Upload
lammien
View
221
Download
1
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
INTRODUCTION
Today in this world all around, we find suffering, pain, disorders, war, disharmony,
distrust, and feeling of insecurity, frustration, stress and conflict galore. There is an enormous
selfishness present in human beings which leads to all kind of miseries and ills in society.
Human being has become narrow minded and self-centered to the extent that he does not hesitate
to torture others for the sake of his happiness.
In such a scenario as stated by Daniel Goleman (1995) a blend of spiritual awareness,
mindfulness, and emotional intelligence is required because “it enhances the quality of life not
through trapping, but by adding spice to the small moments of every day.” In recent years there
has been an explosion of scientific work on consciousness in cognitive neuroscience,
psychology, and other fields. It has become possible to think that human beings are moving
toward a genuine scientific understanding of conscious experience.
The Concept of Meditation
Meditation is generally an internal, personal practice and done without any external
involvement, though many practitioners of meditation may rely on external objects such as candle
flames as point on which to focus their attention as an aid to the process. Meditation often involves
invoking or cultivating a feeling or internal state, such as compassion, or attending to a specific
focal point. Meditation is a mental exercise in which one directs one’s mind to think inwardly by
shutting one’s sense organs to external stimulations. It is a Vedic exercise which can be used as a
powerful instrument to restrain sense organs, control autonomic nervous system and also to attain
super consciousness. Dhyana is the generic Sanskrit term for meditation, which in the Yoga Sutras
refers to both the act of inward contemplation in the broadest sense and more technically to the
2
intermediate state between mere attention to an object (dharana) and complete absorption in it
(samadhi).
“The word meditation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind,
thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set” (Vaitl et al. 2005).
“Meditation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and
awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster
general mental well-being and development and/ or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and
concentration.” (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006) “The need for the meditator to retrain his attention,
whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in…..every
meditation system” (Goleman, 1988).
Meditative styles can be usefully classified into two types—mindfulness and
concentrative— depending on how the attentional processes are directed. Most meditative
techniques lie somewhere on a continuum between the poles of these two general methods
(Andresen, 2000; Shapiro & Walsh, 1984; B. A. Wallace, 1999). Mindfulness practices involve
allowing any thoughts, feelings, or sensations to arise while maintaining a specific attentional
stance: awareness of the phenomenal field as an attentive and nonattached observer without
judgment or analysis. Examples include Zen, Vipassana, and the Western adaptation to
mindfulness meditation (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Concentrative meditational techniques involve
focusing on specific mental or sensory activity: a repeated sound, an imagined image, or specific
body sensations such as the breath. Examples include forms of yogic meditation and the
Buddhist Samatha meditation focus on the sensation of breath. Transcendental meditation (TM)
fits somewhat within the concentrative forms, because practice centers on the repetition of a
mantra, but the method places a primary emphasis on absence of concentrative effort and the
3
development of a witnessing, thought-free “transcendental awareness.” The mantra is thought to
eventually occupy awareness during meditative practice without concentrative effort, thereby
possibly distinguishing the technique from other concentrative practices (Mahesh Yogi, 1963;
Travis, Teece, Arenander, & Wallace, 2002). Transcendental meditation involves the continuous
chanting of a mantra, until a dream – like state of mind is attained. This is useful for those who
are easily distracted as chanting a mantra will prevent one’s mind from wandering.
Transcendental meditation facilitates memory of right hemisphere functioning (Pagano, 1979).
Internal use of the mantra in TM may improve left hemisphere as it improves verbal memory
(Kory & Hufnagel, 1997). The practice of TM improves academic performance of university
students (Kember, 1985).
Although these perspectives make it difficult to classify a given meditative practice as
purely mindfulness or concentrative meditation, the two styles overlap in their approach toward
similar goals. The former requires the maintenance of attention in a state of open perceptivity,
and the latter requires narrowing of attentional focus. Mindfulness-based practices tend to
encourage a continual return to an attentive set that is characterized by open, nonjudgmental
awareness of the sensory and cognitive fields and include a meta-awareness or observation of the
ongoing contents of thought. Concentrative techniques incorporate mindfulness by allowing
other thoughts and sensations to arise and pass without clinging to them and bringing attention
back to a specific object of concentrative awareness to develop an internal “witnessing
observer.” Thus, the methods used to elicit specific states differ across practices, but the results
similarly produce reported trait changes in self-experience: eliciting shift toward expanded
experience of self not centered on the individual’s body schema and mental contents (Mahesh
Yogi, 1963; Naranjo & Ornstein, 1971; Ornstein, 1972; Wallace, 1999; West, 1987).
4
Pandaya (2004) quoted; Dhyan is a state of pure consciousness, which transcends the
inner and outer senses. Patanjali Yogashastra links it with ekagrata or concentration. According
to Sri Aurobindo, Dhyan is that state in which the inner mind tries to see the reality behind
things. Ekagrata means focusing the consciousness on one point or object and keeping it steady
in one state. In yoga, ekagrata is achieved when the mind is deeply engrossed in a special
condition like quietude, or action or aspiration or resolve. This is called meditation. It is a form
of Dhyan. Dhyan, when constant, is called dharna. In dharna, for the first time, the power of
consciousness is directed towards the inner being. When the mind, fixated with only one object,
sees only that object and nothing else, it is the state of Dhyan. In yoga, the process of keeping
chitta centered on any external or internal object for a long time is called avadhan. In dharna, the
flow of this process or action remains constant in the desired direction. In its normal condition it
is not continuous. The action of making this very flow of chitta continuous and unbroken is
called Dhyan. It is a special state of chitta. According to Agni Puran, contemplation with a calm
mind is Dhyan.
Dhyan is regarded as a fundamental attribute of the behavior of all living beings, not
simply, of humans. Woodworth writes in ‘Psychology’ “The mind reacts to certain selected
actions only rather than react uniformly to all actions which it receives in a given moment. It
concentrates on only one single impulse or a group of impulses and virtually neglects the rest. In
the next moment, another impulse takes the place of the former at the center”. According to
Woodworth, Dhyan or concentration means becoming alert and activated for the purpose of
seeing an object or doing some act. Thus according to him Dhyan may be of two types
momentary and continuous. In the beginning, it is of course, momentary but it gains continuity
5
by continued application of mind in it. Sidney Smith opines that Dhyan is nothing but to forget
everything else except the objective.
References to OM in the Scriptures
References in the Upanishads
Om is the name of symbol of God (Ishwara, Brahman) (Chinmayananda, 2002) Om
covers the whole threefold experiences of man. It is the combination of three letters, namely, A,
U, and M (Sivananda, 2005) “A” represents the physical plane. “U” represents the mental and
astral plane, the world of intelligent spirits, and all heavens. “M” represents the whole deep-
sleep state, which is unknown even in our wakeful state. This concept has been well described in
various Indian scriptures. In Mandukya Upanishad, it has been described that Om is the syllable
of the past, the present, and the future (Chinmayananda, 1984). From the original sound, Om, all
things become manifest as its extension embodiments (Chinmayananda, 1984). The analogy in
Mandaka Upanishad describes that OM is the bow; the soul is the arrow; and Brahman is the
target.
References in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (PYS) is one of the classical yoga texts in which the explanation
about OM is well defined (Taimini, 1986). In PYS, there is a single direct mention about
Pranava (Om). That is Tasya vachakah pranavah. This literally means that pranava is virtually
Ishwara or Om, where Ishwara is the word denoting God.
Scientific studies on Om suggest that the mental repetition of Om results in a
physiological state at one time characterized by reduced physiological alertness, increased
sensitivity as well as synchronicity, as well as changes at specific levels along the auditory
6
pathway suggestive of increased sensitivity to sensory transmission. Omkar chanting
significantly effects the concentration, memory and level of fatigue. (Khawale, 2011) Pranav
japa increases the Self- concept and decreases the depression. (Singh, 2011)
People who meditate daily are much happier, healthier and live longer than those who do
not meditate. Advanced meditators (who can reach deeper levels) develop the ability to use their
whole brain and to live in a more balanced state characterized by brain synchronization and
whole brain functioning. Meditation improves brain coherence (Hagelin, 2010).
The Concept of Prayer
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to activate a volitional rapport to God
through deliberate practice. Prayer may be either individual or communal and take place in
public or in private. It may involve the use of words or song. When language is used, prayer may
take the form of a hymn, incantation, formal creedal statement or a spontaneous utterance in the
praying person. There are different forms of prayer such as petitionary prayer, prayers of
supplication, thanksgiving and worship/ praise. People pray for many reasons such as personal
benefit or for the sake of others.
The word “pray” comes from the Latin word precari, which simply means to entreat or
ask. In fact, although pray is not often used this way anymore, it can simply mean “please”. The
word prayer or ‘prarthana’ (in sanskrit) is derived from two words ‘pra’ and ‘artha’ meaning
pleading fervently. In other words, it is asking God for something with intense yearning. Prayer
includes respect, love, pleading and faith. Prayer is an important tool of spiritual practice in the
generic spiritual path of devotion. The meaning of upasna is – to sit near; have nearness or
company. When we stay close to something, the qualities of that would come to us naturally.
7
Benor (1993) defines healing (and prayer) “international influences of one or more people upon
another living system without utilizing known physical means of intervention”. Chants are said
to be raising our voices to God. Chanting is singing our prayers. Chant is vocal meditation.
Chant is the breath made available in tone. Chant is ‘discovering’ spirit in sound.
Larson and Larson (1991) surveyed 12 years of publication of the American Journal of
Psychiatry and Archives of General Psychiatry. They found that when measuring participation in
religious ceremony, social support, prayer, and relationship with God, 92% of the studies showed
benefit for mental health, 4% were neutral, and 4% showed harm. McCollough& others (2000)
studied that praying or meditating might actually be associated with longevity. Adopting yoga
way of life ( asanas, chanting of mantra, meditation and puja) is more effective in enhancing
visual and verbal memory ( Rangan, Nagendra, & Ramachandra Bhat, 2009).
Attention Regulation
Attention plays an important role in the life of an organism. “It is the taking possession
by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of several simultaneously possible objects or
train of thoughts, focalization and concentration of consciousness. It implies withdrawal from
something in order to deal effectively with others” James (1890). Attention is closely related to
awareness and some have argued that it is necessary for awareness (Dehaene et al., 2006; Mack
& Rock, 2001; Posner, 1994). Studies using various paradigms such as inattentional blindness
and change blindness have shown that attention not only affects conscious identification of
stimuli (Mack & Rock, 2001; Lavie, 2006; Rensink, 2002) but also their phenomenal
appearance (Carrasco, Ling, & Read, 2004). On the contrary, other studies have questioned the
necessity of attention for awareness (Koch & Tsuchiya, 2007; Lamme, 2003; Tsuchiya & Koch,
2005).
8
According to Lamme (2003), attention operates on conscious stimuli leading to verbal
report rather than consciousness resulting from attended stimuli. Koch &Tsuchiya (2007)
proposed a four-fold classification scheme of aware and unaware percepts and behavior into
four psychophysically defined categories depending on whether top-down attention is necessary
and whether it gives rise to awareness. The organization of these categories include situations
and tasks in which (i) attention gives rise to awareness (e.g. detection, discrimination and
reportability), (ii) inattention does not give rise to awareness (e.g. rapid vision), (iii) attention
does not give rise to awareness (e.g. priming, visual search) and (iv) attention is absent while
awareness is present. The fourth case of processes that do not need top-down attention but gives
rise to consciousness is based on findings of better performance under conditions of inattention
(Kanai & Verstraten, 2006; Li et al., 2002; Lou, 2001; Suzuki & Grabowecky, 2003).
Attention is not a unitary process and different types of attention might have different
relationships to awareness. One way to characterize attention would be in terms of focused
attention and distributed attention (Chong & Treisman, 2005; Demeyere & Humphreys, 2007;
Treisman, 2006). Distributed attention involves processing at larger spatial scales whereas
focused attention is typically associated with processing at smaller spatial scales (Treisman,
2006).The distributed attention mechanisms involve parallel processing that contrasts with the
focused attention mode that individuates objects (Treisman, 2006). Oscillations with different
frequencies are associated with different cognitive processes (Klimesch, 1999a; Singer, 1999).
For example, alpha oscillations are generally associated with attention, alertness, and task load
in general (Klimesch 1999b) whereas gamma oscillations are associated with binding. The
functional characteristics of the theta oscillations (generally 4 to 8 Hz) and its role in cognition
have been studied extensively (Basar 1999; Jacobs et al, 2006; Klimesch, 1999a). The theta
9
oscillations are involved with attentional processing (Basar-Eroglu et al, 1992; Deiber et al,
2007; Makeig et al, 2004 ;) and working memory operations (Jacobs et al, 2006).
Deiber et al, (2007) found that the frontal theta activity had larger amplitudes when the
task required focused attention such as detection task, 1-back and 2-back tasks compared to
passive viewing. Meditation is considered a technique of training attentional networks of the
brain. The evidence comes from the studies that show improvements in allocation of attention
and executive control due to mental training (Brefczynski-Lewis et al, 2007; Jha, Krompinger
& Baime 2007; Slagter et al, 2007; Tang et al, 2007). This is consistent with the presumed
association between theta activity and attentional processes (Basar-Eroglu et al, 1992; Deiber et
al, 2007; Makeig et al, 2004). Long-term training of meditation has resulted in positive changes
in behavior and changes in brain activity (Aftanas&Golocheikine2001; 2002;
Srinivasan&Baijal2007). These changes include increase in theta activity especially in the
frontal areas (Aftanas & Golocheikine 2001; 2002; Hebert & Lehmann 1977).
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence has been conceptualized as a multidimensional construct as
proposed by Goleman (1995, 1998) and Mayor and Salovey (1993, 1995). According to this
conceptualization, emotional intelligence consists of “abilities such as being able to motivate one
and persist in the face of frustration; to control impulses and delay gratification; to regulate one’s
moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope”.
Cooper and Sawaf (1997) viewed emotional intelligence as the ability to sense,
understand, and effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human
energy, information, connection and influence. According to Gottman (1997) the concept of
10
emotional intelligence involves four things. First, we must know our emotions and how to
manage them. That includes the ability to control impulses, delay gratification, and cope with
life’s ups and downs. Second, we must be able to recognize emotions in others, respond
empathically to them, read their social cues. Third, we must be able to motivate ourselves in an
optimistic fashion and be confident of our feelings, our accomplishments, and our abilities as we
go through the world. Goleman (1995) asserts that “There is intelligence in the emotions and the
sense in which intelligence can be brought to emotions…. Emotional intelligence is master
aptitude towards all aspects of life, either facilitating or interfering with them”.
Mayor, Salovey, Caruso & Sitarenios (2000), defined emotional intelligence as, “an
ability to recognize the meaning of emotions and their relationships and to reason and to solve
problem on the basis of them. According to Baron (1997), Emotional Intelligence is “an array of
non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in
coping with environmental demands and pressures.” Healing Prayer significantly affects the self-
esteem and emotional stability of children. (Thakkar, 2006).
Psychological Wellbeing
Psychological wellbeing refers to how people evaluate their lives. These evaluations may
be in the form of cognition or in the form of affect. In the words of Aristotle, “both the general
run of man and people of superior refinement say that the highest of all goods achievable by
action is happiness (eudaimonia) …but with regard to what happiness is they differ, and the
many do not give the same account as the wise.” (Mckeon, 1947) Although Ross follows the
usual practice here of translating the term eudaimonia as “ happiness”, he points out elsewhere
(Ross, 1949) that is better translated by the more neutral term “well-being” because Aristotle was
11
interested in more than the pleasurable feelings that are usually associated with the term
“happiness”
Wellbeing involves subjective satisfaction and individual’s pleasure depending upon
psychological status of the individual and his environmental conditions. Wellbeing may be
defined as a subjective, positive emotional state with general life satisfaction. (Diener, 1984) It
involves the way the individual feels about himself or herself due to achievement of goals in life.
Therefore the most common and comprehensive indicator of the sense of wellbeing includes life
satisfaction which refers to an individual’s own global judgment of his or her quality of life,
feeling of contentment and happiness. Various domains of the feelings of satisfaction are
recreation, love, marriage, money, friendship and so forth. Life satisfaction denotes personal
appreciation of life. This kind of wellbeing is substantially subjective.
The sense of ‘enjoyment of life’ (commonly referred as satisfaction, happiness and joy)
or subjective appreciation of life is also conceptualized as an indicator of wellbeing (Veenhoven,
2004). Diener, (1984) reported that happy people tend to have high self-esteem, a satisfying love
relationship, a meaningful religious faith and sufficient social activities. Happy people may have
greater self-confidence, sociability or better social relationships and other characteristics of those
high in well-being. According to Lama (2000) the very purpose of life is to seek happiness.
Happiness is determined more by one’s state of mind than by external events. Success, material
pleasures, recognition, may result in a temporary feeling of elation but one return to his baseline.
Psychological wellbeing is therefore represented by the level to which people show
sentiments and positive attitude towards various aspects of their lives. Psychological indicators
of wellbeing may be as diverse as mental health; self-concept; feeling of satisfaction and
12
happiness. In recent time, ‘subjective wellbeing is used as psychological term for happiness. The
term subjective wellbeing refers to people’s evaluation of their lives including cognitive
judgments such as life satisfaction and affective evaluation (mood and emotion) such as positive
and negative emotional feelings. In other words, people perceive many pleasant things, engage in
interesting activities and are satisfied with their lives in general that contribute to happiness.
Positive affect is commonly divided into joy, pride, affection, ecstasy whereas negative affect is
separated into guilt, anger, depression, stress etc. Life satisfaction is categorized by satisfaction
with current life, satisfaction with past, satisfaction with future, significant other’s views of one’s
life and desire to change one’s life. People are said to have high subjective wellbeing if they are
satisfied with their life conditions, experience frequent positive emotions and frequent negative
emotions.
Wellbeing or wellness is often referred to as ‘wholeness of body, mind and spirit in
terms of health, prosperity and self-actualization’ by Maslow (1968). Tatarkiewicz (1976) wrote,
“…..happiness requires total satisfaction that is satisfaction with life as a whole”
A feeling of satisfaction with life is an important factor for a general sense of wellbeing
(Neugarten, 1982) and has been emphasized in research related to subjective wellbeing. Life
satisfaction often refers to the attitudes that individuals have about their past, present as well as
future in relation to their psychological wellbeing (Chaddha & Van Willigen, 1995). Spirituality
is significantly averagely positively related with mental health and self-concept but highly with
self-concept than with mental health. (Upmanyu, Dwivedi, Khan, Gulati, & Bjawa et al., 2011)
Well-being is positively correlated with spiritual intelligence among senior citizens and young
adults, higher the spiritual intelligence of the individual higher the well-being of the person.
(Hingar, Mathur, & Sharma, 2011). Fry (2000) found that religion and spirituality relevant
13
variables, such as personal meaning, religious involvement, spiritual practices, and religious
salience were significant predictors of well-being.
Effect of Meditation on EEG and GSR
Electroencephalographic (EEG) studies of meditative states have been conducted for
almost 50 years, but no clear consensus about the underlying neurophysiological changes from
meditation practice has emerged. Sensory evoked potential (EP) and cognitive event-related
potential (ERP) assessments of meditative practice also reflect variegated results. Some reliable
meditation-related EEG frequency effects for theta and alpha activity, as well as EEG coherence
and ERP component changes, have been observed. Positron emission tomography (PET) and
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies are beginning to refine the neuroelectric
data by suggesting possible neural loci for meditation effects, although how and where such
practice may alter the central nervous system (CNS) have not yet been well characterized.
Meditation stabilizes the autonomous nervous system. During meditation, the brain’s
activity alters significantly, as mapped by a device called an electroencephalograph (EEG). For
example, Travis et al, (2002) have reported increases in power in alpha, beta, and gamma bands
as well as increase in alpha and beta coherence during transcendental meditation. It is well
known that the brain is an electrochemical organ; electrical activity emanating from the brain is
displayed in the form of brainwaves. There are four categories of these brainwaves, ranging from
the most activity to the least activity. When the brain is aroused and actively engaged in mental
activities, it generates beta waves. These beta waves are of relatively low amplitude, and are the
fastest of the four different brainwaves. The frequency of beta waves ranges from 15 to 40 cycles
a second. The next brainwave category is alpha. Where beta represented arousal, alpha represents
non-arousal. Alpha brainwaves are slower and higher in amplitude. Their frequency ranges from
14
9 to 14 cycles per second. A person who takes time out to reflect or meditate is usually in an
alpha state. The next state, theta brainwaves, is typically of even greater amplitude and slower
frequency. This frequency range is normally between 5 and 8 cycles a second. The final
brainwave state is delta. Here the brainwaves are of the greatest amplitude and slowest
frequency. They typically center around a range of 1.5 to 4 cycles per second. Daniel (2010), "In
my experience with EEG Biofeedback many people are able to improve their reading skills and
decrease their need for medication. Also, EEG biofeedback has helped to decrease impulsivity
and aggressiveness. It is a powerful tool, in part, because the patient becomes part of the
treatment process by taking more control over his own physiological processes." There is a
significant beneficial effect of 15-18 Hz EEG normalization training on attentional deficits, on
specific learning disabilities, on sleep disorders, on headache syndromes, and on certain adverse
behaviors. (Othmer, Othmer, & Marks, 1991).
The Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) increases- During the practice of meditation, there is
a strong increase in the electrical resistance of the skin, known as "Galvanic Skin Response", or
GSR), due to decreased perspiration, which in turn results from a lessening of anxiety. The
resistance increases in only a few minutes. Om chanting increased the level of EEG and GSR.
(Shashi, 2011). Mental repetition of Om showed a significant decrease in skin resistance level. It
also showed reduction in the heart rate and rate of breathing (Telles, Nagarathna & Nagendra,
1998).
Neurophysiology of Meditative States
Neuroelectric and imaging studies of meditation are reviewed by Cahn & Polich, 2006.
Electroencephalographic measures indicate an overall slowing subsequent to meditation, with
15
theta and alpha activation related to proficiency of practice. Cognitive event-related potential
evaluation of meditation implies that practice changes attentional allocation. Neuroimaging
studies indicate increased regional cerebral blood flow measures during meditation. Taken
together, meditation appears to reflect changes in anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral
prefrontal areas. According to Cahn & Polich (2006), “An early theoretical model for
understanding the neurophysiology of meditative states and traits used a continuum of autonomic
arousal from parasympathetic (trophotropic) to sympathetic (ergotrophic) dominance (Fischer,
1971; Gellhorn & Kiely, 1972). Mystical experiences of consciousness can be considered related
to ergotrophic states similar to those seen in psychiatric disturbance, ecstatic ritual, and
hallucinogenic drug intoxication, but they also can be elicited through trophotropic meditative
practice by means of a hypothetical rebound effect (Fischer, 1971). This framework has utility in
reconciling the neurophysiological arousal of peak experiences in meditative states with the more
commonly observed hypoarousal of meditative practice (J. M. Davidson, 1976). However, broad
and encompassing statements about “the neurophysiology of meditation” are as yet unrealistic,
because brain differences among meditative practices have not been well established (Dunn,
Hartigan, & Mikulas, 1999; Lazar et al., 2003; Lehmann et al., 2001; Lou et al., 1999; Lutz,
Greischar, Rawlings, Ricard, & Davidson, 2004). Some progress has been made to identify
structure–function CNS relationships of meditative states and traits (Travis & Wallace, 1999);
changes in arousal and attentional state involved in meditation are also related to hypnosis
(Holroyd, 2003; Otani, 2003), drowsiness, sleep, and unconsciousness (Austin, 1998; Vaitl et al.,
2005)”.
16
Effect of Meditation on States and Traits of Consciousness
Measurement of the brain response to meditative practice is based on the premise that
different conscious states are accompanied by different neurophysiological states and on reports
that meditation practice induces distinct states and traits of consciousness. State refers to the
altered sensory, cognitive, and selfreferential awareness that can arise during meditation practice,
whereas trait refers to the lasting changes in these dimensions that persist in the meditator
irrespective of being actively engaged in meditation (Austin, 1998; Shapiro & Walsh, 1984;
West, 1987). Regular meditation practice can produce relatively short-term states as well as
long-term changes in traits. State changes from the meditative and religious traditions are
reported to include a deep sense of calm peacefulness, a cessation or slowing of the mind’s
internal dialogue, and experiences of perceptual clarity and conscious awareness merging
completely with the object of meditation, regardless of whether a mantra, image, or the whole of
phenomenal experience is the focal point (D. P. Brown, 1977; Wallace, 1999; West, 1987). A
common experience of many meditative practices is a metacognitive shift in the relationship
between thoughts and feelings; they come to be observed as arising phenomena instead of
occupying full attention (Wallace, 1999; West, 1987). Also possible are “peak experiences,”
characterized by blissful absorption into the current moment (e.g., Samadhi, nirvana, oneness);
different traditions use specific names to describe the resulting ineffable states (Forman, 1990;
Goleman, 1996; Mahesh Yogi, 1963; Wilber, 1977) that are affected by the extent of practice
(Travis et al., 2002; Wallace, 1999). Although such peak–mystical states spurred the evolution of
different meditation traditions, the practice is centered on trait effects (Dalai Lama & Cutler,
1998; Goleman, 1996, 2003; Kwon, Hahm, & Rhi, 1996), because peak experiences can occur
under circumstances unrelated to meditation (James, 1902/1985; Maslow, 1964). Trait changes
17
from long-term meditation include a deepened sense of calmness, increased sense of comfort,
heightened awareness of the sensory field, and a shift in the relationship to thoughts, feelings,
and experience of self. States of awareness sometimes referred to as “the witness” or
“transcendental experience” are also claimed to ensue over time. This experience consists of
contentless awareness that is independent of mental activities, can be present during deep sleep,
and produces the perception of an altered self-identity wherein the separation perceived between
the observer and the observed grows ever fainter (Austin, 2000; Forman, 1990; Travis et al.,
2002; West, 1987). There is need to define the underlying neurophysiological correlates of
conscious states and internal experience (Delacour, 1997; Gallagher, 1997; Jack & Roepstorff,
2002; Jack & Shallice, 2001; Lutz, Lachaux, Martinerie, & Varela, 2002; McIntosh, Fitzpatrick,
& Friston, 2001; Varela, 1996). The goal is to use first-person reports to correlate internal
experience with brain activity to guide neuroimaging analysis. For example, studies of TM
states have begun to incorporate protocol methodology that marks the neurophysiological data
with repeated reports from meditative participants to inform the neurophenomenological
correlation (Mason et al., 1997; Travis, 2001; Travis & Pearson, 1999; Travis & Wallace,
1997); similar efforts are used for neuroimaging of hypnosis states (Rainville & Price, 2003).
However, neurophysiological studies of the altered self-experience from meditative practice are
largely absent because of the difficulty in quantifying self-experience. Psychometric state and
trait measures have been constructed (Dittrich, 1998; Friedman, 1983; Friedman & MacDonald,
1997; Vaitl et al., 2005), and some studies have begun use this approach to amplify meditation
CNS findings (Lehmann et al., 2001; Travis et al., 2002, 2004). The present investigation has
tried to develop a scale of psychological wellbeing to measure the effect on this important trait.
Therefore the investigator formulated the following problem:
18
PROBLEM:
Is there any effect of prayer and meditation (Om Chanting) on electroencephalogram,
galvanic skin response, attention regulation, emotional intelligence and psychological wellbeing
of university students?
OBJECTIVES:
(A) To study the effect of prayer and meditation on EEG, GSR, attention regulation,
emotional intelligence and psychological well-being.
(B) To study the effect of meditation on EEG, GSR, attention regulation, emotional
intelligence and psychological well-being.
METHOD:
HYPOTHESES:
1. There is a significant positive effect of prayer and meditation (Om Chanting) on EEG.
2. There is a significant positive effect of prayer and meditation (Om Chanting) on GSR.
3. There is a significant positive effect of prayer and meditation (Om Chanting) on attention
regulation.
4. There is a significant positive effect of prayer and meditation (Om Chanting) on emotional
intelligence.
5. There is a significant positive effect of prayer and meditation (Om Chanting) on
psychological wellbeing.
6. There is a significant positive effect of meditation (Om Chanting) on EEG.
7. There is a significant positive effect of meditation (Om Chanting) on GSR.
8. There is a significant positive effect of meditation (Om Chanting) on attention regulation.
9. There is a significant positive effect of meditation (Om chanting) on emotional intelligence.
19
10. There is a significant positive effect of meditation (Om Chanting) on psychological
wellbeing.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS:
EEG: Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp. The
brain generates rhythmical potentials which originate in the individual neurons of the brain.
These potentials get summated as millions of cell discharge synchronously and appear as a
surface waveform, the recording of which is known as the electroencephalogram. In clinical
contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short
period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp.
The EEG reveals not what is thought, but shows the context in which thinking occurs---state of
arousal, state of vigilance and alertness, etc. A predominant feature of the EEG is rhythmic
activity, or periodicity. Recent findings in the neurosciences indicate that this may be the means
by which the brain maintains continuity of state, and even working memory.
GSR: A transient change in certain electrical properties of the skin associated with the sweat
gland activity and elicited by any stimulus that evokes an arousal or orienting response, known
as the galvanic skin response (GSR). GSR varies with its moisture level. So skin conductance is
used as an indication of psychological or physiological arousal. The galvanic skin response
(GSR) feedback instrument measures skin conductivity from the fingers and / or palms. The
GSR is highly sensitive to emotions in some people. GSR reflects sweat gland activity and
changes in the sympathetic nervous system. The activity of the sweat glands in response to
sympathetic nervous stimulation (Increased sympathetic activation) results in an increase in the
level of conductance. There is a relationship between sympathetic activity and emotional arousal,
although one cannot identify the specific emotion being elicited.
20
Prayer: The word prayer or prarthana (in Sanskrit) is derived from two words ‘pra’ and ‘artha’
meaning pleading fervently. In other words, it is asking God for something with intense
yearning. Prayer includes respect, love, pleading and faith. Through a prayer a devotee expresses
his helplessness and endows the doership of the task to God. Giving the doership to God means
that we acknowledge that God is helping us and getting the task done. Prayer is an important tool
of spiritual practice in the generic spiritual path of Devotion.
Meditation: Meditation is a mental exercise in which we direct our mind to think inwardly by
shutting our sense organs to external stimulations. It is a Vedic exercise which can be used as a
powerful instrument to restrain sense organs, control autonomic nervous system and also to
attain super consciousness.
Attention Regulation: It refers to the control and regulation of mental processes mainly the
regulation of processes in the working memory system; which is a system of temporary storage
and processing of information. The use of working memory is required in a wide range of tasks
including, counting, reading and arithmetic etc.
Emotional Intelligence: The concept of Emotional Intelligence is defined as awareness of
emotion in self and others. Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control
and evaluate emotions. Salovey & Mayer (1990) In their influential article "Emotional
Intelligence," they defined emotional intelligence as, "the subset of social intelligence that
involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate
among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions". Steve Hein (2007),
“Emotional intelligence is the innate potential to feel, use, communicate, recognize, remember,
describe, identify, learn from, manage, understand and explain emotions.”
21
Psychological Well-Being: Psychological wellbeing refers to how people evaluate their lives.
These evaluations may be in the form of cognition or in the form of affect. The cognitive part, an
information-based appraisal of one’s life, is when a person gives conscious evaluative judgments
about one’s satisfaction with life as a whole. The affective part is a hedonic evaluation guided by
emotions and feelings such as the frequency with which people experience pleasant/unpleasant
moods in reaction to their lives. Shin and Johnson, (1978) define life satisfaction as “a global
assessment of a person’s quality of life according to his chosen criteria.”
JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM:
In present time human life has become extremely stressful. There is cut-throat
competition in all the fields such as Education, Business, and Sports etc. Performance of students
depends upon a number of factors such as availability of good environment for study, reading
material, physical strength etc. Besides these factors psychological factors play an important role
in determining the performance of students. Among the psychological factors motivation, pre-
competitive stress, means of control of attention and concentration play an important role.
Through prayer and meditation a person is expected to get mental peace and this mental
peace affects their emotional intelligence, attention regulation and psychological wellbeing. So
here in this study the researcher would examine the effect of prayer and meditation (Om
Chanting) on EEG, GSR, attention regulation, emotional intelligence and psychological
wellbeing of university going students. Meditation (Om Chanting), which is a concentrative type
of meditation that involves focusing of attention on breath and internal or external chanting (or
mantra). Researcher is interested in investigating the effect of prayer and meditation (Om
22
Chanting) on EEG, GSR, attention regulation, emotional intelligence and psychological well-
being under scientifically controlled conditions.
VARIABLES: The variables for the study have been categorized as follow:
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Prayer and Meditation
DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Electroencephalogram (EEG), Galvanic Skin Response (GSR),
Attention regulation, Emotional Intelligence, Psychological wellbeing.
RELEVANT VARIABLES:
Age: 18 to 22 years of age
Sex: Only female students will be taken
Marital Status: Unmarried students will be taken
Education: All case would be at least Intermediate pass
INCLUSION CRITERIA: Only those who are willing to participate in prayer and meditation
would be included in the sample.
DESIGN: To study the effect of I.V. on D.V. Single group, pre-test post- test design will be
used.
PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY:
Phase 1: Pre-test
Attention Regulation and Emotional Intelligence will be measured by using Attention Regulation
Scale by Das (1994) and Emotional Intelligence Scale by Hyde, Pethe & Dhar (2001)
23
respectively. Psychological wellbeing will be measured by Life Satisfaction Scale constructed by
the investigator herself for the purpose. Readings on Electroencephalogram (EEG) and Galvanic
Skin Response (GSR) would be obtained before the Prayer and Meditation session starts, by a
computerized polygraph (Physiopac PP-4) publish by Medicaid Systems, Chandigarh.
Phase 2: Experimental phase
The researcher will conduct Prayer and Meditation session for 30 minutes (15 min. for prayer
and 15 min. for meditation), every morning for 1 month, excluding Sunday. The researcher will
give these instructions:
“Fold your hands, close your eyes and think about your God. Now repeat with me this prayer.
Prayer: God/ Malik…. I am really thankful from the bottom of my heart. I say thanks for this
beautiful life and for everything, given by you. God please forgive me for my mistakes.
Intentionally and unintentionally I have hurt many people, I am saying sorry to all of them. God
give me strength to strive for my goal and give me patience that I can forgive those who are bad
to me.”
Meditation: “First, enter your meditative state by securing a quiet, dimly lit comfortable sitting
position. Background meditative music will help facilitate migration into deeper brain centers.
Eyes can be open or shut. Breathe comfortably and slowly through your nose, into your belly and
then into your chest. Feel that positive energy is running into all over body and each part of your
body is pure and holy. Slowly let the air exhale through your mouth. You chant the mantra,
"OM" Visualize a situation when you were very happy and feel that happiness. Now feel the
positive energy and enjoy in this positive environment”.
24
Phase 3: Post-test
EEG, GSR, Attention regulation, Emotional Intelligence and Psychological Wellbeing will be
measured again.
Phase 4: Analysis and conclusion
Results of the pre-test and post-test will be analyzed and compared by using t test in order to
draw the final conclusion.
SAMPLE: 60 female participants for meditation and 60 female participants for prayer and
meditation both will be used in this study. A purposive sample would be selected. The age group
of the sample would be 18 to 24, gender would be female and minimum education would be
graduation.
TOOLS: To study the variables in the study test of Attention Regulation, Emotional Intelligence
Scale and Life Satisfaction scale will be used. For measuring EEG and GSR a computerized
polygraph (Physiopac PP 4) will be used.
Test of Attention regulation: Attention regulation test is constructed by Das (1994). These are:
a) Forward- Backward Counting Test
b) Syllable Counting Test
c) Digit Span Test
a) Forward- Backward Counting Test: Forward- Backward Counting Test is a test for the
flexibility of attention. The test requires the alteration of forward and backward
counting. Each item of the test consists of pattern of number with plus and minus signs
25
between which indicate the counting direction. The subjects will be asked to write the
final digit after completing the counting for each item. This test has 20 items. The
subjects will not be allowed doing any rough work on paper. They have to do the
counting in mind. A score of 0 for wrong item and a score of 1 for correct item will be
given, max. score = 20, min. score = 0.
b) Syllable Counting Test: The syllabus counting test is a working memory task which
requires the simultaneous storage and processing of information. Pair of words will be
presented orally before the subject. After the presentation of one pair of words the
number of syllables of the first and the second word collectively have to be counted and
the subject has to note the resulting score on an answer sheet. For each pair of word the
number of syllables should be correctly determined by the subject in order to pass the
item. The pairs of words are presented in blocks of 6 and there are six such blocks. So
the test contains a total of 36 pairs and has a maximum score of 36. Studies of Baddeley
& Hitch (1980), Carr & Levy (1990) suggest that working memory is critically involved
in attention regulation.
c) Digit span test: Forward and backward digit span test is taken from Wechsler’s Adult
Intelligence Scale (1986). The Digit span test (forward and backward combined) load on
freedom from distract ability factor. The digits are presented before each of the student
with a one second inter-digit interval. The forward and backward digit spans will be
added to make a total score.
Psychological Wellbeing Scale: Psychological Wellbeing will be measured by Psychological
Wellbeing Scale, constructed by the investigator herself. Five more items were added to it from
life satisfactions scale of Diener et al (1985). The scale’s coefficient alpha was 0.85. In a study
26
made by Das & Das (2008) on 35 women, respondents were asked a question ‘what they would
like to become if they had to take birth again’. The majority of the respondents with high life
satisfaction replied they “would like to be what they are today” i.e. ‘my own self’. This indicates
high validity of the scale. In a pilot study done by the investigator herself on 40 female university
students, high test retest reliability was found.
Emotional Intelligence Scale: Emotional Intelligence will be measured by Emotional
Intelligence Scale constructed by Hyde, Pethe and Dhar (2001).
Description of the test: The final form of the scale consists of 34 items. This scale measures Self-
awareness, Empathy, Self-motivation, Emotional Stability, Managing Relations, Integrity, Self-
development, Value Orientation, Commitment, Altruistic Behavioral factors of emotional
intelligence.
Reliability of the test: The reliability of the scale was determined by calculating split-half
reliability coefficient on a sample of 200 subjects which was found to be 0.88.
Validity of the test: This scale has high content validity. The manual indicates high validity index
of 0.93.
Norms of the test: Norms of the scale are available on a sample of 200 subjects.
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE: t test will be used to compare the effect on dependent variable
scores and to test the hypotheses.
27
References
• Aftanas, L.I., & Golocheikine, S.A. (2001). Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower
alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: High-resolution EEG
investigation of meditation. Neuroscience Letters 310:57-60.
• Aftanas, L.I., & Golocheikine, S.A. (2002). Non-linear dynamic complexity of the human EEG
during meditation. Neuroscience Letters 330:143-146.
• Andresen, J. (2000). Meditation meets behavioural medicine: The story of experimental research on
meditation. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7, 17–73.
• Austin, J. H. (2000). Consciousness evolves when the self dissolves. Journal of Consciousness
Studies, 7, 209–230.
• Austin, J. H. (1998). Zen and the brain: Toward an understanding of meditation and consciousness.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Baddeley, A.D. & Hitch, G.J. (1979). Working memory. In G.A. Bower (Ed.). The psychology on
learning and motivation, 8, 47-89, New York: Academic Press.
• Baron, R. (1997). Baron Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ. – I). Technical Manual. Toronto: Multi
Health Systems.
• Basar-Eroglu, C., Basar, E., Demiralp T., & Schurmann, M. (1992). Possible psychophysiological
correlates in delta and theta frequency channels. A review. International Journal of
Psychophysiology 13,161-179.
• Benor, D.J. (1993). Healing Research, Science, Spirit and the Eternal Soul, 3, Southfield, MI:
Vision Publication in press. Retrieved July 3, 2011 from
http://www.aquarianblessings.com/articlesdistant.
• Brefczynski-Lewis, J.A., Lutz, A., Schaefer, H.S., Levinson, D.B. & Davidson R.J. (2007). Neural
correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners. Proceeding of the
National Academy of Sciences USA, 104, 11483-11488.
• Brown, D. P. (1977). A model for the levels of concentrative meditation. International Journal of
Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 25, 236 273.
• Bruck, M. (1990). Word-recognition skills of adults with childhood diagnoses of dyslexia.
Developmental Psychology. In Carr, T.H. & Levy, B.A. (Ed.). Reading and its development:
Component skills approach. 1-48, London. Academic Press Inc.
28
• Cahn, B.R. & Polich, J. (2006). Meditation States and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging Studies.
Psychological Bulletin, 132(2), 180-211.
• Carr, A. (2008). Positive Psychology- The Science of Happiness and human Strengths.
Psychological well -being, New York, Rout ledge Publication, p.36.
• Carrasco, M., Ling, S., & Read, S. (2004). Attention alters appearance. Nature Neuroscience, 7,
308-313.
• Chaddha, N.K. & Van Willigen, J.V. (1995). The life scale: The development of a measure of
successful aging. Indian Journal of Gerontology, 9(3&4), 83-90.
• Checola, N.G. (1995). The concept of happiness. (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan University,
1995). Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Chinmayananda, Swami. (2002). Katha Upanisad. Mumbai: Central Chinmayananda Mission. Also
in Nagendra, H.R., Kumar, S., Manjunath, N.K., Naveen, K.V., & Telles, S. (2010). Meditation on
OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science. International Journal of Yoga, 3
(1), 2-5.
• Chinmayananda, Swami. (1984). Mandukya Upanisad. Mumbai: Sachin Publishers. Also in
Nagendra, H.R., Kumar, S., Manjunath, N.K., Naveen, K.V., & Telles, S. (2010). Meditation on
OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science. International Journal of Yoga, 3
(1), 2-5.
• Chong, S.C., & Treisman, A. (2005). Attentional spread in the statistical processing of visual
displays. Perception & Psychophysics, 67, 1-13.
• Cooper, R.K. & Sawaf, A. (1997). Executive EQ: How to Develop the Four Cornerstones of
Emotional Intelligence for Success in Life and Work, Great Britain, Orion Publishing group Ltd.
• Dalai Lama, the (2000). Happiness Tips from the Dalai Lama. Retrieved July 5, 2011 from
abundance-blog.marelisa-online.com/.../happiness-tips-from-the-dal
• Dalai Lama, the, & Cutler, H. C. (1998). The art of happiness. New York: Riverhead Books.
• Daniel, G. (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York, Tarcher
Publication, ISBN 0-87477-833-6.
• Daniel, G. A. (2010). Change Your Brain, Change Your Life. Harmony Books publication, p. 143-
144
29
• Das, I. (1994). “Student’s Behaviour at home, Achievement motivation and Attention as Predictors
of Achievement in Primary School” Unpublished UGC Minor research project report, Department
of Psychology, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra.
• Das, I. & Das, R. (2008). Spiritual Activities & Life Satisfaction among married women. Paper
Presented in the International seminar on Spiritual Awakening: A System approach to address the
civilization crisis, SPAWSYS-2008 at Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra.
• Das, I. (1994). “Student’s Behaviour at home, Achievement motivation and Attention as Predictors
of Achievement in Primary School” Unpublished UGC Minor research project report, Department
of Psychology, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra.
• Davidson, R. J., & Goleman, D. J. (1977). The role of attention in meditation and hypnosis: A
psychobiological perspective on transformations of consciousness. International Journal of
Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 25, 291–308.
• Davidson, R. J., Goleman, D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1976). Attentional and affective concomitants of
meditation: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 235–238. Also in Cahn,
B.R. & Polich, J. (2006). Meditation States and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging Studies.
Psychological Bulletin, 132(2), 180-211.
• Deiber, M.P., Missonnier, P., Bertrand, O., Gold, G., Fazio-Costa, L., Iban˜ez, V., &
Giannakopoulos, P. (2007) Distinction between perceptual and attentional processing in working
memory tasks: a study of phase-locked and induced oscillatory brain dynamics. Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience 19, 158-172.
• Deiner, E. (1984). Subjective Well-Being. Psychological Bulletin, 95,542-75.
• Delacour, J. (1997). Neurobiology of consciousness: An overview. Behavioral Brain Research, 85,
127–141.
• Demeyere, N., & Humphreys, G. (2007). Distributed and focused attention: Neuropsychological
evidence for separate attentional mechanisms when counting and estimating. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 33, 1076-1088.
• Dehaene, S., Changeux, J., Naccache, L., Sackur, J., & Sergent, C. (2006).Conscious, preconscious,
and subliminal processing: a testable taxonomy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 204-211.
• Dittrich, A. (1998). The standardized psychometric assessment of altered states of consciousness
(ASCs) in humans. Pharmacopsychiatry, 31(Suppl. 2), 80–84.
• Dunn, B. R., Hartigan, J. A., & Mikulas, W. L. (1999). Concentration and mindfulness meditations:
Unique forms of consciousness? Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 24, 147–165.
30
• Fischer, R. (1971). A cartography of the ecstatic and meditative states. Science, 174, 897–904. Also
in Cahn, B.R. & Polich, J. (2006). Meditation States and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging
Studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132(2), 180-211.
• Forman, R. K. C. (1990). The problem of pure consciousness: Mysticism and philosophy. New
York: Oxford University Press.
• Friedman, H. L., & MacDonald, D. A. (1997). Toward a working definition of transpersonal
assessment. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 29, 105–122.
• Friedman, H. L. (1983). The self-expansiveness level form: A conceptualization and measurement
of a transpersonal construct. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 15, 37–50.
• Fry, P.S. (2000). Religious involvement, Spirituality and personal meaning for life: Existential
predictors of psychological well-being in community- residing and institutional care elders. Aging
and Mental Health, 4, 375-387.
• Gallagher, S. (1997). Mutual enlightenment: Recent phenomenology in cognitive science. Journal
of Consciousness Studies, 4, 195–214.
• Garrett, H.E. (1981). Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vakils, feffer and Simons.
• Gellhorn, E., & Kiely, W. F. (1972). Mystical states of consciousness: Neurophysiological and
clinical aspects. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 154, 399–405.
• Goleman, D. J. (2003). Destructive emotions: How can we overcome them? A scientific dialogue
with the Dalai Lama. New York: Bantam Books.
• Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantham books.
• Goleman, D. J. (1996). The meditative mind: Varieties of meditative experience. New York:
Penguin Putnam.
• Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantham books.
• Gottman, J. (1997). Practical intelligence and people skills. In Robert J. Sternberg, I.Q. Beyond,
New York: Cambridge Press.
• Hagelin, J. (2010). How Meditation Changes the Brain. Retrieved July 5, 2011 from
insidedlf.wordpress.com/2010/02/20/its-all-in-the-brain/
• Hebert, R., & Lehmann, D. (1977). Theta bursts: An EEG pattern in normal subjects practicing the
Transcendental Meditation technique. Electroencephal Clinical Neurophysiology, 42, 397-405.
31
• Hein, S. (2007). The Innate Potential Model of Emotional Intelligence. Retrieved July 19, 2011
from http://eqi.org/eidefs.htm
• Hingar, A., Mathur, V. & Sharma, D. (2011). Well-Being as related to Spiritual Intelligence: A
Study of Senior Citizens and Young Adults. Paper presented at National Seminar on Indigenous
Techniques in Psychotherapy Organized by Dev Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar.
• Holroyd, J. (2003). The science of meditation and the state of hypnosis. American Journal of
Clinical Hypnosis, 46, 109–128.
• Hyde, A., Pethe, S., & Dhar, U. (2001). Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS). National
Psychological Corporation, Agra.
• Jack, A. I., & Roepstorff, A. (2002). Introspection and cognitive brain mapping: From stimulus-
response to script-report. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 333–339.
• Jack, A. I., & Shallice, T. (2001). Introspective physicalism as an approach to the science of
consciousness. Cognition, 79, 161–196.
• Jacobs, J., Hwang, G., Curran, T. & Kahana, M.J. (2006). EEG oscillations and recognition
memory: Theta correlates of memory retrieval and decision making. Neuroimage, 32, 978-987.
• James, W. (1985). The varieties of religious experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press. (Original work published 1902)
• James W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. London: Macmillan Publication, 2, p. 403-4.
• Jha, A.P., Krompinger, J., & Baime, M.J. (2007). Mindfulness of training modifies subsystems
of attention. Cognitive Affective Behavioral Neuroscience, 7,109-119.
• Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future.
Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144–158.
• Kanai, R., & Verstraten, F.A. (2006). Attentional modulation of perceptual stabilization.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological sciences, 273, 1217-1222.
• Kember, P. (1985). The Transcendental meditation technique and academic performance: A
short report on control longitudinal pilot study. British journal of educational psychology, 55,
164-166.
• Khawale, G. (2011, March). Effect of Om chanting on Concentration, Memory and level of
fatigue. Paper presented at National Seminar on Indigenous Techniques in Psychotherapy
Organized by Dev Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar.
32
• Khoo, T.K., Prayer. Retrieved July 4, 2011 from www.kktanhp.com/prayer.htm.
• Klimesch, W. (1999a). Brain function and oscillations II: Integrative brain function.
Neurophysiology and cognitive processes by Erol Basar [Review of the book Brain function
and oscillations II: Integrative brain function. Neurophysiology and cognitive processes].
Trends in Cognitive Science, 3 (6), 243.
• Klimesch, W. (1999b). EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory
performance: a review and analysis. Brain Research Reviews 29:169–195.
• Koch, C. & Tsuchiya, N. (2007). Attention and Consciousness: Two Distinct Brain Processes,
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 16-22.
• Kory, R. & Hufnagel, P. (1997). The effect of the science of creative intelligence course on high
school students: a preliminary report, in D. W. Orme-Johnson & J. T. Farrow (ed.) scientific
research on transcendental meditation program: A preliminary Report, 1, MERU press, p. 400–
402.
• Kwon, J. S., Hahm, B. J., & Rhi, B. Y. (1996). EEG changes during “Danhak” (Korean
traditional meditation). In C. Ogura, Y. Koga, & M. Shimokochi (Eds.), Recent advances in
event-related potential research, p. 16–21. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
• Lamb, T. (2004). Health Benefits of Yoga. Retrieved July 28, 2011 from
www.philmilgrom.com/pdf/BenefitsYoga.pdf
• Lamme, V.A.F., (2003). Why visual awareness and attention are different? Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 7, 12-18.
• Larson, D.B. & Larson, S.S. (1991). Religious commitment and health: Valuing the relationship.
Second Opinion: Health, Faith, and Ethics 17(1), 26-40.
• Lavie, N. (2006). The role of perceptual load in visual awareness. Brain Research, 1080, 91-
100.
• Lazar, S. W., Rosman, I. S., Vangel, M., Rao, V., Dusek, H., Benson, H., et al. (2003,
November). Functional brain imaging of mindfulness and mantra-based meditation. Paper
presented at the meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, New Orleans, LA.
• Lehmann, D., Faber, P. L., Achermann, P., Jeanmonod, D., Gianotti, L. R., & Pizzagalli, D.
(2001). Brain sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally meditation-induced, altered
states of consciousness, and experience of the self. Psychiatry Research, 108, 111–121.
• Leopold, D.A. & Logothetis (1999). Multistable phenomena: changing views in perception.
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 254-264.
33
• Li, F.F., VanRullen, R., Koch, C., & Perona, P. (2002). Rapid natural scene categorization in the
near absence of attention. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, USA, 99, 9596-9601.
• Lou, L. (2001). Effects of voluntary attention on structured afterimages. Perception, 30, 1439-
1448.
• Lou, H. C., Kjaer, T. W., Friberg, L., Wildschiodtz, G., Holm, S., & Nowak, M. (1999). A 15O-
H2O PET study of meditation and the resting state of normal consciousness. Human Brain
Mapping, 7, 98–105.
• Lutz, A., Greischar, L. L., Rawlings, N. B., Ricard, M., & Davidson, R. J. (2004). Long-term
meditators self-induced high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 101, 16369–16373.
• Lutz, A., Lachaux, J. P., Martinerie, J., & Varela, F. J. (2002). Guiding the study of brain
dynamics by using first-person data: Synchrony patterns correlate with ongoing conscious
states during a simple visual task. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 99,
1586–1591.
• Mack, A & Rock, I. (2001). Inattentional Blindness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Maslow, A.H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. New York: Wiley and Sons.
• Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus: Ohio State
University Press.
• Mahesh Yogi, (1917-2008), Retrieved June 22, 2011 from Wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental
Meditation.
• Mahesh Yogi, M. (1963). The science of being and art of living. New York: Penguin Books. Also in
Cahn, B.R. & Polich, J. (2006). Meditation States and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging
Studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132(2), 180-211.
• Makeig, S., Delorme, A., Westerfield, M., Jung, T.P., Townsend, J., Courchesne, E. &
Sejnowski, T.J. (2004) Electroencephalographic brain dynamics following manually responded
visual targets. PLoS Biology 2,747– 762.
• Mason, L. I., Alexander, C. N., Travis, F. T., Marsh, G., Orme-Johnson, D. W., Gackenbach, J.,
et al. (1997). Electrophysiological correlates of higher states of consciousness during sleep in
long-term practitioners of the transcendental meditation program. Sleep, 20, 102–110.
• Mayor, J.D. & Salovey, P. (1993). The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence. Intelligence, 17(4),
433-442.
34
• Mayor, J.D. & Salovey, P. (1995). Emotional intelligence and the construction and regulation of
feelings. Applied & Preventive Psychology, 4,197-208.
• Mayor, J.D., Salovey, P. & Caruso, D.R. (2000). Models of emotional Intelligence Handbook of
Intelligence (p.396-420) Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
• McCollough, M.E., Hoyt, W.T., Larson, D.B., Koenig, H.G. & Thoresen, C. (2000). Religious
involvement and mortality: A Meta analytic review. Health Psychology, 19,211-222.
• McIntosh, A. R., Fitzpatrick, S. M., & Friston, K. J. (2001). On the marriage of cognition and
neuroscience. Neuroimage, 14, 1231–1237.
• Mckeon R. (Ed.), Introduction to Aristotle New York: Modern Library, 1947, Quoted in Norman
M. bradburn; Structure of Psychological Well-being, Chicago: Aldrine, Pub. Code-1969.
• Murphy, M., Donovan, S. & Taylor, E. The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A
Review of Contemporary Research. Retrieved June 18, 2011 from
media.noetic.org/uploads/files/Meditation_Intro.pdf
• MonierMonier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philogically Arranged
with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951 ed.,
establishes the feminine root dhyaas generic to the Vedic, Classical, and Buddhist hybrid Sanskit
traditions, p. 521. Dharana, dhyana, and samadhiare characterized as samyama, the three-fold
tool, in The Yoga Sutras. Retrived from Michael Murphy and Steven Donovan, 1997, 2nd
Edition
Edited and with an introduction by Eugene Taylor, Ph.D., The physical and Psychological effects
of Meditation: A review of contemporary research, publication Institute of Noetic Sciences,
Sausalito.
• Nagendra, H.R., Kumar, S., Manjunath, N.K., Naveen, K.V., & Telles, S. (2010). Meditation on
OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science. International Journal of Yoga, 3
(1), 2-5.
• Naranjo, C., & Ornstein, R. (1971). On the psychology of meditation. New York: Viking Press.
• Neugarten, B. (1982). Age or need? Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
• Ornstein, R. (1972). The psychology of consciousness. San Francisco: Freeman.
• Otani, A. (2003). Eastern meditative techniques and hypnosis: A new synthesis. American Journal
of Clinical Hypnosis, 46, 97–108.
• Othmer, S., Othmer, S.F. & Marks, C.S. (1991). EEG Biofeedback Training for Attention Deficit
Disorder, Specific Learning Disabilities, and Associated Conduct Problems. Retrieved 25 July,
35
2011 from http://eegspectrum.com/Applications/ADHD-ADD/ADD-SLD-ACPIntro/ADD-SLD-
ACPDisc/
• Pagano R.R., Frumkin L.R. (1979). Effect of transcendental meditation on right hemispheric
functions. Biofeedback Self Regul, 2(4), 407–415.
• Pandaya, P. (Sep.-Oct., 2004) Dhyan and its Benefits. Akhand Jyoti, Akhand Jyoti Sansthan
Publication, Ghiyamandi, Mathura, p. 109-111.
• Posner, M.I. (1994). Attention: the mechanisms of consciousness. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, USA, 91, 7398-7403.
• Rainville, P., & Price, D. D. (2003). Hypnosis phenomenology and the neurobiology of
consciousness. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 51, 105–129.
• Rangan, R., Nagendra, H.R. & Ramachandra Bhat, G. (2009). Effect of yogic education system and
modern education system on memory. International journal of yoga, 2 (2) p. 55-61.
• Rensink, R.A. (2002). Change Detection. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 245-277.
• Ross, W.D., Aristotle (5th
ed.) London: Methuen, 1949 quoted in Norman M. Bradburn; The
Structure of Psychological Well-Being, Chicago: Aldrine, pub. Code-1969.
• Salovey, P. & Mayer, J.D. (1990) Emotional intelligence. Imagination, cognition, and personality,
9(3), 185-211.
• Shapiro, D. H., & Walsh, R. N. (1984). Meditation: Classical and contemporary perspectives. New
York: Aldine.
• Sharma, S.R. (2010). True nature of worship. Shri Vedmata Gayatri Trust Publication, Shantikunj,
Haridwar, p. 29
• Shashi (March, 2011) Effect of Om chanting on GSR and EEG. Paper presented at National Seminar
on Indigenous Techniques in Psychotherapy Organized by Dev Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya,
Haridwar.
• Shin, D.C., & Johnson, D.M. (1978). Avowed happiness as an overall assessment of the quality
of life. Social Indicators Research, 5, p. 478.
• Singer, W. (1999) Neural synchrony: A versatile code for the definitions of relations? Neuron
24, 49-65.
36
• Singh, S. (March, 2011) Effect of Pranav Japa on Depression and Self-Confidence. Paper
presented at National Seminar on Indigenous Techniques in Psychotherapy Organized by Dev
Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar.
• Sivananda Swami. (2005). Japa Yoga A comprehensive treatise on Mantra- Sastra. Himalayas,
india: A Divine Life Society Publication. Also in Nagendra, H.R., Kumar, S., Manjunath, N.K.,
Naveen, K.V., & Telles, S. (2010). Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and
contemporary science. International Journal of Yoga, 3 (1), 2-5.
• Slagter, H.A., Lutz, A., Greischar, L.L., Francis, A.D., Nieuwenhuis, S., Davis, J.M., &
Davidson, R.J. (2007) Mental training affects distribution of limited brain resources.
PLoSBiology 5(6), 138.
• Srinivasan, S., & Baijal, S. (2007). Theta Activity and Meditative States: Spectral Changes
during Concentrative Meditation. Retrieved June 18, 2011 from
www.cbcs.ac.in/docs/doc_download/14-theta-activity-sky-meditation
• Suzuki, S. & Grabowecky, M. (2003). Attention during adaptation weakens negative
afterimages. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception &Performance, 29, 793-
807.
• Taimini, I.K., (1986). The science of yoga. Madras, India: The Theosophical Publishing house.
• Tang, Y.Y., Ma, Y., Wang, J., Fan, Y., Feng, S., Lu, Q., Yu, Q., Sui, D., Rothbart, M.K., Fan,
M., & Posner, M.I. (2007) Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-
regulation. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 104,17152-17156.
• Tatarkiewicz, W. (1976). Analysis of happiness. The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 8.
• Telles, S., Nagarathna, R. & Nagendra, H. R. (1998). Autonomic changes while mentally
repeating two syllables- one meaningful and other neutral, International Journal of Public
Administration, 42(1), 57-63.
• Thakkar, M. (2006) A study of effect of Healing Prayer on Self- Esteem and Emotional Stability
of children. Unpublished dissertation, Department of Psychology, Dev Sanskriti
Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar.
• Travis, F., Arenander, A., & DuBois, D. (2004). Psychological and physiological characteristics
of a proposed object-referral/self-referral continuum of self-awareness. Consciousness and
Cognition, 13, 401–420.
37
• Travis F., Tecce J., Arenander A., & Wallace R.K. (2002) Patterns of EEG coherence, power, and
contingent negative variation characterize the integration of transcendental and waking states.
Biological Psychiatry, 61,293-319.
• Travis, F. (2001). Autonomic and EEG patterns distinguish transcending from other experiences
during transcendental meditation practice. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 1–9.
• Travis, F., & Pearson, C. (1999). Pure consciousness: Distinct phenomenological and physiological
correlates of “consciousness itself.” International Journal of Neuroscience, 100, 77–89.
• Travis, F., & Wallace, R. K. (1999). Autonomic and EEG patterns during eyes-closed rest and
transcendental meditation (TM practice: The basis for a neural model of TM practice.
Consciousness and Cognition, 8, 302–318.
• Travis, F., & Wallace, R. K. (1997). Autonomic patterns during respiratory suspensions: Possible
markers of transcendental consciousness. Psychophysiology, 34, 39–46.
• Treisman, A. (2006). How the deployment of attention determines what we see. Visual Cognition,
14, 411-443.
• Tsuchiya, N. & Koch, C. (2005). Continuous flash suppression reduces negative afterimages.
Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1096-1101.
• Upmanyu, V.V., Dwivedi, A., Khan, I., Gulati, N. & Bjawa, M. (March, 2011). Spirituality in
relation to Mental Health and Self-concept among Adolescents Girls. Paper presented at national
Seminar on Indigenous techniques in Psychotherapy Organized by Dev Sanskriti
Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar.
• Vaitl, D., Birbaumer, N., Gruzelier, J., Jamieson, G.A., Kotchoubey, B., Kubler, A., et al. (2005).
Psychobiology of altered states of consciousness. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 98–127.
• Varela, F. J. (1996). Neurophenomenology, a methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal
of Consciousness Studies, 3, 330–349.
• Veenhoven, R. (2004). Subjective measures of Wellbeing. Published in Mark McGillivray (Ed.)
Human Well-being, Concept and Measurement, Palgrave Macmillan, Series ‘Studies in
Development Economics and Policy, ISBN 0-230-00498-9, 2007, .Houndsmill, UK, chapter 9, pp.
214-239.
• Wallace, B. A. (1999). The Buddhist tradition of Samatha: Methods for refining and examining
consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6, 175–187.
38
• Walsh, R. & Shapiro, L. S. (2006). “The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology:
A mutually enriching dialogue”. American psychologist (American Psychological Asoociation)
61(3), 227-239
• West, M. A. (1987). The psychology of meditation. New York: Clarendon Press. Also in Cahn, B.R.
& Polich, J. (2006). Meditation States and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging Studies.
Psychological Bulletin, 132(2), 180-211.
• Wilber, K. (1977). The spectrum of consciousness. New York: Theosophical Press.