4. Every complex problem is essentially unique and

novel There are so many factors and conditions, all

embedded in a dynamic social context, that no two complex problems are alike, and the solutions to them will always be custom designed and fitted.

Over time one acquires wisdom and experience about the general approach to complex problems, but one is always a beginner in the specifics of a new complex problem.

For example, project managers are adept in the process of dealing with the issues that arise during a project. However each project in itself is unique and will generate a whole load of unique problems requiring their own solutions.

Characteristics of Complex Problem

Solving5. While every solution is a “one-shot operation,”

every attempt has consequences This is the “Catch 22” about complex problems: you

can’t learn about the problem without trying solutions, but every solution you try is expensive and has lasting unintended consequences which are likely to spawn new problems.

For example, to address a city’s traffic congestion, the metropolitan authorities may decide to build a ring-road which routes traffic around rather than through the city centre. However once in operation, it is found that suburban access to the ring-road is inadequate, and thus the solution has just moved the congestion rather than fully eradicating the problem.

Characteristics of Complex Problem

Solving6. Complex problems have no given alternative

solutions There may be no solutions, or there may be a host of

potential solutions that are devised, and another host that are never even thought of.

Thus, it is a matter of creativity to devise potential solutions, and a matter of judgement to determine which are valid, which should be pursued and implemented.

Such problems present themselves in Research and Development activities and Product Innovation. There is no solution for the development of new products and services, and no way of devising which products will be successful.

Stages of Problem Solving

I. Problem ExplorationII. Goal EstablishmentIII. Idea GenerationIV. Idea SelectionV. ImplementationVI. Evaluation

Problem ExplorationA problem needs to be investigated, defined and, if possible, broken into subproblems. The nature of the problem is determined (sociological, personal, technological, historical, etc).

1. State the Problem The problem should be described in the

clearest way it can be put. A useful aspect of any definition or problem

statement is to state what the thing is not. By clearly identifying what is not the problem, you'll clarify what it is.

The problem should be iteratively restated in more general or broader terms so as to isolate the problem in itself from any verbal clothing.

Problem Exploration2. Clarify the Problem

The Key terms of the problem should be defined. This allows the problem to be broken down into attributes, components and general features, and may shake loose some possible solutions.

Articulate the assumptions being made about the problem and describe the way a solution would have to work. Assumptions can be tricky because they tend to be automatic and submerged, that is, not consciously made.

Obtain necessary information such as past approaches to the problem or to similar problems in order to gain understanding of the nature and environment of the problem itself

Problem Exploration3. Explain the Problem.

Discussing the problem with someone else has two main benefits. Firstly the other party may immediately provide the solution. Secondly discussing your problem with someone allows you to see what you really think since many theorists believe that you don't really know what you think until you consciously verbalize, even if there is no intellectual feedback from the listener.

Looking at the problem from a variety of viewpoints can generate a greater insight into the problem domain. By taking on the viewpoints of other people affected by a particular problem, you can sometimes discover solutions that you as yourself would never think of.

Problem Exploration4. Put the Problem in Context.

Determine the history of the problem. This will help focus your efforts toward a solution to try or away from a solution not to try.

Develop an awareness of the problem environment. Understanding the contributing or perpetuating factors will help you take the appropriate steps to prevent a problem from coming right back once you solve it. Similarly, studying how similar problems have been solved may lead to a shortcut solution.

List the constraints and limitations that have been imposed. What is required? What must be observed in solving the problem? Perhaps Budgets, Temporal Deadlines, Legal or Contractual requirements, etc

Goal Establishment1. Consider Ideal Goals

What goals would provide an ideal solution? It is important to set goals above the minimum solution and consider how you would like reality to be ideally.

2. Establish Practical Goals What goals need to be achieved before the

problem is declared solved? The establishment of definite and precise goals helps to clarify the direction to take in solving the problem and gives something tangible to aim at.

Idea GenerationGenerate Ideas for Possible Solutions

Ideas can be stimulated from many sources - reading, research, thinking, asking questions, discussions,etc. Knowledge is power – gather and utilise as much information as you can about the problem.

Idea generation techniques such as brainstorming, forced relationships and random stimulation generate a large number of ideas of varying kinds and practicalities, providing a good selection to choose from, adapt, or stimulate other ideas.

Idea Generation

Allow time to incubate during the various phases of idea generation. Idea generation is essentially a process of creative thinking. Incubation allows time to let the unconscious get to work, in other words, “sleeping on the problem”. Stepping back from hard thinking can often inspire the solution, perhaps during a period of relaxation or when dealing with a completely different situation.

Idea Selection 1. Evaluate the Possibilities

Appraise each and every possible solution or approach. Which possible solutions, either individually or in conjunction with each other, will solve the problem?

It is important not to get fixated on the single solution idea - two or three separate solution paths may be tried.

Consider “Plan B,” a possible solution that can be implemented if the main plan doesn’t work - don't focus on choosing just one solution and casting all else away.

This evaluation should uncover the solution that will be the most effective (work best), efficient (cost the least, whether in terms of money, time, emotions, etc.) and have the fewest drawbacks or side effects.

Idea Selection 2. Choose the Solution(s)

Select one or more solutions to try. The evaluation process will usually have established some sort of rank ordering. However the very top ranked solution is not always the one chosen for implementation. Subjective, emotional factors, intuitive feeling, etc. dictate the choice away from conventional wisdom. It's just like hiring or marrying someone - the person who looks best on paper may not “feel” right, and therefore you may have a preference for someone further down the list.

Allow others to see and criticize the selected solution and to make suggestions for improvements or even alternatives.

Implementation 1. Try out the solution(s)

The real test of a solution is action. Once a solution path is chosen, get to work on it. Don't worry if objections or problems remain.

Give the solution sufficient time to work. Too hasty an abandonment of a solution or solution path is as common a problem as too obsessive a commitment. A solution may take weeks, months or even years to work. Good experienced judgment is crucial in determining how long to wait before abandoning the choice.

Implementation2. Make adjustments or changes as needed

during implementation Flexibility is critical in this application phase.

Practically every solution needs some modification in the process of being put into effect. Blueprints are changed, scripts are rewritten, your parenting methodology is adjusted. Don't expect that your solution will be exactly as you originally proposed.

The goal is to solve the problem, not to implement the solution exactly as proposed.

Evaluation 1. Investigate to determine whether the solution(s)

worked, and to what extentDo modifications need to be made? Do other solutions need to be selected and tried? Is a different approach needed? One of the most frequent failures of problem solving is the lack of evaluation of the implemented solution. Once a solution has been chosen and implemented, people tend to wander off, assuming that the problem is solved and everything is fine. But the solution may not have worked or not worked completely, or it may have caused other problems in the process. Staying around long enough to evaluate the solution's effectiveness is an important part of problem solving.

Evaluation 2. Remember that many solutions are better

described as partially successful or partially unsuccessful, rather than as an either/or in a success/failure divisionIf you propose a solution that reduces crime by only five percent, your solution is a good one, even though it didn't work in the other ninety-five percent of cases. In many cases, an incomplete remedy is better than none at all.