Introduction to Crime Prevention

8/16/2019 Introduction to Crime Prevention

1/20


2/20

range of factors and circumstances that influence the lives of individuals and families as they

grow up, and of local environments, and the situations and opportunities that facilitatevictimization and offending.

-etermining what factors are associated with different types of crime can lead to thedevelopment of a set of strategies and programmes to change those factors, and prevent or reduce

the incidence of those crimes.

These underlying or causal factors are often termed risk factors. They include global changes andtrends that affect the social and economic conditions of regions and countries factors affecting

individual countries and local environments and communities those relating to the family and

close relationships and those that affect individuals. &igure + illustrate the multifaceted nature of the factors influencing crime and violence:

Figure I: Factors Influencing the Riss of Crime and Violence

Definition of Terms and Conce!ts in Crime Pre"ention

Crime !re"ention is an attempt to reduce and deter crime and criminals activities from among

possible offenders. +t is applied specifically to efforts made by governments to reduce crime,

enforce the law, and maintain criminal !ustice.

rime prevention is defined not by intentions or methods, but by results. There is scientific

evidence, for example, that both schools and prisons can help prevent crime. rime prevention

programs are neither hard nor soft by definition the central "uestion is whether any programor institutional practice results in fewer criminal events than would otherwise occur.

#ituational Crime Pre"ention /%)0 is a relatively new concept that employs a preventativeapproach by focusing on methods to reduce the opportunities for crime. %) focuses on the

criminal setting and is different from most criminology as it begins with an examination of the

circumstances that allow particular types of crime. $y gaining an understanding of thesecircumstances, mechanisms are then introduced to change the relevant environments with the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminalshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_justicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminalshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_justice


3/20

aim of reducing the opportunities for particular crimes. Thus, %) focuses on crime prevention

rather than the punishment or detection of criminals and its intention is to make criminalactivities less appealing to offenders.

#afeguarding

Another aspect of %) that is more applicable to the cyber environment is the principle of

safeguarding. The introduction of these safeguards is designed to influence the potential

offender1s view of the risks and benefits of committing the crime. A criminal act is usually

performed if the offender decides that there is little or no risk attached to the act. 2ne of thegoals of %) is to implement safeguards to the point where the potential offender views the act

unfavourably. &or example, if a driver approaches a traffic !unction where there are speed

cameras, he3she evaluates that there is a nearly 4556 chance of being caught trying to run a redlight, and hence slows down. The use of crime scripts has been touted as a method of

administering safeguards. %cripts were originally developed in the field of cognitive science and

focus on the behavioural processes involved in rational goal*oriented behaviour. 7ence scriptshave been proposed as tool for examining criminal behaviour. +n particular the use of what is

termed a universal script has been advanced for correctly identifying all the stages in the

commission process of a crime.

#ituational Crime Pre"ention and Fraud+n computer systems that have been developed to design out crime from the environment, one of

the tactics used is risk assessment, where business transactions, clients and situations aremonitored for any features that indicate a risk of criminal activity. Credit card fraud has been

one of the most complex crimes worldwide in recent times and despite numerous prevention

initiatives, it is clear that more needs to be done if the problem is to be solved. &raudmanagement comprises a whole range of activities, including early warning systems, signs and

patterns of different types of fraud, profiles of users and their activities, security of computers

and avoiding customer dissatisfaction. There are a number of issues that make the developmentof fraud management systems an extremely difficult and challenging task, including the huge

volume of data involved the re"uirement for fast and accurate fraud detection without

inconveniencing business operations the ongoing development of new fraud to evade existingtechni"ues and the risk of false alarms

Communit$ #afet$

ommunity safety is realized through an integrated consideration of diverse harms to the public,and 'refers to the likely absence of harms from all sources, not !ust from human acts classifiable

as crimes. ommunity safety also provides a strategic viewpoint on community harms by

focusing attention towards the development of programmes that set targets to manage risks andaims to maiximise public safety.

Crime Pre"ention

rime prevention involves any activity by an individual or group, public or private, whichattempts to eliminate crime prior to it occurring or before any additional activity results. $y

drawing on the public health model, some theorists have distinguished between primary crime

prevention /universal0, secondary crime prevention /at*risk0 and tertiary crime prevention/known offenders0.


4/20

Crime Reduction

8rime reduction is concerned with diminishing the number of criminal events and theconse"uences of crime. rime reduction is applied within the bandwidth of an available resource

input /e.g. financial input0 and needs to be considered as an action that brings net benefits, fear of

crime and the impact of other programmes that may have contributed to any specific crimereduction activity. rime reduction promotes a spirit of optimism that actions towards a problem

will reduce crime or reduce the seriousness of criminal events 9 it aims to intervene directly in

the events and their causes.

Crime Control

8rime control considers that crime has already happened and that some management of these

criminal activities is re"uired to ensure that it does not spiral out of control. +t points to the needfor maintenance of a problem, one where crime is keep to a tolerable level, and not to a situation

where crime can be prevented

#trategies %!!roaches to Crime Pre"ention

rime )revention programs or strategies target changes in community infrastructure, culture, or

the physical environment in order to reduce crime. The diversity of approachesincludes neighbourhood watch, community policing, urban or physical design, and

comprehensive or multi*disciplinary efforts. These strategies may seek to engage residents,community and faith*based organizations, and local government agencies in addressing the

factors that contribute to the community(s crime, delin"uency, and disorder.

De"elo!mental

2ften known as early intervention, developmental crime prevention seeks to address the earlycauses of criminality. ;educing community and individual risk factors and increasing protective

factors, help to prevent crime later in life. The most celebrated examples of developmental crime

prevention include parenting programs, school enrichment initiatives, pre*school regimes andimprovements in transition to school arrangements.

Communit$ocial%trengthening neighbourhoods helps prevent crime.


5/20

neighbourhoods, areas within a city, or small villages or towns, or in some cases groups of

citizens with particular concerns.

#ituational Pre"ention

%topping the opportunities for crime is an effective way of preventing crime. +ncreasing the risksof detection, reducing the rewards for offending and increasing the difficulty of offending are all

ways to prevent crime. %ituational crime prevention can be as simple as installing locks and

alarms, increasing surveillance through lighting and making buildings harder to enter damage or

hide near.

Situational crime prevention covers approaches that aim to reduce the opportunities for people to

commit crimes, to increase the risks and costs of being caught and to minimize the benefits.

+t aims to prevent the occurrence of crimes by reducing opportunities, increasing risks of being

apprehended and minimizing benefits, including through environmental design, and by providingassistance and information to potential and actual victims. There are five specific categories of

situational prevention strategies have been identified:

• Those that increase the effort of offenders

• Those that increase the risks for offenders

• Those that reduce the rewards for offenders

• Those that reduce the provocation to offend

• Those that remove the excuses for offending

%ituational techni"ues are designed to be directed at highly specific forms of crime, and assume

that would*be offenders make rational decisions about the potential risks and rewards of breaking

the law. They involve the management, design or manipulation of the immediate environment in

a systematic and permanent way. %uch techni"ues include designing public spaces or housing tomake it more difficult for people to break e"uipment or enter buildings without permission, or

marking products so that they can be identified if they are stolen.

2ther examples include the use of closed*circuit television to protect car parks or the

development of pedestrian pavements, gardens and seats in a public area to encourage greater

public use, with increased surveillance of that public space. %ituational crime prevention isclosely associated with environmental crime prevention and crime prevention through

environmental design, which is more specifically concerned with changes to the built

environment or landscape.

Ph$sical Pre"ention

)hysical prevention was oriented to removing the physical opportunities to commit crime. The

police started giving out free crime prevention advice relating to locks and bolts while localauthorities with substantial public housing stock obtained funding under the government1s %afer

ities programme for investment in such things as improved street lighting, removing badly lit

areas, video phone entry systems in housing estates, and, during the 4>>5s, T? becameincreasingly popular. There were some bold architectural experiments such as removing the

walkways between blocks of high*rise apartments /seen as eliminating the escape routes for

burglars0 and discussions about the design of housing estates to maximise the level of 1naturalsurveillance1 /e.g. apartment blocks grouped into little courtyards so that anyone looking out of a

window could survey the entire area0


6/20

#ocial Pre"ention

%ocial prevention was oriented to strengthening communities and restoring informal surveillance

and social control of crime. This involved neighbourhoods taking a measure of responsibility for

their security. The conservative government, from its standpoint of stressing individualresponsibilities, tended to think of communities only as groups of individuals, such as residents

and house owners concerned with the upkeep of their property. The notion of community groups

debating and participating in the implementation of crime prevention policy was certainly not a

priority. The government therefore naturally favoured such schemes which reinforced the role of the police as the leading agency.

2ften, it is discovered that police and local residents might have "uite different ideas about crime priorities in the area. )olice might think they 1know1 what the most important crimes in an area

are. They would base their data on public re"uests for police assistance and reported crimes. $ut

certain crimes might be exaggerated. &or example car and vehicle crime might constitute a high proportion of reported crime for reasons of insurance.

ommunity groups were able to point out that things such as domestic violence, racial attacks,fear of the streets late at night by elderly residents and workers such as nurses coming home

from late shifts, were actually considered more important but were less reported to the police because people !ust didn1t think the police would do much about these issues anyway.

Reintegration Programmes

rime prevention through reintegration refers to all programmes that work with children, young

people or adults already involved in the criminal !ustice system, including those in custody andreturning to the community. Those convicted of offences run the greatest risk of re*offending,

given that they have already broken the law, have few opportunities and skills to pursue

legitimate non*criminal lifestyles, and may have strong links with other offenders and offendinglifestyles. )roviding them with life and !ob skills, training, education, alternative lifestyles and

role models and good support and housing in the community are all ways to assist with their

reintegration. )rogrammes in prison may help to prepare them for release by providing themwith new work skills, for example, or increasing their educational levels and social skills,

including the ability to mediate conflict situations, and through the use of other restorative

approaches.

)rogrammes may take place in the community, or in halfway houses or sheltered homes that

provide safe accommodation and in*house support and advice, and may include apprenticeship

programmes, !ob*creation schemes, life*skills training, microcredit facilities and long*termsupport. )rogrammes that teach conflict resolution skills or use restorative !ustice approaches,

such as victim*offender mediation or family or community group conferencing, are other

examples of ways in which offenders can be assisted in returning to civil society. These are all

examples of crime prevention focusing on re*integration, with the overall aim of preventing re*offending.

'a( Enforcement&Criminal

)ustice

The form of crime prevention most commonly understood is associated with the criminal !ustice

system: police, courts and prisons. ;esearch tends to suggest that these measures are only partially successful. These measures work best when accompanied by the other models. =ore


7/20

police, improved arrest rates, harsher penalties and rehabilitation in and upon release from prison

are some of the common strategies associated with the criminal !ustice system.

Com*ining Crime Pre"ention %!!roaches

@o one approach /or underlying theory of intervention0 is inherently better than the others. All of them have advantages and disadvantages. %ome social development approaches can be long*term

and re"uire commitment and investment continuing over a number of years. ommunity or

locally based approaches can re"uire considerable patience with the difficulties of engaging

citizens in positive ways, or maintaining the momentum of pro!ects. They are more difficult toevaluate, so clear and rapid results from interventions may be hard to identify.

%ituational prevention has often been criticized for focusing too much on opportunistic crime andtarget*hardening techni"ues or surveillance, /because it can displace crime and disorder to other

areas0 for encouraging une"ual access to security /for example, with the development of private

space and gated communities0 and for failing to tackle the social or economic causes of crime problems. %ome of the recent developments in situational prevention have focused on better use

of regulations, such as municipal and local by*laws and their enforcement, and this is seen as a

valuable tool that encourages businesses or local residents to change and regulate their own behaviours.

@o specific crime prevention approach should be considered superior to the others. ;ather, any

approach selected should form part of a strategic and balanced plan, and the advantages anddisadvantages of each approach in a particular context should be considered.

Thus, a pro!ect in a city neighbourhood, for example, may combine a range of initiatives such aschanges to traffic layout, better lighting, employing and training young people to act as guardians

and local mediators, providing support to low income families and providing better recreation

facilities and opportunities in disadvantaged residential apartments.

2verall, as figure ++ illustrates, these four broad categories are all aspects of the overall practice

of crime prevention, and provide a menu of approaches from which to select when developing anoverall strategy. They offer a range of short* and longer term responses to crime problems. All of

them offer valuable options, and have different advantages and disadvantages.

Figure II: Different %!!roaches to Crime Pre"ention


8/20

Timing of crime !re"ention strategies

%pecific terms are sometimes used to refer to the stages at which crime prevention programmescan be applied, regardless of the approach used. The public health inspired typology, using the

terms primary, secondary and tertiary prevention to reflect the stages of /possible0 entry into the

criminal !ustice system, is still commonly used, but does not fully reflect the range of issuesinvolved in preventing crime and developing safe communities:

• )rimary prevention refers to programmes or initiatives aimed at those who have never

been involved in the criminal !ustice system, such as programmes to educate or alert the

general public or young people about domestic violence or bullying in schools.• %econdary prevention refers to programmes specifically targeted to children and young

people who are identified by the social services, educational or !ustice systems as being at

risk of involvement in crime

• Tertiary prevention refers to programmes for those who are in the criminal !ustice system

and3or returning to the community, with the aim of preventing re*offending.

Crime !re"ention and communit$ safet$

2ne of the most common assumptions about crime prevention is that it can be clearly separated

from other areas of activity, and that it is restricted to academia, or solely the province of the

police and !ustice system. +n fact, as observers have often pointed out, many interventions thathelp to prevent crime are called something else, whether early childhood intervention,

educational and employment support, drug treatment or urban renewal.

rime prevention is not the only term commonly in use internationally. +n different contexts and

countries, other terms such as safety and security, crime reduction and community safety are

often used. The term community safety is commonly used to refer to the broader range of issues

that must be tackled to promote safer cities or communities, and with outcomes that bring benefits beyond an absence of crime:

rime prevention has been deemed a police term, while community safety is preferred in local

authorities in $ritain to signify a broader set of interests in crime conse"uences.

Thus, what is important, regardless of the terminology preferred, is the use of a strategic

approach that enables policymakers and practitioners to tailor interventions to the problems theyconfront, selecting from a wide range of interventions, finding a balance between the need for

short*term and longer*term outcomes, as well as protecting human rights.

#ustaina*le crime !re"ention

rime prevention can also be linked to the notions of sustainable development and sustainable

livelihoods, in the sense that it should meet the needs of the present, without compromising those

of future generations. This is especially relevant in middle*and low*income countries. #ffortsshould be aimed at increasing the capacities and resources of populations, providing

opportunities for the next generation and helping to increase intergenerational capital. %ustaining

crime prevention strategies beyond the life of a overnment is an important part of this process.

The costs of crime and the *enefits of crime !re"ention

As indicated above, investing in prevention programmes saves money. &or example, the costs of prevention programmes have been shown to be lower in the long run than those of criminal

!ustice interventions.


9/20

The criminal !ustice system is very costly to maintain in all countries, so any reductions in rates

of crime and in the numbers of people processed through the courts and prisons are likely to saveon policing, prosecution, defense and court costs, and the considerable expenses of running

prison and parole systems. Apart from the criminal !ustice costs of crime, there are many long*

term social and economic costs associated with lost productivity, and the social and welfareservices incurred by offenders and their families, for example, when breadwinners are

imprisoned or children taken into care. The costs of crime also include the costs for victims, in

terms of their health and their ability to work or go to school or to care for their own families.

#stimates of the costs of crime for victims and society in terms of health, lost earnings and productivity suggest that these can be even higher than the criminal !ustice costs.

&inally, all expenditure on protective security such as technological systems, private policing or fencing and barriers must be included in the costs of crime.

Government leadershipAll levels of government should play a leadership role in developing effective and humane crime

prevention strategies and in creating and maintaining institutional frameworks for their

implementation and review.

Socio-economic development and inclusionrime prevention considerations should be integrated into all relevant social and economic

policies and programmes, including those addressing employment, education, health, housingand urban planning, poverty, social marginalization and exclusion. )articular emphasis should be

placed on communities, families, children and youth at risk.

Cooperation/partnerships

ooperation3partnerships should be an integral part of effective crime prevention, given the

wide*ranging nature of the causes of crime and the skills and responsibilities re"uired to addressthem. This includes partnerships working across ministries and between authorities, community

organizations, non*governmental organizations, the business sector and private citizens.

Sustainability/accountabilityrime prevention re"uires ade"uate resources, including funding for structures and activities, in

order to be sustained. There should be clear accountability for funding, implementation and

evaluation and for the achievement of planned results.

Knowledge base

rime prevention strategies, policies, programmes and actions should be based on a broad,multidisciplinary foundation of knowledge about crime problems, their multiple causes and

promising and proven practices.

Human rights/rule of law/culture of lawfulnessThe rule of law and those human rights which are recognized in international instruments to

which =ember %tates are parties must be respected in all aspects of crime prevention. A culture

of lawfulness should be actively promoted in crime prevention.

Interdependency

@ational crime prevention diagnoses and strategies should, where appropriate, take account of links between local criminal problems and international organized crime.


10/20

ifferentiationrime prevention strategies should, when appropriate, pay due regard to the different needs of

men and women and consider the special needs of vulnerable members of society.

Im!ortance of Crime Pre"ention

+n Africa, for example, the impact of crime on development has been clearly outlined. #veryday

crime destroys confidence among citizens as well as businesses, affects "uality of life, adversely

affects employment and productivity, destroys human and social capital, discourages investmentand undermines the relationship between citizens and their overnments.

Effects of Crime on #ociet$

rime is defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary as an act or the commission of an act that is

forbidden or the omission of a duty that is commanded by a public law and that makes the

offender liable to punishment by that law.


11/20

• +t shows for example that when men do not lead, the women will more than likely step in.

They will do a good !ob, but they will not be able to stem the tide of the decline andeventually, society will go downhill so much that they become victims to all kinds of

atrocities.

• Enowing the conse"uences of our actions and lack thereof, is the beginning of the light

and beginning of a new day on this earth.

The effects of crime on society include feelings of fear that disrupt the population(s sense of

unity, the breakdown of social associations due to habitual avoidance of certain places, anunwillingness to go out at night and damage to the image of the community. The perception of a

community as crime ridden can deter people from going there and induce residents to move

away. This causes damage to the economy.

Crime destroys Africa’s social and human capital ! rime degrades "uality of life and can force

skilled workers overseas victimization, as well as fear of crime, interferes with the development

of those who remain. rime impedes access to possible employment and educationalopportunities, and it discourages the accumulation of assets.

Crime drives business away from Africa! +nvestors see crime in Africa as a sign of social

instability, driving up the cost of doing business. orruption is even more damaging, perhaps thesingle greatest obstacle to development. &urther, tourism, of large and growing importance to

Africa, is an industry especially sensitive to crime.

Crime undermines the State! rime and corruption destroy the trust relationship between

people and the %tate, undermining democracy. Aside from direct losses of national funds due to

corruption, crime can corrode the tax base as the rich bribe tax officials and the poor recede intothe shadow economy. orruption diverts resources into graft*rich public works pro!ects, at a cost

to education and health services.

The fear of crime in any society is as damaging as the act of crime itself. +t is emotionally taxing

for the people who live in fear in high*crime communities. The fear of crime can negativelyaffect the residents1 behavior, reduce community organization and deter new businesses fromwanting to open in the area for fear of being robbed. This adds to the economic woes of an area

heavy with crime. The law enforcement organizations of high*crime areas generally utilize an

increased visibility, but this often backfires in low*income areas, causing the population to see

the police as the enemy.

2ther problems include the fact that victims of crime must deal with increased fear and trauma

afterward. #ven for those who have not been a victim of a crime, fear can vary depending uponthe demographics of the person. Age is a factor because the elderly are more vulnerable. ender

is a factor because women express higher levels of fear of crime than men do. )eople living in

non*white neighborhoods are more fearful of crime that those living in predominantly whiteareas, explains &lourish +tulua*Abumere. rime can even change the appearance of

neighborhoods, since gates and window guards detract from the aesthetic look of the community.


12/20

RO'E OF N%TION%' PO'ICE #ERVICE+ PRI#ON#+ P%R'I%MENT )UDICI%R. %ND

COMMUIT.

Legislative Reforms

In order to realise the envisaged reforms, the following Acts of Parliament

have been enacted:-

•

The National Police Service Act 2011;• The National Police Service Commission Act 2011; and

• The Independent Policing Oversight Authority Act 2011.

The Police Role

The )olice Act provides for the functions, organization and discipline of the Eenya )olice

service and the Eenya )olice ;eserve, and for matters incidental thereto. According to section 4F

of the Act, the )olice service is established in the ;epublic of Eenya to perform the followingfunctions:

• =aintenance of law and order

• The preservation of peace• The protection of life and property

• The prevention and detection of crime

• The apprehension of offenders

• The enforcement of all laws and regulations with which it is charged

The Role of Prisons

+deally a man is born free and the so!ourn in life is a social drama in pursuit of en!oyment of that

freedom. The social norms from onset reinforce this being 8free status. This is so until the long

arm of the law of the land catches up with transgressors and the law breakers and for once the

freedom is taken away. The punishment as often is the case is automatic exclusion and separationfrom the rest of society and being placed under charge of a correctional institution.

Cithin the institutions are well rehearsed and regimented roles, rules and regulations. Theoffender of necessity has to ad!ust to the new status and fit into a new life *life inside the prison

walls. This process of fitting into a new life is gradual, thorough and ends up abolishing the

individualism and privacy * values that one has long been socialised into.

)risons by design are places where offenders are sent down as punishment. They are meant to

epitomize both the retributive and deterrence principles of sentencing. The architecture and

social aloofness further reinforces this feeling of punishment. Also prisons are places where

hardships are inevitably occasioned whether by design, deliberate or otherwise. The deprivationof personal liberties, the denials of the basic choices in life, the withholding and withdrawal of

basic privileges. All the basic issues that find expression in ordinary life are controlled andsparingly provided.

Role of )udiciar$

The duties of the !udiciary include carrying out investigations, instituting prosecutions, so that

the !udiciary and the courts apply the law correctly, and ensuring that !udgments have been


13/20

carried out. +n addition, many public prosecutors are assigned to key positions in the =inistry of

Dustice, for example, as vice*minister of !ustice and director*general of the riminal Affairs$ureau.

Crime !re"ention a!!roaches+ theor$ and mechanisms

Crime prevention refers to the range of strategies that are implemented by individuals,

communities, businesses, non*government organisations and all levels of government to target

the various social and environmental factors that increase the risk of crime, disorder and

victimisation. There are a variety of different approaches to crime prevention that differ in termsof the focus of the intervention, the types of activities that are delivered, the theory behind how

those activities are designed to bring about the desired results and the mechanisms that are

applied.

The environmental approach, which includes situational crime prevention techni"ues and

broader urban planning initiatives, aims to modify the physical environment to reduce theopportunities for crime to occur. The social approach focuses on the underlying social and

economic causes of crime in the community /e.g. lack of social cohesion, limited access to

housing, employment, education and health services0 and on limiting the supply of motivatedoffenders, and includes developmental prevention and community development models. The

criminal !ustice approach refers to various programs delivered by police, the courts andcorrections that aim to prevent recidivism among those people who have already engaged in

offending behaviour and who have come into contact with the criminal !ustice system.

Environmental crime prevention

The environmental approach seeks to change the specific characteristics of the environment thatmay cause criminal events to occur. This includes both situational approaches to crime

prevention and broader planning initiatives, and aims to reduce crime by designing and3or

modifying the physical environment to reduce the opportunities for crime to occur.

#ituational crime !re"ention

%ituational crime prevention is based upon the premise that crime is often opportunistic and aimsto modify contextual factors to limit the opportunities for offenders to engage in criminal

behaviour. %ituational prevention comprises a range of measures that highlight the importance of

targeting very specific forms of crime in certain circumstances. This involves identifying,

manipulating and controlling the situational or environmental factors associated with certaintypes of crime. +t is also based upon assumptions regarding the nature of offending and of

offenders. Underlying the situational approach are four key elements, including:

• three key opportunity theories routine activity, crime pattern and rational choice theory

• an action research methodology that involves analysing of specific crime problems and

contributing factors, identifying possible responses, selecting and implementing of the most

appropriate or promising response and evaluating and disseminating the results

• a classification of GH situational prevention techni"ues and

• a growing body of evaluated pro!ects and examples of different types of strategies

The focus of the three key opportunity theories is actually "uite different. Under routine activity

theory, three critical elements must occur simultaneously for a criminal event to take place amotivated offender, a suitable target and the absence of a capable guardian. The theory seeks to

explain how societal changes can impact upon opportunities for crime0. rime pattern theory

seeks to explain the influence of communities and neighbourhoods, and focuses on how


14/20

offenders may come across opportunities for crime in the course of their everyday lives. ;ational

choice theory has a more individualistic focus and explores the decision*making processes thatlead to an offender choosing to become involved in crime or specific criminal events, including

weighing up the relative risks and rewards associated with offending.

%ituational crime prevention interventions include activities such as improved security throughstrengthening locks and improving surveillance. ornish and larke have classified GH

situational crime prevention techni"ues into five broad categories that are based on the

mechanisms underlying the different methods:

• increasing the effort involved in offending• increasing the risk associated with offending

• reducing the rewards that come from committing a crime

• reducing situational factors that influence the propensity of an individual to offend and

• removing excuses for offending behaviour.

• This relative simple classification scheme provides a useful framework for describing the

range and variety of situational techni"ues on offer to those working in crime prevention.

• +mportant lessons for the implementation of situational crime prevention pro!ects, include

that it:

• works most effectively when it is targeted at a specific crime problem in a specific

context• involves a thorough and systematic analysis of current and emerging crime problems and

their causes and risk factors that is based on accurate and wide*ranging sources of

information and has analysts with the capacity to interpret the data

• re"uires appropriate consultation mechanisms to seek input from stakeholders and the

community into the development of strategies that are likely to re"uire their action,

involvement or cooperation and

• re"uires strong pro!ect management skills, a comprehensive implementation plan that

describes the key stages in pro!ect delivery and the interrelationships between different

but complementary interventions, and a committee made up of representatives from key

stakeholder groups to oversee pro!ect development, implementation and review

Ur*an design and !lanning

$roader planning initiatives include Crime Pre"ention Through En"ironmental Design/)T#-0 and urban renewal pro!ects, and seek to reduce the opportunities for crime through thedesign and management of the built and landscaped environment. rime prevention is being

recognised as an increasingly important consideration in urban regeneration programs. This

includes strategies that involve modifying the built environment to create safer places that are

less crime prone or can make people feel safer /such as by designing public spaces thatencourage large numbers of users and provide greater natural surveillance, or by designing

pedestrian thoroughfares that are well lit and do not create places for potential offenders to hide0.

)T#- has a ma!or influence on crime prevention policy and practice in Australia and in other parts of the world, and a number of state, territory and local governments now have specific

planning policies that incorporate )T#- principles or guidelines.

#xperience has shown that )T#-:

• needs to be integrated as part of a broader crime prevention strategy targeting other risk

factors and neighbourhood problems, which re"uires community involvement, partnerships

and the coordination of activities


15/20

• is underpinned by a number of important principles such as natural surveillance, territoriality,

sustainability and vulnerability of public spaces, and these principles should drive designdecisions

• should be focused at both the macro /overall design of the built environment0 and micro level

/finer details0

• should be applied to both public initiatives and private developments, and involves careful

management of the relationship between public and private space

•

re"uires a balance between competing interests, such as between privacy and security and• re"uires the involvement of different design*related professional disciplines

Social crime prevention

;ather than focusing on the physical environment, social crime prevention is most commonly

directed at trying to influence the underlying social and economic causes of crime, as well asoffender motivation. This approach tends to include crime prevention measures that take some

time to produce the intended results. This may include action to improve housing, health and

educational achievement, as well as improved community cohesion through community

development measures.

De"elo!mental crime !re"ention-evelopmental crime prevention initiatives are becoming increasingly popular in Australia.There has been considerable investment in early intervention programs in Australia, many of

which do not have explicit crime prevention ob!ectives. -evelopmental crime prevention is

based on the premise that intervening early in a young person(s development can producesignificant long*term social and economic benefits. Chile there is evidence of the importance of

intervening early in life, the focus of developmental crime prevention is on intervening early at

any of a number of critical transition points in a person(s development to lead them on a pathwayto prevent future offending. Transition points occur around birth, the preschool years, transition

from primary to high school and from high school to further education or the workforce.

#arly intervention aims to address risk factors and enhance protective factors that impact uponthe likelihood that a young person will engage in future offending behaviour. ;isk and protective

factors can be categorised into child factors, family factors, school context, life events and

community and cultural factors. -evelopmental programs aim to identify measure andmanipulate risk and protective factors that research has confirmed are important in predicting

future offending. +n practical terms, developmental crime prevention involves providing basic

services or resources to individuals, families, schools or communities to minimise the impact of risk factors on the development of offending behaviours. =ost often these resources and services

are directed towards disadvantaged or 'vulnerable( families with young children.

%everal factors have been identified as contributing to the successful implementation of

developmental crime prevention initiatives, including:

•the importance of timing and intervening at critical !unctures, such as times of stress or when people are open to external influences /which may not mean early in life0

• the need to target multiple risk factors due to their cumulative impact, with bias towards

those factors regarded as having the greatest impact, and to target multiple offence types

• the need to be sensitive to the needs of the local area /including the need to be culturally

sensitive0, involve and empower the community /in decision making, as volunteers and as

paid professionals0 and identify local change agents


16/20

• the importance of detailed assessments of community readiness /the presence of existing

partnerships and management structures, leadership stability, community engagement andsupport for and commitment to prevention0, which is a key component of programs such as

ommunities that are

• the importance of strategies to make programs accessible, keep people involved and to avoid

stigmatising at*risk young people or families

• the value of partnerships and coordination between new and existing service providers,

whether they rely on formal interagency structures or more simple arrangements and

• the re"uirement for longer term investment, as the benefits of developmental crime

prevention are not immediate.

Communit$ De"elo!ment

ommunity development is premised on the notion that changing the physical or social

organisation of communities may influence the behaviour of individuals who live there. The risk of becoming involved in crime, or being victimised, is greater in those communities that

experience high levels of social exclusion or a lack of social cohesion. Also underlying the

community development approach is the belief that crime in a particular community is not primarily or solely the result of the actions of a small number of criminogenically disposed

individuals, but the result of the coincidence of a series of structural determinants present within particular communities /e.g. differential rates of access to housing, employment, education andhealth services, among other factors.

The underlying assumption is that if these crime*promoting structural stress factors can be

relieved, reconfigured or removed, then crime will be reduced. ommunity developmentstrategies can aim to build social cohesion and address factors leading to community

disorganisation, empower communities to participate in decision*making processes, increase

resources, services and economic opportunities in disadvantaged communities or address lowlevel physical or social disorder that may be a precursor to more serious problems. ommunity

development programs that focus on strengthening informal networks and enhancing community

structures have the potential to build community capacity, which can, in turn, provideopportunities to mobilise communities to address local crime problems.

The implementation of community*wide programs has proven difficult due to the challenges of rolling out these types of programs on a broader scale, including problems associated with

engaging the wider community /or even identifying who the 'community( is0 and maintaining

their involvement. &or example, cooperation and participation can be lacking in highly

disorganised communities, who might benefit most from these types of programs. ommunitydevelopment*type programs are more likely to be effective when they:

• identify communities at need based on evidence and community consultation, and analyse

factors that may contribute to social disadvantage or exclusion

•take into consideration a community(s capacity to implement change and level of socialdisorganisation

• increase opportunities to participate and promote community involvement and consultation in

program design and decision making, as well as in the management of activities that impacton, either directly or indirectly, those social conditions believed to sustain crime in residential

settings

• encourage representation from diverse groups, particularly those community members most

at risk of being marginalised


17/20

• coordinate efforts between agencies across government and non*government sectors to target

multiple areas of disadvantage, supported by neighbourhood regeneration

• are provided with ongoing support /including human, financial and physical resources0 and

• regularly review progress to ensure that initiatives remain on track.

Chen compared with situational or developmental approaches, there is limited evidence of theeffectiveness of efforts to modify community level factors to reduce crime.

Crime prevention mechanisms

To accurately identify and share information on the types of mechanisms used in the studies

reviewed as part of this pro!ect, a consistent and comprehensive framework was re"uired for

classifying the mechanisms underpinning the various interventions that have been evaluated.

Cithout a clear framework for their classification, it would be difficult to describe anintervention in a way that can be shared and potentially replicated in another crime prevention

strategy.

&or this reason, the on!unction of riminal 2pportunity /20 was chosen as the conceptual

framework for this review. The 2 framework has been developed to provide a common point

of reference to facilitate the effective and efficient transfer of knowledge about the principlesunderpinning the full range of prevention strategies, as well as to help inform the choice of

interventions by practitioners and policymakers. The 2 framework allows for interventions to

be classified in accordance with one or more identified precursors for crime and disorder events.These classifications take into consideration both social and environmental causes /reflecting the

range of approaches to crime prevention described above0. &or each precursor, a corresponding

principle of prevention is also identified.

7owever, the 2 does not explicitly identify the specific causal mechanisms that explain howan intervention aims to bring about the desired outcomes. The mechanism is the theory that

explains how the intervention is intended to prevent or reduce crime through targeting specific

precursors for criminal events. To overcome this limitation, the A+ has extrapolated the 2 toidentify eleven common mechanisms underpinning different prevention strategies /as shown in

Table F0.

Ta*le /: Con-unction of criminal o!!ortunit$

Immediate

!recursors to

crime or disorder

e"ent

Princi!le for !re"ention Mechanism

rime promoters

A crime promoter is someone or

something that makes crime easier to

occur. +nterventions aim to discourage

or deter promoters and awaken their conscience. This can be through naming

and shaming, civil liability, tackling a

criminal subculture, procedural controlsor market reduction

#ncourage individuals /potentialtargets or individuals who facilitate

access to targets0 to consider the

implications of their actions anddiscourage behaviour that may

create opportunities for crime to

occur and3or encourage behaviour that minimises opportunities for

crime to occur

rime preventers %ometimes the presence of people in an

area may deter offenders to from

+ntroduce or improve formal or

informal surveillance to increase the


18/20

committing a crime. This includes

formal control /surveillance, access

control0, informal social control, self* protection or avoidance

perceived risk that committing an

offence will result in identificationor capture

Cider

environment

The aim is to make the physical

environment safer, or to make theenvironment less likely to encourage

conflict through environmental design

and management, including aiding

surveillance, resolving conflicts andsetting rules

=anipulate the physicalenvironment /built or landscape0 to

improve surveillance, define

ownership of spaces and minimise

conflict between users

Target enclosure

A 'target enclosure( is the business,

room or space /such as a car, home or shop0 that contains the target of the

crime. +nterventions include perimeter

access and security

=ake target enclosures harder to penetrate to increase the perceived

effort associated with a crime

Target person or property

)ro!ects in this category focus onstrengthening the actual target, not !ust

its surroundings. +t could include what issometimes termed 'target hardening(, or the removal of the target from a

vulnerable area.

+ncrease the perceived effort or

rewards associated with a crime bymaking targets harder to access,remove or dispose

2ffender presence

in situation

This is an activity that targets an

offender(s presence in a situation, possibly by placing restrictions on their

access to a certain area at a certain time

or by providing alternative activities. +tis trying to remove or deter potential

offenders from situations that might

result in an offence occurring

)revent potential offenders from

being able to access locations where

there are potential targets /property

or people0 or where provocation mayoccur

Anticipation of risk, effort and

reward

)eople can be influenced to commit anoffence by weighing up what they will

benefit from it, how much they are

willing to risk to commit the offence andwhat would be involved in committing

it. )ro!ects can be aimed specifically at

deterring and3or discouraging potentialoffenders by making the offence riskier,

re"uiring more effort, or have less

reward.

+ncrease the perceived risk of crime,

the perceived effort of crime or reduce the anticipated rewards of

crime to discourage potential

offenders

;esources for

crime

;estricting resources for crimeIcontrol

of weapons, tools and information on

targets and transfer of criminal

knowledge

)revent offenders from being able toaccess the resources they need in

order to commit an offence, or that

may be used as an excuse for offending behaviour

;eadiness to

offend

There could be some situations where a

person(s current life circumstance may

Alleviate /or minimise the impact

of0 stressors /relating to the


19/20

suddenly change. This category could be

seen as targeting /often unexpected0

short*term situations for potentialoffenders /eg money problems,

relationship problems, substance use0,

including changing current lifecircumstances and conflict resolution

techni"ues

individual or environment0 that mayinfluence the behaviour of potential

offenders or that might be used as an

excuse for offending

;esources to

avoid crime

Training potential offenders in areassuch as social and work skills to target

factors that can make some people at a

greater risk than others to commitcrimes

$uild a person(s resilience to

offending by providing them withthe resources, skills, knowledge and

ability to avoid situations in which

their risk of offending might beincreased

riminality

/predisposition0

;educe known risk factors and enhanceknown protective factors through family,

school and peer groups also includes

supplying remedial treatment for thosewho have been convicted

+ntervene early at key developmental

stages to alleviate risk factors and

enhance protective factorsAddress the underlying factors that

contributed to an offender(s behaviour in the first place andsupport their transition back into the

community

%ource: Adapted from #kblom G55G

Interventions and mechanisms

This review involved categorising crime prevention interventions so that conclusions could be

drawn about their effectiveness in different contexts. +n practice, developing typologies for crime

prevention and categorising interventions is a notoriously difficult task. As illustrated above,crime prevention is a broad area that encompasses such a wide range of activity that there are

inevitably going to be interventions that don(t appear to fit within neat groupings. +t alsofre"uently involves the delivery of multiple overlapping interventions delivered in combination.There was a need to find a balance between specificity and flexibility. %pecificity was important

from the point of view of trying to provide clear guidance to policymakers and practitioners /in

this case @%C )- and local government0. Bet flexibility was necessary to ensure that evidence

can be accumulated for certain interventions and lessons learned about their application tospecific contexts. The final list of intervention types developed for this pro!ect is provided in

Appendix A /see Table A40. These intervention types were used to categorise activities delivered

as part of the evaluated strategies examined as part of this review. +t was common for crime prevention strategies reviewed for this pro!ect to involve multiple intervention types.

2nce these intervention types had been identified, it was necessary to determine the range of mechanisms through which they aim to bring about the desired results. Understanding these

mechanisms is an important step in understanding why a particular intervention is or is not

successful, why it may have been effective in one study but not another, or why it works for onetype of crime or target group and not another. As has been argued here, it is also useful in adding

value to systematic reviews, as it provides clear guidance as to what needs to happen in order for

an intervention to work and therefore assists practitioners and policymakers to determine how

best to modify and adapt interventions to different contexts.


20/20

The range of mechanisms that can be activated by different intervention types are also describedin Appendix A. @otable in Table A4 is the potential for interventions to apply different

mechanismsIultimately dependent upon the precise nature of the intervention/s0 that are used

and the context in which they are applied. &urther, multiple interventions may be combined toactivate a single mechanism and address the same problem.

Documents

Introduction to Crime Prevention