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Introduction to Animal Behavior
Why do they do that
Warm Up
Personification Putting human characteristics onto animals to explain behavior
Youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=f-Kt_kuYVtU
Unit Map Follow Along in your packet
WHAT ARE YOU LEARNING Explain factors that serve to stimulate or
discourage various types of animal behaviorRecognize the normality curve of animal
behavior
Know Understand Do
KnowTypes of
BehaviorHistory of
studying animal behavior
Understandbull Stimuli
influence on behavior
bull How ethology has evolved
Dobull Observe and
interpret animal behaviors
bull Evaluate animal studies
Key Learning Animal Behavior
Unit EQ How does animal behavior influence animal husbandry
Concept Influence
Lesson EQWhat can alter behavior
VocabAgnostic
Concept History
Lesson EQHow are animals studied for behavior
VocabFAP Skinner Box
Concept TypesLesson EQ
What are categories of behavior
VocabStimuli Behavior Ethology
What is Animal Behavior
The study of how and why animals interact with each other (both within and among species) and their environment
Proximate questions - howmechanisms responsible for interactions
Ultimate questions - whyhow these interactions influence an
individuals survival and reproduction
Some examples
Intraspecific interactions
mate choice
male competition
alarm calls
parental care
Some examples
Interspecific interactions
predation
parasitism
mutualism
competition
Some examples
Interactions with the environment
foraging
nest site selection
signal modification
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Warm Up
Personification Putting human characteristics onto animals to explain behavior
Youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=f-Kt_kuYVtU
Unit Map Follow Along in your packet
WHAT ARE YOU LEARNING Explain factors that serve to stimulate or
discourage various types of animal behaviorRecognize the normality curve of animal
behavior
Know Understand Do
KnowTypes of
BehaviorHistory of
studying animal behavior
Understandbull Stimuli
influence on behavior
bull How ethology has evolved
Dobull Observe and
interpret animal behaviors
bull Evaluate animal studies
Key Learning Animal Behavior
Unit EQ How does animal behavior influence animal husbandry
Concept Influence
Lesson EQWhat can alter behavior
VocabAgnostic
Concept History
Lesson EQHow are animals studied for behavior
VocabFAP Skinner Box
Concept TypesLesson EQ
What are categories of behavior
VocabStimuli Behavior Ethology
What is Animal Behavior
The study of how and why animals interact with each other (both within and among species) and their environment
Proximate questions - howmechanisms responsible for interactions
Ultimate questions - whyhow these interactions influence an
individuals survival and reproduction
Some examples
Intraspecific interactions
mate choice
male competition
alarm calls
parental care
Some examples
Interspecific interactions
predation
parasitism
mutualism
competition
Some examples
Interactions with the environment
foraging
nest site selection
signal modification
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Unit Map Follow Along in your packet
WHAT ARE YOU LEARNING Explain factors that serve to stimulate or
discourage various types of animal behaviorRecognize the normality curve of animal
behavior
Know Understand Do
KnowTypes of
BehaviorHistory of
studying animal behavior
Understandbull Stimuli
influence on behavior
bull How ethology has evolved
Dobull Observe and
interpret animal behaviors
bull Evaluate animal studies
Key Learning Animal Behavior
Unit EQ How does animal behavior influence animal husbandry
Concept Influence
Lesson EQWhat can alter behavior
VocabAgnostic
Concept History
Lesson EQHow are animals studied for behavior
VocabFAP Skinner Box
Concept TypesLesson EQ
What are categories of behavior
VocabStimuli Behavior Ethology
What is Animal Behavior
The study of how and why animals interact with each other (both within and among species) and their environment
Proximate questions - howmechanisms responsible for interactions
Ultimate questions - whyhow these interactions influence an
individuals survival and reproduction
Some examples
Intraspecific interactions
mate choice
male competition
alarm calls
parental care
Some examples
Interspecific interactions
predation
parasitism
mutualism
competition
Some examples
Interactions with the environment
foraging
nest site selection
signal modification
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Know Understand Do
KnowTypes of
BehaviorHistory of
studying animal behavior
Understandbull Stimuli
influence on behavior
bull How ethology has evolved
Dobull Observe and
interpret animal behaviors
bull Evaluate animal studies
Key Learning Animal Behavior
Unit EQ How does animal behavior influence animal husbandry
Concept Influence
Lesson EQWhat can alter behavior
VocabAgnostic
Concept History
Lesson EQHow are animals studied for behavior
VocabFAP Skinner Box
Concept TypesLesson EQ
What are categories of behavior
VocabStimuli Behavior Ethology
What is Animal Behavior
The study of how and why animals interact with each other (both within and among species) and their environment
Proximate questions - howmechanisms responsible for interactions
Ultimate questions - whyhow these interactions influence an
individuals survival and reproduction
Some examples
Intraspecific interactions
mate choice
male competition
alarm calls
parental care
Some examples
Interspecific interactions
predation
parasitism
mutualism
competition
Some examples
Interactions with the environment
foraging
nest site selection
signal modification
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Key Learning Animal Behavior
Unit EQ How does animal behavior influence animal husbandry
Concept Influence
Lesson EQWhat can alter behavior
VocabAgnostic
Concept History
Lesson EQHow are animals studied for behavior
VocabFAP Skinner Box
Concept TypesLesson EQ
What are categories of behavior
VocabStimuli Behavior Ethology
What is Animal Behavior
The study of how and why animals interact with each other (both within and among species) and their environment
Proximate questions - howmechanisms responsible for interactions
Ultimate questions - whyhow these interactions influence an
individuals survival and reproduction
Some examples
Intraspecific interactions
mate choice
male competition
alarm calls
parental care
Some examples
Interspecific interactions
predation
parasitism
mutualism
competition
Some examples
Interactions with the environment
foraging
nest site selection
signal modification
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
What is Animal Behavior
The study of how and why animals interact with each other (both within and among species) and their environment
Proximate questions - howmechanisms responsible for interactions
Ultimate questions - whyhow these interactions influence an
individuals survival and reproduction
Some examples
Intraspecific interactions
mate choice
male competition
alarm calls
parental care
Some examples
Interspecific interactions
predation
parasitism
mutualism
competition
Some examples
Interactions with the environment
foraging
nest site selection
signal modification
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Some examples
Intraspecific interactions
mate choice
male competition
alarm calls
parental care
Some examples
Interspecific interactions
predation
parasitism
mutualism
competition
Some examples
Interactions with the environment
foraging
nest site selection
signal modification
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Some examples
Interspecific interactions
predation
parasitism
mutualism
competition
Some examples
Interactions with the environment
foraging
nest site selection
signal modification
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Some examples
Interactions with the environment
foraging
nest site selection
signal modification
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Why study behavior
Possible first science Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals (preycompetitorspredators)
Controlmanagement of species Food and game species agricultural pests invasive species endangered species
Understandingmodification of our own behavior Studies of how birds learn and develop songs provide unique insights into the development and neural control of speech in humans
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Curiosity
Science for sciencersquos sake
Achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth with
Almost any behavior performed by any animal may be interesting to study
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Paleolithic art from 40000+ years ago provide indirect evidence that primitive humans observed the behavior of animals
Cave paintings portray herding animals in groups animal migration certain predators hunting in packs and solitary animals alone
History of the study of animal behavior
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
- Discriminated data from theory
- Developed hypotheses
- Used reasoned skepticism
Blurton-Jones (1976) documented Kalahari bushmenrsquos (Kung) knowledge of animal behavior
Hunter-gatherer society similar to most of humanrsquos history
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Introduction
Why do animals do what they do Why do birds sing How do sea turtles navigate
the ocean to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were hatched
How do honeybees know when the hive needs more food
Image from httpwwwnpsgov
Image from httpwwwscottcamazinecom
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Introduction
Animal behavior asks what why and how
Animal behavior is also referred to as ethology Scientists who study
animal behavior are called ethologists
Image from httpwwwarcamaxcom
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Introduction
Animal behavior is centered around the ability to moveAnimals seek
food water shelter
Animals play with each other
Animals seek matesImage from httpwwwe-magineeducationtasgovau
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
IntroductionIn order for an animal to move it uses muscles So in a way we can think of animal behavior as
being dependent on muscle movement
Image from httpwwwwildaboutcatsorg
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Introduction
Behavior results as a reaction to a stimulusA stimulus is a detectable
change in the animalrsquos internal or external environment
HungerSoundPainVisual cuesHormonal changes
Image from httpwww3nauedubiology
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
What is really happeninghellip
Lets watch
As we watch when the video pauses explain WHAT the animal is doing and WHY you think the animal is doing this
youtube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=LU8DDYz68kM
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Introduction
Ethologists do not attempt to describe WHY an animal does a behavior before describing WHAT the animal is doingThis removes as much bias as possible ndash good
scientists donrsquot want to just ldquosee what they want to seerdquo
Need to make objective observations of animal behaviors analyze the data statistically then come to conclusions about WHY an animal behaves a certain way
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Introduction
For example you see two gophers interacting with each other rolling and hopping around running to and from each other As a behavioral ecologist you would first state
the behavior you are observing Once you made the observations about WHAT
was happening you could begin to determine WHY they are behaving that way
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Introduction
The behavior you observed could have been many different things Play Mating rituals Aggression
defending territory
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Movie BreakPlease get a piece of paper and copy the
followingANSWER FOR EACH ANIMAL PRESENTED
1 What animal2 Where is it commonly found3 What is the ldquosmartrdquo behavior4 Is this behavior (in your opinion) instinctual
learned or other
AT THE END OF THE VIDEOWhat animal do YOU believe is the smartest and
why (10 sentences)
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Video Worldrsquos Smartest Animals
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Types of behaviors defined
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Pet Activity Warm Up On a separate sheet of paper1 Write the name of one of your pets Is
it a bird dog or cat Other2 What behaviors do you think about
when you think of your pet Give a list of behaviors Indicate if the behavior was genetic ldquoinnaterdquo or learned
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Behavioral Ecology
Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis science as a process
Based on expectation that animals behave in ways that will increase their Darwinian fitness (reproductive success)
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Stimuli Review
Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a highly stereotypical innate behavior that continues to completion after initiation by an external stimulus
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Learning
Learning is experience based modification of behavior
Some learning is due mostly to inherent maturation
Habituation is learning involving loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli
Associative learning involves linking one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Operant Conditioning1048708 Animal learns to behave in a certain waythrough repeated practice1048708 Trial amp error learning ndash animal testsconditions for desired responseeg Skinner box1048708 Animal learns that a behavior gets a certainresponse1048708 eg rat presses lever gets food
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Rhythmic Behaviors
Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animalrsquos activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment
Governed by endogenous clocks which in turn require exogenous cues to keep the behavior properly timed with the external environment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Foraging Behavior
Ecologists are using costbenefit analysis to study foraging behavior
Species may be generalists or specialists as foragers
Animals modify behavior to favor a high ratio of energy intake to expenditure
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Social Behavior
Sociobiology places social behavior in evolutionary context
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Competitive Social Behaviors
Agonistic behavior competitor gains advantage by getting a limited resource like food or a mate
Natural selection survival of the fittestldquoPecking orderrdquo dominance hierarchies
with differently ranked individuals permitted options according to their status
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
How natural selections leads to behavioral traitsVariation exists fraction of the species T
elegans (garter snakes) had ability to recognize slugs by chemoreception
Increased fitness That variation has higher chance to survive and reproduce (genes passed on)
Led to changes in the population over time
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Mating Behavior
Promiscuity ndash having many random mates
Monogamy ndash having only one matePolygamy ndash having a few selected mates
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Mating behavior
Promiscuous Strong bonds
Monogamous(sex morphology similar)
Polygamous
Polyandry(dimorphic Larger Showy males)
Polygyny(dimorphicLarger Showy females)
Factors influencing evolution of mating systems-Need of young-Paternity certainty
- certainty increases with external fertilization
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Sexual selectionSexual selection (selective pressure)
evolution of male behavior and anatomyStalked-eyed flies
Females more likely to mate with males with longer eyestalks
Why Correlation between genetic disorders and inability to develop long eyestalks
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Social Interactions
Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
Some animals communicate with smells
Honeybees communicate through ldquodancingrdquo
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Social learning
Experience involves observing othersCulture information transfer through
social learningVervet monkey alarm callsMemes (Richard Dawkins)
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Altruistic Behavior
Inclusive fitness accounts for most altruistic behavior
Best explained by a ldquokinrdquo theory animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
AltruismCostbenefit of selfish vs unselfish
behaviorAltruism reduces individual fitness but
increases fitness of others
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Reciprocal altruism
Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives A wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship
Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
This sort of exchange of aid is called reciprocal altruism
Commonly used to explain altruism in humans
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Agonistic behavior
RitualizedWinner gains access to resourcesPhysical and behavioral characteristics
involvedUsually harm is not done
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Reasoning
Analyze problem amp devise solution using past experiences
Most DogsEg No canrsquot unwind leash from tree
Most HorsesNo
PrimatesYES
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Sociobiology (EO Wilson)
Connects human culture to evolutionary theory
Social behaviors exist because they are perpetuated by natural selection
Does not mean all social behaviors are hardwired (nature vs nurture)
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Self-quiz
Bees can see colors we cannot see and detect minute amounts of chemicals we cannot smell But unlike many insects bees cannot hear very well Which of the following statements best fits into the perspective of behavioral ecology
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Possible answers
A Bees are too small to have functional ears
B Hearing must not contribute much to a beersquos fitness
C If a bee could hear its tiny brain would be swamped with information
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Possible answers
D This is an example of a fixed action pattern
E If bees could hear the noise of the hive would distract the bees from their work
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Challenge question
Starting with the very first time a bee leaves the hive it always flies in a circle around the hive before heading out on a foraging trip
If it is prevented from seeing the hive when it leaves or if the hive is moved while the bee is gone the bee is not able to locate the hive when it returns
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Challenge Question
For this reason beekeepers know that a hive should only be moved helliphellipwhen Why
What part of the bees ldquoorientation flightrdquo behavior appears to be innate
What component shows learning
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Temple Grandin Who is she What is her ldquodisabilityrdquo What was her ldquomajor break throughrdquo at her Auntrsquos cattle farm How does this break through help Temple through college What problems arise at college with her break through How does she over come these problems What does Temple realize when she first visits the feed lot How does she go about her research Why is her job at the newspaper critical for Temple What does Temple design for the gentleman who comes to the
paper What happens the 1st time they use her design Why does this happen How does Temple plan on ldquofixing the industryrdquo What ldquobreak throughrdquo does Temple have at the funeral What break through does Temple have at the grocery store How
does this play a role in her slaughter house design What does Temple do at the conference How does her disability help her ldquoseerdquo
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Review Types of
BehaviorSocialCompetitive
Agnostic Natural Selection ldquoPecking Orderrdquo
ForagingAltruistic Rhythmic
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Behavioral biology is the study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Behavior can be interpreted in terms of proximate causes (immediate interaction with the environment) or ultimate causes (evolutionary differences)
Behavioral biologists study the actions of animals in their natural environments
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Early insights into the nature of behavior came from studies by Nobel laureates Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
They were among the first experimentalists in behavioral biology
Tinbergen and Lorenz performed experimental studies of innate behavior and simple forms of learning
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Behavioral ecologists are especially interested in the ultimate causes of behavior which are evolutionary Natural selection preserves behaviors that enhance fitness
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Niko Tinbergen
Niko Tibergen was a pioneer in the field of animal behaviorHe observed animals in
their natural conditions then manipulated or varied the conditions to see how the animals responded
Image from httpnobelprizeorg
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
A classic Tinbergen experiment deals with the nesting behavior of the digger wasp
The female wasp often excavates and cares for four or five separate nests
Tinbergen used this experiment to test his prediction that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of the location of their nests
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen observed how a wasp called the beewolf finds its nest among other beewolf nestsHe observed that the beewolf
would circle its nest in an ever-widening circle before flying away to hunt
This behavior was an action pattern ndash it was performed exactly the same way each time
Image from httpwwwsciencenewsorg
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Niko Tinbergen
After the beewolf flew off Tinbergen would move certain landmarks around the nests
When the beewolf returned it was disorientedSo by manipulating the
beewolfrsquos environment Tinbergen came to the conclusion that the beewolf commits landmarks to memory to be able to find its nest when it comes back from hunting
Image from httpwwwearthlifeorg
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
In the experiment Tinbergen placed a circle of pinecones around a nest opening
Figure 371 Part 11
Nest
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Nest
After the female flew away Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest opening
When the female wasp returned she flew to the middle of the circle of pinecones rather than to the actual nest opening
Figure 371 Part 22
No Nest
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Tinbergen next arranged the pinecones in a triangle around the nest and made a circle of small stones off to one side of the nest opening
This time the wasp flew to the stones
Nest
Figure 371 Part 33
No Nest
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
The wasp cued in on the arrangement of the landmarks rather than the landmarks themselves
This experiment demonstrated that the wasp did use landmarks and that she could learn new ones to keep track of her nest
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen had to describe and investigate WHAT the organism was doing before attempting to explain WHY
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Spatial learning and cognitive maps
Spatial learning (Tinbergen) experience consists of spatial structures of the environmentUse of landmarks
ReliableCognitive maps Internal
representation of spatial relationships
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Recap
WhatWhat was the experiment
WhereWhere did it take place
WhenWhen was the behavior altered
WhyWhy was this a break through in the study of animal
behavior How
How would this discovery impact (for example) a bee keeper
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Guidelines For Studying Animal Behavior
Ask clear specific questionsKeep the question simple Are you sure it is a
question that can be easily answeredPut the question into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesisDecide on the type of data you need to collect and
how you will gather the dataLeave time to run statistical analyses on the data
and form conclusions based on your results
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Check your understandinghellip
Draw a cartoon of the Niko Wasp Experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Animal Behavior
Influences and Actions
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Animal behavior often involves a combination of genetic programming (innate behavior) and environmental experiences (learning)both genes and the environment influence the
development of behavioral phenotypes- just like any other traits
372 Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
What influences behavior
Environmental pressuresInternal influences such as hormonesLearningGenetic predisposition (sometimes
referred to as ldquoinstinctrdquo)
There isnrsquot a definite combination of these influences that affects all behavior
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
The question of ldquoWHYrdquo can have different answersProximate causes are related to internal changes in the
animalHormonesMessages from the nervous system
ldquoProximaterdquo means closeUltimate causes are related to the survival and
reproductive success of the animal ldquoUltimaterdquo means furthest or utmost
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
The gathering of nest materials by lovebirds has genetic and environmental components
Figure 372
Single long strip carried in beak(Fischerrsquos lovebird)
Several short strips tucked under feathers(peach-faced lovebird)
Hybrid behavior
Tuckingfailure
Strip inbeak
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
An example incorporating both proximate and ultimate causes Beldingrsquos ground squirrelsWhen males reach about two
months old they leave the burrow where they were bornIt is an increase in testosterone or
a hormonal change that triggers this behavior
So the proximate cause of the nest-leaving behavior involves the increase in testosterone levels in the squirrel
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes
There is more to the story than just hormones When males leave the nest they avoid
inbreeding with sisters or cousins etc Their offspring are therefore healthier The male offspring inherit the same genetic
information that induces them to leave their nests at a young age
So this behavior is passed on genetically and it makes for a healthier population of squirrels
Avoiding inbreeding is therefore the ultimate cause of this ldquoearly nest-leavingrdquo behavior
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
How to determine WHY ndash action patterns
Action patterns are complex behaviors that are always repeated the same way by a species of animal We say that action patterns are stereotyped
since they occur the same way each time and through to completion
After repeatedly observing action patterns an ethologist can analyze the data statistically
Only then do we attempt to determine WHY a behavior is being done
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Sign stimuli (often a simple cue in an animalrsquos environment) trigger innate essentially unchangeable fixed action patterns (FAPs)
The genetic programming underlying FAPs ensures that such activities are performed correctly without practice
373 Innate behavior often appears as fixed action patterns
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned behaviors
Nearly unchangeableCarried out to completionSign stimulus (releaser)
behaviorExample of an innate
behavior
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
More on Action Patterns
The egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose is a good example of an action pattern
Niko Tibergen and another pioneer in ethology Konrad Lorentz originally observed this behavior
Image from httpwwwgrayimagescouk
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
More on Action Patterns
The goose will roll an egg that is outside the nest back into the nest in the same manner every timeInterestingly the goose will
do this with any round object placed outside the nest
Every time this action pattern is initiated it is carried through to completion
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
The graylag goose always retrieves an egg that has been bumped out of her nest in the same manner
This is a fixed action pattern
She carries this sequence to completion even if the egg slips away during the process
Figure 373A
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Several key events in the life cycle of the European cuckoo are determined by fixed action patterns
Egg-laying behavior
Figure 373B
1 2 3
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
The behavior of the cuckoo hatchling ejecting the host eggs from the nest
The feeding behavior of a foster mother to the cuckoo chick
Figure 373B
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Learning is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learningAn animal learns not to respond to a repeated
stimulus that conveys little or no informationFor example birds eventually become
habituated to scarecrows and no longer avoid nearby fruit trees
Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Table 374
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Imprinting is learning that involves both innate behavior and experience
Imprinting is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period in an animals life it enhances fitness by enabling rapid learning
Example Lorenz used the graylag goose to demonstrate imprinting He took over the maternal role for a group of goslings
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Not all examples of imprinting involve parent-offspring bonding
Although newly hatched salmon do not receive any parental care they imprint on the complex mixture of odors unique to the freshwater stream where they hatch
This allows salmon to find their way back to the stream to spawn after spending a year or more at sea
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Imprinting plays an important role in song development for many kinds of birds
Figure 375B
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Associative learning is learning that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishmentThese ducks have
learned to associate humans with food handouts
They congregate rapidly whenever a person approaches the shoreline
Many animals learn by association and imitation
Figure 376A
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Trial-and-error learning is a common form of associative learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 376B
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Imitation is learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of othersThis form of learning is not limited to a sensitive
periodMany predators including cats and coyotes seem
to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mother
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behaviorExamples chimpanzees and
ravens
Animal cognition includes problem-solving behavior
Figure 377A B
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Animal Behavior
ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF BEHAVIOR
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Behavior is an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival and reproductive success
Behavior evolves as natural selection fine-tunes an animal to its environmentThe hunting and reproduction behaviors of
jaguarsNest location by digger waspsImprinting of goslings
378 An animals behavior reflects its evolution
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Animals exhibit a great variety of rhythmic behavior patterns
Circadian rhythms are patterns that are repeated dailySleepwake cycles in animals and plants
Circadian rhythms appear to be timed by an internal biological clock
379 Biological rhythms synchronize behavior with the environment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
In the absence of environmental cues these rhythms continueBut they become out of phase with the
environment
Figure 379A
1212 (natural)Constant darkness
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Movement in a directed way enables animals to avoid predatorsmigrate to a more favorable environmentobtain foodfind mates and nest sites
3710 Animal movement may be oriented to stimuli or landmarks
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
1 kinesis- simplest type of animal movement - random movement in response to a stimulus
2 taxis- another simple type A more or less automatic movement directed toward
or away from some stimulus Examples include rheotaxis (current) chemotaxis
and phototaxis
3 Some animals use landmarks to find their way within an area
TYPES of ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Directed movements
Strong genetic influenceKinesis versus taxisMigration
Migrating blackcaps kept in captivity exhibited behaviors of ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo at night
Migratory and nonmigratory blackcaps mated and subjected to both environments
40 of offspring exhibited ldquomigratory restlessnessrdquo
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Many animals formulate cognitive maps Internal representations of spatial relationships among
objects in their surroundings (wasp example)
Some animals undertake long-range migrationsExamples whales sea turtles birds monarch butterflies
Animals navigate using the sun stars temperature gradients landmarks or Earths magnetism
3711 Movement from place to place often depends on internal maps
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Migrating gray whales use coastal landmarks to stay on course
Figure 3711A
FEEDINGGROUNDS
Siberia
Arctic Ocean
Alaska
NORTHAMERICA
PacificOcean
Baja California
BREEDING GROUNDS
AtlanticOcean
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
The indigo bunting learns a star map and navigates by fixing on the North Star
Figure 3711B
Paper
Ink padFunnel-shapedcage
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Letrsquos Read More About ItRead the article on Indigo BuntingsAnswer the questions that follow
Put the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of _______ on ________rdquo model
Formulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)What are the resultsHow can this influence studies of other migratory birdsHow can human behavior alter this natural behavior in
birds
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Bird Migration Video
For each bird What is the speciesHow far does it travelTry to get an idea of where 2 birds mentioned in
the video are from Afterwards we will try to locate possible modes
of remembrance during migration Landmarks Stars Earthrsquos Magnetism Other
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Animals are generally selective and efficient in their food choicesSome animals such
as gulls are feeding ldquogeneralistsrdquo
Other animals such as koalas are feeding ldquospecialistsrdquo
3712 Behavioral ecologists use costbenefit analysis in studying feeding behavior
Figure 3712A B
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image
Natural selection seems to have shaped feeding behavior to maximize energy gain and minimize the expenditure of time and energyThis is the theory of optimal foraging
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Foraging behavior
Optimal foraging theory behaviors exist as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and cost of obtaining food
Predation must be a factor
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Whenever an animal has food choices there are a number of tradeoffs
A bass can get more usable energy from minnows but crayfish are easier to catch
However it may take more time to eat a crayfish because of its tough exoskeleton
Figure 3712C
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
The kangaroo rat selects high-energy foods (seeds) in a manner that reduces time spent above the ground where it is exposed to predators
Figure 3712E
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Read more about it
Read the Indigo Bunting and answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow can this influence the feed industry for cattle
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Animal Behavior
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Social behavior is defined as the interaction among members of a population
The discipline of sociobiology studies social behavior in the context of evolution
3713 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Agonistic behavior is social behavior consisting of threats and combat that settles disputes between individuals in a population
Agonistic behavior can directly affect an individuals evolutionary fitness The victor often gains
first or exclusive access to mates
3714 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Figure 3714
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Many animals live in social groups maintained by agonistic behaviors
Dominance hierarchy is the ranking of individuals based on social interactions
3715 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Chickens establish a ldquopeck orderrdquo
Resources are often partitioned based upon the dominance hierarchy
Figure 3715
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Humans tend to space themselves out when they are close to othersThey establish
what we might call personal territories
3717 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Figure 3717A
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Many animals exhibit territorial behavior
It is a form of social behavior that partitions resources
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
A territory is an area that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded
The size of the territory varies with species the function and the available resources
Territories are typically used for feeding mating andor rearing young
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Territoriality is often maintained by agonistic behavior
These New Zealand gannets maintain their individual nesting territories by calling and pecking at each other
Figure 3717B
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Territoriality can enhance fitness if the benefits of possessing a territory outweigh the energy costs of defending one
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Territorial rights are proclaimed continually in a variety of ways
Bird songsNoises such as the bellowing of sea lions and
the chattering of squirrelsDefecation in open
areasScent markers
such as urine
Figure 3717C
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Signals and communication
Signal causes change in another organismrsquos behavior
Difference between communication and language
Pheromones (reproductive and nonreproductive behaviors)
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Auditory communication
Songs of birds are partly learnedCritical period
Some insects such as male Drosophila produce a song even when reared in isolationVery little variation why
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Zebra Danio Experiment
Read the Article and Answer the followingPut the experiment into the ldquoWhat is the effect of
_______ on ________rdquo modelFormulate a complete hypothesis in the IFTHAN formatWhat is the type of data collectedHow is the data gatheredWhat is the timing for the experiment (How long did
they run)How many trials were neededWhat are the resultsHow could this influence the sale of multiple Danio fish
to someone in a pet store
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
Animal Behavior REVIEWDefine ethology animal behavior stimulus action pattern
proximate cause (give example) ultimate cause (give example) FAP (give example) agnostic behavior rhythmic behavior Circadian Rhythm sociobiology
Answer in complete sentences What influences behavior Know the types of behavior and be able to explaingive examples of each What are the 5 types of learning Explain Nikorsquos experiment (you can use drawings for support) What did this tell us about
animal behavior Explain the indigo bunting experiment What did this tell us about animal behavior What was the Skinner box What type of behavior does this illustrate What was Pavlovrsquos experiment and what type of behavior does this illustrate Why was
this an important gain in animal behavior Who was Lorenz and what did he study What did this tell us about animal behavior How was the winged Migration movie successful What research did they use as a base
for their experiment
