IntroductionIntroduction

Linguistics 200Linguistics 200

Spring 2002Spring 2002

How are languages structured?How are languages structured?

List-type information List-type information e.g. cate.g. cat Linguists make explicit in Linguists make explicit in

dictionaries (lexicons, vocabularies)dictionaries (lexicons, vocabularies) Rule-type information Rule-type information

e.g. cat (sg.) : cats (pl.)e.g. cat (sg.) : cats (pl.) Linguists make explicit in grammarsLinguists make explicit in grammars

Some questions about grammarSome questions about grammar What is the rule system in language X? What is the rule system in language X?

How are sounds/signs produced and How are sounds/signs produced and perceived? What sounds or signs are perceived? What sounds or signs are possible/impossible in a language?possible/impossible in a language?

What is are possible words/sentences? What is are possible words/sentences? How are words/sentences related to How are words/sentences related to each other?each other?

How does language convey How does language convey information?information?

Some questions about grammarSome questions about grammar

How do rules change over time?How do rules change over time? What social influences on rules can be What social influences on rules can be

identified?identified? How are rules learned:How are rules learned:

** as a first language? as a first language?* * as a second language?as a second language?

Various senses of ‘grammar’Various senses of ‘grammar’

Grammatical competenceGrammatical competence Descriptive vs. prescriptive grammarDescriptive vs. prescriptive grammar Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar

Competence vs. performanceCompetence vs. performance

Grammatical competenceGrammatical competence what native speakers/signers what native speakers/signers knowknow

(list-and rule-type information)(list-and rule-type information) typically unconscious knowledgetypically unconscious knowledge creative: produce/perceive novel creative: produce/perceive novel

utterancesutterances what linguists are interested inwhat linguists are interested in

Competence vs. performanceCompetence vs. performance

PerformancePerformance:: what speakers/signers what speakers/signers actuallyactuallydodo, in addition to producing well-, in addition to producing well-formedformedwords and sentences.words and sentences.

Native speaker errors are Native speaker errors are performance performance errors,errors,not competence errors. not competence errors.

Some performance errorsSome performance errors

False starts: Where did you st- get that False starts: Where did you st- get that coat?coat?

Wrong soundWrong sound SpoonerismsSpoonerismsintendedintended producedproduced split pea soup split pea soup plit spea soup plit spea soup Tongue twisters: Lemon linimentTongue twisters: Lemon liniment

Descriptive vs. prescriptive grammarDescriptive vs. prescriptive grammar

Descriptive linguistics:Descriptive linguistics: linguists describe competence of linguists describe competence of

speakers/signers of language Xspeakers/signers of language X grammatical competence = grammatical competence =

grammargrammar lexical competence = dictionarylexical competence = dictionary

Prescriptive linguisticsPrescriptive linguistics

Rules and lists handed down by a Rules and lists handed down by a

supposed authority on the right way to supposed authority on the right way to speak.speak.

consciously known rules (unlike consciously known rules (unlike grammatical competence)grammatical competence)

Some prescriptive rulesSome prescriptive rules

speakers sayspeakers say prescriptive prescriptive rule violatedrule violated

““should” sayshould” say

I tried I tried to to quickly getquickly get out of there.out of there.

don’t split don’t split infinitivesinfinitives

I quickly tried I quickly tried to get out of to get out of therethere

Somebody left Somebody left theirtheir coat. coat.

theirtheir requires requires plural plural antecedentantecedent

Somebody left Somebody left his or her his or her coat.coat.

Prescriptive rules in other Prescriptive rules in other languages: Koreanlanguages: Korean

modernmodern modernmodern historichistoric

[nun][nun] ‘‘eye’eye’ [nun][nun] ‘‘snow’snow’ [nu:n][nu:n]

[mal][mal] ‘‘horse’horse’ [mal][mal] ‘‘word’word’ [ma:l][ma:l]

[pal][pal] ‘‘foot’foot’ [pal][pal] ‘‘blind’blind’ [pa:l][pa:l]

Linguists’ view of differences between native Linguists’ view of differences between native speakersspeakers

Variation exists:Variation exists: there are different there are different varieties varieties of the same language, not "right" vs. of the same language, not "right" vs. "wrong" varieties"wrong" varieties

All native speakers are equally right aboutAll native speakers are equally right abouttheir language.their language.

  

Where do prescriptive rules come from?Where do prescriptive rules come from?

Source of English “can’t split Source of English “can’t split infinitive” rule: Latin (in which infinitive” rule: Latin (in which infinitives are one word)infinitives are one word)

Source of prescriptively maintained vowel length contrast in Korean: awareness of earlier stage of language

Universal grammar Universal grammar

Language universalsLanguage universals(or universal grammar (UG)):(or universal grammar (UG)):

Universal properties of language, rules Universal properties of language, rules or phenomena found in all languagesor phenomena found in all languages

Some examples of lg universalsSome examples of lg universals

All (spoken) languages have All (spoken) languages have consonants and vowels. consonants and vowels.

All (spoken) languages have more All (spoken) languages have more consonants than vowels.consonants than vowels.

Some examples of lg universalsSome examples of lg universals

All languages have “parts of speech” All languages have “parts of speech” (lexical or grammatical categories) (lexical or grammatical categories) which include nouns and verbs.which include nouns and verbs.

In all languages, the structure of In all languages, the structure of sentences is hierarchical. Sentences sentences is hierarchical. Sentences are potentially infinite in length.are potentially infinite in length.

Why are there language universals?Why are there language universals?

Universal Grammar as a blueprint for Universal Grammar as a blueprint for languagelanguage

Human beings are genetically predestined Human beings are genetically predestined to learn a languageto learn a language

Cross-linguistic variationCross-linguistic variation

Sounds:Sounds: ““Guttural” sounds or notGuttural” sounds or not

Witsuwit'en [qis] ‘king salmon’Witsuwit'en [qis] ‘king salmon’ Consonant sequences allowed or Consonant sequences allowed or

notnot Sahaptin [tkSahaptin [tkwwáta]- ‘eat’áta]- ‘eat’

Cross-linguistic variationCross-linguistic variation

Word structure:Word structure:

# meaningful elements per word # meaningful elements per word possiblepossible

Sekani [usàSekani [usà mànis mànisoo] ‘I gave him a ] ‘I gave him a bucket’bucket’

m- ‘him’, à- (m- ‘him’, à- (à)- ‘give’, ni- à)- ‘give’, ni- conjugation, s- ‘I’, -conjugation, s- ‘I’, -oo ‘handle ‘handle compact object’ (perfective)compact object’ (perfective)

Language modality Language modality

Modality: Modality: medium through which medium through which language is transmitted.language is transmitted.

Spoken languages use the vocal-Spoken languages use the vocal-auditory modalityauditory modality

Signed languages use the visual-Signed languages use the visual-gestural modalitygestural modality

Language modalityLanguage modality

American Sign LanguageAmerican Sign Language (U.S. and (U.S. and Canada)Canada)

native vs. non-native signersnative vs. non-native signers variation among native signers of ASLvariation among native signers of ASL

grammar and lexicongrammar and lexicon

Languages and language families Languages and language families

Language vs. dialectLanguage vs. dialect

What is a language?What is a language?

mutual intelligibility: if 2 speakers can mutual intelligibility: if 2 speakers can understand each other, they speak the understand each other, they speak the same language. same language.

Languages and language familiesLanguages and language families

English (language)English (language)

qpqp

American English (dialect) Brit. English (dialect)American English (dialect) Brit. English (dialect)

eiei

S. California (dialect) New York City (dialect)S. California (dialect) New York City (dialect)

gg

S. Hargus (idiolect)S. Hargus (idiolect)

Languages and language familiesLanguages and language families

Linguistic change over time is normal. Linguistic change over time is normal. Dialects may become mutually Dialects may become mutually

unintelligible.unintelligible. Languages that descend from the same Languages that descend from the same

ancestor belong to the same ancestor belong to the same familyfamily.. Most languages are genetically related Most languages are genetically related

to at least one other language. to at least one other language.

Language familiesLanguage families

E.g., GermanicE.g., Germanic

Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic q g pq g p West North EastWest North East qgiqgi egiegi gg High Low Angl.-Fris. Faroese Icelandic Norw., GothicHigh Low Angl.-Fris. Faroese Icelandic Norw., Gothic gg gigi gigi Swed., Dan. Swed., Dan.German Afr. Dutch German Afr. Dutch EnglishEnglish Frisian Frisian

Estimating linguistic diversityEstimating linguistic diversity

How many languages are there?How many languages are there?

  

Ethnologue: ‘more than 6700’Ethnologue: ‘more than 6700’

  

http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/

Distribution of world's languagesDistribution of world's languages

areaarea apx. # lgsapx. # lgs % of world’s lgs% of world’s lgs

EuropeEurope 225225 3%3%

N., S. AmericaN., S. America 10001000 15%15%

AfricaAfrica 20112011 30%30%

Pacific (incl. Pacific (incl. Australia)Australia)

13021302 19%19%

AsiaAsia 21652165 32%32%

Estimating linguistic diversityEstimating linguistic diversity

Number of language families: 188-217Number of language families: 188-217

  # lgs # families

Americas 1000 122-141

Austr, Pacific 1302 47

Europe, Asia 2390 14-15

Africa 2011 5-14

Linguistic extinctionLinguistic extinction

Some extinct languages of EuropeSome extinct languages of Europe Gaulish, Cornish, ‘Pictish’Gaulish, Cornish, ‘Pictish’ EtruscanEtruscan

Estimated historical rate of linguistic Estimated historical rate of linguistic survival: 75%survival: 75% I.e., over 5000-6000 years, language I.e., over 5000-6000 years, language

families average 1.6 survivors of first families average 1.6 survivors of first splitsplit

Projections of linguistic diversityProjections of linguistic diversity

50-90% loss in coming century50-90% loss in coming century MoribundMoribund languages languages EndangeredEndangered languages languages

Worst case scenarioWorst case scenario

area % moribund lgsAlaska and Siberia 90% US and Canada 80% C. America, Mexico 17%S. America 27% N. and S. America 33% Australia 90%

North AmericaNorth America

At contact, 400 languagesAt contact, 400 languages Currently, 209 languagesCurrently, 209 languages

62 families and isolates62 families and isolates 71% spoken by middle-aged and older71% spoken by middle-aged and older 14% spoken by parents of young 14% spoken by parents of young

childrenchildren 15% being learned by children as L115% being learned by children as L1

NavajoNavajo 1970: 90% of children in boarding schools 1970: 90% of children in boarding schools

lacked preschool experience with Englishlacked preschool experience with English 1990s: 1990s:

50%+ Head Start children monolingual 50%+ Head Start children monolingual English speakers (Platero 1992)English speakers (Platero 1992)

50% of 5-year-olds have no knowledge 50% of 5-year-olds have no knowledge of Navajo; about 16% are competent of Navajo; about 16% are competent speakers (Holm 1996)speakers (Holm 1996)

Why are languages being lost? Why are languages being lost?

Genocide of speakersGenocide of speakers Destruction or displacement of speech Destruction or displacement of speech

communitycommunity Bombardment of dominant languageBombardment of dominant language Economic incentives to learn dominant Economic incentives to learn dominant

language; no economic incentives to language; no economic incentives to learn/use native language learn/use native language

Language suppression in educationLanguage suppression in education

Positive(?) consequences of lg. Positive(?) consequences of lg. lossloss

Promotes political unityPromotes political unity HebrewHebrew

Promotes workplace unityPromotes workplace unity ““Let’s work together in a language Let’s work together in a language

we can all understand”we can all understand” Official languages cost taxpayers Official languages cost taxpayers

moneymoney

Negative consequences of lg. lossNegative consequences of lg. loss

ScientificScientificDevelopment of linguistic Development of linguistic

theoriestheories6700 languages, 200 families (vs. 6700 languages, 200 families (vs.

200 languages, 20 families; or 12 200 languages, 20 families; or 12 languages, 5 families)languages, 5 families)

Negative consequences of lg. lossNegative consequences of lg. loss

Language and cultural identityLanguage and cultural identity Pascua Yaqui Tribal Council lg policy: Pascua Yaqui Tribal Council lg policy:

"Our ancient language is the foundation "Our ancient language is the foundation of our cultural and spiritual heritage..."of our cultural and spiritual heritage..."

Damon Clarke (Hualapai): "For many of Damon Clarke (Hualapai): "For many of us, our language is the key...in thinking, us, our language is the key...in thinking, our educational system, and our ways." our educational system, and our ways."

Rosa Gonzalez: "This is what I am."Rosa Gonzalez: "This is what I am."

Maintaining linguistic diversityMaintaining linguistic diversity

Political sanctioning of minority Political sanctioning of minority languageslanguages United Nations Draft Declaration of United Nations Draft Declaration of

the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 19931993

1990 U.S. Native American 1990 U.S. Native American Languages ActLanguages Act

Creating L1 situationsCreating L1 situations

SummarySummary

25% language extinction in 5000-6000 25% language extinction in 5000-6000 years is normalyears is normal

Extinction of 90% languages in 100 Extinction of 90% languages in 100 years is unprecedentedyears is unprecedented

Negative consequences are both Negative consequences are both scientific and culturalscientific and cultural