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A Virtual Engine Laboratory for Teaching Powertrain
Engineering
Burke, R.D.1, De Jonge, N.2, Avola, C.1, Forte, B.3
1. Powertrain and Vehicle Research Centre, Dept. Mechancial Engineeirng, University of Bath, Bath, UK
2. Dept. Mechancial Engineeirng, University of Bath, Bath, UK
3. bblDept. Electrical Engineeirng, University of Bath, Bath, UK
ta
Abstract
A virtual engine laboratory application for use in automotive engineering education is proposed to allow
the practical teaching of powertrain calibration. The laboratory is built as a flexible Matlab environment
that can easily be transferred across faculties for other applications and is a key enabler to link teaching
and research.
Keywords: Virtual Laboratory, Automotive Engineering, Matlab, Design of Experiments, Diesel Engines
1 IntroductionEngineering education needs to incorporate many practical aspects that are key to the profession [1]. In
early years of engineering education, laboratory sessions can be simple to demonstrate the basic
physical principles to support theoretical learning that in fields such as thermodynamics, mechanics or
fluid mechanics. However, as students advance in their education, the concepts that are being taught
become more complex, and the practical application of these concepts requires larger, more
sophisticated laboratories. A teaching example in automotive engineering is the topic of engine
1
controller calibration. This skill requires engineers to optimise the parameters of the control unit based
on experimental data measured on an engine or vehicle test facility. However, the use of a such a test
facility for education purposes is prohibitively expensive and impractical for most universities. The result
is that the education resorts to class based activities which fail to stimulate higher levels of learning and,
in the worst cases, only encourages memory learning without understanding [2].
The aim of this paper is to create a virtual laboratory application for use in automotive engineering
education and demonstrate how it can be used to improve teaching of the subject of engine calibration.
2 Background
2.1 Learning objectives for Master’s Students
The topic of powertrain calibration is an example of engineering practice in the field of automotive
engineering. The task requires the use of Design of Experiments, experimental data capture and
processing, mathematical regression modelling, and optimisation techniques [3-5]. To undertake
learning of this topic, student’s will have already completed a previous course in basic control theory but
for many participants this represents the first time they are exposed to its application to a real system.
This application could be considered a threshold concept that is difficult to teach without practical
experience [6].
The motivation for implementing the virtual engine test laboratory stems from analysis of examination
history and student feedback. This analysis highlighted an emphasis on “remembering” as the major
learning activities. This is located in the knowledge or remembering level of Bloom’s Taxonomy and
crucially misaligned with the intended learning outcomes (ILOs) of a Master’s level course which
requires students to “analyse”. This course format was primarily lecture based which could only provide
students with the definitions worked examples; with this format it is not possible to achieve the higher
2
levels of learning without allowing the students put theory into practice [7, 8]. In order to create an
environment where students can do this, the activities and assessments need to be aligned with the
application fo the methods.
Ideally, each student would be able to apply the engineering theory on a real engine test facility,
spending many hours practicing to develop their understanding. However, the cost of such facilities as
well as all the overhead knowledge in running a full powertrain test facility are prohibitive to this option.
A virtual laboratory approach was therefore chosen.
2.2 Virtual laboratories and their pros and cons
Using virtual laboratories has been shown to be effective in all but the youngest of learners [9]. The key
shortfall is that some concepts need to be experienced in order to be fully accepted and understood. A
good example of this is the boiling of water at temperature below 100oC at lower pressures.
Studies of virtual laboratories has shown that if the experience is sufficiently realistic then the benefit is
similar to that of the equivalent real laboratory [7]. This is particularly the case if the virtual laboratory
can provide sufficient levels of realism [8] and avoid deterring students through unfriendly programming
environments [6].
Three categories of virtual laboratories can be found in the literature:
1. Virtual reality laboratories which emulate part or all of the laboratory environment. These tools
can be used alone or in combination with real laboratory sessions and examples include the
Chemistry LabSkills e-learning tools [1] and a geology based laboratory from the University of
Arizona [9].
2. Laboratories where the session is conducted using only part of the experimental equipment
with a computer simulation providing the rest. This approach is still conducted in a laboratory
3
setting, but reduces the overall equipment costs. Examples from the literature include an engine
calibration lab at the University of Bradford [10] and a cruise control lab at the University of
Michigan using a haptic feedback device to illustrate control effort [11]. Although virtual
laboratories, these examples still require a dedicated laboratory space and equipment which
restricts student access to the learning environment.
3. Fully software based virtual labs which provide a PC based interaction with a simulation model.
Racing academy [12] is an example of such a lab currently widely used, but is constructed as a
game and therefore does not give students the laboratory feel. A Gas turbine [13] example can
also be found in the literature.
There are few examples of virtual engine laboratories in the literature, most probably because the
creation of the engine models required for these are themselves a topic of research or commercial tools
[14, 15]. However the topic is gaining popularity and universities are needing to respond to a demand
from industry for expertise in this area [16].
The virtual laboratory from Bradford [10] is a semi-virtual lab and still takes place in a laboratory
environment. A real engine controller is used, but linked to a specialist computer which hosts the real-
time engine model. The laboratory in fact represents some real installations at automotive
manufacturers who use Hardware in the loop approaches to develop their control strategies [17]. The
advantage here is that the students are still in a laboratory environment and have to engage with some
degree of real hardware. However the downside is that as a laboratory facility is still required, student
access is necessarily limited.
2.3 The Opportunity for a virtual laboratory
The experimental aspects of powertrain calibration are typically conducted on an engine test facility.
The test facility itself comprises of a test cell which includes the engine linked to a host computer system
4
that drives the test cell and records the data (see Figure 1). When the test cell is operational, the
engineer’s role is primarily interacting with the computer screen to set the operating conditions
according to a test plan and record data. On most facilities, there are safety systems in place that will
shut down the facility in the case of dangerous running conditions.
Figure 1: Typical layout of laboratory facilities
In this work it is recognised that there is an opportunity to recreate the engineer’s experience (the host
system interface) without the need for a real engine test facility. The on-demand availability of a virtual
laboratory will encourage both independent and peer-supported learning [10, 13, 18]. Laboratory
sessions will no longer be constrained to set timetabled periods and locations allowing both on- and off-
campus learning. The computer models required for this configuration are readily available within the
research groups providing the teaching and therefore this approach also creates a natural exchange
platform between research and teaching.
5
It is further recognised that this configuration of test facility host system is not unique to engine test
facilities and that the user interface could be created in a flexible way to allow it to be applied to other
applications across disciplines.
This work therefore aims to create a generic user interface that can be linked to mathematical models of
engineering and science systems to provide students with the experience of operating sophisticated
experimental equipment on any desktop PC.
3 Virtual Lab description
3.1 Real Engine laboratories
Engine test facilities are common in industry and Universities to evaluate the performance of engine
systems. They are designed to measure the behaviour of the engine without the need for a full vehicle.
This gives more control over the testing but also allows engines to be developed concurrently with the
vehicle.
A typical test facility is shown in Figure 2. The engine is used without the gearbox, drivetrain or vehicle
and its output shaft instead drives and dynamometer (motor/generator). The dynamometer is used to
brake the engine and thus replicate the resistance friction and inertia forces of a vehicle. The
dynamometer can be controlled to maintain a target rotational speed and will absorb or provide power
to maintain that speed. The amount of power the motor needs to absorb depends on how hard the
engine is working which is adjusted by actuating the engine’s accelerator pedal, as would be the case in
a vehicle.
The test rig is linked to a computer system known as the host system which controls the dynamometer
speed and accelerator pedal position, but also:
- Controls all of the cooling fans and cooling water flows
6
- Records data from any instrumentation installed on the engine
- Communicates with the engine’s controller to modify set-points such as the timing of
combustion, the opening of exhaust gas recirculation valves and the operating of the
turbocharger.
Figure 2: Engine test cell layout
It is the host system that is of key interest for the virtual laboratory as this is the interface between the
engineer and the test rig. The host system is essentially a human-machine interface comprising the
following elements (an example is shown in Figure 3):
- Buttons to switch test bed systems on/off (dynamometer, fuel supply, cooling fans…)
- A live stream of measured values from the various sensors
- Dials and gauges to monitor key engine operating conditions
- Oscilloscopes for observing time history of selected data channels
- Features for logging data to a data file
- Alarms that alert the user to certain conditions of the test cell (such as engine too hot…)
7
Figure 3: Typical user interface for the host system
3.2 Interface construction
The Mathworks Matlab was chosen as the environment to create the user interface. This was selected
because it is a universal tool used across disciplines and widely available within Universities. In addition,
many of the graphical components already exist within Matlab such as buttons, graphs and data storage.
Matlab is also a common environment for computational models of systems used for research which are
another key input to the virtual laboratory. By hosting the user interface in Matlab, this will ease the
linkage to the models. Finally, this will encourage students to engage with this universal tool to develop
their coding abilities and to make contributions to virtual lab.
To facilitate the use of the tool across disciplines, the user interface has been built as a library of
software components that can easily be arranged by an intermediate programmer to create new
interfaces for future virtual laboratory applications. The structure of the virtual laboratory environment
is illustrated in Figure 4 which has been constructed to promote future uses. The base interface
components are stored and documented as programming objects that can easily be personalised for
future applications. The actual application of the virtual engine laboratory is stored as a case study and
8
application example to inspire future users. The core user interface and application were created by two
mechanical engineering undergraduate students with a particular interest in computer programming.
Figure 4: Programming Structure of the Virtual Laboratory Environment
Figure 5 shows some example screen from the user interface that have been designed to mimic the
screens from the test cell interface shown in Figure 3.
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Cell Services Page Engine Control input page
Measurements page Oscilloscope page
Figure 5: Screenshots from the virtual laboratory
The user interface interacts with the engine simulation model which has minimal modifications
compared to the research version. In fact, the model will run without the user interface, allowing it to be
updated independently to provide future features. The model and its interaction with the GUI will be
detailed in the following section.
The user interface exists as a script that the students must run in Matlab. Specific guidance for installing
and launching the script and once activated, the student work only with the GUI. In this way, the code is
openly available for students to explore without deterring student who have less interest in computer
programming.
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3.3 Engine Model
The engine model is issued from a number of sub-models whish originate from research activities. The
full engine model is a combination of physics based and empirical models that capture different aspects
of engine operation. For the virtual laboratory application, the final choice of model type for each
component was a compromise between:
- Model availability: it must be available for open distribution to students and not be protected by
commercial restrictions. The model must also be able to run without costly software licenses on
all computers to allow full and unlimited access to the tool.
- Computational effort: the model must be able to run faster than real-time on a standard
desktop computer
- Accuracy: the absolute accuracy is of less importance than the model exhibiting correct trends.
This ensures that the model maintains a good level of realism and allows students to explore
topics taught across the automotive engineering degree, such as combustion effects.
An overview of the engine model is shown in Figure 6. This consists of the following models:
1. A semi physical model of the turbocharger [19]
2. A mean value engine model describing the flow of air, burning of fuel and creation of torque in
the engine cylinders [20]. The mean value model is built as Neural networks fitted to data issued
from a 1D gas dynamics model of the engine
3. Dynamic polynomial or Neural Network models of the emissions formation in the cylinder [21,
22]
4. Physical models off the intake and exhaust manifolds as single control volumes [23]
By combining these different types of models, the students undertaking the lab have the opportunity to
explore these mathematical formulations which, although not the core topic of this laboratory, will be
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useful for them across their degree programme. Students who choose to explore the model are
consequently provided with working examples of these mathematical formulations that can be used as
templates for other work.
Figure 6: Outline of the engine model showing the main parts.
The different models are described in full in the particular references cited above. Some models
required simplification in order to reduce the calculate times such thaty the could be calculated fast
enough on a standard desktop machine. This is a vital requirement for the students to have the
perception of running a real laboratory. The run time was improved by replacing differential equations
describing the engine operation for every degree of engine crank revolution with look-up tables
describing the average behaviour over two full revolutions. These look-up tables were constructed as
neural networks. The neural networks were fitted to data from a higher order mathematical model
which was too slow for this application and required specialist software licensing.
The simplification of the models ultimately resulted in a compromise of the model accuracy. However,
high precision of the outputs is not vital for a teaching environment, and the most important
requirement is that the model behaves in a realistic way. Therefore models from different sources were
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combined to provide a fully functional, realistic but inaccurate model of the engine system. An example
in this application was the fuelling, combustion and emissions models. In this case the following models
from different engines were
- Pilot combustion model from results presented by Tanka et al. [24]
- Soot model from Grahn et al. [22]
- Diesel injector characteristics from Dowell [25]
- NOx model in low speed/torque region [23] and high speed region [24]
One of the major drawbacks of virtual laboratories is the lack of realism which can be off-putting for
students. Some of this realism can be addressed by the way the virtual laboratories are used within the
course and this will be addressed in the following section. However, some of the realism is inherent to
the software model and will be discussed here.
Most Simulation models a deterministic, meaning that for a given set of initial and boundary conditions,
the model will calculate the same outcome every time the model is run. This is the case of the models
used in this application. However, experimental work always includes a degree of randomness due to:
- Random variation and error in the control and instrumentation equipment
- Time based evolution of the test piece that is not typically captured by simulation models.
These variations are a key aspect of engineering education in the early years where much time is spent
teaching students that with experimental work there is no single, precise and specific correct answer.
However, with a virtual laboratory, this exact answer may well exist. To improve the realism, random
variation from the sensors was included into the virtual laboratory. This was included as an addition to
the model rather than in the user interface by mean of a random noise added to the model signal. The
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amplitude of the noise was chosen to be of similar order of magnitude to the uncertainty of the
measurement equipment typically used in the real test cell. Uncertainty in the actuators was not
considered here, but could be introduced in a similar way to the model inputs.
4 Virtual Model Use in student assessmentThe virtual engine laboratory was used as part of a coursework assessment. The students were given 6
weeks to complete the task in their own time, being able to access the virtual laboratory at any time.
The coursework was aimed at teaching them the methodology of engine calibration. This important step
in engine development requires engineers to determine the optimal settings of the engine actuators to
meet fuel consumption, emissions and performance targets. This engineering task is essentially an
optimisation problem of a complex, non-linear system with many input parameters and multiple targets
and constraints. It is typically conducted once engine hardware is available and the industry state-of-
the-art approach makes use of Design of Experiments methodology [2]. The optimisation process is
typically conducted according to the Z-process [2] which combines the following six steps:
1. Problem definition defining the targets and acceptable ranges of actuator settings based on
expert and prior knowledge
2. Design of experimental test plan using specialist engineering software
3. Experimental test campaign to collect data in the engine test facility
4. Regression modelling to generate mathematical functions capturing the measured behaviour of
the engine (in specialist software)
5. Search of optimum controller configuration using optimisation algorythms and functions
generated in step 4.
6. Validation of optimal controller configuration on engine test cell
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The exercise created in this case study aims to allow students to put into practice steps 2-4 of this
process. In doing this they will be:
- Exposed to real engineering software for the experimental design
- Learning the functionality of engine test cells through the virtual laboratories
- Taught the generic skill of design of experiments
The first of these is achieved by requiring the students to used an automotive calibration software tool
to plan their experiment and to build their regression models. It is not the aim of the course to teach any
particular software tool, however it is important to expose students to these tools as most available on
the market are similar in structure. This is akin to teaching engineering drawing through CAD software. A
particular software package must be chosen, but the overall goal is to teach the process.
The second is achieved through use of the virtual laboratory and an accompanying session on engine
test cells delivered by a post-doctoral researcher. In addition to running the laboratory, the students are
also exposed to the post-processing of data and the conversion of measured quantities into physical
parameters. For example, exhaust emissions can only be measured as volumetric concentrations, and a
conversion process must be undertaken, this is an integral part of the exercise and students need to
create their own tools for doing this.
The final step is achieved by requiring students to undertake a “one factor at a time” experiment,
followed by a design of experiments approach. Through the same number of test points, they will learn
that the design of experiments approach gives them a far richer data set and much more information on
the behaviour of their system. Because they are required to collect the data from the virtual laboratory,
they will appreciate the time gain this approach offers.
15
Figure 7 illustrates the intended workflow for the student’s assessment and clearly highlights the need
for the virtual engine laboratory. The engineering methods section are the key learning objectives of the
course, however without the virtual engine laboratory, it is not possible to complete the logical steps.
Figure 7: Process of Undergraduate assessment illustrating the use of the Virtual laboratory environment
Any attempt to encourage students to undertake the tasks on the left-hand side without the virtual
engine laboratory require the provision of pre-recorded data which only allow the students to proceed
in a liner manner. The linking top the virtual engine lab allow the students to repeat and re-try different
approach.
5 Reflection on the use of the Virtual Laboratory
5.1 Change of learning scope and styles
In setting the assessment, students were asked to compare the process of design of experiments with
simple experimental methods. The students were prescribed an experimental design and a regression
model structure and suggested they explore one additional design or model. However over 75% of
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students engaged in significant self-learning around the topic of design of experiments and modelling,
with around 50% of student comparing three or more types of experimental designs.
An additional benefit to of the exercise is that students are encouraged to explore the real behaviour of
the engine. In this case, the students experience and explore the trade-off between the efficiency of the
engine and the creation of NOx emissions. This is a trade-off that must be managed by engine designers
in the automotive industry. Although the physical processes behind this trade-off are not the focus of
this module, they are part of a complementary module within the course and therefore the laboratory
promotes the linking of teaching activities within the degree programme. Over 50% of the participants
undertook specific literature searches to describe the physical processes they were observing.
Both explaining the physical processes and comparing different experimental designs demonstrates that
the activity has stimulated the curiosity of many students to go beyond the core taught content.
It was previous described that previous assessment of the calibration topic had focussed on
remembering definitions and descriptions of the engineering methodologies. This type of assessment
had been seen to disadvantage overseas students whose native language was different to that in which
the course was taught. This was because the assessment required the understanding and remembering
of a significant amount of written material. The virtual laboratory has enabled the assessment to be
based on the student’s application and experiences rather than their ability to remember. This was
shown to reduce the discrepancy between overseas and native students which is indicative that the
teaching has become more inclusive through the use of the learning technology.
5.2 Further skills development
Matlab was used as the platform for the user interface to encourage the development of generic
programming skills. It would have been possible to package the user interface as an independent
software tool for which access to the code and structure remains hidden for the user. Whilst this would
17
make the interface user-friendly, it is recognised that in engineering programming is becoming a key
generic skill and students should be encouraged to explore these tools. The open source nature of the
virtual laboratory empowers students to develop the ideas further incorporating new features such as
data analysis interfaces. In the context of the particular automotive engineering course, students would
be able to create small changes to the software to improves its performance.
During the assessment period, most participants used the virtual laboratory as it was intended: ignoring
the open source programming and using the GUI. However, an small number of participants sought to
interact directly with the code. The primary motivation for this was to reduce the time required to spend
in front of the user interface during the data collection phases (Figure 7). Whilst at first glance this may
seem contrary to the objective of recreating the experience of operating a real engine laboratory, in
practice this approach was encouraged as by taking this approach the students would interact directly
with the mathematical model of the engine.
Students that engage with the mathematical model of the engine are in fact engaging with the research
work that has led to the creation of these models. In this way, undergraduate teaching is being directly
linked to the University’s research activities which has the advantages:
- Encouraging the next generation of researchers in this community
- Encouraging teaching to remain at the cutting edge of research
5.3 Transferability of the Virtual Laboratory
The virtual laboratory interface was developed with an advisory board with membership from the
Departments of Chemical engineering, Health, Electrical engineering and Physics. The involvement of
academics from across the University was done to ensure that the interface library would respond to
their needs and remove barriers to the transfer to other disciplines. Over the course of the virtual
laboratory development, three key applications were identified:
18
In Chemistry/Chemical Engineering an application would enable students to experience the
control and monitoring of full scale chemical plants. This is important as students often have
difficulties in understanding the thermodynamic issues and the need to control reactions when
laboratories are scaled up to production.
In the department of health, distance learning students could benefit from the experience of
monitoring muscle activity of athletes breathing during exercise. These students have limited
contact time where they can visit the real laboratories: a virtual laboratory would allow them to
experience the data collection aspect from off-campus location.
In Electrical engineering, the analysis of GPS receiver technology is identified to support learning
in Space Science. This application has a similar motivation tot eh virtual engine laboratory to
provide students with practical experiences that cannot easily be delivered in a real laboratory
environment.
The user interface tool is hosted within a University repository, including full documentation and case
studies of the application to a particular problem. The creation of a new application is envisaged through
small teaching projects or through undergraduate of postgraduate student projects.
6 ConclusionsA virtual laboratory for automotive applications is presented. The Virtual laboratory was uilt to recreate
the experience of the engineer when using an engine test cell, by replaceing the real engine and
hardware with a mathematical model issued from research. The exercise has succeeded in improving
the learning experience of students by allowing them to put knowledge into practice. This has been
evidenced by:
- The depth with which students have explored the topic of calibration
- The engagement of student with research and external literature on engine physical processes
19
- The improvement of performance of overseas students compared to assessments focussed on
remembering.
The open source nature of the user interface has successfully engaged students with the development
of the programming skills with a number of students exploring and modifying the application to suit
their needs. It is hoped that, along with the exposure to research, that this will encourage new young
researchers in this area in the future.
The virtual laboratory interface tool was built as a library of components that can easily be used to
create new interfaces for different applications. The project was undertaken with the advice from
academics from different disciplines to promote the transfer of the tool into other courses. This has
been a success as a second application is already underway in electrical engineering.
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