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Introduction to Learning Theory and Course
Design
Bernard Scott Cranfield University
George Roberts Oxford Brookes University
Introduction to Learning Technology 2
Outline of Programme1000 - 1015 Introductions
1015 - 1100 1. eLearning and Online Learning
Coffee break
1115 - 1245 2. Introduction to Learning Theory
Lunch
1330 - 1500 3. Introduction to course design
Coffee break
1515 - 1615 4. The why and how of e-learning
Close
Introduction to Learning Technology 3
Workshop AimsTo introduce learning technology practitioners to:
theories of learning and teaching
principles and processes of course design
relevant for the production and delivery of quality learning experiences in e-learning (flexible, distributed, distance and blended) courses
Introduction to Learning Technology 4
Introductions
Introduce yourself
What is your role in your organisation?
What do you want from the day?
1. eLearning and Online Learning
1015 - 1100
Introduction to Learning Technology 6
The Big Picture
Globalisation Liberalisation Participation Innovation
Education and training policy replaces industrial policy as the means by which governments seek to make regions economically competitive
Introduction to Learning Technology 7
What’s happening, then?Chips with e-verything
ICT is becoming
Everywhere Ubiquitous
Background Ambient
Personal Adaptive and Aware
Fast High-speed
Mobile Wireless (wifi and telephony)
Merging Convergent(TV, radio, learning,work, leisure)
Multi/multiple media All Connected, Always on
Introduction to Learning Technology 8
Widening participationWidening participation policies adopted by successive British governments have been focused in two conflicting directions:
emancipatory and empowering for the individual: stimulate the growth of autonomous, entrepreneurial, IT-literate, multi-skilled individuals capable of creating and taking advantage of the opportunities inherent in a post fordist economy
ensuring a supply of appropriately skilled workers for industry: create a compliant low-expectation labour force inured to the demands of flexibilisation in order to attract inward investment not on the basis of high skills available but on the basis of low costs
Introduction to Learning Technology 9
Learning Technologies Multimedia presentations Electronic whiteboards Interactive classrooms CAL, CBT, simulations Virtual reality Video conferencing Online learning
Introduction to Learning Technology 10
Online Learning Using the Internet for L&T (DL or blended)
Learning materials (RBL) Other resources Computer mediated communication (CMC) Computer aided assessment (CAA) VLEs, MLEs, LMSs, LCMSs, IMS
ActivityWhat are some advantages and disadvantages of OLL? Note down two points for and two points against.
Introduction to Learning Technology 12
Some advantages of OLL (1) Flexible re time and place Interactive Immediate Modifiable Non-linear Richness of resources Shared access to resources
Introduction to Learning Technology 13
Some advantages of OLL (2) Store and archive files and messages Store and process scores Adapt to a student’s performance Provide formative feedback
Introduction to Learning Technology 14
Some disadvantages of OLL (1) Costs to install and maintain Costs of materials production or
acquisition Training needs (staff and students) Accessibility issues
Introduction to Learning Technology 15
Some disadvantages of OLL (2) CMC is time intensive Difficult to be social CAA has restricted set of question styles Security issues (confidentiality, plagiarism) Copyright and IPR issues
Introduction to Learning Technology 16
Managed Learning Environment Overview
http://www.jisc.ac.uk/mle/reps/briefings/bp1.html
Coffee Break
1100 - 1115
2. Learning Theory
1115 - 1245
Introduction to Learning Technology 19
ActivityWhat is learning?What do we learn?What helps us to learn?
Note down your thoughts
Introduction to Learning Technology 20
Learning Theory: First Principles
“The environment contains no information. It is as it is.” “Everything that is said is said by or to an observer.” Heinz von Foerster
Learning is constructive and conversational
Introduction to Learning Technology 21
Conversation Theory “Man is a system that needs to learn.” “Teaching is the control of learning.” Adaptive, conversational systems that
provide support (scaffolding) for the learner
(Pask and Scott, Thomas and Harri-Augstein, Laurillard)
The Skeleton of a Conversation
Why? questions and responsesWhy questionsand responses
How questions and responses
Teacher Learner
Receives or offers explanations in termsof relations between
topics
Receives or offers explanations in termsof relations between
topics
Offers demonstrations or elicits models and
problem solutions
Receives demonstrations, builds models or solves problems
Modelling facility for performance of tasks such as model building and problem soving
Figure 1. The “skeleton” of a conversation (after Pask)
Why?
How?
A ‘Full’ Learning Conversation
How and why of topicHow and why of topic
How of learning
Why of learning
Teacher Learner
After Thomas and Harri-Augstein
Introduction to Learning Technology 24
The Dynamics of Learning (i)
Uncertainty reduction Need for variety Awareness/consciousness Proceduralisation Remembering and forgetting – the roles of
practice and story telling
The Dynamics of Learning (ii)
Long term memory
Non-conscious processing
Limited capacityworking memory
(conscious)
Sensory
processes
Response
processes
Filter/non-conscious
analysis
Kinaesthetic
Feedback through environment
(external storage of information)
Introduction to Learning Technology 26
Typologies of Learning TheoryLillis (2003) Traditions: clusters of culturally and historically
specific beliefs and practices which are forged in contexts over time.
Traditions can be mapped on 4 dimensions: Academic Disciplines Paradigmatic shifts Geo-historical contexts Ideological positions
Introduction to Learning Technology 27
Mapping traditions Academic disciplines
Social Sciences, Sociolinguistics, Applied linguistics, Anthropology, Psychology Physical sciences and sub traditions within these
Paradigms from abstract “out there” systems to socially situated systems from individual cognition to social practice from fixed social categories: class, sex, race, profession to
fluid identities Geohistorical
colonial/post-colonial, Anglo Saxon/Franco-German Ideological (world views)
Liberal Humanist, Critical Neo-Marxist, Theocratic, Post-structuralist
after Lillis 2003
Introduction to Learning Technology 28
Typologies of Learning TheoryWeller (2002) Constructivism Resource Based Learning Collaborative Learning Narrative Based Teaching Situated Learning
Introduction to Learning Technology 29
Typologies of Learning TheoryStreet (1997) Autonomous Model
learning in itself has consequences autonomous of context
art for art’s sake; learning is its own reward
Ideological Model learning varies with social context, cultural norms,
discourses meanings always embedded in relations of power control of definitions and boundaries is contested
Introduction to Learning Technology 30
Pedagogical Pragmatism: 1, 2, 3, 4
Posture
Stance
Face
Introduction to Learning Technology 31
One Aim: Good Learning
based on
reciprocity authenticity credibility
independent of the mode of engagement
Introduction to Learning Technology 32
Recipient design for whom intended, the learner,
idealised model of learner incorporates learning styles theories, and
aspects of learning technology specs and standards: IMS-LIP, UK-LEAP
Referee design the “boss”, colleagues, funding body,
CAA/QCA, colleagues, super-ego, beliefs
Two Targets: “Posture”
Introduction to Learning Technology 33
Channel can we hear each other
Relationship: do we understand each other
Topic what are we talking about (the subject)
Three Positions: “Stance”
Introduction to Learning Technology 34
Four Traditions: “face”positivism: knowledge is “out there”, categorical
objective-led (behaviourist) pedagogies of external motivations such as enquiry-based learning, physical simulation and experiment
social perspective: knowledge emergent, constructed dominant approaches are exploratory learning and constructivism
tacit communitarianism: common-sense normalisation knowledge engineering, and computational approaches such as
organisational learning and intelligent systems
new critical: cognitive disconnect in L&T practice project and problem-based learning, applied and action research are
characteristic
Introduction to Learning Technology 35
Multiple Learning and Teaching Styles
Introduction to Learning Technology 36
ActivityHow do subject areas differ?How do learners differ?How do we learn to learn?
Note down your thoughts
Lunch!
1245 - 1330
3. Course Design
1330 - 1500
Introduction to Learning Technology 39
Course Design Coopers and Lybrand (1996):
Up to two thirds of TLTP materials can be deemed amateurish due to the lack of sound pedagogy and instructional design
UK Teaching and Learning Technology Programme (1990 – cont), c. £40m
Introduction to Learning Technology 40
ActivityWhat makes for a good course?
Note down your thoughts
Introduction to Learning Technology 41
Good teaching sets ground rules provides alternative modes of participation exemplifies models of engagement gives access to the experience of the
instructor(cf. Brookfield 2001, Jones 1999)
independent of the mode of engagement
Introduction to Learning Technology 42
Good practice encourage student-tutor contact encourage student-student co-operation encourage active learning give prompt feedback emphasise time on task have and communicate high expectations respect diverse talents and ways of
learning
independent of the mode of engagement
Introduction to Learning Technology 43
Good design Permeability: multiple pathways Variety: multiple learning & teaching
styles/preferences Legibility: multiple literacies, modes and
systems of meaning Robustness Visual appropriateness Richness: complexity at scale Personalisation
independent of the mode of engagement
Course Design: PrinciplesA clear mapping between course components
Course Design: Processes
Knowledge and Task Analysis
Task structure (Precedence Chart)
Concept Maps: Fighting Power
Process Maps: The Doctrinal Cycle
MK2 Knowledge Map
Delivering Capability
PART AINTRODUCTION
A1STRUCTURES
Factual Area
Procedures
Part
Module
Section
Relationship
Link
Structures
KEY:
A2.1Joint Doctrine
A1.5Management of
DefenceResources
A1.1MOD
A1.2Civil
Service
A1.3Allies
A1.4PJHQ
A2.2Campaign Planning
A2 - DOCTRINE
PART CAPPLYING CAPABILITY TO OPERATIONS(THE BATTLESPACE)
C5THE OPERATIONAL
PLANNING PROCESS
C6CONDUCT OFOPERATIONS
C1THE BDE IN
THE DIV
C7MEASURINGCAPABILITY
C5.1 - BdePlanning Process
Ouput ismeasured in
terms ofOperational
Effectiveness
Operationsuse
Capability
C6.1Offensive Ops
C6.2Defensive Ops
C6.3Delay Ops
C6.4Transitional Ops
C6.5OOTW
C2BRITISH APPROACH
TO OPS
PART BDELIVERING CAPABILITY(THE BUSINESS SPACE)
B2.1Project
ManagementB2.2
ResourceManagement
B2.3Change
Management
B2.5Personnel
Management
B2.4Risk Management
B2.6R&M
B1DELIVERINGCAPABILITY -PROCESSES
B1.2Defence
Plannning Process
B1.3EquipmentProgramme
B1.4Acquisition
Process
B1.5Measurement
B2DELIVERINGCAPABILITY -
PROCEDURES
C4SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY
C3 - EQUIPMENTCAPABILITY
Capabilityuses
technology
C3.1
CIS
C3.2
ISTAR
C3.3
DBE
C3.4
IBE
C3.5
ManouevreSupport
C3.6
AD
C3.7
CBRN
C3.8
Tactical andStrategic Mob
C3.9
CSS
C3.10 -Mod and
Sim
TSO
C4.1STATISTICS
C4.2EQPT
DESIGN
C4.3CIS
TECHNOLOGY
C4.4ISTAR
TECHNOLOGY
C4.5MANOEUVRETECHNOLOGY
C4.6LETHALITY
TECHNOLOGY
C4.7SURVIVABILITYTECHNOLOGY
Technologyreferences
TSO
How a Divmeasures
effectiveness ofcomponent Bdes
C1.1Structure ofDiv and Bde
HQsB1.1
Capability
Measurement ofOperational
effectiveness feedsback into
the planning process
Created and managed by Systems Consultants Services Ltd and the MOD
Advance Organiser: MK2 Route Map
MK1 Module Template Modules, Sections and Lessons have titles Module contents listing Module Learning Outcomes (LOs) Module Introduction
Section LOs Section Introduction
Lesson LOs Lesson Introduction Lesson Content
Activities Examples Figures, Tables
Lesson Summary Section Summary Recommended further reading
Module Summary Self Assessment Questions (SAQs), organised by Section SAQ answers, organised by Section References
Introduction to Learning Technology 53
Learning from Expository Text Genre or text object type signposted Legible (font, background, location) Readable (grammar, sentence length,
vocabulary) Comprehensible (local and global
coherence of argument structures) Learnable (promotes active learning and
reflection)
Introduction to Learning Technology 54
Using Activities and Formative Assessment
Using Activities to Promote Learning
Introductory Activity Follow-on ActivityLesson ContentFeedback Feedback+ +> >
RaiseAwareness
Prepare,Motivate
ExplainConcept
Demonstrateskill
Consolidate,Elaborate
Practice,Reinforce
The “tutorial in print” (after Rowntree)
Introductory Activity
Discussion:
You probably noted down several specific elements such as weapons, personnel of varying skills and other resources. You may also have thought about organisational requirements such as command and control and communications. All these elements contribute to the physical component and can be grouped into four broad fields - manpower, equipment, training and readiness and logistics.
Reinforcing Activity
Discussion:
There are many examples to choose from. Here are some well known ones. Selection and maintenance of the aim: Take the Jihad to the heart of the USA and its people. Maintenance of morale: Self-sacrifice for the benefit of one’s country, one’s politics and one’s religion against a demonised enemy. Offensive action: Utilising four commercial aircraft to attack civilian targets in the most densely populated area in the enemy’s country.
Security: The security involved allowed the protagonists to carry out their actions almost unimpeded. Surprise: Although security services were aware of the possibility of such an attack, no one knew where, when or how the action would be carried out. Concentration of force: Synchronised attack at the heart of commerce, military and (if reports are correct) government in the White House. Economy of effort: The terrorists used commercial airliners packed with fuel rather than expensive weapons or having to smuggle weapons onto an aircraft. Their ‘pilots’ knew enough to steer an aircraft and little else. Flexibility: Four aircraft from different locations gave enough flexibility in the event of compromise/unforeseen problems. Co-operation: Pan-Arab fundamentalist co-operation and the use of safe houses etc. Sustainability: Overcame significant logistic and administrative difficulties in sustaining the whole Operation.
Introduction to Learning Technology 57
Delivering MK2 – The Full Pedagogic Model
Searching and learning about resources Mentor support Peer-peer learning Student tracking and assessment Student records Integration with residential courses –
blended learning
Introduction to Learning Technology 58
Designs for Collaborative Learning
Group or individual tasks Dissemination to peers Exchange of critical reviews Revise, iterate Tutor as learning facilitator, learning
coach, subject matter expert, assessor
Tea Break
1500 - 1515
4. Why and How of eLearning
1515 - 1615
Introduction to Learning Technology 61
Activity and Discussion: The Why and How of e-Learning
Revisit your thoughts about why we should engage in e-learning
Revisit your thoughts about how we should develop and deliver e-learning
Introduction to Learning Technology 62
Learning Technology Affordances
Time shifting Location shifting Flexible sequencing Enhanced communication Distributed collaboration Access to resources Simulations
Introduction to Learning Technology 63
Overt (and covert) CurriculaIndustrial era Overt
“3 Rs”: reading, ‘riting and ‘rithmatic Covert
punctuality, subordination, repetition
Ubiquitous, networked era Overt
flexibility, community, personalisation Covert
piecework, normalisation, surveillance
Introduction to Learning Technology 64
Another Hidden Curriculum If we wish to discover the truth about an educational system,
we must first look to its assessment procedures (Rowentree 1987 cited in Gibbs and Simpson 2004)
Time budgeting focus on only what is assessed
Cue seeking discover “what the teacher wants”
Assessment domination encourages Tactical use of time Selective negligence
(Gibbs, 2004)
Introduction to Learning Technology 65
Discussion: Make the LinksRequirements
Permeability Variety Legibility Robust Appropriate Rich Personal
Affordances
Time shift Location shift Flexible sequencing Communication Collaboration Access to resources Simulation
Pref
eren
ces
Introduction to Learning Technology 66
Learning technology
Application of discourse technologies (Fairclough, 2001)
to foster distributed cognition
Introduction to Learning Technology 67
Blended learning3-C matrix:
collocationlow/high (face-to-face vs. distance learning)
collaborationlow/high (individualised vs. collaborative learning)
computerisationlow/high (e-learning vs. traditional print and communication technologies)
Introduction to Learning Technology 68
Blended learning: 3-C
hi collocationhi collaboration traditional laboratorylo computerisation
hi collocation whiteboards in classroomshi collaboration virtual field tripshi computerisation
lo collocation CACL, online forumshi collaboration “Learning to teach online”hi computerisation
hi collocationlo collaboration video link lecturehi computerisation
lo collocationlo collaboration “traditional” OU DLlo computerisation
lo collocationlo collaboration CBT traininghi computerisation
Introduction to Learning Technology 69
Mode 1 – baseline course administration and learner support (e-LearningStrategy Action 6a)
Baseline course administration and learner support (chosen from thefollowing): use web to distribute course information and carry out courseadministration, e.g. aims and objectives, assessment criteria/proformas, pastexam questions and model answers/assessment sheets, timetablingannouncements, reading lists, tutor contact details, course evaluation tools,FAQs, additional web resources, links to field level resources, course/modulehandbook, lecture notes.
Mode 2 – blended learning leading to significant enhancements to learning andteaching processes
Communication Assessment and feedback
Provide improved tutor-student,student-student communications,mainly using discussion boards oremail. Enable students, especiallyin disparate groupings andlocations, to exchange information,ask questions and discuss issuesrelating to the course.
Provide improved feedback tostudents on their learning viacomputer assisted assessment foreither formative (self-assessmentand monitoring of progress) orsummative (examination andgrading) purposes or both. Mayinvolve electronic setting,submission and return of studentassignments using digital artefactsand proformas where objectivetesting inappropriate.
Collaboration Quality learning material
Provide a platform for collaborativestudent projects, involving sharedresponsibility for resources andoutcomes. Students usecommunication tools and shareddirectory to collaborate on taskprocesses and outcomes.
Develop flexible access to highquality, reusable learning content,which may include structuredgateways to web and otherresources with accompanying self-paced independent learningactivities, interactive tutorials withfeedback, simulations, study andlearning skills resources andactivities fostering independentlearning.
Mode 3 – on-line course/module
Develop course/module primarily on-line, incorporating all or most of theabove, for flexible delivery, allowing learners to learn at times and places oftheir choosing. Likely to include learning materials, communication betweentutor and students, assessment and monitoring of progress, learner supportand course administration.
Modes of Engagement
Mode 1: baseline admin and support
Mode 2: Blended Learning
Mode 3: FDL
Thank you!
Introduction to Learning Technology 71
References and Resources
Gibbs, Graham and Claire Simpson (2004), “Conditions under which assessment supports students’ learning” in LATHE: Learning and Teaching in Higher Education 1(1), 3-31
Harri-Augstein, S and Thomas, L F (1991). Learning Conversations, London, Routledge.
Laurillard, D (2002). Rethinking University Teaching: A Conversational Framework for the Effective Use of Learning Technologies (2nd Ed), Routledge, London
Lillis, Theresa (2003), “Mapping the traditions of a social perspective on language and literacy” in Goodman et al, Language, Literacy and Education, Trentham/Open University
Pask, G (1975). Conversation, Cognition and Learning, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Pask, G and Scott, B (1973). "CASTE: a system for exhibiting learning strategies
and regulating uncertainty", Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, 5, pp. 17-52. Rowntree, D (1990). Teaching Through Self-Instruction: How to Develop Open
Learning Materials, Kogan Page, London. Ryan, S, Scott, B, Freeman, H and Patel, D (2000). The Virtual University: The
Internet and Resource Based Learning, Kogan Page, London. Scott, B et al (2004). The Online Learning Knowledge Garden,
http://ollkg.rmcs.cranfield.ac.uk. Street, Brian (1997), “The implications of the ‘New Literacy Studies’ for literacy
education” in Goodman et al, Language, Literacy and Education, Trentham/Open University
Weller, Martin (2002) Delivering Learning on the Net. KoganPage, RoutledgeFalmer