Introduction to Civil Engineering by Ramachandran V

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Introduction to Civil Engineering

Ramachandran V


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Kerala Technological University which has just come into being in 2014 hasformulated a new syllabus for the first and second semester students. One of the compulsory

subjects for them is Introduction to Civi l Engineering. I was teaching the subject for the last

couple of years. Though there are a large number of text books on the subject, the students

have to refer to more than one book. It was felt that there was a need to make available all the

subject matter in one place and this prompted me to compile the book as per the syllabus of K

Tech University. Some topics like cement concrete, RCC etc which have not been included in

the K Tech University syllabus have been incorporated in this book for sake of continuity.

Attempt has been made to present the topic in a very simple and lucid language with a

large number of illustrations. In order to make clear the steps of lay out of buildings, brick

masonry (English bond and Flemish bond) few video cl ips have been included. At the end of

each chapter, the main points to be revised and remembered are given as “ Points to Ponder ”.

Also a good number of questions have been given at the end of each chapter for practice.

Hope that the students will be able to take full advantage of the book.

Comments/suggestions are most welcome!

Ramachandran V


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(As per Kerala Technological University - 2015)

1. General Introduction to Civil Engineering

2. History of Civil Engineering

3. Relevance of Civil Engineering in the Overall development of the country

4. Type and classification of structures : Buildings, Towers, Chimneys, Bridges, Dams,

Retaining Walls, Water tanks, Silos, Roads, Railways, Runways, Pipe lines

5. Definition and type of buildings as per National Building Code of India

6. Selection of site

7. Components of buildings and their functions

8. Setting out of a building

9. Stones

10. Bricks

11. Tiles

12. Aggregates

13. Cement mortar

14. Stone masonry

15. Brick masonry

16. Timber

17. Steel

18. Floors

19. Roofs


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SN Chapter Page No

Int roduct ion

1. General Introduction to Civil Engineering 7

2. History of Civil Engineering 9

3. Relevance of Civil Engineering in the development of the country 11

4. Types and classification of structures 17

5. Definition and Type of Buildings as per National Building Code 28

6. Components of a Residential Building 33

Bu i lding Mater ials

7. Stones 48

8. Bricks 53

9. Tiles 64

10. Cement 70

11. Aggregates 77

12. Cement Mortar 86

13. Cement Concrete 90

14. Iron & Steel 101

15. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) 107

16. Timber 111


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Construct ion

17 Selection of site 122

18 Setting out of a building 125

19. Stone Masonry 127

20. Brick Masonry 134

21. Floors and Flooring Materials 145

22. Roofs and Roof coverings 149


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1. General Introduction to Civil Engineering

Engineering is the oldest profession in the technical field and Civil Engineering is the oldestbranch of Engineering. Civil engineering deals with the planning, design, construction and

maintenance of buildings, roads, railways, airports, seaports, dams, canals, bridges, water

supply and sewerage systems. Though in olden times, there was no formal education in theengineering field, construction of various structures like pyramids of Egypt, Taj Mahal of India,

Tower of Pisa. Italy were carried out by the local artisans with their traditional knowledge and

experience. The well designed towns of Mohanjo Daro and Harappa were built with properly

planned and designed roads and sanitary networks around 2600 BC.

.

It is reported that our ancestors lived in caves and tree tops. Later on they shifted to huts made

of twigs and leaves. In the modern world, it has been recognized that it is the state’s

responsibility to provide its citizens the basic amenities like food, shelter (house) and clothing.

Civil Engineering has many branches like – Structural Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering,

Transportation Engineering, Water resources Engineering, Environmental Engineering,

Earthquake Engineering etc.

Geotechnical Engineering: This subject deals with soils, rock and foundations of all structures

like buildings, roads, railways, dams, tunnels etc. Before starting any work, soil samples are

required to be collected from the field, brought to the laboratory and tested to find out the

properties of the soils. The foundations are then designed taking into account the load of the

structure.

Structural Engineering: This discipline deals with the design of different structures. The structure

should be safe and should be able to give the service for which it was intended. The load acting

on the structure has to be identified and the stresses are to be calculated. The design should be

economical also. The loads are dead load, live load, wind load and seismic load.

Transportation Engineering: Transportation engineering deals with the construction and

maintenance of roads, railways, airways, seaways. For the transportation of men and material agood transportation net work is very essential. This forms one of the essential requirement of

the infrastructure development of the country. As far as the roads are connected they connect

small villages to the major cities and industrial towns and railways help in trans[porting

passengers and goods in large quantities more effectively..

Environmental Engineering: This deals with water supply and sanitary engineering. Water is an

essential item for drinking, irrigation, sanitation, hydropower generation etc. The waste


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accumulated both in solid and liquid form has to be collected, treated and disposed off so that

the environment is neat and clean. The atmosphere is now a days polluted due to large scale

vehicles on the road, major industries and over population. Necessary steps are to be taken to

reduce the effect of pollution.

Water Resources Engineering: This discipline of civil engineering deals with the management

of quantity and quality of water in the underground and above ground water resources, like

rivers, lakes ponds and streams. The availability of water from these sources are to be analysed

and actual use planned accordingly. Water as told earlier is required for irrigation, industries,

drinking and transportation.

Earth Quake Engineering: Earth quakes are certain tremors from the inside of earth which may

create the destruction and loss of property and people.. Of course the loss depends on the

intensity of earth quake. As such a civil engineer has to design a structure taking into account

this seismic load. This will depend upon the actual location of the place. India has been divided

into different zones according to the likely severity of the quake. It is not able to predict in

advance when and where the quake may happen. The main objectives of earthquake engineering

are: *Foresee the potential consequences of strong earthquakes on civil structures

*Design, construct and maintain structures to reduce the after effects of earthquakes

Construction Engineering: This branch of civil engineering deals with the construction of various

structures like buildings, dams, water supply schemes, roads, railways, air ports, sea ports etc.

First detailed engineering survey has to be made. Then design the structure and carry out the

construction. Proper quality control has to be made by the site engineer so that the structure will

be safe and also it should be economical. The work should be completed within the target dates

as to avoid cost escalation. So many software packages are available now a days for design,

drawing and project planning.

Hydraulic engineering: This branch of civil engineering deals with the flow and conveyance

of fluids, mainly water and sewage. The knowledge on this subject is required for the design

of bridges, dams, channels, canals, water supply and sanitary engineering. Hydraulic engineering is

the application of fluid mechanics principles to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control,

transport of water and sewage. The hydraulic engineer has to study the effect of scour on bridges

and other structures.

Surveying: Before starting a new project a survey has to be made with respect to its alignment,

level, feature on the way and surroundings. The project can be a road, railway, airport, dam or

other structure..

Surveying is the art of determining the relative position of points on the surface of earth with

respect to its direction, magnitude and level. There are different surveys depending on the type

of instruments used, purpose of survey etc. The main instruments in this connection are – chain,

leveling instrument, theodolite, tachometer, total station etc. After the survey, plans are to be

prepared.

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2. History of Civil Engineering

It is very difficult to specify the history of the beginning of civil engineering. Our ancestors atefruits, drank water from streams and slept in caves or on top of trees. Then they felt the need of

a house for protection from rain and other atmospheric effects. They cut the trees and using the

logs constructed small huts. The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (2700 - 2500 BC) is

considered to be the first major civil construction. Ancient historic civil engineering

constructions include the Great Wall of China (312 BC), Irrigation projects in China (around

220 BC); Julius Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine River( 55 BC), Taj Mahal (Agra), Red Fort

(Delhi), Golden Temple (Amritsar), Hawa Mahal (Jaipur), Ellora Caves( Nasik), Guruvayoor

Srikrishna Temple (Kerala), Maha Budha Temple (Gaya), Malankara Orthodox Church (Kerala)

in India.

Great wall of China (312 BC) Pyramids of Egypt (2700-2500 BC)

Tajmahal of india (1632)

In the earliest period, the construction of structures were done using mud, stone and lime

mortar. Though there was no formal education, they could design and construct such

magnificent structure which are still in existence without any serious deterioration.


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One of the most essential requirements of human beings is food. For raising food crops,irrigation is required.

History of Irrigation Development in World

Archaeological investigation has identified evidence of irrigation in Mesopotamia and Egypt as

far back as the 6th millennium BCE, where barley was grown in areas where the natural rainfall

was insufficient to support such a crop. In the 'Zana' Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru,

archaeologists found remains of three irrigation canals dated from the 4th millennium BCE, the

3rd millennium BCE and the 9th century CE. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in

the New World. The Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan and North India (from 2600 BCE) also

had an early canal irrigation system. Large scale agriculture was practiced and an extensive

network of canals was used for the purpose of irrigation.

Drawing water from well using bullocks

Engineering Education

The first engineering school, The National School of Bridges and Highways, France, was

opened in 1747. In 1818, world’s first engineering society, the Institution of Civil Engineers wasfounded in London. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognizing civil

engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: “Civil engineering is the

application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in

understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a

wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is

linked to knowledge of structures, material science, geography, geology, soil, hydrology,

environment, mechanics and other fields.”

The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University

founded in 1819. The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. In India, engineering education started with theopening of School of Survey in 1794, which became the Civil Engineering School in 1858 and was

rechristened as College of Engineering in 1859 in Chennai (Madras). The Thomason College of Civil

Engineering, Roorkee,(Uttar Pradesh) was started in 1847.whicht was given university status in

1949 and was converted to Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) in 2001.

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3. Relevance of Civil Engineering in the Infrastructure Development

of the Country

Civil Engineers have a major role to play in the development of a nation as they have to makethe necessary infrastructure in terms of buildings, transportation net work, dams, irrigation

canals, power generating stations etc. Infrastructure can be defined as the physical and

organizational structures and facilities like buildings, roads etc. needed for the operation of a

society. They are required for the economic development of the country.

Civil Engineering has got various branches like Geotechnical Engineering, Structural

Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Surveying - each

discipline dealing with a particular aspect. In general, the functions of a Civil Engineer are

Planning, Design, Construction and Maintenance of different Civil Engineering structures.

The infrastructure requirements can be broadly grouped under the following categories:

Buildings, Roads, Railways, Bridges, Airports, Dams and Canals, Electric Power Stations,

Factories, Industrial Town ships

Buildings are required for dwelling, schools, industries, offices, hospitals, factories etc.


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Bridges are required for crossing rivers and other obstacles for both rail and road network.

Food is an essential item for all - rich and poor. Agricultural fields are to be raised and

maintained properly.

For raising food production irrigation is to be effective. For this dams are required. The stored

water can be used for drinking and hydroelectric power in addition to irrigation.

For transporting men and material from one end of the country to the other end railways are a

must.


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For linking villages to towns, cities and industrial towns roads are required

For faster and quicker transport of passengers and goods air transport is the only solution.

Electric power is required for almost are operations – domestic, commercial or industrial

purposes. The power is generated though hydro electric, thermal or nuclear power stations.

One of the parameter to measure the progress of a country is its industrial production. This

can be the in the small scale sector or large scale sector.

Conventional building materials like stone, brick, timber etc are still in vogue, but two materials

which have completely revolutionized the construction industry are cement and steel. From a


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small one room house to a multi- storey buildings, dams, power houses, air ports, rail sleepers,

concrete roads, tunnels, bridges etc all are being constructed with concrete and steel.

Computers are now extensively used for design, drawing and planning of various civil

engineering works. Also micro controllers are being used in various machineries used in

construction activities. In the present day world “going green” is on top priority in our society.

Reusing materials from existing sites is an upcoming trend in the new environment.

Engineers play a very critical role in planning, developing, building and maintaining nation’s

infrastructure. Ultimately, the engineering profession uses its expertise, experience and

knowledge help to create a safer, more sustainable, and prosperous future for the country.

Engineers balance social, environmental and economic considerations to find the best solutions

to complex challenges. They have a responsibility to manage the risks associated with their

work, and the impacts on the public and on the environment.

The progress made by the nation in the successive five year plans is an eye-opener. The

progress can be seen in all spectrum - Irrigation, Agriculture, Hydro electric power, Roads,

Railways, Air ports, Sea ports, Techno / I T parks, Communication network, Cement, Steel and

other heavy and light Industries.

Some recent remarkable infrastructure developments in India

For any country, its infrastructure is a matter of pride. During the last few years phenomenal

change has taken place in sectors like buildings, roads, railways, airports etc leading to world

class facilities in various parts of the country. Few such projects are briefly described here.

1. Mumbai’s Eastern Freeway – India’s second largest Fly over - More than 25000

vehicles are expected to take the freeway daily. The 17 km freeway is divided in three

parts- 9.29 km elevated road, 4.3 km road-tunnel, and an elevated 2.5 km fly over.

2. Udhampur-Katra rail link (Kashmir) – The work on this line is complete. Pilgrims to

Vaishnodevi temple can travel directly to the base camp at Katra. Constructed at an

estimated cost of Rs 1050 crores, the route consists of seven tunnels, 30 small and big

bridges.


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3. Indore’s BRTS road route- Built at a cost of Rs135 crores, the BRTS consists of

physically separated bus lanes and metro like stations.

4. Double decker train from Chennai to Banglore – The fully air- conditioned train started its

run on April 25, 2013.

5. India’s first solar park at Caranka village in Gujarath – This is country’s first solar park.Spread across 5000 acres it has 500 MW of generation capacity of both solar and wind

energy.

6. Yamuna Expressway (Greater Noida to Agra) – The 165 km long Yamuna Expressway

is the longest access controlled six-lane rigid pavements in India.


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7. India’s longest rail tunnel – The 11 km tunnel across PirPanjal mountain range on the

Bani hal – Quazigund railway line in Jammu Kashmir.

8. Lulu Mall. Kochi – Constructed at a cost of Rs1600 crores at Edappally, Cochi in 25 lakh

square feet complex

9. India’s Life line Express (World’s first hospital train)- Established in 1991, this train has

travelled the length and breadth of the country bringing the medical aid to the most far-

flung inaccessible areas.


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4. Types and Classification of Structures

There are different types of structures like buildings, roads, railways, air ports, towers etc. Abrief description of these structures is given below:

Buildings

A building is a man-made structure with proper foundation, wall, roof and other building services. It

may be of mud, stone or cement blocks. The building may be for various purposes – residential,commercial, industrial, educational, religious…..It may be of various sizes and shapes National

Building Code of India (2005) defines a building as a structure for any purpose built of any material.

The building may be of single storey or multi-storey structure.

In the last few years the cost of construction has sky rocketed due to the rise in the cost of building

materials as well the increased labour cost. The cost of land has also gone up considerably. Earlier

the practice was to construct single storey or two storey buildings. But the trend has completely

changed due to the paucity and high cost of land and the increased demand for houses. The old

system of combined family has disappeared and the trend is for miniature families. So now

multistory residential complexes are being constructed. One factor which has to be taken into

connection in this regard is the Floor Area Index (FAI).

FAI = Covered area of all floors X 100

Plot Area

Along with residential buildings. more buildings are required for industries, government offices,

private business establishments, educational institutions etc. One important factor is the

economy of construction. The space has to be effectively utilized. Green buildings are the

requirement of the day. Modern construction techniques and selection of good building

materials also will affect in reducing the cost of construction.

Towers

A tower is a tall structure. There are different towers like clock tower, transmission tower, bell tower,

radio tower, communication tower etc. They are not intended for living .but for specific purposes

like:

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Eiffel Tower

Electricity transmission tower- for distribution of electric power

Communication tower- for transmission of communication signals like microwave

Radio tower - for transmission of radio signals

Bell tower – for hanging bells in churches

Tourist tower – As a tourist attraction for the tourists to see (Eiffel tower in Paris, Leaning tower of

Pisa, Italy etc)

The towers are normally constructed with steel sections like angle, I section, Channel, square

section etc and are connected at the junctions through welding or bolt and nut.

Chimneys

A chimney (flue) is a structure intended for the passing off smoke, hot flue gases

from furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are kept in vertical position so that

the gases pass smoothly. Chimneys can be found in buildings, steam locomotives, ships, brick

kilns, factories etc.. Since in factories the pollutant gases are passed out through tall towers, the

surrounding area is not polluted. In addition, the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can

reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings.

The cross section of a chimney may be square, rectangular or circular with smooth finish inside. The

height of the chimney stack should be at least one meter above the roof level. In big factories, tall

chimneys are provided to pass the exhaust gases and smoke at a higher level. The following points

must be kept in mind while constructing a tall chimney-

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-Refractory brick lining should be provided inside a chimney when the temperature is expected to

exceed 750 degree centigrade.

-The total height of the chimney shaft should not exceed 12 times the external diameter at the base

or 10 times the least lateral dimension at the base for chimneys of rectangular section. The general

practice is to construct the chimneys in lime mortar than cement mortar because cement mortar is

likely to disintegrate at high temperature.

- Wind pressure must be taken into account when designing a chimney.

Bridges

A bridge is a structure built to cross an obstacle. The obstacle may be a river, railway line, road

or canal.

Classification

Bridges are classified in different ways according to:

Material of construction - Timber, Masonry, Steel, RCC, PSC.Purpose (Function) - Railway bridge, Road bridge, Pedestrian bridge, Aqueduct (bridge over a

valley), Viaduct (canal over a river)

Position - Deck bridge, Through bridge, Semi through bridge

Superstructure - Slab bridge, Truss bridge, Suspension bridge, Cable stayed bridge

Length - Culvert (less than 6 m, Minor bridge (6 to 60 m), Major bridge (above 60 m)

Method of connection of different parts- Rivet, weld, Pin

Position - Straight, Skew

Selection of siteThe following points are to be considered in selecting the site of the bridge –

The site should be easily approachable, Width of the river should be minimum, Firm and stable

banks, Suitable foundation, Right angled crossing

The components of a bridge are Abutments, Pier, Deck Slab, Hand- rail, Beam, Bearings,

Approaches, Parapet


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Dams

Dams are structures constructed across rivers to store water. The water may be used for

drinking, irrigation or hydro electric power generation.

There are different types of dams –

Based on function-

Storage dam – This is constructed to store water. The stored water may be used for irrigation,

drinking or hydro electric power generation.

Flood control dam – This is temporarily constructed to store the flood water and release it slowly

so that the down- stream side is safeguarded against the damaging effects of floods.

Diversion dam - This is constructed to divert the water from the river to a channel.

Coffer dam – A temporary structure constructed to divert water so that the new dam or bridge

can be constructed.

Based on material of construction –

Earthen dam , Masonry dam , Concrete dam


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Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are walls made of concrete or masonry to retain soil. Generally they are

constructed on the approaches to bridges, for making gardens in sloping grounds and to

protect soil from erosion etc. To design a retaining wall, it is required to find out the pressure

exerted by the soil on the retaining wall. This can be found out by using Rankin’s theory or

Coulomb’s theory. The pressure depends on the unit weight of soil, angle of internal friction,

cohesive strength of soil and height of the wall. There is a tendency for the retained material to

move down the slope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which istermed as active earth pressure. If the retaining wall yields towards the retained soil. the wall is

subjected to passive earth pressure. If there is no movement, the earth pressure is called earth

pressure at rest.

Water tanks

A water tank is a container to store and distribute water. The water may be used for drinking

,irrigation or fire suppression. It can be at the ground level or on an elevated stage. They may

be of steel, concrete or plastics and of circular or rectangular in shape. Now a days for rain

water harvesting also tanks are being used. Rainwater tank (sometimes called a rain barrel ) isa water tank used to collect and store rain water runoff from roof tops via rain gutters. A rainwater

catchment or collection (also known as "rainwater harvesting") system can yield 2358 litres of water

from 2.54 cm of rain on a 93 m2 roof area. Rainwater tanks are devices for collecting and

maintaining harvested rain. These tanks are installed to use rain water for later use. and aid self-

sufficiency. Stored water may be used for watering gardens, agriculture, flushing toilets, in washing

machines, washing cars, and also for drinking, especially when other water supplies are unavailable.

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Underground rainwater tanks can also be used for retention of storm water for release at a later

time.

Silos

Silo is a structure, typically cylindrical in shape in which grain, cement or other materials are stored.

There are different types of silos such as the low-level mobile silo and the static upright silo. Mobile

silos are normally of capacities from 10 to 75 tons. They are simple to transport and are easy to be

set up on site. These mobile silos generally come equipped with an electronic weighing system with

digital display and printer. This allows any quantity of cement or powder discharged from the silo to

be controlled and also provides an accurate indication of what remains inside the silo. The static

upright silos (Tower silos) have capacities from 20 to 80 tons. They are also cylindrical in shape, 4

to 30 m in diameter and 10 to 84 m in height. The stored materials are unloaded into wagons, trucks

or conveyors. Silos can be of steel or concrete. The main differences between concrete and steel

silos are:

All steel silo parts are manufactured in a factory, so the quality can be totally controlled,

whereas cast in place concrete silos involve more variables such as delivery of concrete andweather.

The slip frame concrete process is slightly complicated. Also, field supervision plays a really

important role in concrete silos: More workers have to be employed and also it takes more time

for construction. Ultimately the cost of construction shoots up.

Concrete silos can be taller than steel silos.

It is easier to erect steel silos and also to install accessories like doors, ladders, samplers, etc.

Steel structure is more flexible, so steel silos have better behavior in case of earthquake.

Regarding air tightness, both structures are normally airtight if the openings are properly sealed.

Steel silos generally give more storage capacity.. They tend to be more cost-effective because

of the higher storage capacity.

It is easier and more effective to do aeration in steel silos.

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Roads

Roads are for the transport of men and material from one part of the country to another part. In

India, roads are classified under the following categories - National High way, State Highway,

Major District Road, Other District Road and Village Road. There is now a new classification as

Express Way.

The road structure has the following components – Sub grade, Sub base, Base, Base Coat and

Wearing Coat.

Typical X section of a flexible pavement

Before upgrading and widening an existing highway, a traffic survey is to be conducted to collect

information about the traffic density, direction of movement of vehicles, origin – destination of

vehicles, type of vehicles, type of soil, geographic details including anticipated future

development.

AS far as the geometry of roads are concerned, on curves the outer portion is slightly rais with

respect to the inner side. This is known as cant (super elevation). This is provided to counteract

the centrifugal force of the vehicle. This will depend on the degree of curvature and speed of

vehicle. Also to drain out rain water, side slopes are to be given to the wearing surface.


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Runways

A runway is a rectangular area of land in an airport prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.

Runways may be a man-made surface (asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface.

It is generally paved. Shoulders are provided on either side of a run way. They act as safety zones

should an airport move out of the runway during take off or landing. Stop ways are provided at the

ends of a run way to accommodate an aircraft that overshoots or undershoots a run way during

landing or an aborted take-off.

Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of

the runway's heading in deca degrees: A runway numbered 09 points east (90°), runway 18 is south

(180°), runway 27 points west (270°) and runway 36 points to the north (360° rather than 0°).

Air ports are of two types: Civil airports, Military airports

The selection of a site for an airport depends on – Economic factors, Commercial factors,

Meteorological factors, Physical and Engineering factors.

Typical Layout of Air port

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The capacity of an airport is defined as the number of aircraft operations during a specified

interval of time corresponding to a tolerable level of delay. The factors that affect the capacity of

an airport are:

-The number of runways and whether they are used for both arrivals and take-offs or separately

for arrivals and take-offs.

- Orientation and configuration of runways

-The taxiway

-The efficiency of traffic control facilities

-Weather conditions

A single runway used both for arrival and departure can have an annual capacity of 170,000 to

215,000 air craft operations.

In an emergency, military aircrafts may land on Express Highways. Recently this facility was

tested by landing and taking off a military aircraft on Delhi Agra Express Highway.

Railways

Railways are the life lines of a nation. For transporting men and material railway net work is

very essential. It was in 1853 that the first train started its maiden journey from Bombay to

Thana a distance of 15 Kms. Now Indian railways have got 65000 route Kms of track, carrying

about 23 million passengers per day by 19000 trains connecting about 8000 stations.. It also

runs about 7,000 freight trains carrying about 3 million tonnes of freight every day. It is the

largest Government department and is the only department which has got a separate annual

budget.

Trains run over two rails which are kept at a specific distance .on a transverse member called

sleeper. The distance between the two rails is called gauge which is 1676 mm for Broad gauge

and 1000 mm for Metre gauge track. Below the rails, there is a layer of broken stones (ballast)

of about 20 cm. Previously the sleepers were of wood, steel or cast iron. But now concrete

sleepers are being used. Similarly earlier the trains were hauled by steam locomotives but now

the same are hauled by diesel or electric locomotives.


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The railway is administered by the Railway Board composed of Chairman and four other

Members. The whole rail network is divided into different zones which are headed by a General

Manager. The zone is further subdivided to Divisions. and Sub divisions.

For design, development and standardization of railways there is a separate organization under

the Ministry of Railways called Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO) based at

Lucknow.

Pipelines

Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe. As per statistics of 2014, total of

about 3.5 million km of pipeline is there in 120 countries of the world. The United States has 65%,

Russia 8%, and Canada 3%, thus 75% of all pipe line is in these three countries

Liquids and gases are transported through pipelines. Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and

refined petroleum, fuels - such as oil, natural gas and bio fuels - and other fluids

including sewage, slurry and water . Pipelines are useful for transporting water

for drinking or irrigation over long distances. Pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be used to

transport solid capsules.

Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried underground. The oil is

moved through the pipelines by pumping from stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar

gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurised into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs). Natural gas

pipelines are constructed of carbon steel. Highly toxic ammonia is theoretically the most dangerous

substance to be transported through long-distance pipelines. Hydrogen pipeline transport is the

transportation of hydrogen through a pipe.

Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety

concerns and there have been various accidents. Pipelines can be the target

of vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks. In war, pipelines are often the target of militaryattacks.

Advantages of transport through pipes:

Large-scale transportation of natural gas by tanker truck or rail is not feasible Pipelines are a safe and efficient means of transporting large quantities of crude oil and natural

gas over land. Pipelines are more cost-effective than the alternative transportation options

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They require significantly less energy to operate than operating trucks or rail and have a muchlower carbon footprint

Underground pipelines are safe

Points To Ponder

A building is a structure with foundation, walls and roof covering.

It is used for dwelling, office, factory, business establishment and other purposes.

The size and shape of the building depend on the purpose of the same.

Even though there was no formal education, artisans in olden days were able to

construct buildings using locally available materials.

Some of the structures constructed long back and are still in existence are – The GreatWall of China, Pyramids of Egypt, Leaning tower of Pisa, Tajmahal at Agra, Redfort at

Delhi etc.

In addition to buildings, there are many other structural elements which are in use like –

Chimneys, Towers, Water tanks, Roads, Railways, Airports, Pipe lines etc.

Civil engineers have a major role to play in the infrastructure development of the country.

For a nation’s development houses, factories, roads, railways, airports, dams, power

generating stations etc are required.

It is the duty of Civil Engineers to plan, design, construct and maintain these structures.

Model Questions

1.Biefly describe the history of Civil Engineering.

2 What is a building?

3. What is the purpose of a building?

4. What is the role of a civil engineer in the nation building?

5. Briefly explain the following items – Water tanks, Chimneys, Retaining Walls, Silos, Runways,

Dams, Towers

6.Explin some of the recent systems in operation as part of India’s infrastructure development.


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5. Definition and Types of Buildings as per National Building

Code of India

The National Building Code of India (NBC) is a comprehensive building Code. It is a nationalinstrument providing guidelines for regulating the building construction activities across the

country. It serves as a Model Code for adoption by all agencies involved in building construction

works - the Public Works Departments, other government construction departments, local

bodies or private construction agencies. The Code mainly contains administrative regulations,

development control rules and general building requirements; stipulations regarding materials,

structural design and construction (including safety); and building and plumbing services.

Buildings may be classified according to various parameters like occupancy, load transfer,

materials used and fire resistance. The National Building Code of India (Part iii 2005) classifies

buildings as per occupancy in the following nine groups:

Classification of buildings as per occupancy-

Group A – Residential

Group B - Educational

Group C - Institutional

Group D - Assembly

Group E - Business

Group F - Mercantile

Group G - Industrial

Group H - Storage

Group I – Hazardous

Group A – Residential Buildings – These are the buildings in which sleeping accommodation is

provided for normal residential purposes with or without cooking or dining or both facilities

except any building classified under Group C. Group A buildings are further classified as A1 to

A5.

A1 – Lodging Houses - These are buildings in which under the same management , separatesleeping accommodation for a total of not more than 40 persons on transient or permanent

basis with or without dining facilities but without cooking facilities for individuals is provided.

A2 – One or two private dwelling houses – These are occupied by members of a single family

and have a total sleeping accommodation for not more than 20 persons.


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A3 – Dormitories – These are buildings in which group sleeping accommodation is provided

with or without dining facilities for persons who are not members of the same family in a room or

a series of closely associated rooms under joint occupancy and single management. Examples

– hostels, military barracks

A4 – Apartment houses (Flats) –These are buildings under single management in which living

quarters are provided for three or more families.

A5- Hotels –These are buildings under single management in which sleeping accommodation is

provided for hire to more than fifteen persons.

Group B: Educational Buildings

The buildings used for schools, colleges, or other training institutions that involve assembly

during the day for instruction, education are considered educational buildings.

Sub divisions

B1 – Schools up to senior secondary level with not less than 20 students.

B2 – All other training schools with less than 100 students

Group C: Institutional Buildings

A building or part of a building that is used for the purposes such as medical or other treatment

or care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness, disease or infirmity; care of infants,

or aged persons in which the liberty of inmates is restricted are categorized as institutional

buildings. They normally provide sleeping accommodation for the occupant. They are further

sub - divided as:

A6 - Hotels (starred)

C1- Hospitals and sanatoria

C2 – Custodial Institution

C3- Penal and mental institutions

Group D: Assembly Buildings

These shall include any building or part there of where a group of not less than 50 people gather

for amusement, recreation, social, religious and for similar purposes. Ex- Cinema halls,theatres, exhibition halls, museums, restaurants etc. These buildings are further sub divided

into –

D-1: Buildings having stages and fixed seats more than 1000.

D-2: Buildings having stages and fixed seats less than 1000


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D-3: Buildings without stages and accommodation for 300 or more persons but no permanent

seating arrangements

D-4: Buildings without stages and accommodation for less than 300 persons.

D-5: All other structures for assembly of people not covered by sub divisions D-1 to D-4. Ex-

Circus tents

D-6: Buildings having mixed occupancy providing facilities such as shopping, restaurants etc.

D-7: All other buildings for assembly of people not covered under D-1 to D-6

Group E: Business Buildings

This group includes any building or part of a building that is used as a shop, store either whole

sale or retail. These are sub divided into

E1 – E5: Mercantile Buildings

F1: Shops, stores markets area upto 50sq m

F2: Underground shopping centres, departmental stores with area more than 500 sq m

Group G: Industrial Buildings

These include buildings or part thereof in which materials of all kinds are manufactured or

processed

G1- Buildings used for low-hazard Industries: These are buildings where danger to life and

property may arise from panic or fire from external sources only.

G2- Buildings used for moderate-hazard Industries: The processes in the industries are liable to

give rise to a fire that will burn with moderate rapidity.

G3- Buildings used for high-hazard Industries; The processes in the industries are liable to give

rise to a fire that will burn with extreme rapidity.

Group H: Storage Buildings

These are buildings used for the storage of goods, vehicles or animals.

Group J: Hazardous Buildings

These are buildings used for storage, handling, manufacturing of highly explosive materials or

products which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity producing poisonous gases or

explosions.


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Classification of buildings according to the type of construction:

Classification according to method of load transfer

Types of structures:

Load-bearing structure: The load of roof and floors is transferred to the foundation by thickwalls.

Framed structure: The load of roof and floors is transferred to the foundation through columns

and footings. Walls serve as partitions only.

Comparison of load bearing and framed structure:

Load bearing structure Framed structure

*Load from roof and floors are transferred to *Transferred through columns and footings

foundation by walls

*Walls need foundation throughout *Footings are required for columns only

*Thickness of load bearing walls should be *Only exterior walls need 200 mm thick,

at least 200mm others need 100 mm thick only

*Too many openings for doors, windows and * No restriction

ventilators are not permitted

*Suited for residential purpose - one or two *Suitable for multi storey buildings

storey only

Classification of buildings according to the materials used

RCC structure, Steel Structure, Composite Structure:

Classification of buildings according to fire resistance

There are four categories in this regard: Type 1, Type 2, Type 3 and Type 4 construction.


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Points To Ponder

National building code of classifies buildings into different categories.

The two categories are – buildings based on occupancy and buildings based on type of

construction

Based on occupancy buildings are further classified into 9 groups – A to I

These nine groups are – Residential, Educational, Institutional, Assembly, Business,

Mercantile, Industrial, Storage, Hazardous

According to the type of construction buildings are classified into – Method of load

transfer, According to the material used, According to the fire resistance

Model Questions

1. What s National Building Code?

2.What are the parameters of classification of buildings?

3.Based on occupancy what are the classifications?

4.What are the classifications of buildings according to type of construction?

5.What are the classifications of buildings according to method of load transfer?

6.What are the classifications of buildings according to material used?

7.What are the classifications of buildings according to fire resistance?


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6. Components of a Building and their functions

Buildings are of different types - residential, commercial, public utility, educational, recreational

etc. The type, size, nature of construction etc of the buildings may vary. Before starting the

construction of the structure, a plan of the building has to be prepared. Then the approval oflocal authority – Panchayat, Municipality or Corporation – has to be obtained. The plan of a

building has to be prepared in consonance with the building bye-laws of the state.

Components of a building

The basic components of a building are: Foundation, Plinth, Column, Wall, Lintel, Door,

Window, Floor, Stair, Roof

Foundation: The foundation is the lowermost part of a building. It is below the ground level. The

purpose of a foundation is to distribute the load of the superstructure to the soil below, give

stability to the building and to prevent the overturning of the building.

Plinth: It is the portion of a building between the ground level and the ground floor level. A

damp proof course is provided at the top of the plinth.

Column: These are vertical members which transfer the load from top to the bottom member.

The column can be of timber, steel or concrete. It may be of circular, rectangular or squaresection.

Wall: The wall is also constructed to transfer the load from top to the bottom member. It has got

the further function of giving protection to the inhabitants from rain, wind etc. and also

privacy.Walls partition the building into different rooms / compartments.


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Lintel: It is a small beam provided over window and door openings to transfer the load from

above. It can be of wood, steel or RCC. The width of lintel will be that of the wall.

Door and Window: A door is provided to get access to the room and also to lock it for safety.

Window is provided in the exterior wall to have light and air circulation. The window area shouldbe 15-20 % of the floor area.

Floor: The number of floors depend on the height of the building. The lowermost floor is the

ground floor. It is prepared by filling the basement with soil and then compacting it. The top is

made by marble, tile or stone. The upper floors are generally of RCC. The thickness of slab wil

depend upon the span and the load it is subjected to.

Stair: Stair is constructed to go from one floor to the other. It will have a number of steps. A

landing is normally provided in between the floors.

Roof: It is the topmost part of a building. It serves as a cover for protection from rain, wind and

sun rays. The roof can be flat or sloping. It should be leak proof and should give a good look to

the building.

Building Services: The essential building services are: water supply, sanitary fittings and

connections, electric connection, rain water drainage system, cup boards, shelves etc.

The details of each component of a building are being described here in :

FoundationFoundation is the lowest part of a structure. It is below the ground level. The purpose of the

foundation is to transmit the load of the superstructure to the soil below so that the structure is

safe. The engineer has to study the properties of the soil and design the foundation accordingly.

It should be ensured that the foundation can safely carry the loads.

Requirements of Foundation:

-The pressure exerted on the soil should not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

-Settlement of the foundation should be with in safe limit.

-The foundation should be rigid.


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Types of Foundations

1. Shallow foundation 2.Deep Foundation

A foundation is said to be shallow if its depth is less than or equal to its width. Shallowfoundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The 'open' refers to the fact that

the foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the footing, and then

constructing the footing.

There are several kinds of shallow footings: Spread footing, individual footing, combined footing

, raft foundation etc.

Wall footing (Spread footing): The width of the foundation is gradually increased through

steps. Trenches are made to the required depth and width. Then a leveling layer of concrete is

spread Over that the foundations are constructed in masonry.

Column footing: Columns normally carry heavier loads. Therefore they require footings whichcan distribute loads to larger areas. The footings of this type are:

Isolated column footing

Combined footing

Cantilever or strap footing

Continuous footing

Raft or mat footing

Isolated column footing: This footing is adopted for independent column. The size of the

footing will depend on the load on the column and the type of underlying soil.


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Combined Footing: This is a common footing for two columns. This footing can be rectangular

or trapezoidal in shape. This type of footing is adopted when one column is very near theboundary of a plot where there is not sufficient space for the footing.

Cantilever (strap footing)

This type of combined footing is adopted when the distance between the columns is quite large

.A strap beam is provided connecting the slabs under each column.


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Continuous (Strip) Footing: This type of footing is adopted when more than two columns are

to be constructed in one line very close to each other..

Raft Foundation

This is also known as mat foundation. In some cases the individual columns may be heavily

loaded or the safe bearing capacity of the soil may be low. In that case, the column footings

may overlap each other. Raft foundation is adopted in such situations.


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Grillage foundation: In some buildings, steel columns embedded in concrete are to be

constructed. The columns may have to carry heavy loads. In such situations, grillage

foundation is adopted. It consists of one or more tiers of steel beams inside concrete. A base

plate will be provided at the base of the column.

Deep Foundations

1..Pile foundation 2. Pier foundation

Pile foundation: A pile is a slender column of wood, steel or concrete. It is driven into the

ground or cast in a bore hole.

Classification of Piles according to the load transfer: Friction Piles Bearing Piles

Friction piles transfer the load through friction between the pile and soil. The length of the pile

will depend on the frictional resistance.

Bearing piles transfer the load through bearing on a hard strata. For this hard strata should be

available at a reasonable depth.

Classification of piles according to the material used: Timber piles, Steel piles, Concrete piles

Bearing Capacity of Soil: It is defined as the maximum load per unit area which a soil can

withstand without yielding. First the maximum bearing capacity of the soil has to be determined.

There are different methods of determining the bearing capacity. The safe bearing capacity is

then calculated by dividing the maximum bearing capacity by a factor of safety which is usually

taken as 2 or 3.


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Determination of bearing capacity of soil

1. Field Tests 2. Laboratory tests

1. Field Tests

Plate load test

The arrangement for plate load test is given in the figure below.

Plate load test

The arrangement for plate load test is given in the figure below.

Plate load test arrangement

For this test, first a pit is made at the desired depth. A test plate is kept at the centre of the pit.

The load is applied in steps and the settlement noted. The pressure vs settlement is then

plotted. The ultimate bearing capacity is then calculated. The safe bearing capacity is the

ultimate bearing capacity divided by factor of safety.( 2 or 2.5)

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

The Standard Penetration test (SPT) is an in- situ testing method to determine the engineering

properties of subsurface soils. It is a simple test to estimate the relative density of soils and

approximate shear strength parameters.

In Standard Penetration Test (SPT) a standard thick-walled sampling tube is driven into the groundat the bottom of a borehole by blows from a slide hammer with standard weight and falling distance.The sampling tube is driven 150 mm into the ground and then the number of blows needed for thetube to penetrate each 150 mm (6 in) up to a depth of 450 mm (18 in) is recorded. The sum of the


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number of blows required for the second and third 6 in(150 mm) of penetration is reported as SPTblow value, commonly termed the "N-value".

The N-value provides an indication of the relative density of the subsurface soil, and it is used toestimate the approximate shear strength properties of the soils.

Correlation between SPT (N value), friction angle, and relative density

Correlation between SPT-N value and friction angle and Relative density (Meyerhoff 1956)

SPT N3

[Blows/0.3 m]Soil packing

Relative Density

[%]

Friction angle

[°]

< 4 Very loose < 20 < 30

4 -10 Loose 20 - 40 30 - 35

10 - 30 Compact 40 - 60 35 - 40

30 - 50 Dense 60 - 80 40 - 45

> 50 Very Dense > 80 > 45

2.Laboratory tests: Undisturbed soil samples are collected from the field and tests conductedin the laboratory to determine the shear strength of soil. Bearing capacity is then calculated.

Presumptive Bearing Capacity

National Building Code has recommended safe bearing capacity for different soils.

Type of soil Safe bearing Capacity

(kN/sq m)

Fine sand, silt 150

Medium clay 245Soft rock 440


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Walls

Walls are the vertical elements of a building. They enclose the space within it and also dividethat space

Functional Requirements

strength and stability weather resistance fire resistance thermal insulation sound insulation

The walls are usually constructed of bricks, stones or concrete blocks in cement mortar.

Retaining Wall and Breast Wall

Retaining wall is constructed to retain soil or other fill material. Breast wall is to prevent slippageof natural slopes .The lateral pressure on the wall is to be calculated and then the design madeaccordingly.

Columns

The vertical support which is free from all sides and transfers the load to the floor below is calleda column. The column can be of wood, steel or RCC. It can be of circular, rectangular or squarein section.


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Beam

Beam is a horizontal structural member supporting the floor above. The beam can be of wood,

steel or RCC.

Slab is constructed to divide the vertical space into various stories. The topmost slab is the roofslab.

Floors are made of concrete. Steel bars are provided to take up the tensile stresses. The

diameter of the bar and the spacing of the bars will depend on the span of the room and the

intensity of load.


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Lintel

Lintel is a small beam provided over window and door opening to support the masonry above.

The lintel can be of wood, steel or RCC..

Arches

Arches are curved members provided over openings like door and window to support the wall

above.

Elements of an Arch

Keystone: It is the wedge shaped block provided at the crown of an arch.

Extrados: it is the outer portion of an arch.

Intrados: It is the inner portion of an arch.

Voussoirs: They are the wedge shaped units forming the arch.


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Clear span: It is the horizontal distance between the supports.

Rise: It is the vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados and the springing line.

Spring line: The imaginary line joining the springing points.

Springing points: The points from which the curve of the arch starts.

Stairs

A staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs from one floor to another. It includes

landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. It can be of wood, reinforced

cement concrete, iron or steel. According to their form, the staircases can be with straight flights,

with swinging flights, arched flights or spiral flights.

Roof

The roof is the topmost part of a building. It serves as a protective cover of the building. It

protects the inhabitants from rain, sun, wind and other climatic conditions. There are mainly

three types of roofs

- Sloping or pitched roofs

- Flat or terraced roofs

- Folded plate and shell roofs

Door

Door


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Doors are openings in the wall at the floor level for entry and exit of persons, safety, security

and for light and air. The number of doors in a room should be the bare minimum. Its position

should judiciously selected. In genera doors have a frame and one or two shutters. There are

different types of doors – Framed and braced door, Panelled door, Glazed door, Flush door,

Revolving door, Sliding door, Folding door etc..

Window

Windows are openings provided in the wall for light, air and outside view. The window has also

got a frame and one or more shutters. There are different types of windows like – sliding

window, louvered window, Bay window , Pivoted window. The window frame can be of timber,

steel or aluminium.

Lifts

Normally in an ordinary house, people go from ground floor to other floors through a stair case.

But now a days more buildings are of multi stories whether residential commercial or office

building. In such buildings it is very difficult to move up through a stair case. Lifts are used there

for moving from one floor to another. It can be told that lLift is a moving platform which moves

up and down in a small enclosed space.

Escalator

Escalator is a system of movable stairs used to move people upward and downward

directions. In public places like airports, railway stations, super markets etc escalators


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are installed for the convenience of general public. The speed of escalators are

generally 0.75 m /second..

Points To Ponder

The basic components of a building are: Foundation, Plinth, Column, Wall, Lintel, Door,

Window, Floor, Stair, Roof The purpose of a foundation is to distribute the load of superstructure to the soil below.

There are two types of foundations – Shallow and deep foundation

Spread footing, combined footing, grillage foundation etc come under shallow

foundation.

Pile foundation, Pier foundation and well foundation come under deep foundation.

Walls provide security to the in -habitants and also protection from rain, wind and sun

Columns are vertical members to transfer the load from top to bottom. Hey may of wood,steel or concrete and may be of square, rectangular or circular in section.

There are different floors in a building – ground floor and upper floor.

The roof is the topmost floor which provides protection to the building from rain, wind,

snow etc. The roof covering may be of tiles, slates or concrete slab.

Doors and windows are provided for access to the building, security for inhabitants, light

and air.

Model Questions

1. What are the main components of a building?

2. What is a foundation? 3. What are the different types of foundations?

4. What are the types of walls?

5. What is a column?

6. What is the purpose of a door?

7. What is a lintel?

8. What is a pile foundation?

9. Explain lift and escalator.


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7. STONES

Stones

Stones are blocks of rock and are used for construction of buildings (foundations, walls,columns), flooring, broken stones for roads and concrete.

Classification of Rocks

1. Geological Classification

a) Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling of molten material called magma.

These rocks are hard, strong, durable and dense with a crystalline structure. The

rocks are formed on the surface of earth or deep below.

Examples: Granite, Quartzite, Basalt, Dolomite

b) Sedimentary Rocks: Existing rocks are broken down to smaller particles by wind,

water and atmospheric gases. This process is called weathering. The smaller

particles (sediments) thus formed are transported to other places and deposited

there. Gradually the sediments are compressed under their own weight and

sedimentary rocks are formed.

Example; Sand stone, Lime stone

c) Metamorphic Rocks: Igneous and sedimentary rocks when subjected to increased

pressure and temperature are transformed to a new type of rock. This rock is called

metamorphic rock.

Example: Marble, Schist, Slate, Gneiss

2. Physical Classification

a) Stratified Rocks: These rocks exist in distinct layers and can be split along these

layers.

Example: Sand stone, Lime stone

b) Un stratified rocks: These rocks do not exist in layers but occur in huge masses.

Example: Granite, Basalt


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c) Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a layered or banded appearance which is

produced by exposure to heat and pressure.

Example: Gneiss

3. Chemical Classification

a) Siliceous Rocks: In this, the main constituent is silica. The rocks are hard, durable

and are capable of resisting weathering action.

Example: Granite, Quartzite

b) Argillaceous Rocks: Argil (clay ) is the main constituent of these rocks. These are

hard and durable but are brittle.

Example: Slate, Laterite

c) Calcareous Rocks: Calcium carbonate is the main constituent of these rocks.

Example: Marble, Limestone, Dolomite

4. Hardness Classification

Based on the hardness, rocks are classified as

Soft rocks, Medium rocks, Hard rocks and Very hard rocks

Mineral Constituents of Rocks

The main chemical constituents of rocks are:

Minerals: Alumina, Silica, Lime, Magnesia

Alkalies: Soda, Potash

Acids: Carbonic acid

Uses of stones

- Buildings: Foundations, walls, columns, lintels, floorings

- Bridges: Piers, Abutments, Retaining walls

- Roads and Railways: As broken stone (ballast)

- Concrete: As coarse aggregate (broken stone)

Rubble

Rough broken stone as it comes from quarry is called rubble. Rubble may come from Granite,

Basalt, Gneiss or Sand stone. It is used in construction of foundations, walls, road work canal

protection works etc.


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Laterite

Laterite is a sedimentary rock. It is generally found in tropical climate (hot and wet) regions like

Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra, Tamil Nadu etc. These are cut from quarries in rectangular blocks.

They have to be seasoned (left in air) for about one or two months to attain full strength. The

normal compressive strength of laterite is 1.8 to 3.2 N / sq mm. The blocks of stones obtainedfrom quarry is to be dressed (giving proper shape and size). The standard size of laterite stone

is 44 cm x 24 cm x 14 cm. Laterite stones are used in walls of buildings and boundary

(compound) walls.

Qualities of good stones

The qualities of good stones are: Crushing strength, Hardness, Durability, Texture, Appearance

a) Crushing strength: It is the load per unit area required to break a specimen of stone

under a compressive load. It is expressed in Newton / square mm.

Type of rock Range of crushing strength

(N / sq. mm)

Granite 90 to 210

Laterite 2 to 4

Marble 80 to 140

b) Hardness: When stone is used in floors and pavements, it t is subjected to large amount

of wear and tear. Hardness is very important in these cases. It is determined by the

hardness test.

c) Durability: A good stone should be durable. The durability of a stone depends on itschemical composition, physical structure and its resistance to atmospheric action.

d) Texture: It is the characteristic physical structure indicated by the size, shape and

arrangement of grains in the stone.

e) Water absorption: Stones may have pores in it. When stones come in contact with water,

it may absorb water. A good stone should not absorb water more than 5 % of its weight.

f) Appearance: Stones should have a pleasing appearance specially when used on

exteriors. Light coloured stones are preferred to dark coloured.

h) Workability: The stones obtained from quarries are to be dressed properly before using it.The process of removing sharp corners, giving proper shape, size and surface finish is called

dressing. Some stones like granite and basalt are very hard, tough and therefore are difficult to

be dressed easily.

i) Weathering: Stones should have the capacity to withstand the effects of weathering action.

Otherwise they may disintegrate and decompose easily.


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Deterioration of Stones

In course of time, stones may get deteriorated, due to the action of natural agencies like wind,

water and temperature. The colour may also fade out giving a bad appearance. Polluted gases

containing harmful agents from nearby industries may also add to the deterioration of stones.

Preservation of Stones

Stones should be protected from weathering action by adopting suitable measures like

application of preservatives. A preservative is a solution which has to be applied on to the

surface of stone so as to protect it from weathering action. An ideal preservative should be

easily applicable, cheap and should penetrate easily into the interior of the stone The commonly

used preservatives are paint, coal tar and linseed oil.

Commonly used stones

The commonly used stones in India are – Granite, Laterite, Basalt, Marble, Sand stone and

Lime stone.

Quarrying of stones

The process of extracting blocks of stones from natural rock bed is termed as quarrying.

Methods of quarrying; The following methods are adopted for quarrying.

- Quarrying with hand tools

- Quarrying with channeling machines

- Quarrying by blasting

Dressing of stones

The stones after quarrying are to be given to correct size and shape. This processing is known

as dressing of stones. This may be done at the quarry or the construction site.

Testing of Stones

To ascertain the qualities of building stones, different tests are conducted.

Crushing Strength test: The crushing strength is obtained by testing the specimen in a

compressive testing machine.

Attrition test: The stones (coarse aggregates) used in road construction work are subjected togrinding action of traffic. Attrition test is conducted to obtain the resistance of stones to

abrasion.

Acid test: This test is conducted to ascertain the weathering resistance of stones. The stone

chips are kept in a solution of hydrochloric acid for seven days and then tested.


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Absorption test: For this test, dried stone chips are kept in distilled water for three days, taken

out ,weighed and absorption calculated.

Hardness test: This test is conducted in Dorry’s testing machine.

Impact test: This test is done in an impact testing machine to find out the toughness of stones.

Points To Ponder

Stones are blocks of rock. Rocks are formed by the cooling of molten magma.

There are different types of rocks – Igneous , Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks

Stones are used for foundation, wall, pavement etc

Stones can be classified under geological, physical, chemical and hardness categories..

The commonly used stones are - Granite, Laterite, Marble, Gneiss, Slate, Sandstone

Qualities of good stones are - Strength, Durability, Appearance, Water absorption, Fire

resistance, Workability

Stones can be protected from weathering by application of certain

preservatives.(Chemicals)

The process of extracting blocks of stones from natural rock bed is termed as quarrying.

The process of giving proper size and shape to stones is called dressing.

To ascertain the qualities of building stones, different tests are conducted like Crushing

strength, Attrition, Absorption, Hardness, Toughness .

Model Questions

1. What are the different classifications of rocks?

2. What are the uses of stones?

3. What are the qualities of good stones?

4. How are stones get deteriorated?

5. How are stones preserved?

6. What are the common building stones of India?

7. What is meant by quarrying of stones?

8. What is dressing of stones?

9. What are the tests conducted to ascertain the qualities of building stones?


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8. BRICK

Ordinary Brick

Brick is one of the oldest building material. It is reported that Egyptions, Romans and Chineseused bricks for building construction centuries back. They are extensively used now days also

due to its strength, durability, light weight, low cost and easy availability. Bricks are rectangular

blocks of clay hardened by burning in kilns .

Composition of Good Brick Earth

The constituents of good brick earth are:

1) Alumina (Al2O3):

A good brick earth may contain about 20% to 30% of Alumina. It imparts plasticity to the earth

so that the brick can be moulded to correct size and shape.

2) Silica (SiO2):

It exists in the brick earth either free or combined. A good brick earth should contain about 50%to 60% of silica. It prevents the shrinkage, cracking and warping of raw bricks. The durability of

bricks depends upon proper composition of silica in brick earth. The excess of silica destroys

the cohesion of particles and brick become brittle.

3) Lime (CaCO3):

A small quantity of lime of about 5% is desirable in good brick earth. It should be present in a

very fine state. The lime prevents shrinkage of the raw bricks. The excess of lime causes brick

to melt and therefore its shape may be lost.

4) Oxide of Iron (Fe2O3):

Iron oxide helps in fusing of the sand and also provides the red color to the bricks. It is normally

kept below 5 to 6% because excess of lime may cause dark blue or black color to the brick.

5) Magnesia: It adds yello

Documents

Introduction to Civil Engineering by Ramachandran V