Introduction to Political Science 2011 Summary1

7/28/2019 Introduction to Political Science 2011 Summary1

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Introduction to political science 2011/2012

Book summary

Chapter numbering according to 8th edition, content according to 7th edition(chapters 2 and 3 of the 8th edition are missing)

Chapter 1 Political Concepts

Politics

Politics is a term with varied uses and nuances. But three aspects of politics are clear: Politics is a collective activity, involving people who accept a common membership or at least

acknowledge a shared fate. Politics involves reconciling an initial diversity of views and interest through discussion.

Communication is therefore central to politics. Political discussions become authoritative policy for a group, binding members to

agreements that are implemented by force if necessary.

Government Institutions for making and enforcing collective decisions (the authoritative allocation of

values) The top political tier within such institutions (In modern terms: offers security and predictability to those subject to it)

Hobbes case for government

Peoples equality in ability to inflict harm on others Clash of ambition and a fear of attack Without a ruler the situation becomes grim People therefore agree to set up an absolute government: Commonwealth

- Danger of abuseClassifying Governments

Liberal democracy Illiberal democracy Authoritarian Regime

- Representative and limitedgovernment operating throughlaw provides an acceptedframework for politicalcompetition.

- Regular free and fair elections-An Independent media allowselectors to obtain anenlightened understanding ofthe issues.- Respected individual rights,including freedom ofexpression and association

- Rulers exploit their position byoppressing the opponents andavoid political competition- Rulers interfere with rule oflaw, the media, and the

market.- Non-fraudulent but stillcontrolled elections: minimal orno falsification of the count-Poorly respected individualrights and weak judiciary

- Rulers stand above the law- Controlled media- Limited political Participation,means no elections or they arefalsified

- Usually one party, others arebanned- The rulers power is oftenconstrained by the need fortacit alliances with landowners,industrialists, the military, orreligious leaders

Examples: Australia, Canada,France, India

Examples: several post-militarystates in Latin America (e.g.Venezuela), several Asian states

(e.g. Malaysia), several post-communist states (e.g. Russia)

Examples: militarygovernments, rulingmonarchies, and personal

dictators: China, some states inthe Middle-East


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Totalitarian Regimes:

- Primarily phenomenon of the 20th century- Participation compulsory but controlled as the government sought total control of society- Ideology that sought to transform both society and human nature- Heavily reliance between regime and party members, the secret-police and agents of social

control- Examples: Communist and fascist regimes subscribed to totalitarian thinking, but themodel was rarely fully implemented, except for a time in the Soviet Union. Morerecently Iran after the Islamic revolution of 1979 showed some totalitariancharacteristics.

Aristotles classification of governments

From \ Ruled By One Few Many

Genuine Kingship Aristocracy Polity

Perverted Tyranny Oligarchy Democracy

Governance

Where government denotes the institutions of rule, governance covers the activity, qualityand process of ruling.

Wide range of actors involved in regulating contemporary societies (employers, trade unions,judiciary, journalists ): combination ofboth public and private sector bodies.

Government as one actor in a network, rather than a body with direct control Become popular as the Western democracies lost some confidence in the ability of the

governments in managing welfare Governance also as what the government do and to how well they do it

Most striking governance in international relations without a government, throughnegotiation of nations

Power The capacity to bring about intended effect, this it is a synonym for influence of one actor to

another Power to (ability to achieve goals), rather than power over (control over people) Instruments of power: force, persuasion, negotiation and loyalty Power of manipulation: not changing peoples behavior, but denying them information,

which would have led them act differently, if they knew the information

Authority and Legitimacy

Authority

Is the right to rule Authority creates its own power as long as people accept his authority Accepting the authority does not necessarily mean agreeing with made decisions

Legitimacy

Similar in meaning with authority Authority of an official but legitimate regime Denotes whether a rule was made correctly Whether people accept the validity either of a specific law or of the political system as a

whole (Regulations can be legal but not legitimate)


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Authority distinguished in three ways of validating political power:

Traditional authority Charismatic authority Legal-rational

authority(=Rechtsstaat)

- based on piety for what has

always existed- usually an extension ofpatriarchy the authority ofthe father

- followers perceive such

figures as inspirational, heroic,unique- the key is demand rather thansupply- is short-lived: fades eitherwith the particular leader orwith its transfer to a morepermanent structure

- obedience is owed to rules

rather than individuals- office rather than one person- foundation for individualrights

Patrimonial regime:- distribution of resources on apersonal, rather than rule-

governed, basis- the president as the fatherfigure of the nation

Routinization of charisma:- process through which theindividual authority of an

inspirational leader istransferred to a permanentoffice or institution

Legitimate system:- based on authority: that is,those subject to its rule

recognize its right to makedecisions

Monarchy Many revolutionary leaders Bureaucracy

The state and Sovereignty

State A political community formed by a territorial population subject to one government Unique institution standing above all other organizations in society Has the capacity and the right to employ force (a monopoly of authorized force) The world = separate states which through mutual recognition and interaction form theinternational system The state defines the political community (creates a mandate for rule) of which government

is the managing agent (puts it into effect)

Sovereignty

The ultimate source of authority in society. The sovereign is the highest and final decision-maker within a community.

Untrammeled and undivided power to make law Internal sovereignty = law making power within a territory External sovereignty = international recognition of the sovereigns territorial jurisdiction

Nations and nationalism

Nation

Nations are imagined communities and a nation is often viewed as any group that upholds aclaim to be regarded as such.

- Nations are peoples with homelands- It seeks sovereignty over its own land -> give the nation its political character

Nations have either achieved statehood or are states in waiting Nations need not to be united by a common language, history or ethnicity, e.g. Switzerland Nationality:

-

If people that are united among themselves by sympathies- Cooperate with each other more willingly than with others- Desire to be under the same government & that it should be governed by themselves- National identity = Emotional bound


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Nationalism key ideology of the 20th century Nations have the right to determine their own destiny and to govern themselves

Chapter 4 The state

Emergence The emergence of the modern state in Europe from the medieval governance provided by

the Church, monarchy and the nobility. The stimulus provided by military innovation and the Reformation to this process. The idea of sovereignty, and its taming through contract and consent, as the theoretical

counterpart to these developments.- The sovereign should be responsible for legislation, war and peace appointments,

judicial appeals, and currency- Without a central authority to enforce the peace = civil war- Government to ensure general will

Expansion and restructuring

Countrys territory expanded into the sea New tasks education, factory regulation -> western states bore ever deeper into their

societies 20th era of state because it was an age of war The emergence ofsecurity and surveillance by governments after 9/11. The broadening of

the security landscape to cover, for example, trans-national crime and civil emergencies

Aspect Expansion(1789-1974) Restructuring(1975-2000)

Centralization

- the penetration of central

power over a specified territory

- Emergence of national policeforces

- Introduction of bordercontrols

- migrants and asylum-seekersloosen border controls

- agreed elimination of bordercontrols within some EU states

Standardization

- greater uniformity withinsociety

- common language- standard weights andmeasures- consistent time zones

- strengthening of regionalautonomy and identities- increased support formulticultural society

Force

- Strengthened monopoly oflegitimate force

- emerge of national policeforces, backed by the military

Mobilization

- Increased capacity to extract

resources from society

- military conscription- introduction of income tax

- increased public spending

- reduced rates of income tax- tax payers revolts in a few

countriesDifferentiation- State institutions andemployees become increasinglydistinct from society

- the idea of public serviceasthe even-handed application ofrules

- the idea of governance ascollaboration between stateand society- public employees encouragedto mimic private sector

Functions

- growth in the states tasks and

its intervention in society

- war making- welfare provisions

- privatization reduces statesdirect economic role- welfare provision reducesmodestly; some public taskscontracted out

Size- Expansion of the states

budget and personnel

- growth of public sector - public sector stabilizes- fiscal deficits increase- military spending falls


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Post colonial states The state was born in Europe and then exported to the rest of the world by colonial power

(Britain, France, Spain) -> founders brought with them European traditions Post colonial state = states achieving independence in the aftermath of the second World

War

Emerged into statehood in 4 waves:

(1) 1810-38 - Latin America- Main imperial powers: Spain, Portugal

(2) After the 1914-18 war Europe (beyond its Western core), Middle East- Main imperial powers: the Ottoman, Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires

(3) 1944-84 Mainly Africa, Asian and the Caribbean- Main imperial powers: UK, France, Belgium, Portugal

(4) 1991 Soviet Union Republics (East Europe, Central Asia)- Russia

Collapsed states and state building

Collapsed state where state authority has crumbled and been supplanted by private and sub-national bodies no welfare state, rather than on a private level -> collapsed state does not mean failed

societyFailed state

the states inability to perform its key role of monopolizing the legitimate of force within itsterritory

Rebuilding of collapsed states

- complex to do- overthrow existing leader (dictator, e.g. Taliban)- get an effective leadership with legitimate institutions as a government

Examples of collapsed states

- Uganda start of collapse 1979 (The overthrow of the tyrant Idi Amin left a power vacuum)- Chad start of collapse 1980 (The collapse was brought about by factional conflict within the

guerrilla movement that had itself overthrown the previous regime)- Liberia start of collapse 1990 (A rebellion against the concentration of power under Samuel

Doe who had himself led a military coup in 1980)- Somalia start of collapse 1990 (Opposition clans rose up against the governing clan led by

the military ruler Siyad Barre)

Globalization and the state

Chapter 5 Democracy

Direct democracy

Principle of democracy = self-rule The citizens themselves assemble to debate and reach decisions on matters of common

interest

Deliberative democracy

Democracy as a method of communication: public discussions among free, equal and rationalcitizens giving legitimacy to decisions and in enhancing their quality


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-> debate enables public opinion to be formed and not merely expressed Voting should follow the debate rather than substituting it

Representative (indirect) democracy

Citizens elect a parliament and in presidential systems a chief executiveLiberal democracy

A form of representative democracy Limited power for the government by constitutional law protecting individual right (freedom

of speech, religion, property and to assembly) Free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage (or near universal)

Illiberal democracy

A form of representative democracy Little limited power for the government with little respect on individual rights Falsified elections through media propaganda or harassing the opponents

Waves of democratization

(1) First wave- 1828 1926 Britain, France, USA- Emerging of democracy- Backsliding by a few through fascist, communist or military dictatorships(2) Second wave- 1943 1962 India, Israel, West Germany, Japan- Some democracy did not survive because of an overthrow by dictatorships- Post-war democracies through allies, led by the USA -> USA aid(3) Third wave- 1974 1991 Southern and Eastern Europe, Latin America, parts of Africa- Ending of right-wing dictatorships in Southern Europe- Retreat of the generals in much of Latin America- Collapse of communism- -> transformed global landscape

Chapter 6 Authoritarian Rule

Authoritarian rule

Any form of non-democratic rule The 20th century the age of political authoritarianism Totalitarian rule:

- Ruler seeks to maintain own control- Limiting mass participation- Usually not a single person but a ruling elite group- No ideology, and no policy- Unlimited authority -> vulnerability

Leader above law Parliament and judiciary unprofessional or ineffective Callous treatment of the minority Rule can be overthrown anytime -> three key resources of the leader: the military, media and patronage (network)

Communist states

Strongly authoritarian -> no opposition, stage-managing elections, acting above the law,rewriting constitutions, controlling the media, spying on the population


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Communist power did expand drastically in Eastern Europe and Asia Communism in: Soviet Union was formed in 1924, China, North Vietnam, Cuba Marxist inspiration: contrast between ideology and practice

- Equal, classless and stateless utopia- Ended in reality as a dictatorship of the proletariat

Ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union

Communist states today:

- China, Vietnam and Laos- China big power in world economy -> reduced pressure from outside for democratization

Fascist states

Idea of national unity rather than class conflict, dominate society Fascisms challenge ended 1945 Similar today: right-wing anti immigrant parties Extreme glorification of the state (Italy) and the race (Germany)

An autocratic ruler and one party would lead and personify the state The state shapes and defines the individual Strong national response to international groups (Jews) and movements (communism) Fascism lacked the organized character of the communist rules

Personal despots A despot is a barbaric and arbitrary ruler who treats his subjects as little more than slaves Source of his power is himself, with his family, loyalists and bodyguards In personal despotism ideology and social forces are intermittent Despot does not tell his decisions, in order to confuse opposition Most common in central America and Africa Originally sultanism It is uncommon in a pure form Typical for small post-colonial countries with agriculture economies Despot seeks status and wealth (status of him, pray in his name) Enriched himself and family through corruption

Military government In Africa, Latin America and parts of Asia Some still remain Examples:

- Burma: military government,- Pakistan: civilianized military government,- Algeria: strong military influence on civilian government

Civilianized countries: ruled by a president, who came to power through a military putsch,where the military influence is huge

Military coups were made possible because the state remained simple and underdeveloped Post war decades: because of cold war, USA and Soviet union only focused on war and not

on how the nations work within Junta (council) = small group of leaders of each branch of military Arose and ended with the cold war, because army preparation was too poor for governing

Other Party states Even controlled elections need a party to control it Often the party is the vehicle rather than the driver, with real power resting with a dominant

president, military ruler, or political elite Was popular in Africa, but did not last long


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Even when the party starts as an independent force it can still be captured by a strong leader- Iraq: started with party ruled regime, Saddam stamped his authority on the party ->

ended with personal despotism More significant in the Middle East, example Egypt

Royal families Significant governing force in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf: Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi

Arabia Have few concessions to democracy Several have established a majlis (consultative assemblies) Titles used by Arab monarchs reflect tribal or Islamic tradition: emir (leader or commander),

sheikh (revered leader of the tribe) or sultan (a leader who possesses authority) Run by family business rather than by a single monarch, e.g. princes for governance King designates a successor and after his death a family council meets to confirm or change

his decision The ruler is responsible for his people -> right of ordinary people to petition the ruler on

individual matters The regime is authoritarian rather than totalitarian Some separation of political and religious authority Political parties still banned, but some mechanism of representation emerged: Consultative

Council to advise the King

Theocracy- Theocracy is the rarest form of authoritarian rule- In ancient Israel Gods law were expounded and applied by holy men- Most Islamic countries separate religion from civil leadership- Iran us a recent example for theocratic rule

Directly elected president and an assemblyRuling Presidents The office of president can itself be the power base -> unique position Direct relationship with the ones he rules through media A strong element of personal rule -> in contrast to despotism the authority is linked to a

specific office Concentration of power of the president is an autogolpe -> a coup launched by the president

himself to extend his control over the political system

Chapter 13 Constitutions and the legal framework

Rule of law Connecting law and government Is a western and primarily Anglo-American term Where law rules -> governors cannot misuse power The same law for all Due process: respecting of individual legal rights

Two fundamental systems of law within Western democracies:- Common law

Used mainly in the United Kingdom, its former colonies and the USA Based on judges decisions on specific cases -> judge made law Explicit statutes (laws) are also passed by the legislature in specific areas, but these

statutes usually build on common law and are redefined through judicialinterpretation


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- Civil law Based on written legal codes European Union, continental Europe and Latin America Judges as impartial officers of the state: merely the mouth of the law

Constitutions Sets out formal structure of the state, specifying the powers and institutions of central

government and their relationships with other levels Express rights of citizens, limits the power of government Codified constitution: single document Uncodified constitution: constitution is spread among a range of documents and is influenced

by tradition and practice Constitution was nothing but a device for limiting the power of government Second role of constitution: specify a power of map Arrangements of constitutions:

- Preamble:stirring declaration of principle and sometimes a definition of the statespurposes (e.g. Americas constitution)- Organizational section: sets out the powers of government institutions

- Bill of rights: individual and perhaps group rights, including access to legal redressand thereby sets limits on government

- Procedure for amendment: define the rules for revising the constitutionAmendment:

- Rigid constitutions:- Entrenched constitution, containing a more demanding amendment procedure- Judiciary is able to in a way influence constitutions though judicial interpretation

- Flexible constitutions:- Can be amended in the same way that ordinary legislation is passed (e.g. Britian)- Politicians take the lead in changing constitutions

Origin:- New constitutions form a part of a fresh start after a period of disruption

- Regime change (e.g. collapse of communism)- Reconstruction after defeat in war- Achievement of independence (e.g. much of Africa)

- Often they are compromises between two political actors- drafters more concerned with short term political fix than with establishing a

resilient structure for the long run- Some topics are over-elaborated some are left unresolved

- Main danger of new constitutions: fails to endow the new rulers with sufficient authority ->limited effectiveness

Judicial review and constitutional courts

- Judiciary enforce the constitution, striking down laws and power of review, override thedecisions and laws produced by democratic governments

- Two methods of judicial review:- Supreme courts:

in the ordinary judicial system to take on the task of constitutionalprotection

heads the judicial system and its currency is legal cases which bubble upfrom lower courts

main example: USA


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possesses power of original jurisdiction (entitles a court to try a case at itsfirst instance)

but its main power used is appellate jurisdiction (authorizes a court to reviewdecisions reached by lower courts

power of judicial review: enabling the Court to adapt the constitutionchanges in national mood

judicial body making the final ruling on all appeals- Constitutional courts:

Creation of a special constitutional court, standing apart from the ordinaryjudicial system

Represented a general attempt to prevent a revival of dictatorship More akin to an additional parliamentary chamber Function as a negative legislator, striking down unconstitutional bills but

leaving positive legislation to parliament Approach is more political than legal They practice abstract review (judging the validity of a law or issuing advisory

judgments on a bill without the stimulus of a specific case) Main example: Germany Permitting the citizens to petition the court directly European Court of Justice:

- Contributed to building the EU- Developing the founding treaties into something coming closer to a

European constitution- Ensures that the EUs treaties are correctly interpreted and applied- Cases can be brought by MS or other European institutions- Preliminary ruling: request of national courts for interpretation on

European Law- Direct applicability, direct effect, primacy of EU law- German Bundesverfassungsgericht as a role model for the ECJ

Judicial activism- Transition from judicial restraint judicial activism

- Judicial restraint: judges should simply apply the letter of the law, leaving politics toelected bodies

- Judicial activism: willingness of judges to venture beyond narrow legal decisions so asto influence public policy

- Expansion of judicial authority has become self-reinforcing- Expansion of constitutional law -> more policy areas and more judge debates- Citizens and organizations became more active in judicial areas- In some countries level of judicial activity high in some relatively low: USA highest, UK and

Sweden lowest

Judicial independence and recruitment

- Liberal democracies accept judicial autonomy as fundamental to the rule of law- If judges are not independent enough there cannot be a separation of powers- Methods of appointing judges:

RESPONSIVENESS

- Popular election- Election by assembly- Appointed by the government- Appointed by an independent panel- Co-option (Judges themselves seek new recruits)

INDEPENDENCE


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- Many countries now combine these pure methods with the government choosingcandidates, that are prepared by a professional body

- Another important aspect is the Internal independence: autonomy of junior judges from theirsenior colleagues

Administrative law- Administrative Law: Sets out the principles governing decision-making by public bodies,

mainly the bureaucracy and the remedies for breaching such rules- Creating procedures and standards for legal processes is the task of the judiciary -> clear and

enforceable regulations secure a balanced relationship between state and citizens- Concerning Public law- Procedures need to fulfill 4 criteria: Competence (was an official authorized), Procedure,

Fairness and Liability- Two approaches to regulate administrative law:

- Separatist approach: Establish a special court to review the interaction between citizen and state

Common in codified legal systems Marks out a strong public sphere Risk of unclearness about whether to solve a case with administrative law or

ordinary law- Integrationist approach:

Favored in common law systems Denies the distinction between private and public (employment in public

sector regulated the same way as in private sector)

Law in authoritarian states

- Constitutions are weak, role of judiciary diminished or very weak- Two strategies of dealing with the judiciary:

- Retain a framework of law but influence the judges- Bypass the judicial process altogether (e.g. with Declarations of Emergency)

- Socialist law Legal system of communist states Strongly influenced by codes used in the Soviet Union Was a version of civil law, which rejected private property Contributed to social development as defined by the ruling party -> flexible rather than

fixed constitutions- Islamic law Is based on the Sharia (derived from the Koran) andthe Hadith (reports of what the

prophet said and did) Most Muslim countries do not posses Sharia courts, in some they are banned Some Muslim countries posses secular governments: Turkey, Uzbekistan Some regard Islamic texts as their main law: Saudi Arabia Most Muslim countries fall in between with religious law coexisting alongside secular

laws introduced by the state

Law in illiberal democracies

- Constitutions and the law play second fiddle for the elected authority- Weak judiciary -> rulers accountability to the voters instead of the judiciary and law- Constitution is flexible- Inefficient judiciary -> slow process of judgment, and when they are made, they are ignored- Judiciary and police sometimes threatened by drug barons


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The impact of international law

- Define the division of the world into states- Forms part of national law- National sovereignty notwithstanding, international law can apply directly to individuals- International agreements constrain national policy makers-

When states fail to fulfilled agreements they signed -> can be punished by national andinternational courts

Chapter 14 Multilevel Governance

Multilevel Governance Emerges when experts from several tiers of government share the task of making

regulations and forming policy Wider range of actors involved -> not only local or regional governments but also interest

groups -> more point of access and influence for private groups Vertical cooperation rather than horizontal for a policy area

Political representatives more power and authority, but interest group experts moreknowledge and ability to judge about problem Communication still operates in a constitutional framework for limits and opportunities

Federalism Is the principle of sharing sovereignty between central and state (or provincial) governments

- a form of multilevel governance with a constitutional device Afederation is any political system that puts this idea into practice The federation divides the tasks among the states and is in charge of external relations The states are represented in the government as an upper assembly Some federations are less balanced: some states are given more autonomy than others

- Risk of instability A confederation is a looser link between participating countries, with the members retaining

their separate statehood- More than an alliance less than a federation- Example of US: weak centre with a lack of direct authority

Federalism is common in large countries Two ways of forming a federation:

- Creating a new central authority- Transferring sovereignty from an existing government to lower levels

Motives of forming a federation are more often negative than positive- Fear and external threat- Military and economic advantages- But today: FTA more favored than federations- Military and economic advantages are less but ethnic reasons for forming a

federation increased (but there is a risk of ethnic reasoning)

Dual and cooperative federalism

- Dual federalism: US as example Nation and state governments operate independently with each tier acting

autonomously in its own sphere and linked only through the constitutional compact Coordination not necessary or not feasible (=opposite of multilevel governance)

- Cooperative federalism: Collaboration between levels: national and state governments as partners Europe, mainly Germany as example Solidarity: a share commitment to a united society, moral norm


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Subsidiarity: tasks should be performed at the lowest and simples body as possible,operating principle

Central government has the overall leadership but implementation is the duty oflower levels

An evolving balance- The centre is the financial muscle: income and taxes is regulated by the centre because elselow-tax states could be

- States get their own revenue on sales and property: and the state central government nowreceives the lions share of total public revenue

- Redistribution of the money to the provinces by the government, where the moneyis most needed or to equalize

- Overall planning on economy is controlled by the government- Public functions- Wars and depression- Welfare state

-

The changing balance between tiers is controlled by the constitutional courts- Big projects run by the government went out of fashion- States discovered they had more of their own if they control their own money

Federalism: strengths and weaknesses

Strength Weakness

A practical arrangement for large countries May be less effective in responding to securitythreats (e.g. terrorism)

Provides additional checks and balances Decision-making is slow and complicated

Allows for the recognition of diversity Can entrench divisions between provinces

Reduces overload at the centre The centre experiences greater difficulty in

launching national initiativesProvides competition between provinces andallows citizens to move between them

How citizens are treated depend on where theylive

Offers opportunities for policy experiments Unclear accountability to the public

Allows small units to cooperate in achieving theeconomic and military advantages of size

May permit majorities within a province toexploit minority

Brings government closer to the people Basing representation on provinces violates theprinciple of one person, one vote

Unitary states

Sovereignty lies exclusively with the central government The central government can give subnational administrative the power of making policy orimplementing it but they do so by leave of the centre National legislature has mostly only one chamber: second chamber for representing the

provinces not needed Common in smaller democracies without strong ethnic divisions Three broad ways in which a Unitary state can disperse power from the centre:

- Deconcentration: spreads the work, movement of central government employeesaway from the capital

- Decentralization: central government functions are executed by subnationalauthorities

- Devolution: centre grants decision-making autonomy (incl. some legislative powers)to lower levels

Many unitary states now posses three levels of subnational government: more multilevelthan federalism


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Local government

Lowest level of elected territorial organization within the state (called also communes,municipalities, or parishes)

Represent natural communities, reinforce local identities, provide a recruiting ground forhigher posts, first port of call for citizens

BUT: are often too small to deliver services efficiently, lack financial autonomy, are easilydominated by traditional elites

The status of local government varies across countries (BOX 14.5)Structure

- Three ways of organizing local governments- Council:

elected councilors form a council which operates through a smaller subgroupor through functional committees

unelected mayor is appointed by the council or by central government- Mayor-council:

Elected mayor serves as chief executive Councilors elected from local wards form a council with legislative andfinancial authority

Often divided into strong mayor and weak mayor systems- Council-manager:

Elected mayor and council appoint a professional manager to run executivedepartments

Functions

- Tasks are two-fold:- Provide local public services- Implement national welfare policies

- Some reduce their provisions of services by delegating tasks to private organizations, bothprofit-making and voluntary: from providing to enabling

Relationship with the centre

- Two forms of relationships- Dual: separation of centre and local government, the local system is not seen as part

of the single state apparatus (e.g. Britain)- Fused: municipalities form part of a uniform system of administration applying across

the country (e.g. France)

Central-local relations in authoritarian states

- Authority flows from the top down- The ruling party has parallel presence in the provinces- Authoritarian regimes are not highly centralized- Central-local relationships are more personal and less structured

- National ruler buys the support of local bigwings- They in turn maintain their position by selectively distributing resources to their own

supporters- Local rulers sought to become their own little dictators (fascist)

Central-local relations in illiberal democracies

- The focus is on the national level- Many illiberal democracies are in poor countries where is a lack of financial resources for

building a local system- Locality is run by rich business men or are self allocated: personal relationship


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Chapter 15 Legislatures

Structure

Size

-

The size of an assembly represents the size of the population- But giant assemblies are ineffective- Small assemblies in big populated countries are undemocratic

Number of chambers

- Unicameral: Smaller democracies abolish their second chamber Majoritarian logic of ruling Single chamber is more economical and decisive

- Bicameral: Found most often in larger countries

More chambers offer checks and balances Can defend individual and group interest against oppressive majority A second chamber for second thoughts Can share the workload Weak bicameralism: domination of the lower chamber Strong bicameralism: balance power of both chambers (e.g. in presidential systems

or federations, where accountability on a single chamber is not needed Mostly the upper chamber is elected and the second by contrast not, upper has

normally a longer term of office power

Committees

- Are small workgroups of members mainly in the larger and busier lower chamber- They scrutinize government administration, and investigate matters of concern- Committees have less influence on legislation in party-dominated legislatures- Three key factors to the influence of committees

- Expertise specialization of members- Intimacy working together in small groups- Support committee members to advise politicians

Functions

Representation

Most members articulate the goals of the party under whose label they were elected An assembly should be a microcosm of society and reflect social diversity Representatives need to be replaced regularly

Deliberation

Debating matters of moment is the classic function of Britains House of Commons Debating legislature: debating in the chamber (e.g.) Committee based legislature: policy is discussed in committees -> scrutiny of the executive

(e.g. USA)Legislation

Most bills come from the government but the legislation still approves them and may makeamendments in committee

Authorizing expenditure

Parliaments role is normally reactive, approving or rejecting a budget prepared by thegovernment

Today lack of real financial control


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(Making governments)

In most parliamentary systems, the government emerges from the assembly and must retainits confidence

Scrutiny

Oversight of government activity and policy is growing in importance and is a task well-suitedto committees

Three main instruments: questions and interpellations on the floor; emergency debates andvotes of confidence; committee investigations

Recruitment

- Depend on the form of government- In parliamentary systems: government ministers are usually selected from the assembly,

legislature becomes the key channel of recruitment- In presidential systems: assembly does not play a huge role- Stages of recruitment:

- Legal rules reduce the entire population to those who are technically eligible (ageand residence requirements)- Social influences on political interest reduce to those who aspire to do so (growingup in a political family)

- Who succeed in convincing the party gatekeepers (gender quotas, personal skills)- Fourth electoral filter reduces those who stand as candidates to those who win the

contest and become members

Membership

- Members from all party groups usually seek their re-election- Governance is not a task which can be done by ordinary citizens:professionals with skills,

knowledge, training and experience is needed- Incumbency effect: re-election of members

-> Fresh candidates can only enter the assembly if older members stand down and createopen seats-> To solve this problem term limits were created

- Celebrities-turned-politicians- Politicians-as-celebrities- Second generation of political families who follow their parents into politics

Legislatures in authoritarian states

- Assemblies are popular representation -> so they are not significant in authoritarian regimes- They function only as shadow institutions- Members are often appointed by the government- Members pursue own interests- Are present because of the rulers interests in: Legitimacy, incorporate moderate opponents,

lobbying local interests, pool of potential recruits of elites

Legislatures in illiberal democracies

- In all kinds of democracies assemblies are present- Significant in areas where the presidential power is not effected- Operate in the shadow of executive power- Because illiberal democracies are mostly poor: no possibility of establishing an effective

congress- Instead of assembly controlling the executive, the executive controls the assembly


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Chapter 16 Political executive

Presidential government

The president is a single chief executive, who governs using the authority derived frompopular election, with an independent legislature

For features of presidential government:- Direct election of the president

- Fixed terms of offices for the president and the assembly, neither of which can bringdown the other

- No overlap in membership of the executive and legislature- The president serves as the head of state

Constitutional limits on executive pretension -> preventing dictatorshipUnited States

- The presidential system emerged in the US- Separate election of legislature and executive-

President chosen by the college (each state 2 votes, and representatives according to statepopulation)- Constitution secure that the elected president stays in office- President can only be dismissed by the Congress in special cases- The powers of the president:

- Express powers: powers explicitly listed in the constitution- Implied (inherent) powers: powers held to derive from the presidents explicit

constitutional obligations- Statutory powers: additional powers explicitly granted by the Congress

- Congress and the Senate have some powers over the President, but the president has alsosome powers making him independent from both institutions

- Rather separation of institutions (congress and president) than separation of executive andlegislature

- Senate and congress no limit on re-election, but on the presidentBrazil

- Different from the US system: multi party system- Brazilian constitution offers the president more powers than the US constitution:

- President can issue decrees which stay in effect for 60 days without an approval ofthe congress

- Can initiate bills in congress- Proposes a budget which goes into effect, if congress did not offer one- Can declare bills and force the congress to give a quick answer

- But for Brazils president it is more difficult to convince the Congress, since it is a multi partysystem

- Party discipline in Brazil is weaker -> party changes during the term- Informal coalitions force the president to chose ministers from different parties -> instable

Parliamentary government

Three main features of parliamentary government- The government emerges from the parliament and can be brought down by a vote of

no confidence- The executive is collegial, taking the form of a cabinet (council of ministers) in which

the prime ministers (premier, chancellor) was traditionally just first among equals- A ceremonial head of state is normally separate from the post of prime minister

The assembly is elected by proportional representation -> the normal outcome is a coalition Variants of the parliamentary system: majority government, minority and coalition gov.


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Majority government (UK)

- Single ruling party with a secure majority- Leader of the party becomes prime minister and selects cabinet members from his own party- Monarch above the political system- All ministers must regularly defend their policies, because the opposition will call for no

confidence any time possible -> if no confidence, new elections or power to opposition- Party ties and disciplines strongMinority (Denmark) and coalition (Finland) government

- No tight link between the election results and the formation of the government -> morefragmented

- Three possible forms of government:- A majority coalition- A minority coalition (coalition still lack majority)- Single-party minority governmentformed by the largest party

- Procedure for installing a government in parliamentary systems when no party possesses amajority of searts:- Positive investiture vote to take office, a new government must obtain majority

support in parliament (Spain)- Negative investiture vote a new government takes office unless voted down by a

majority in parliament (Sweden)- No investiture vote no formal parliamentary vote is required before a new

government takes office (Denmark)- Before elections parties inform the voter about its coalition preferences and coalition

refusals to show them about the consequences of their votes- A formateur (the leader of the party with the most seats) initiates the negotiations- Coalition partners will negotiate about policy plans- Parties favor a minimum winning coalition (smallest number of parties needed to form a

majority)- Coalitions usually between parties with almost similar ideologies- Rainbow coalitions unusual- An election rule (agreement which says that after the breakup of a coalition new elections

should take place) stop coalition partners from breaking up the coalition so fast

Who governs?

- Parliamentary government lacks the clear focus on a single chief executive- Variable relationship between Prime minister, cabinet and government minister- Cabinet government(Finland)- Prime ministerial government(Germany)- Ministerial government(Italy)

Trends in parliamentary government

(In the relationship of cabinet and prime minister)

- Presidentialization: from first among equals prime ministers have become president-ministers

- The trend is not continuous, at some point it stopped- Causes:

> Increased media focus on the premier> Growing international role of the chief executive> Emerging need for the policy coordination as governance becomes more

complex- Expansion of the cabinet to non ministerial positions- Emergence of cabinet committees


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Heads of state and parliamentary government

- Unlike presidential systems: a division of head of state and head of government- Dignified leadership: head of state(monarch or elected presidency)- Efficient leadership: premier, cabinet and ministers

- Elected presidents have more powers in addressing national issues than monarchs but lessthan in presidential governments

Semi-presidential government

Combines an elected president performing political tasks with a prime minister who heads acabinet accountable to parliament

- Prime minister (usually appointed by the president) is responsible for day-to-daydomestic government

- The president retains an oversight role (foreign affairs, has some emergency powers) Division of authority within the executive itself Example: France

The executive in authoritarian states- Top office consists of a presidency or a ruling council- Personal rule: Lack of institutionalization, power lies in the ruler itself and his supporters and

not on institutions -> vulnerability of his position- Problems after the leaders exit -> who is going to be the next leader?

Africa

- The ruler is using the financial resources of the regime to reward his friends and punish theenemies

- He distributes the perks of office so as to maintain a viable coalition of support, but theirslice must not be so large as to threaten the ruler

- Rulers invest in their own political future instead of their countryThe Middle East

- System of ruling rather than governing: shahs, sheikhs, and sultans- Government post are given to those being in the rulers interest- Only example of stable regime of authoritarian rule

Central Asia- Soviet Union strongly personalized- No one cared about the structure of the government: too busy with daily life

Totalitarian executive- In fascist states no institution ruling or bureaucracy: the leader defined the interest of the

regime- Communist states: clear structure of government, ruling party dominated in the institutions,

strongly party disciplined

The executive in illiberal democracies

- Presidential rather than parliamentary- President operates without the full set of a constitution- Vertical accountability: to voter, no horizontal accountability: to other institutions


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Chapter 17Public management and administration

Evolution of the public sector

- In past Europe: clerical servants were agents of the royal household under the personalinstruction of the ruling monarch

-

In modern Europe bureaucracy: salaries, pensions etc. arose to avoid the idea of public employment as personal

service to the monarch the permanent salaried officials employed in central government departments to

advise on and administer government policy- Max Webers traditional hierarchical view of public administration

Division of tasks Authority is impersonal: private motives are irrelevant Recruited people with potential competences Jobs and salaries Disciplined hierarchy

-

Bureaucracy made administration more efficient- New World (US):civil service development more pragmatic- Governance by the common man: everybody was qualified for almost every public

job: no elitist and more democratic- Populist theory underpinned the spoil system: successful candidates distribute government

jobs to those who support the candidate- Creation of the merit system to avoid the spoil system:

- Public employees are recruited by competitive examination- The emerge of a welfare state required a bureaucratic apparatus- In the followed year: financial crises brought criticism to the cost efficient and unproductive

bureaucracy

Recruitment of the public sector

- Transition from recruitment by personal links with the ruler to open selection on merit- In theory jobs became available to the whole population- Selection method and employee profiles are scrutinized more carefully than in the private

sector- Recruitment varies between countries:

- Unified recruitment Recruitment is to the civil service as a whole, not to a specific job within it Required is intelligence and education, but not special technical knowledge Not knowledge but the ability to learn: good administrator is expected to be

able to serve in many kinds of services Some unified civil services stress one form of technical expertise: law

- Departmental recruitment Recruitment of people with technical background to a specific department

job Mobility within the civil service is limited


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Organization of the public sector

Three main kinds of organization

- Departments (or ministry) An administrative unit over which a minister exercises direct management control

Usually structured by hierarchy and established by statute- Divisions (or sectors, bureaus) An operating unit of the department, responsible to the minister but often with

considerable independence(from the minister) in practice, especially in the USA- Non-departmental public bodies

Operates at one or more removes from the government, in an attempt to providemanagement flexibility and political independence

4 kinds of non-departmental public body- state-owned enterprise: a government corporation established by statute to

trade goods and services (state owned mail)- service delivery agency: provides a specific service, usually to end-users

(providing drivers license)- regulatory agency: oversees a specific sector by establishing standards andmonitoring compliance (consumer safety, election commission)

- advisory body: provides expertise and recommendations to governmentdepartments (scientific research councils)

Control and accountability

- Accountability instead of controlling the bureaucracy- Accountability: responsibility for ones actions by and often before another body- Civil servants are encouraged to defend their actions after the fact rather to seek preemptive

control over the actions themselves (no absolute control before the action)- Senior officials are accountable to their ministers in their own department as well as to the

prime minister, to other nationals, and international organizations- Methods of overseeing the bureaucracy:

- Internal controls- Ministerial directions: ministers direct, public servants execute- Regulators: inspectors of the government oversee the public officials- Professional standards

- External controls- Legislature and judiciary- Ombudsmen: public officials appointed by the legislature to investigate

watchdogs

- Interest groups and the mass mediaNew public management

- Ronald Reagan New public management (NPM)- Critique of Webers ideas about bureaucracy

- Weber: civil servants should simply apply fixed rules- Nowadays servants are given the flexibility and freedom to achieve their own results

Public management in authoritarian states

- Like the military bureaucracy has more powers in authoritarian rules- There are no interest groups and organizations -> more room for state agencies- Ruler cannot rule without bureaucracy achieving his will- It can itself become the ruling force but in the long run it will break down- Bureaucratic authoritarianism: regimes in which technocrats in the bureaucracy imposed

economic stability under the protection of a military government


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- More often bureaucracy has inhibited rather than encouraged economic development: ifthere is an expansion of bureaucracy -> inefficient and to costly

- In communist and fascist states: to achieve their ideology rulers expanded bureaucracy tocontrol society

Public management in illiberal democracies- Little attention in illiberal democracies- Founded on personal relationship: against institutions, including bureaucracy- Bureaucracy is serving local managers and not the public

Chapter 8 Political communication

- Communication is a core activity of politics providing opportunities to educate, inform,manipulate and persuade

- Mass media: methods of communication that can reach a large and potentially unlimitednumber of people simultaneously, including blogs, books, cinema, newspapers, TV, radio

-

Sender > message > channel > receiver > presumed impact

Development of the mass media

- Writing- First modern alphabetbased on sound and not symbols- Invention of printing: book production, mass manufacturing- The telegraph: sending information across wires using electric signals, international com.- Popular newspaper- Radio- TV- Commercialization of channels, widespread use of video- Internet: further international communication, mobile phones- Internet reaches mass population, media becomes more interactive and personalized

The media: contemporary trends

- Commercialization: the decline of public broadcasting and the rise of for-profit mediatreating users as consumers rather than citizens

- Fragmentation: more channels and an enhanced ability to download and consume programson demand

- Globalization:improved access to overseas events and media in the global village- Interaction: increased use of interactive channels (e.g. emails, games), reducing passive

exposure to politics through top-down communication

The media in liberal democracies

Media impact:

- Reinforcement: the media strengthen existing opinions- Selective exposure selective chose of newspapers- Selective interpretation- Selective recall forgetting information counter to existing beliefs

- Agenda-setting: the media influences what we think and talk about- The media decides what to report about- Reported events are discussed a lot in daily life

- Framing: how an event is narrated as a coherent story highlights particular features of it- Encourages readers to interpret the topic in the same way

- Priming: media coverage influences how we interpret events beyond those in the particularstory

- National media on crime influences thinking of local crime


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Television and newspapers:

- Television has become the main media for politics- Covert the party campaigns- Lead voters to vote candidates by personality

- Before television: newspaper or cinema-

In the past television was low channeled and neutral for politics, now television weakenedparty loyalties- Newspapers are mostly freer with comment than is television- TV can cover one story at a time, whereas newspaper covers all in one- Newspaper has an influence on TV agenda: in the morning in the newspaper in the evening

on TV

The media game:

- Relationship between politicians and journalists remains central to the character of elitepolitics

- The government needs coverage and the media must fill their space: shared interest in news-

Highly paid spin doctors: public relation experts working for politicians- Competition among journalist for good stories- Politicians can easily lose credibility with giving wrong or no information at all

Public opinion

Defining public opinion

- Public opinion:(1) The range of views on some controversial issue held by some significant portion of

the population(2) The informant judgment of a community on an issue of common concern, where the

judgment is formed in the context of shared political goals- Public opinion is simply what the public thinks about an issue- Public opinion represents the sum or balance of the abstract moral or principles of the

persons forming the community- In a divided community therefore: more than one public: more public opinion

Measuring public opinion

- Opinion pool: series of questions as a short survey asked a sample of the population face toface, by telephone or via mail

- Sample survey: same method as opinion pool, but involves a more detailed questionnaire.Mostly done by government or academic researchers

- Focus group: moderated discussion among a small group of respondents on a particulartopic. Measures also emotions and attitudes.

- Deliberative opinion pool or citizens jury:people can question experts and politicians on agiven topic before their own opinion is measured. Seeks to measure what public opinionwould be if the public were fully informed on the issue.

The impact of public opinion

- Public opinion forms the environment within which politicians work:- Acting either as prompt or as a veto- It does not govern but can set limits to government

- Still public opinion has not all the power, factors limit its influence:- Policy-making expert and organized opinion matters more- Ill informed public- Public opinion can evade trade-offs: taxes


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The media in authoritarian states

- Limiting free expression- Official television and newspapers reproduce the regimes lines while critical journalists are

harassed- Large parts of the media stay in state hands-

Use of propaganda

The media in illiberal democracies

- Media control is far less extensive as in authoritarian states- Leading force dominates broadcast coverage: uses media for making himself look good and

opponents look bad- Journalistic standards remain low

Chapter 9 Political participation

Political participation:

-

Is activity by individuals intended to influence who governs or the decisions taken by those- Differences in the extent and the form of involvementLiberal democracy Moderate but

decliningMainly voluntary To influence who decides and

what decisions are reached

Illiberal democracy Limited Mainly throughelections

To entrench and confirm theleaders authority

Authoritarian Low Manipulated To protect rulers power and tooffer democratic faade

Totalitarian regime High Regimented In theory: to transform society,in practice: to demonstrate

rulers power

Participation in liberal democracies

- Patterns of participation in liberal democracies:- Gladiators: who fight the political battle (small population)- Spectators: observe the contest but rarely participate beyond voting- Apathetic: unengaged in politics

- Decline in participation- Most participation well-educated, middle class, middle aged, white men

- Political resources: education gives access for information and money buys theluxury of time for political activity

-

Political interest: high-status individuals are more likely to be interested- Political exclusion of the apathetic- Unemployed, no qualifications, minority culture, high-crime community

- Inequalities cause an unrepresentation of the passive majoritySocial movements

- social movements: consists of people from outside the mainstream who come together to seek a

common objective through an unorthodox challenge to the existing political order- demonstrations, sit-ins, boycotts, and political strikes

- some may be illegal, but in contrast to criminal acts they have political motives-

emerged from society to challenge political establishment and focus on one single issue- loosely organized- not seeking political power: often social or legislative changes- in the past seen as threat to democracy


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- take even place on a local, national and international level- in liberal democracies: well educated people- authoritarian regimes: in lower income countries: poor people

Participation in authoritarian states

-

Rulers either seek to limit participation or as in totalitarian states to control it- Minimize any threat which could be caused by participationPatron-client networks

- Technique of controlling participation in authoritarian regimes- Practice is called: clientelism:

Based on patron-client relationship Patron provides protection to lower status clients Clients offer in exchange support

- Most common in low income countries- Patrons control clients votes in elections

Totalitarian governments

- Regimented participation: Elite-controlled involvement in politics design to express popular support for the

notional attempt by the rulers to build a new society Mobilize masses behind the regime Participation is high in quantity but low in quantity

- Communication flows only from top to bottomParticipation in illiberal democracies

- Political authority is delegated to one leader who is in charge of solving problems bycontrolling all political spheres

- Participation therefore: intermittent, unstructured, predicated on political inequality: leaderleads and the mass follows

- Weakness ofcivil society:- Organizations like labor unions, interest groups- They are separated from state and its problems

- Social problems cause a disinterest in politics- Citizens mostly forced to participate in elections -> only participation aspect

Participation in political violence

- Political violence: physically injurious acts directed at persons or property which are intendedto further or oppose governmental decisions and public polices

- Political terror: occurs when such acts are aimed at striking fear into a wider population thanthe immediate victims

- Political violence can be by social groups against social groups or the state against of group- Most political violence is neither random nor uncontrolled but tactical- Participants of in example suicide terror motives are not psychological but sociological profile

reasons: political not psychological- Same as in genocide: deliberate and systematic extermination of a large proportion of a

people, nation, race or ethnic group

Revolution

Rapid basic transformation of a societys state and class structures Accompanied and in part carried through by class-based revolts from below Stages: state breakdown, struggle for power, radical construction of the state Mostly connected with violence


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Social psychological and structural theories:

- Social psychological theory:- Focus on individual motivations rather than social groups- Widespread ofrelative deprivation (people believe they receiving less than they

deserve) -> instability

-

Emerges when the ability of the state to meet the demands declines: Gap between expectations and achievements (J-curve theory)

- Structural interpretation- Causes of revolutions cannot be found in motivations of participants- What matters: relationship between groups within the state and between states- International weakness and domestic ineffective> revolution- Revolutions do not end with taking the power but start there

The French revolution:

- Before revolution: monarchy with feudalism- Old regime became under pressure as the monarchy became bankrupt-

Enormous violence if the terror, and the old institutions incl. monarchy were torn down- A modern state was founded- After a period of instability: Napoleon instituted a period of authoritarian regime- Established the further shape of liberal democracy- Emerge of capitalism- Uniting all citizens in patriotic fervor- Structural interpretation: foreign instability with Britain and domestic instability in France

The Russian revolution:

- Established the worlds first communist state- Was an important imperial power but domestically far behind politically, economically, and

socially- Unsuccessful war with Japan, military disaster in WW 1 -> collapse of the regime- Replaced by a weak provisional government -> civil war- Re-establishment of the central authority in the form of a communist dictatorship

Chapter 7 political culture

- Political culture: Denotes the sum of fundamental values, sentiments and knowledge that give form

and substance to political processes Overall pattern of beliefs, attitudes and values in a society towards the political

system

Political culture in liberal democracies

- Important in liberal democracies: strong connection between society and government- Culture respect and individual rights

The civic culture

- Almond and Verbas The civic culture- Three pure types of political culture:

- Parochial political culture: Citizens are only indistinctly aware of the existence of central government Isolated rural communities First-generation immigrants


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- Subject political culture: Citizens see themselves not as participants of the political process but as

subjects of the government, as with people living under dictatorship Mainly among young people Distant from politics though they see feel affected of politics

-

Participant political culture: Believe both that they can contribute to the political system and that they

are affected by its operations- Democracy will be most stable if all three cultures are formed into the one civic culture

- Many citizens are active but the passive minority stabilize the democracy- This leads to popular control and effective governance

- Critics: cultures are vague, should focus more on subculture of race and class- Then: participants educated, passive citizens poorly educated class- No description of the evolution of political culture

Political trust and social capital

-

Overall public confidence in such institutions as parliament, the civil service and the armedforces declined between 1981 and 1991- European citizens show less trust in political parties than in the forces of law and order- Support for democracy stays still widespread but citizen have become more critical about

the institutions- Decline of trust caused by deflation of the political culture, reducing the capacity of the

political system to achieve shared goals- Most successful regions have a positive culture: a tradition of trust and cooperation which

results in high levels ofsocial capital culture of trust and cooperation which makes collective action possible enables a community to build institutions to solve collective problems

Postmaterialism:

Is a commitment to radical quality of life issues (such as environment) which can emergeespecially among well-educated young men

Participate extensively in politics, but rather in elite challenging promotional groups ratherthan political parties

- Western world witnessed economic growth, relative international peace, welfare state->silent revolution of political culture:

- A new generation of postmaterialism emerged :- Young well educated people focused on life style issues- Self-expression and flexibility- Expansion of education gave postmaterialism a further boost- Expansion of professional job system: need for high skills- Politicians offered more liberal agendas

- Pre-war generation: valued order, security, and fixed rulesPolitical culture in authoritarian regimes

- Three ways of rulers to respond to political culture- Ignoring political culture:

Most military countries show little concern for the political culture They care more about protecting their own back Isolate mass population from political participation

- Exploiting political culture: Much more common Leaders seek to emphasize those aspects of the culture that support their

hold


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- Reconstructing political culture: Least common but most interesting one Totalitarian leaders seek to transform the political values of their subjects People participated only as subjects

Political culture in illiberal democracies- Rulers exploit the political culture by selective emphasizing its authoritarian elements- Cultural desire for a strong leader as the outgrowth of experience with authority within

family- The child respects the parental authority

- Unstable cycle of high expectations -> mass disappointment and the search for a new andequally person savior

Elite political culture

- Elite political culture: Consist of the belief, attitudes and ideas about politics held by those who are closest

to the centres of political power- How elite political culture affects political stability:- Elite believes in its right to rule- Elite acts on national interest- Elite accepts the rules of the game Political stability

- Elite political culture and political stability in divided societies:- A society separated intopillars (organized communities) can achieve political stability

as long as the leader are willing to compromise- Compromise allows each community to regulate itself on those matters not directly

affecting the other pillars- The outcome of a good compromise is a:plural society

Arranged into separate cultures rather than one dominant culture withopposed subcultures

- Consociational democracy: a cooperative association between separate communitiesor pillars of a plural society

- The process where the leaders of all pillars negotiate about the resources of thenation is called: elite accommodation The distribution should reflect the relative population size of each group Each group should retain a minority veto over matters it judged vital to its

own interest Leaders of each community acting almost as if they were representatives of

different nations Allows communities to live together

- With the norm of non-intervention in the affairs of the state, each pillar was left incontrol of the resources allocated to it

- Today religion is losing weight: depolarizationA clash of civilizations?

- Relationship between West and Islam- Beyond the states but global topic- Cultural or civilizational division between West and Islam- Shifting from a battle of ideologies to a clash of civilizations, incl. Islam and West


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Chapter 10 Elections and Voters

Scope and franchise

- Scope: which offices are subject to elections- The greater the number of elected offices the more democratic a political system is-

Dangers in elections: too many election can cause disinterest among the electors- The least important elections can end up as second-order elections- Franchise: who can vote- Most democracies: nearly all citizens aged at least 18 (incl. women)- Exclusions: criminals, the insane and non-citizens

Electoral systems: legislature

Main feature in electoral systems is whether the parliamentary seats obtained by a party are directlyproportional to the votes it receives. In non proportional systems, parties are not rewarded in

proportion of the share of the vote they obtain: instead the winner takes all.

PLURALITY SYSTEMS

- Single member plurality: first past the post Candidate securing the most votes (not necessarily a majority) is elected on the first and only

ballot within each single-member district (SMD) Parliament consists of those elected for each district + bonus seats to the leading in votes Weaknesses:

- A party may achieve an efficient (ratio of seats to votes) distribution of votes that itwins a majority of seats with fewer votes democratic deficit

- Tactical voting: electors may feel that their favored party stands no chanceexaggerates the regional basis of party support

- Small parties disadvantaged- Gerrymandering: enables incumbents to choose their votes, rather than the other

way around Drawing seat boundaries to maximize the efficiency of a partys support

Same votes but tactical allocation can influence the outcome.

MAJORITARY SYSTEMS

- Absolute majority: alternative vote Voters rank candidates and if no candidate wins at first preference, the bottom candidate is

eliminated and his votes are redistributed by second preference

- Two-round system: If no candidate wins a majority in the first ballot, the leading candidates (usually top two)

face a second run-off election


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PROPORTIONAL SYSTEMS

- List system: Votes are cast for a partys list of candidates (closed or open list) In some countries the elector can also express support for one candidate changes the list Usually in multi member district votes

- Single-transferable vote (STV): Voters rank candidates according to preferences All candidates exceeding a given quota are elected, their votes exceeding this quota are then

distributed to the second preferences shown on the ballot Bottom candidates under the quota are eliminated, and their second votes are also

transferred by second preference

MIXED SYSTEMS

- Mixed member proportional (MMP): Electors have 2 votes: one district election (usually plurality method) and a party vote (PR

contest) Proportional outcome overall Party votes determine the overall number of seats Elected candidates are drawn first from the partys winners in the district contest, topped up

as required by candidates from the party list Should a party win more district seats than its entitlement under the party vote, if retains

extra seats (berhangsmandate)

- Mixed member majoritarian: Idea of MMP but without any top-up device to achieve proportional outcome overall Separation of both votes

Electoral systems: Presidents

Directly elected presidents:- Plurality method: can lead to victory with small share of votes- Majority method: more important to confirm majority backing for a single president

Most use a run-off ballot of the top two candidates- Because elections take place at national level some countries have distribution

requirements, that require a president to have certain level of support in the regions Important in regionally divided societies Distribution rules can lead to failed elections

Indirect elected presidents:

- Special body, which can be elected, elects the president- USA: Electoral Collage

Length of term

- Presidential term is normally longer than legislature termPossibility of re-election

- Presidents who cannot be re-elected are no longer accountable to their votersLink with other elections

Referendums

- Involves a reference from another body, normally the legislature to the people- Elections: role of people only to decide- In contrast referendum: direct democracy, enabling to decide themselves- Two kinds:

- Binding referendums: such as constitutional amendments


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- Consultative referendum: not binding- In some countries a specific number of citizens can call on a referendum as well- Positive aspects: inform government, trust of citizens, increase voters understanding- Negative: citizens cannot judge an issue objectively, by timing controllable by the

government

Turnout

- Fall in turnout in Europe- Weakened relationship between elector and party- Welfare state and achieved full employment resolved long standing conflicts- Declining satisfaction with the performance of politicians

- Turnout varies a lot across nations- Tends to be higher where the costs or effort of voting are lower and the benefit

higher- The more important the election and the greater the impact of a single vote the

higher the turnout

Voting behavior

- Party identification weakened in liberal democracies- Voting for issues, the economy, leaders or party competences rather than group or

party voting- Party loyalties reduced in strength but did not disappear completely- Neutral television influenced issue voting- Emerge of new parties

Elections in authoritarian regimes

- Most non-democratic rulers use voting as a useful fiction- In totalitarian systems: elections did not offer a choice of voting- Controlled voting- Some opposition allowed, but too few to change the overall result

Elections in illiberal democracies

- No free and fair elections- Using controlled media for support and threatening of the opposition

Chapter 11 Political parties

Parties:

- Political group identified by an official label that presents at elections and is capable ofplacing through elections candidates for public offices

- Ruling parties offer direction to government- Function as agents of political recruitment- Serve as a device of interest aggregation- Serve as a brand for their supporters and voters

Party organization

Types of party organization:

- Elite party: 19th century Created internally (inside the assembly) and traditional status of leaders Leader has a high authority Small sized memebership and source of income through own contacts


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- Mass party: 1880-1960 Created externally (outside the assembly) and represents a social group Large membership, members were treated as part of the family Income through membership dues

- Catch-all party: after 1945

Developed from existing parties Seek for governing in national interest and elector votes Leaders become dominant Many sources of income, incl. state subsidies

Power within the party:

- Authority flows from top-down: leaders developed organization skills and expert knowledge- Party leaders are the key actors: if the party is in power they become ministers

Selecting candidates and leaders

Candidates:- Three features of the nomination- Nearly all countries impose condition such as a citizenship- Incumbents ( current parliament members) posses an advantage- Impact of electoral systems

- Impact of the electoral system:- Proportional representation (party list): Party officials draw up a ranked list- Plurality system: local parties select the candidate, sometimes from the list drawn up

by the head of office

- Mixed system: the party draws up a list for the PR element and local parties select acandidate for the district contest

Leaders:

- By party congress or convention: most common one- By a voting among the members of the party- By members of the parliamentary party

Membership and finance

Membership:

- Decline in party membership- Many new members do not engage with their parties beyond paying an annual subscription- Older age profile of members

Finance:

- Decrease in members cause a decrease in member payment- State subsidies are provided for parliamentary groups or election campaigns- Indirect subsidies: free access to the media- Public financing reduces the incentive to attract members- Public funding tends to reinforce the status quo (control of large parties)- Public funding gives the governments a device for influencing parties which they may wish to

use in future to promote democracy within parties- Hard money: campaign expenditure which is regulated

- Restrictions on hard money donation- Soft money: campaign spending which is free of regulation- Most nations banned anonymous contributions- Some even outlaw foreign contributions


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The waning social base

Western Europe:

- Creation of cleavages in the past, which provide a foundation for political parties- Founding of Catholic parties who wanted to defend traditional autonomy-

Industrialization: Founding of farmers parties and liberal parties for entrepreneurs- Conflict between worker and owner: socialist parties- Even though cleavages disappeared, political parties mainly remained the same- Open conditions permitted emerge of right-wing protest parties

- An exception to the thesis that all parties emerge out of well-defined social interests- Often transient support from uneducated and unemployed young men- Many proved to be flash parties: disappeared after a short time

Eastern Europe:

- As communism began to split many new parties were created, representing groups such aspeasants or ethnic minorities ranging from liberalism to nationalism

-

Most have the cadre type: emerged out of the parliament or the government- Even after the fall of communism it was hard to encourage voters to vote- Parties lacked the incentive build mass organization- Existence of television provided communication between party and elector: no need for local

activists

Party systems

- Number of significant parties and the patterns of interaction between themDominant party systems:

Dominance of one party outdistancing other parties Dominant party has control of the state and rewards supporter: that makes the party

vulnerable to corruption and decline In the long run: faction building among the party -> increased corruption

Two-party systems:

Two major parties of comparable size compete for electoral support, providing theframework for political competition

Remaining parties little or no influenceMultiparty systems:

Several parties (mostly 5 or 6) achieve significant representation in parliament Mostly coalitions and in historically divided societies -> parliament serves as an arena of

conciliation, consensus seeking Coalitions produce continuity of policy which is helpful when economy is growing naturally

but are slower (not necessarily less successful) in the long-run

Parties in authoritarian regimes

- Authoritarian regimes:- Some authoritarian states survive with no states at all, eitherpre-party(parties yet to

emerge) or anti-party- Those single parties lacked countryside, were riven by ethnic and regional divisions

and showed little concern with policy -> lack of organization- Provided the only recruitment for public officers

- Communist states:- In the Soviet Union: single ruling party with full control over government and society


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- Democratic centralism: hierarchy, lower levels must accept decisions made by higherlevels and each level is to be elected by its level beneath only one person nominated for elections from above: no real democracy

- Massive membership of the party- Fascist parties:

-

Achieved never comprehensive control over either state or society- Cult of the leader: Fhrerprinzip Each leader possess unqualified authority and answers only to those above Leader as the living law

Parties in illiberal democracies

- Either parties are not the true source of power or the selection on offer does not presentalternative programs to the electorate

- Party system is unstructured and the parties represent the president- Parties sometimes disappear after a short period- President is chosen between candidates not parties-

Poorly organized parties, with small membership and minimal capacity to integrate a largeand diverse country- Leader stands above the party

Chapter 12 Interest groups

Interest groups:

Organizations which have some autonomy from government or political parties and whichtry to influence public policy

Classifying interest groups

- Two types:- Protective groups:

Defends an interest with a restricted membership Frequently consulted by government and actively seeks this role Only group members benefit Aims to influence national government on specific issues affecting members

- Promotional groups: Promotes a cause and anybody can join Consulted less often by government, emphasizes public opinion and the

media Benefits go to both members and non-members Seek to influence national and global bodies on broad policy matters

- Peak association: Organization representing the broad interests of capital or labor to government The members are not individuals but interest groups, firms, labor unions Corporatism: relationship between peak associations and state, policies emerge

through discussion between those two

Interest groups in liberal democracies

Pluralism:

- A political system in which numerous competing interest groups exert strong influence overa responsive government

- Each groups concentrates on its own area- Groups compete for influence over a government, that is willing to listen to all voices- It is easy to enter the market and it brings a fragmentation into the government


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- Strong elemen

Documents

Introduction to Political Science 2011 Summary1