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Developing the Next Generation of Responsible Leaders: Empirical Insights and Recommendations for Organizations
D I S S E R T A T I O N of the University of St. Gallen,
School of Management, Economics, Law, Social Sciences
and International Affairs to obtain the title of
Doctor of Philosophy in Management
submitted by
Markéta Borecká
from
Czech Republic
Approved on the application of
Prof. Dr. Thomas Maak
and
Prof. Dr. Martin Hilb
Dissertation no. 4261
ZSUZ Zurich 2014
The University of St. Gallen, School of Management, Economics, Law, Social Sciences and International Affairs hereby consents to the printing of the present dissertation, without hereby expressing any opinion on the views herein expressed. St. Gallen, May 19, 2014
The President: Prof. Dr. Thomas Bieger
Acknowledgements
This dissertation would not have come into existence without the support and understanding of my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Thomas Maak, who encouraged me to come to the University of St. Gallen and who kindly agreed to lead me on the path of the thrilling topic of responsible leadership development. Equally, my thanks belong to his research partner, Dr. Nicola Pless, who was always there to provide valuable feedback, to show me the right direction, and to systematically push my work forward. I am also grateful to my co-supervisor Prof. Dr. Martin Hilb who supported my coming to St. Gallen and was always available with constructive advice. My thanks go also to my friends and colleagues in St. Gallen and Prague who have been good friends throughout the time of my doctoral studies: Miro Tabernaus, Georgi Burlakov, Chris Paret, Zsuzsa Pogats, Anna Mirza Tauchmanová, Markus Stohler, Felix Meissner, Fredrik Palm, Gulnaz and Alsu Garaeva, Yves Partschefeld, Mehtap Aldogan, and Júlia González de Canales Carcereny. Last but not least, I want to express my gratitude to the members of my family, who have all supported with patience and understanding my decision to undertake doctoral studies.
Prague, July 2014 Markéta Borecká
Table of Contents
I
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... I Summary ................................................................................................................. IV
Zusammenfassung .................................................................................................... V
1. Introduction: Developing the Next Generation of Responsible Leaders:Empirical Insights and Recommendations for Organizations ...................... 3
1.1. Introduction to the Topic of Responsible Leadership .................................. 4 1.2. Theoretical and Practical Relevance and Contributions .............................. 5 1.3. Overview and Framing of the Dissertation .................................................. 7 1.4. Overall Conclusion .................................................................................... 10 1.5. References .................................................................................................. 12
2. What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’sChallenges in a Stakeholder Society ............................................................... 18
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 19 2.2. Defining Responsible Leadership .............................................................. 21 2.3. Responsible Leadership vs. Related Theories ........................................... 23
2.3.1. Stakeholder Leadership .................................................................................23 2.3.2. Ethical Leadership ........................................................................................25 2.3.3. Servant Leadership .......................................................................................25 2.3.4. Authentic Leadership ....................................................................................26 2.3.5. Transformational Leadership ........................................................................28 2.3.6. Charismatic Leadership ................................................................................29 2.3.7. Spiritual Leadership ......................................................................................30 2.3.8. Virtuous Leadership ......................................................................................32 2.3.9. Steward Leadership .......................................................................................32 2.3.10. Relational Leadership ...................................................................................34 2.3.11. Shared Leadership ........................................................................................35
2.4. Methodology .............................................................................................. 36 Table 2.1.: Table Comparing Responsible Leadership and Other Leadership Theories ........................................................................................................37 Table 2.2.: The 57 Articles which Were Subject to the Literature Survey on Responsible Leadership ................................................................................41
2.5. Results ........................................................................................................ 43 2.5.1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical ...........................................43 2.5.2. Research Questions .......................................................................................44 2.5.3. Nature of the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis .......................................45 2.5.4. Theoretical Basis ..........................................................................................46 2.5.5. Definition of Responsible Leadership ..........................................................46
Table 2.3.: The Articles which Used or Referred to a Specific Definition of Responsible Leadership ................................................................................49
2.5.6. Understanding of Followers .........................................................................48 2.5.7. Antecedent Variables of Responsible Leadership .........................................52
Table 2.4.: Antecedent Variables (Contextual Influences) of Responsible Leadership ....................................................................................................53
2.5.8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership ..........................................................56 Table 2.5.: Outcome Variables (Consequences) of Responsible Leadership 57
2.6. Discussion and Suggestions for Further Research ..................................... 60 2.6.1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical ...........................................60
Table of Contents
II
2.6.2. Research Questions .......................................................................................60 2.6.3. Nature of the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis .......................................61 2.6.4. Theoretical Basis ..........................................................................................63 2.6.5. Definition of Responsible Leadership ..........................................................64 2.6.6. Understanding of Followers .........................................................................64 2.6.7. Antecedent Variables of Responsible Leadership .........................................65 2.6.8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership ..........................................................66
2.7. Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership ........................... 66 Figure 2.1.: Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership ...........67
2.8. Conclusions ................................................................................................ 68 2.9. References .................................................................................................. 70
3. Developing Responsible Global Leaders ....................................................... 86 3.1. The Responsible Global Leadership Challenge ......................................... 87 3.2. Responsible Global Leadership ................................................................. 88 3.3. Developing Responsible Global Leaders ................................................... 89 3.4. The Rise of International Service Learning Programs .............................. 91 3.5. International Service Learning at PricewaterhouseCoopers, Pfizer and
IBM – A Cross-Company Comparison ...................................................... 92 3.5.1. General Program Features ............................................................................93
Table 3.1.: Characteristics of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) ............................................................................................................94
3.5.2. Program Design ............................................................................................95 3.5.3. Program Methodology ..................................................................................96
3.6. Outcomes and Benefits of International Service Learning Programs ....... 97 Figure 3.1.: Features and Outcomes of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) .........................................................................................100
3.7. Discussion and Conclusion ...................................................................... 101 3.8. References ................................................................................................ 105
4. Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference ................................. 117 4.1. In Search of Leaders Who Make a Difference ......................................... 118 4.2. International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) .................................... 121 4.3. Outcomes and Benefits of ISLP............................................................... 124 4.4. Developing Leaders Who Make a Difference: International Service
Learning at PwC, HSBC, IBM, and Novartis .......................................... 126 Table 4.1.: General Information about the International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) .........................................................................................127
4.5. ISLP Outcomes ........................................................................................ 129 Table 4.2.: ISLP Participant Outcomes ......................................................131 Table 4.3.: ISLP Organizational-level Outcomes .......................................132 Table 4.4.: ISLP Outcomes for Communities and Broader Society ............133
4.6. Developing Leaders Who Make a Difference ......................................... 134 4.7. References ................................................................................................ 137
5. Comparative Analysis of International Service Learning Programs ....... 148 5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 150 5.2. Service Learning ...................................................................................... 151 5.3. Methodology ............................................................................................ 153 5.4. Results ...................................................................................................... 155
Table 5.1.: General Information on the International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) Studied ............................................................................156
III
Table of Contents
Table 5.2.: Information about the Target Group and Assignments (Placements) .............................................................................................. 158 Table 5.3.: Design Elements and Learning Methods of the International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) Studied ................................................159 Table 5.4.: Benefits of the International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) Studied ........................................................................................................160 Table 5.5.: Typology for Classifying International Service Learning Programs as Leadership Development Program, Organization Development Program or Community Development Program .........................................163 Figure 5.1.: Classification of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) ..........................................................................................................164
5.5. Discussion and Suggestions for Further Research ................................... 165 5.6. Conclusions .............................................................................................. 169 5.7. References ................................................................................................ 171 6. Closing Chapter: Overview of the Findings and Areas for Future
Research ...................................................................................................... 180 6.1. Reasons for Writing this Dissertation ...................................................... 181 6.2. Major Findings and their Contribution to Theory and Practice ............... 181 6.3. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research ................................... 184 6.4. Closing Words .......................................................................................... 186 6.5. References ................................................................................................ 188
Curriculum Vitae of Markéta Borecká ............................................................... 191
Summary
IV
Summary
Two major trends have shaped the international business field over the past decade: globalization and the quest for responsible leadership. Yet, what are the qualities and competencies that predispose business leaders to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, interlinked world, and thus meet new social, environmental and political responsibilities? How can organizations develop these qualities in their current and future leaders? This cumulative thesis addresses these gaps in research and practice and provides tentative answers to both questions. Responsible leadership as defined by Maak and Pless is a social-relational and ethical phenomenon that occurs in the social processes of interaction, and its aim is to build and sustain trustful and lasting relationships with all stakeholders within an organization and outside its borders. In addition to the introductory and closing chapter, this cumulative thesis contains four manuscripts dealing with the topic of responsible leadership. The first manuscript provides a review of the area of research on responsible leadership, shapes this concept against other dominant and related leadership streams (such as stakeholder leadership, relational leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, etc.), and offers a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership. The second and third manuscript examine the qualities global leaders need to succeed in a connected world and study the composition and outcomes of several innovative executive development programs that use International Service Learning Assignments as a way to instill responsible leadership qualities in their executives. The programs studied are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program. The fourth manuscript is the first contribution that systematically compares International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations from three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services). It identifies a number of category areas in which they differ (e.g., in placement length, nature of the assignment, learning methods used), provides a typology for program classification (leadership development, organization development, or community development), and is a relevant starting point for empirical studies. The findings of this cumulative thesis show that responsible leadership has the potential to provide vital solutions to the challenges of today’s stakeholder society and that International Service Learning Programs show beneficial outcomes for individual participants, for their organizations, and for broader communities.
Zusammenfassung
V
Zusammenfassung
Zwei große Trends haben die internationale Geschäftswelt in der letzten Dekade geprägt: Globalisierung und die Suche nach verantwortlicher Führung. Doch was sind die Qualitäten und Kompetenzen, die Wirtschaftsführer benötigen, um verantwortlich in einer zunehmend komplexen, vernetzten Welt zu handeln und so neue soziale, ökologische und politische Verantwortung zu übernehmen? Wie können Organisationen helfen, diese Qualitäten ihrer aktuellen und künftigen Führer zu entwickeln? Diese kumulative Dissertation befasst sich mit den Lücken in Forschung und Praxis und bietet vorläufige Antworten auf beide Fragen. Verantwortliche Führung, wie von Maak und Pless definiert, ist ein sozial-relationales und ethisches Phänomen, das in sozialen Interaktionsprozessen entsteht und dessen Ziel es ist, vertrauensvolle und dauerhafte Beziehungen mit allen Beteiligten innerhalb und außerhalb einer Organisation aufzubauen und aufrecht zu erhalten. Neben dem Einführungs- und Schlusskapitel enthält diese kumulative Dissertation vier Manuskripte, die sich mit dem Thema verantwortungsvoller Unternehmensführung beschäftigen. Das erste Manuskript enthält eine Übersicht des Forschungsbereiches verantwortungsvolle Führung, vergleicht dieses Konzept mit anderen vorherrschenden Strömungen (wie Stakeholder-Führung, relationale Führung, ethische Führung, authentische Führung, Servant Leadership, etc.) und bietet ein konzeptionelles Arbeitsmodell für Verantwortliche Führung. Die zweite und dritte Manuskript untersuchen die Qualitäten, die weltweit führende Unternehmen brauchen, um in einer vernetzten Welt erfolgreich zu sein, und befassen sich mit der Gestaltung und den Ergebnissen von mehreren innovativen Führungskräfte-entwicklungsprogrammen, die International Service Learning Einsätze unterstützen, als eine Möglichkeit, ihren Führungskräften verantwortungsvolle Führungsqualitäten zu vermitteln. Die untersuchten Programme sind PricewaterhouseCoopers Ulysses Programm, Pfizers Global Health Fellows Programm, IBMs Corporate Service Corps, HSBCs Next Generation-Development Programm, und Novartis Entrepreneurial Leadership Programm. Das vierte Manuskript ist ein Beitrag, der systematisch International Service Learning Programme vergleicht, die von multinationalen Unternehmen aus drei Branchen betrieben werden (Gesundheit, Technologie, Rechnungswesen und professionelle Dienstleistungen). Es werden eine Reihe von Bereichen gekennzeichnet, in denen sie sich unterscheiden (z.B. Länge des Aufenthaltes, Art der Aufgabe, angewandte Lernmethoden). Es bietet eine Typologie für die Programmklasse (Führungskräfteentwicklung, Organisationsentwicklung, oder Gemeindeentwicklung) und stellt einen relevanten Ausgangspunkt für weitere empirische Studien dar. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass die verantwortliche Führung das Potenzial hat, wichtige Lösungansätze für die Herausforderungen der heutigen Stakeholder-Gesellschaft zu bieten und das International Service Learning Programme positive Ergebnisse für die einzelnen Teilnehmer, für ihre Organisationen und für eine breitere Öffentlichkeit erbringen.
1
Chapter 1
Introduction: Developing the Next Generation of Responsible Leaders: Empirical Insights and Recommendations for Organizations
Markéta Borecká
Current status (July 2014): Unsubmitted
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1. Introduction: Developing the Next Generation of ResponsibleLeaders: Empirical Insights and Recommendations forOrganizations
Abstract
This chapter provides the introduction to the cumulative dissertation, gives an overview of the entire thesis and shows how the individual parts are interconnected. It introduces the social and relational phenomenon of responsible leadership and the context in which this leadership approach came to existence. It also describes the International Service Learning Programs that corporations are using to develop the next generation of responsible leaders – these programs are the subject of study and comparison in the following three chapters of this dissertation. This chapter identifies crucial research gaps and shows the relevance of the chosen topic in addressing them; it also outlines the contributions relating to this topic in academic research and leadership practice. After summarizing each of the subsequent manuscripts, the chapter draws an overall conclusion from the thesis as a whole. The reasoning of this chapter shows why it is crucial to focus on the study of the phenomenon of responsible leadership and the development of responsible leaders, due to the potential this topic encompasses in connecting individual, organizational, and institutional factors and providing vital solutions to the challenges of today’s stakeholder society as benefitting individuals, organizations, and societies.
Keywords
Responsible leadership, stakeholder society, corporate social responsibility, leadership development
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“...desirable social change requires responsible global leaders – leaders who lead with head, hand, and heart; who have a responsible mindset, care for the needs of others, and act as global and responsible citizens”(Pless & Maak, 2008, p. 61). 1.1. Introduction to the Topic of Responsible Leadership
There are some significant challenges and contrasts that 21st century businesses and business leaders are facing. These include the big contrasts typical of today’s globalized and turbulent environment that leaders have to navigate: some people on this planet live well while others face the pressing problems of pollution, famine, diseases, and the degradation of human rights. Not only due to various corporate scandals in recent years (such as Enron), have there been growing public demands for social responsibility, accountability, sustainability, and contribution to solving some of the world’s pressing problems (Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011) to which leaders and businesses are expected to respond (Maak & Pless, 2006b). The various stakeholder groups inside and outside the organization, including those neglected and socially excluded (Mària & Lozano, 2010), have become more demanding and want to be involved in dialogue. Also, managers and leaders need to cope with the new managerial logic of the post-industrial age, which is characterized by fluid organizational structures and the loss of traditional managerial authority, which in turn is compensated by new leadership roles and positive emotions in order to compel stakeholders to join the leaders (Schneider, 2002). Other challenges include the tendency of businesses to stick to national or country-based advantages while, at the same time, crossing political boundaries and growing globally (Sakakibara & Porter, 2001), which then emphasizes the need for global leadership competencies.
Today’s leaders are supposed to have, and provide to their followers, a sense of purpose and guiding vision and to be able to “navigate the firm through uneven and sometimes murky waters” (Maak & Pless, 2006b, p. 99). In our global stakeholder society, companies are supposed to be accountable both to the owners and shareholders and to all stakeholders who are influenced by the firm’s economic, environmental and societal impacts (Wade, 2006). It becomes obvious that a leader’s competencies, roles, mindsets and relational abilities need to be extended from the previously narrow shareholder orientation to a much broader stakeholder focus (Maak & Pless, 2006b).
Our world needs more responsible leaders who, as Pless and Maak (2008, p. 61) put it, “lead with head, hand, and heart; who have a responsible mindset, care
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for the needs of others, and act as global and responsible citizens.” Yet, what are the qualities and competencies that predispose business leaders to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, interlinked world, and thus to meet new social, environmental, and political responsibilities? How can organizations develop these qualities in their current and future leaders? This dissertation offers tentative answers to these questions and aims to show that the newly emerging theory of responsible leadership has the potential to offer solutions to the aforementioned burning issues, demands, and contradictions typical of our time. The specific theoretical and practical relevance of this cumulative dissertation will be presented in the following passages.
1.2. Theoretical and Practical Relevance and Contributions The introductory section has described the context of today’s globalized
stakeholder society, which has been calling for a leadership theory to encompass our world’s challenges in a complex way. Also Bass and Steidelmeier suggested discussing “leadership in the context of contemporary stakeholder theory” (1999, p. 200). Responsible leadership is “a social-relational and ethical phenomenon,which occurs in social processes of interaction” (Maak & Pless, 2006b, p. 99) and its aim is to build and sustain trustful and lasting relationships with all stakeholders both within an organization and outside its borders. Responsible leadership seems to be a theory responding to the challenges of our times and the theoretical and practical relevance of studying it in this dissertation is described below.
From the viewpoint of theory, the presented dissertation aims at justifying the new theory of responsible leadership, at deepening the knowledge already available on the topic of responsible leadership and responsible leadership development, mapping the state of the field of the discipline, synthesizing that knowledge, and comparing and contrasting responsible leadership theory with other related leadership theories (e.g., stakeholder leadership, relational leadership, ethical leadership, etc.). A review and synthesis article on the topic of responsible leadership has been missing among academic contributions even though responsible leadership, as this dissertation will show, is a theory offering viable solutions to the challenges of our world.
Research conducted by Maak and Pless (e.g., Maak & Pless, 2006a,b, 2009; Maak, 2007; Pless, 2007; and Pless & Maak, 2008), as well as that of other authors writing about the topic of responsible leadership (e.g., Waldman, 2011; Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Voegtlin, Patzer & Scherer, 2012; Ketola, 2010, 2012; and
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Cameron, 2011), will be taken as an important starting point to study the definition and constituting features, antecedents and outcomes of responsible leadership. This will help answer the core questions addressed by this dissertation: What is responsible leadership? What are the qualities and competencies that predispose business leaders to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, interlinked world, and thus meet new social, environmental, and political responsibilities?
Another question addressed by this dissertation is: How can organizations develop responsible leadership qualities in their current and future leaders? Empirical research and conceptual models lack information about how individuals learn to become more responsible global leaders and about what kinds of competencies are developed through International Service Learning Programs (Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011). International Service Learning Programs are experiential corporate volunteering initiatives designed to give employees the chance to work abroad for a short time (often in a developing or emerging market) on a service assignment with a partner from the social sector (e.g., NGO, social enterprise). The service assignment is a project defined with a social-sector partner, on which the corporate employee works full-time on a pro-bono basis and contributes his/her knowledge and expertise in exchange for a rich learning experience. The findings from the comparison of several International Service Learning Programs, which help develop responsible leaders, offer extremely relevant information for management researchers.
The presented cumulative dissertation includes several contributions to managerial practice. First, it is highly desirable to conduct research in the area of responsible leadership and explore what are the qualities, competencies, and other attributes that constitute responsible leadership and how to instil those qualities into current and future executives. Such research, and implementation of said research, may prevent other leadership scandals and ethical misconducts from taking place. Also, it has been argued that responsible leaders and the companies they manage may act as “agents of world benefit” (Maak & Pless, 2009, p. 540) and help to improve some of the burning social and ecological issues. Responsible businesses may help alleviate poverty, fight against exclusion and pollution, cherish diversity, and significantly improve the life in the community in which they operate by proactively involving various stakeholders in constructive dialogues and by adhering to socially responsible code of conduct (Mària & Lozano, 2010; Voegtlin, 2011; Yunus, Moingeon & Lehmann-Ortega, 2010).
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In addition, responsible leadership can be seen as closely connected to the area of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), which is both a core and emerging issue in management, with a myriad of questions yet to be posed and countless questions still to be answered. There has been a growing interest among scholars concerning the managerial implications of CSR and related areas such as firm sustainability and how these can be translated into the knowledge that can be used to better manage employees in organizational settings with regard to CSR (Morgeson, Aguinis, Waldman & Siegel, 2010). There is the need to explore the impact within companies of responsible leadership on micro-level issues. The issue of training or development of people with regard to becoming responsible leaders is extremely relevant, and the practical findings in this area offered by this dissertation may provide guidelines for companies to set up effective development programs highly valuable to both the employees and the companies.
Other practical questions include the real-life impact of adopting responsible leadership standards and of having more responsible leaders in companies. It is important to conduct research that is directed toward establishing the links between responsible leadership and various organizational variables (such as organizational commitment, work climate and relationships, job satisfaction, retention, and performance) and to quantify those links. These findings will present eloquent arguments for company executives to invest more means into responsible leadership development programs and to take various measures so that their companies become responsible companies. 1.3. Overview and Framing of the Dissertation
The main objective of the presented dissertation is to address the overall topic of “Developing the Next Generation of Responsible Leaders” and provide empirical insights and recommendations for organizations. The cumulative dissertation is constructed in such a way that all the chapters are logically interconnected, and, at the same time, they distinguish four separate articles which have been or will be submitted to academic journals or leadership publications; some of them have been published. The findings are then summarized in the closing chapter.
The topics of all four manuscripts (Chapters 2 to 5) and the order in which they appear in this dissertation have been carefully chosen in order to follow the logic in introducing the topic of responsible leadership to the readers. The discussion is started from the abstract viewpoint of defining the concept and surveying academic literature. The focus is then shifted towards more specific exploration of the features
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that responsible leadership manifests in practice in the participants of International Service Learning Programs. Finally, the outcomes of responsible leadership are demonstrated by practically comparing chosen International Service Learning Programs run by corporations. In this way, the breadth and width of the topic of responsible leadership is revealed, practical insights for corporations and program designers are shared and the relevance of the topic in today’s world is made obvious. Very specifically, the dissertation proceeds as follows:
The first manuscript (Chapter 2) provides the thematic framing for the whole cumulative dissertation. It addresses the question: “What is responsible leadership and how it can address today’s challenges in a stakeholder society” It defines the construct of responsible leadership, shapes this concept against other dominant and related leadership streams (such as stakeholder leadership, relational leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, etc.); provides a review of the area of research on responsible leadership; and offers a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership which proposes the antecedents, constituting features, and outcomes of responsible leadership. Our findings show that responsible leadership offers unique, beneficial, new or complementary insights (complementary, e.g., to ethical leadership, transformational leadership or authentic leadership) (Waldman, 2011) with respect to the overall aim – to meet the needs of all stakeholders, engage them in an inclusive dialogue and act in such a way that all constituencies can profit (rather than only some profiting at the expense of others) (Waldman, 2011). The findings show that responsible leadership is a multilevel theory connecting individual, organizational, and institutional factors and has the potential to provide vital solutions to the challenges of today’s stakeholder society benefitting individuals, organizations, and societies.
The second manuscript (Chapter 3) addresses the question: “How can organizations develop responsible leadership qualities in their current and future leaders?” Quoting Maak (2007), it can be said that “with few exceptions (Ciulla, 1998; Doh & Stumpf, 2005; Maak & Pless, 2006a) we still have little knowledge about responsible leadership and even less about how to develop responsibility in leaders to prepare them for the challenges of a global and interconnected stakeholder society” (p. 330). It is important to study the theoretical and practical knowledge concerning leadership development programs, practices, and devices (i.e., what companies are doing to develop responsible leaders) with the aim of shedding some light into this area and answering the research question. This chapter fleshes out some of the qualities global leaders need to succeed in a connected world and
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compares three innovative executive development programs that use International Service Learning Assignments as a way to instil these qualities in their executives. These programs are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps. Findings in this area provide a useful overview and comparison of responsible leadership development practice from the viewpoint of the programs’ features and outcomes. Such findings broaden the theory presented by Maak and Pless (2009) and Pless, Maak and Stahl (2011) concerning the development or enhancement of global responsible leadership competencies through participation in International Service Learning Programs and reflection upon the field experience.
The third manuscript (Chapter 4) looks at International Service Learning Programs more from the perspective of their outcomes, and addresses the question “How to develop global leaders who make a difference?” The impact of International Service Learning Programs on internal stakeholders (participants in the programs) who have developed certain skills, attitudes, and competencies (Partiff, 2005; MyersLipton, 1996; Pless et al., 2011) and on society in general (which can be equated with the real-life results of the projects) have been touched upon in various studies. However, the outcomes have not been examined systematically due to the relative newness and scarcity of these programs in company practice. This study compares four different programs – PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses, HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program – and studies the programs’ differences while addressing the questions of how and to what extent these programs develop global leaders who (will) make a difference. The analysis of the four programs showed the beneficial outcomes of International Service Learning Programs for individual participants, for their organizations, and for broader communities. The findings of this study have far-reaching implications for the issues concerning people management, and for the leadership and career development of the participants. It is also expected that these programs will strengthen the ties between employees (participants of these programs), their company, and society.
The fourth manuscript (Chapter 5) is a qualitative study and its biggest contribution is that it is the first one that compares International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations from three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services) and provides a typology for program classification (leadership development, organization development or community development). The data was gathered through desk research, interviews
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with program representatives, and a structured questionnaire containing closed and open-ended questions. The study identifies characteristics and similarities among programs, discusses differences, and offers criteria for program classification and areas for future research. As such, it is an important starting point for quantitative studies as well as for the evaluation of different service learning approaches. The results showed that, regardless of the stated aims (which usually stress value for the participants, the company, and the communities), most studied programs had one clear focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development) while two showed closely linked foci (with a slightly greater emphasis on organization development than on the other areas). The findings show that the type of International Service Learning Program used has an effect on the learning outcomes. Since companies are still testing usefulness and outcomes of these programs, academic research that provides comparative quantitative data on the outcomes of such programs is of great value for business practice.
The closing chapter summarizes the major findings and their contribution to the theory and practice, discusses the challenges and limitations, suggests areas for future research, and concludes the dissertation as a whole. 1.4. Overall Conclusion
As a whole, this cumulative dissertation suggests that responsible leadership is a multilevel theory that connects individual, organizational, and institutional factors. Despite being relatively new, this theory has great potential for leadership and management research and practice because it responds better than any other existing leadership theory to the challenges the leaders of today’s world are facing (e.g., interconnectedness and globalization, poverty, exclusion of minorities, environmental degradation, human rights violation, wars, and pandemic diseases). Responsible leaders strive to build and maintain trustful, sustainable, and inclusive relationships within a diverse stakeholder network. They address complex dilemmas and the multifaceted demands of various stakeholders’ groups based on ethical and moral decision-making; they aim to achieve mutually beneficial solutions leading toward the creation of social value or desirable social change (Maak & Pless, 2006b). By means of putting the relational capabilities into practice, responsible leaders reconcile differences and bridge the gaps between people – the citizens of this planet – who can then identify with the resulting shared and morally sound vision and, working together, achieve higher aims.
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Consequently, the question of how to develop responsible leaders gains paramount importance. This dissertation has shown, through the study of several International Service Learning Programs, that these smart executive development programs do possess the potential to develop responsible leadership qualities in their participants. Also, they simultaneously benefit all parties, that is, the participating employees, the organizations sending the participants, and the communities where the assignments take place. International Service Learning Programs can help develop solution approaches for social issues at the local and global level; they can help organizations develop business innovations and novel approaches to customers in new markets; they can help managers and leaders develop mindsets and skills for successfully and responsibly managing businesses in a global stakeholder environment. Thus, once equipped with a smart, learning-transfer-oriented design and clear learning objectives, International Service Learning Programs are not only highly effective in developing the next generation of responsible global leaders but are also a means to advance business goals and to address critical global issues.
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1.5. References
Bass, B. M., & Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, Character, and Authentic Transformational Leadership Behavior, The Leadership Quarterly, 10, 181–217.
Cameron, K. (2011). Responsible Leadership as Virtuous Leadership, Journal of Business Ethics, 98, 25–35.
Ciulla, J. (Ed.). (1998). Ethics, the Heart of Leadership. Westport, CT, London: Praeger.
Doh, J. P., & Stumpf, S. A. (Eds.) (2005). Handbook on Responsible Leadership And Governance in Global Business. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Ketola, T. (2010). Responsible leadership: Building blocks of individual, organizational and societal behavior, Corporate Social Responsibility & Environmental Management, 17(3), 173–184.
Ketola, T. (2012). Losing your self: managerial persona and shadow pressures killing responsible leadership, Journal of Management Development, 31(5), 470–487.
Maak, T. (2007). Responsible Leadership, Stakeholder Engagement, and the Emergence of Social Capital, Journal of Business Ethics, 74(4), 329–343.
Maak T., & Pless, N. M. (2006a). Responsible leadership: a relational approach. In Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. (Eds.), Responsible Leadership (pp. 33–53). London, New York: Routledge.
Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. (2006b), Responsible Leadership in a Stakeholder Society – A Relational Perspective, Journal of Business Ethics, 66(1), 99–115.
Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. (2009). Business Leaders as Citizens of the World. Advancing Humanism on a Global Scale, Journal of Business Ethics, 88(3), 537–550.
Mària, J., & Lozano, J. (2010). Responsible Leaders for Inclusive Globalization: Cases in Nicaragua and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Journal of Business Ethics, 93(1), 93–111.
Morgeson, F. P., Aguinis, H., Waldman, D. A., & Siegel, D. (Eds.). (2010). Special Issue Call for Papers: Corporate Social Responsibility and Human Resource
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Management/Organizational Behavior, Journal of Personnel Psychology – the Study of People at Work (copy provided by the authors).
MyersLipton, S. J. (1996). Effect of service-learning on college students' attitudes toward international understanding, Journal of College Student Development, 37(6), 659–668.
Parfitt, D. B. (2005). International service-learning as a model for developing scientific literacy, community engagement, and collaborative research opportunities, Faseb Journal, 19(5), 1341–1359.
Pless, N. M. (2007). Understanding Responsible Leadership: Role Identity and Motivational Drivers, Journal of Business Ethics, 74(4), 437–456.
Pless, N. M., & Maak, T. (2008). Responsible Leaders as Agents of World Benefit: Learnings from “Project Ulysses”, Journal of Business Ethics, 85(1), 59–71.
Pless, N. M., Maak, T., & Stahl, G. K. (2011). Developing Responsible Global Leaders Through International Service-Learning Programs: The Ulysses Experience, Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(2), 237–260.
Sakakibara, M., & Porter, M. E. (2001). Competing at Home to Win Abroad: Evidence from Japanese Industry, The Review of Economics and Statistics, 83(2), 310–322.
Schneider, M. (2002). A stakeholder model of organizational leadership, Organization Science, 13(2), 209–220.
Voegtlin, C., Patzer, M., & Scherer, A. (2012). Responsible Leadership in Global Business: A New Approach to Leadership and Its Multi-Level Outcomes, Journal of Business Ethics, 105(1), 1–16.
Wade, M. (2006). Developing Leaders for Sustainable Business. In Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. (Eds.), Responsible Leadership. London, New York: Routledge.
Waldman, D. A. (2011). Moving Forward with the Concept of Responsible Leadership: Three Caveats to Guide Theory and Research, Journal of Business Ethics, 98, 75–83.
Waldman, D. A., & Galvin, B. M. (2008). Alternative Perspectives of Responsible Leadership, Organizational Dynamics, 37(4), 327–341.
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Yunus, M., Moingeon, B., & Lehmann-Ortega, L. (2010). Building Social Business Models: Lessons from the Grameen experience, Long Range Planning, 43(2/3), 308–235.
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Chapter 2
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
Markéta Borecká
Current status (July 2014): Unsubmitted
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2. What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’sChallenges in a Stakeholder Society
Abstract
Responsible leadership as defined by Maak and Pless is a social-relational and ethical phenomenon which occurs in the social processes of interaction and its aim is to build and sustain trustful and lasting relationships with all stakeholders within an organization and outside its borders. This article provides a review of the area of research on responsible leadership; shapes this concept against other dominant and related leadership streams (such as stakeholder leadership, relational leadership, ethical leadership, transformational leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, spiritual leadership, etc.); provides a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership summarizing and synthesizing the antecedents, components, and outcome variables of responsible leadership as a social phenomenon; and offers areas for further research. The findings show that responsible leadership is a multilevel theory that connects individual, organizational, and institutional factors and has the potential to provide vital solutions to the challenges of today’s stakeholder society benefitting individuals, organizations, and societies.
Keywords
Responsible leadership, leadership theories and responsibility, corporate social responsibility, stakeholders, model of responsible leadership, review, overview
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2.1. Introduction The role of leaders in today’s turbulent environment is crucial. Depending on
their values (both personal and corporate), intentions, visions, strategies, objectives, hidden drives and motives, education, expertise, experience, and other internal and external influencing factors, leaders – some of whom are members of top management teams or executive boards of important multinational corporations – have the power to cause either significant improvement or degradation of the world around them. For the positive effect of exercised power to prevail, leaders are needed who are willing to take responsibility and accountability for their actions (George, 2003). “Given the power, potential, and abilities of business leaders to make this world a better place, the least we can expect from business leaders is that they recognize their co-responsibility for addressing some of the world’s most pressing problems” (Maak & Pless, 2009, p. 539). Indeed, corporations and their leaders are required to take a more active role as citizens in society by constructively addressing the world’s burning issues, such as poverty, environmental degradation, human rights protection and pandemic diseases (Maak & Pless, 2006b; Maak, 2008; Puffer & McCarthy, 2008; Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Delios, 2010).
There are leaders or owners of businesses whose companies are exemplary in contributing to desirable social change or in extraordinary leadership behavior, for example, Anita Roddick and her company The Body Shop (Pless, 2007), Yvon Chouinard’s company Patagonia, and Ray Anderson’s Interface. Additionally, Tex Gunning, the president of Unilever Bestfoods Asia, and James E. Burke, the CEO of Johnson & Johnson from 1976 to 1989, or Aaron Feuerstein’s Malden Mills’ example (Vogel, 2005; Maak, 2010). Other examples of “companies with a conscience” are Seventh Generation, Domini, Esprit, Celestial Seasonings, Stonyfield Farm, Tom’s of Maine, Ben and Jerry’s, Starbucks Corporation, and Danone.
There are, however, various examples of leadership failures in connection with frauds, accounting scandals, ethical misconducts and the like which have resulted in the overall mistrust of CEOs and in the public’s disillusionment with top executives, e.g., Dennis Kozlowski, the CEO of TYCO, Kenneth Lee Lay, the CEO of ENRON, and Bernard Lawrence (“Bernie”) Madoff, the admitted operator of what has been described as the largest Ponzi scheme in history (Maak, 2010). Other examples include Worldcom and Martha Stewart (Cooper, Scandura & Schriesheim, 2005). In response to repeated and spectacular lapses in ethical judgment by highly visible leaders, the public demands greater responsibility and accountability of
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organizational leaders (Dealy & Thomas, 2006). Society is demanding that leaders lead in a way that is responsible toward the environment, society, the business organization, and a variety of stakeholders.
In a world which is interconnected and globalized, leadership takes place “in interaction with a multitude of stakeholders – locally and globally, inside and outside the corporation” (Maak & Pless, 2006b, p. 101). The multiple stakeholder groups hold businesses and their leaders accountable for their actions or the lack of action (Maak & Pless, 2009). Leaders face the challenge of how to provide shareholders with wider societal value and increased accountability, whilst demonstrating that these goals are not mutually exclusive but complementary (Karp, 2003).
The challenges of the 21st century and the new demands on organizations, their management boards, and individual leaders have combined to call for a leadership theory that would clearly translate into leadership practice and help consistently address these challenges. Researchers have tried to approach some of these challenges from the angles of different theories (e.g., new-institutional theory, resource based view of the firm, dynamic-capabilities view of the firm, behavioral theory, contingency perspective, etc.). In addition, various contemporary theories of leadership focusing on followers and on ethical behavior (e.g., transformational leadership, stakeholder leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, ethical leadership, steward leadership, etc.) have tried to offer a solution to these challenges (Van Dierendonck, 2011). Yet, the offered solutions are limited in a certain way: some of these theories adopt a narrow view of stakeholders inside organizations and see the leader-follower relationship as a traditional dyad; other theories stress ethical behavior with the instrumental purpose of increasing performance; other ones involve leadership service beyond self sacrifice, and so on.
Responsible leadership, as defined by Maak and Pless (2006b, p. 99) is “a social-relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction” and its aim is to build and sustain trustful and lasting relationships to all stakeholders within an organization and outside its borders. It represents an approach arising directly from the objective factors and changes typical of today’s world and it is a recent leadership theory slowly gaining ground. The lens of responsible leadership seems to provide valuable inputs into the debate and offer interesting solutions fitting the contemporary challenges that have not been tackled by other leadership theories or approaches in such a complexity. As Pless and Maak (2011, p. 4) put it, “responsible leadership responds to both existing gaps in leadership theory and the practical challenges facing leadership.” This means, in this
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approach, the meaning of responsibility is broadened to include accountability, trust, and moral decision-making while being embedded in clusters of relations. It also means responsibility is applied into leadership practice focusing on who are the “others” toward whom leaders should be responsible and whose concerns should be addressed.
The aim of this paper is to review and synthesize the existing literature about responsible leadership in order to map the state of the art of this leadership theory. A profound literature survey on the topic of responsible leadership has been missing among academic contributions so far and, given the topicality of this leadership theory, it is highly necessary that today’s state of the theory is consolidated and that it is shown how the underlying concepts of social responsibility and leadership can be connected together (Waldman, 2011).
The article proceeds in the following way: first, the construct of responsible leadership is defined. Second, responsible leadership is compared and contrasted with eleven other dominant and related leadership streams. Third, an overview of the state of the art of the responsible leadership research is provided, and summarizes and analyzes (on the basis of pre-defined categories) what has been written so far about this topic. Fourth, the results of the literature survey are discussed and research questions are identified to be addressed in future research. Finally, a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership is presented and the topic concluded.
2.2. Defining Responsible Leadership In their paper “Responsible Leadership in a Stakeholder Society – A Relational
Perspective,” Maak and Pless (2006b) define responsible leadership (hereinafter RL) as “a social-relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction” (p. 99) “with those who affect or are affected by leadership” (p. 103). Its aim is to build and sustain good, trustful and sustainable relationships with all relevant stakeholders within an organization and outside its borders. Unlike the prevailing leadership literature which has usually focused on the relationship between leaders and followers in the organization and has defined followers as subordinates, Maak and Pless (2006b) show that leadership in a global and interconnected world takes place in interaction with a multitude of followers as stakeholders, locally and globally, inside and outside the corporation, and that key stakeholders include employees, clients and customers, shareholders, business partners, suppliers, peers, family, community, social and natural environment, and so
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on. As Maak and Pless (2006b, p. 112) put it, responsible leaders “are weavers who bring together different people to follow a shared and morally sound vision,” for which they need moral character and relational qualities. By building and cultivating sustainable relationships with internal and external stakeholders, responsible leaders “achieve mutually shared objectives based on a vision of business as a force of good for the many, and not just a few (shareholders, managers)” (Maak, 2007, p. 331). Therefore, responsible (global) leaders are those who “lead with head, hand, and heart; who have a responsible mindset, care for the needs of others, and act as global and responsible citizens” (Pless & Maak, 2008, p. 61). From the analysis of motivational drivers of a responsible leader conducted by Pless (2007), “[r]esponsible leadership can be understood as the art of building and sustaining social and moral relationships between business leaders and different stakeholders (followers), based on a sense of justice, a sense of recognition, a sense of care and a sense of accountability for a wide range of economic, ecological, social, political and human responsibilities” (p. 451). “This can imply the creation of social value and the support of desirable social change (e.g., poverty alleviation, equal opportunity, etc.) at the local level” (Pless & Maak, 2008, p. 61).
The choice of words with a normative undertone such as “ethical phenomenon,” “moral character,” and “morally sound vision” shows the visible shift from the descriptive and instrumental perspective to the normative one focusing on the ethical and quality issues of relationships and interactions of leaders and stakeholders, not necessarily based on subordination but more so on partnership (Maak & Pless, 2006b). The authors use an ethical lens and apply a relational and stakeholder perspective to answer the questions concerning the basis of responsible leadership and the qualities it requires and thereby follow Bass and Steidelmeier’s suggestion to discuss “leadership in the context of contemporary stakeholder theory” (1999, p. 200). Additionally, the different roles of a responsible leader gain importance together with the moral undertone of his or her intentions and means chosen to reach the desirable objectives and company’s aims. The complexity of roles a responsible leader undertakes, usually simultaneously, includes the roles of steward, citizen, visionary, servant, coach, architect, and a storyteller and meaning enabler (Maak & Pless, 2006b).
RL draws from stakeholder theory stressing the accountability of leaders to all different kinds of stakeholders who are interconnected in networks of relations but who do not necessarily have the same norms and values. Leadership literature has studied the various approaches within leadership behavior theories. Some of
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these theories have the same normative basis as RL, such as servant leadership or authentic leadership; others emphasize the elevating element that is created in the interaction in the course of the leadership process, for example, transformational leadership or relational leadership. The objective of the following passages is to compare and contrast RL with other dominant and related leadership streams and thus provide important insights about the concept of RL within the broader field of leadership before we dive into a more in-depth discussion of RL on the basis of a profound literature survey.
2.3. Responsible Leadership vs. Related Theories It has been pointed out earlier that RL is an inherently normative approach to
leadership. In order to study it more profoundly, the focus will be now on other related theories of leadership and constructs, especially those that focus on the ethical and quality issues of relationships and which are values-centered. In the following passages we will compare and contrast RL with stakeholder leadership, ethical leadership, servant leadership, authentic leadership, transformational leadership, charismatic leadership, spiritual leadership, virtuous leadership, steward leadership, relational leadership, and shared leadership.
2.3.1. Stakeholder Leadership The discussion around stakeholder theory started in the 1990s when
a business evolved from being understood as an organization whose sole aim was financial profit to an organization that, in addition to the private interests of its shareholders, was expected to fulfill the social requirements of everyone else involved in and with the organization, that is, its stakeholders (Galan, 2006; Maak & Pless, 2006a). In stakeholder theory, the “firm” is a series of groups with different respective relationships to it (Schneider, 2002). The “stakeholders” are all those who affect or are affected by corporate policies and practices and who are in contact with a company and help it achieve its aims (Schneider, 2002). They include internal organizational members (e.g., employees, managers, and board members) and external parties (e.g., clients, owners, shareholders, suppliers, competitors, NGOs, communities, government, nature, future generations) (Schneider, 2002; Maak, 2007).
The understanding of stakeholders has changed over decades from instrumental, theoretical constructs (such as agency theory, transaction cost, and contract theory) to incorporate the ethical viewpoint for justifying stakeholder
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relations (Freeman, 1984). Stakeholders are no longer understood as being a means to corporate ends, but rather as being ends in themselves (Maak & Pless, 2006b). In addition, the normative angle has extended the descriptive perspective and attention is now being paid to the structure and quality of relationships and interactions, as well as the values which rule the broader context (Maak & Pless, 2006b).
Schneider (2002) tried to develop a theory of stakeholder leadership and, in doing so, stressed both the context of organizations and the profound changes in these organizations. She points out the organizational changes and describes them as the movement from bureaucracy (the organizational form of the industrial age) toward a new organizational form called “the radix” (p. 209). This corresponds to the paradigm shift from the top-down approach toward the relational view or multidirectional influence (Uhl-Bien, 2006; Rost, 1995). The radix organization stresses the need to “meet the challenges of fluctuating vertical, lateral, and external demands” (Schneider, 2002, p. 209). The challenge for leaders is to encourage interactions and networks using positive emotion (rather than formal authority), “for in the radix organization stakeholders tend to join, not follow, the leader” (Schneider, 2002, p. 218). Schneider (2002) proposed a stakeholder model of organizational leadership (a non-hierarchical conceptualization of leadership) and showed that stakeholder theory provides the appropriate theoretical basis for this model, as it offers the flexibility to accommodate various leader intra- and inter-organizational relationships.
The similarity with RL is that nowadays leaders have to deal with the needs and claims of a multitude of stakeholders, weave a complex web of sustainable relationships, navigate in that web, and invite stakeholders to a dialog with the aim of creating consensus and trust (Maak, 2007). Maak (2007) mentions the difficulties companies face when trying to evaluate and balance the various and usually conflicting claims of multiple stakeholders. There have been calls for proactively engaging stakeholders in dialogue, for diversity inclusion, for engagement through a legitimating discourse (Habermas, 1981, 1991; Apel, 1988; Mària & Lozano, 2010; Voegtlin, 2011), and for ethically sound decision-making (Maak, 2007). The issues concerning stakeholders are closely related to RL and it seems that RL is an effective perspective linking leadership to stakeholder theory. Yet, while Schneider’s (2002) stakeholder model of organizational leadership helps to predict leader effectiveness, RL encompasses under the header of performance also responsibility, accountability, legitimacy, and trust (Pless & Maak, 2011).
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2.3.2. Ethical Leadership Brown and Treviño (2006) define ethical leadership as “the demonstration of
normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” (Brown et al., 2005, p. 120). The authors have shown that ethical leadership overlaps with, yet is distinct from, other theories of leadership, for example, transformational, authentic, and spiritual leadership. All of these types of leadership are altruistically motivated (showing care and concern for people) and are exercised by leaders of integrity and virtuous behavior; they are ethical decision-makers and role-models whose visions and values are followed. Ethical leadership is the only type, however, which focuses on leaders’ proactive influence on the ethical/unethical behavior of followers in an organizational context (communicating ethical standards and insisting on accountability in the workplace). This more “transactional” aspect of ethical leadership is a key differentiator between ethical leadership and RL. RL also surpasses the traditional dyadic leader-subordinate ethical perspective by focusing more on quality and valuable leader-stakeholder relationships (Pless & Maak, 2011).
Ethical leadership focuses more on micro-level outcomes, such as leader effectiveness, employee job satisfaction, and dedication. On the other hand, RL goes beyond by stressing outcomes on multiple levels (e.g., mobilizing followers inside and outside the organization to engage in RL practices and seek social change and sustainable solutions). All in all, ethical leadership focuses on guidance by leaders in organizations and on the ways of using this guidance with the aim of improving leader effectiveness. This is different from RL, which does not seek leader effectiveness in the first place, but rather focuses on building and maintaining relations within leader-stakeholder projects without using these as means to enhanced leader effectiveness (Pless & Maak, 2011).
2.3.3. Servant Leadership Servant leadership represents an example of a normative theory of leadership
coined by Greenleaf in 1970. It is an individual-level phenomenon that resulted from the current demand for more ethical and people-centered management. Servant leaders, above all, want to serve others and elevate people (Greenleaf, 1977/2002; Ciulla, 2006). Servant leadership is a leadership theory emphasizing the personal growth of followers; it rests on moral principles, and can be described as incorporating the component of social responsibility to transformational leadership
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(Van Dierendonck, 2011; Graham, 1991). “Servant-leaders empower and develop people; they show humility, are authentic, accept people for who they are, provide direction, and are stewards who work for the good of the whole” (Van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1232). Servant leadership is likely to encourage self-actualization, positive job attitudes, high performance, and a stronger organizational focus on sustainability and CSR (Van Dierendonck, 2011). Servant leadership is other-directed; it is in opposition with traditional top-down, individualized, self-centered forms of leadership when the interests of the constituencies are put behind the interests of the leader (Pless & Maak, 2011). Also, servant leadership should be mutually elevating for leaders and followers (Burns, 1978) during their pursuit of mutually desirable goals.
For all these reasons (i.e., paying attention to stakeholders, for ethical and caring leadership) servant leadership represents a theory highly relevant for organizations. Similar to RL, it puts followers or stakeholders into the center of attention while the leader’s task is to serve their needs and legitimate interests (Greenleaf, 1977/2002). However, a service orientation in RL is tempered in nature and not “self-sacrificial” (Sendjaya, Sarros & Samtora, 2008, p. 405). RL sees the service for stakeholders through the lens of mutually desirable social purpose, sometimes connected with organizational purpose, sometimes reaching beyond business toward broader society, including positive outcomes such as sustainable value creation and social improvement (Pless & Maak, 2011). As Pless and Maak (2011, p. 7) put it, “the central motivation is not serving others, but rather responding to others’ interests and needs, including those of outside stakeholders and society at large.” Also, servant leadership recognizes stakeholders as followers in the workplace, while RL recognizes stakeholders inside and outside of an organization. Servant leadership usually stems from spirituality or an inner calling, while RL is not limited in its basis: it can reflect spiritual, humanistic, moral, or any other values rooted in religion, family, tradition, education, and so on. Or, it can stem simply from the recognition that acting with responsibility is the right thing to do (Pless & Maak, 2011).
2.3.4. Authentic Leadership Organizational stakeholders appear to be much less tolerant of inconsistencies
concerning leaders’ proclaimed principles, values, and conduct while expecting that leaders operate at higher levels of integrity (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing & Peterson, 2008). The recently increased attention placed on authenticity and
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authentic leadership is said to be due to several leadership scandals. Authentic leadership theory lies at the intersection of the leadership, ethics, and positive organizational behavior and scholarship literatures (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans & May, 2004; Cameron, Dutton & Quinn, 2003; Cooper & Nelson, 2006; Luthans, 2002; Luthans & Avolio, 2003). Authentic leadership does not mean just being true to oneself (Cameron et al., 2003). Avolio and Gardner (2005), May et al. (2003) and Luthans and Avolio (2003) argue that authentic leadership can be characterized by positive moral perspective with high ethical standards that guide decision-making and behavior. According to George (2003), authentic leaders are people of the highest integrity with a deep sense of purpose, who are true to their core values, committed to building enduring organizations which meet the needs of all stakeholders, and who recognize the importance of their service to society. Ethical qualities (e.g., moral capacity, courage and transparency) are seen as positive psychological resources (Pless & Maak, 2011).
Authentic leadership is a multilevel construct: it includes components from individual, group and organizational levels (Pless & Maak, 2011). George (2003) stresses two levels of authentic leadership: the first level is the personal level including the topic of becoming an authentic leader and encouraging authenticity in followers (the internal and external stakeholders) through an increased self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspective, and so on (Van Dierendonck, 2011). The second level is the level of the organization, its context, vision, mission, and objectives, which the authentic leader, through his or her leadership style and tools, tries to achieve (George, 2003). The integrity of authentic leaders helps to sustain organizational results through good times and bad. Also Walumbwa et al. (2008) showed that leader authenticity enhances individual followers’ trust in the leader and consequently results in job satisfaction, job performance, and thus in leadership effectiveness.
RL overlaps partially with authentic leadership as RL also stresses the importance of self-awareness and self-regulation, which align values with intentions and actions (Pless & Maak, 2005), but RL emphasizes more the active role of leaders in developing a sense of others’ emotions and values/norms, reflecting on their adequacy, and assessing them according to what is standard in the situation or context in question (Pless & Maak, 2011). Furthermore, for RL, ethical qualities are more than positive psychological resources as they are in authentic leadership. For RL, ethical qualities (moral awareness, ethical reflection, an ability to employ moral
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imagination to reconcile dilemmas (Werhane, 1999), and moral deliberation and decision-making skills) are all important structural elements.
Authentic leadership and RL are concerned with the organizational impact of leadership: authentic leadership has positive organizational impact by helping employees find meaning at work, by contributing to sustained performance and growth through long-term value creation for shareholders (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). RL also strives for positive organizational outcomes, yet these are not necessarily the traditional economic outcome variables. RL differs in proposing that leadership should result in positive social change through its contribution to value and social capital by stakeholders in business and society (Maak, 2007; Pless & Maak, 2011).
2.3.5. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership became a dominant paradigm in the 1960s. It
stresses the relationship between the leader and the follower in which the leader asks followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group (the company) and stresses the long-term needs to develop themselves (e.g., Burns, 1978; Bass, 1985; Van Dierendonck, 2011). Transformational leadership is an individual-level phenomenon (Van Dierendonck, 2011). In this approach, followers are turned into leaders, and leaders become moral agents. Transformational leadership focuses on end-values, e.g., equality, liberty, and justice (Ciulla, 2006), to accomplish organizational goals (Stone et al., 2004; Yukl, 2002) and thus enhance followers’ performance. Transformational leadership centers on the transformational feature and combines with other elements, e.g., leader’s vision, charisma, self-confidence, and the need for and use of power. There is, however, the issue of the charismatic side of transformational leadership, the possibility of narcissism and the strictly organizational objectives to which the followers should grow (Parolini, Patterson & Winston, 2009).
RL also uses intellectual stimulation, transformational notions of vision, inspiration, and individualized consideration (Pless & Maak, 2011); yet, it is different from transformational leadership in several aspects. RL defines and considers followers more broadly as stakeholders inside and outside the organization. RL does not influence stakeholders for the instrumental purposes of improving performance or reaching organizational objectives, but it seeks to mobilize them to reach objectives of a higher social purpose (at organizational and societal levels). This is something that Maak and Pless (2006a) and Waldman and Galvin (2008) call the shift from a shareholder mindset to a stakeholder orientation
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(Pless & Maak, 2011). RL is not focused predominately on the individual characteristics (e.g., the transformative and charismatic leader or defining the “great man”), it is rather concerned with coordinating and cultivating relationships, inclusion, collaboration, and cooperation with different groups of stakeholders and building upon the relational leadership approach (Uhl-Bien, 2006). Unlike transformational leadership, which comprises examples of inauthentic transformational leaders depending on their potentially unethical behaviour, RL is an inherently ethical phenomenon (Pless & Maak, 2011). Responsible leaders have character, are ethically literate, make moral and principled decisions, and consider their impact on others. Both transformational leadership and RL use change and transformation, yet, in the case of RL, always as a means to achieve a greater social goal (Pless & Maak, 2011).
2.3.6. Charismatic Leadership Kanungo (2001) and Mendonca (2001) argue that charismatic leadership,
a concept similar and often likened to transformational leadership, is rooted in strong ethical values. It is due to the fact that charismatic leaders are likely to be guided by morally altruistic principles that “reflect a helping concern for others even at considerable personal sacrifice or inconvenience” (Mendonca, 2001, p. 268). Therefore, their visions are just and in sync with the demands of various stakeholders, not just shareholders. Furthermore, their fortitude gives charismatic leaders the courage to face risks and work at overcoming obstacles in the pursuit of goals (Mendonca, 2001).
The charismatic leader has impact on followers by means of emphasizing his or her persona and gifts. The followers believe in the leader because of his or her charisma, which is the key dynamic influence the leader has over the followers. The process is not mutually influential or reciprocal, as in transformational leadership, but rather one-sided. The charismatic leader’s persona has been described in organizational leadership literature as possibly including elements of distance from followers, of achieving hero status, and possibly of narcissistic personality tendencies. There can be a potentially and possibly inappropriately paternalistic and destructive self-power of the charismatic leader which can have negative consequences in the life of the follower (Bryman, 1992). Therefore, there is a risk, as noted by previous authors (e.g., Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Howell & Avolio, 1992), that not all leaders with charismatic appeal will have strong moral values; some of them may have motives leaning more toward personal power and self-
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aggrandizement (Pearce, Waldman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006). This is the main difference between charismatic leadership and RL, as RL is an inherently ethical phenomenon (Pless & Maak, 2011). Further differences between RL and charismatic leadership are similar with the differences of RL and transformational leadership already described.
2.3.7. Spiritual Leadership Fry (2005) defines spiritual leadership as “the values, attitudes, and behaviors
that are necessary to intrinsically motivate self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival (Fleischman, 1994; Maddock & Fulton, 1998) through calling and membership” (p. 17). Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) refer to workplace spirituality and show it as “a framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’ experience of transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense of being connected to others in a way that provides feelings of completeness and joy” (p. 13). Dent, Higgins and Wharff (2005) summarize that workplace spirituality researchers tend to assume that the concept is an individual one, a collective one, or assume the phenomenon has both facets. Spiritual leadership is described as relating to constructs such as emotional intelligence, ethics, and values, and to leadership models such as charismatic, stewardship, transformational, and servant (Biberman, Whitty & Robbins, 1999; Cacioppe, 2000; Tischler, Biberman & McKeage, 2002). Spiritual leaders are thought to be motivated by service to God or humanity and they view their leadership work as a “calling.” When leaders and their organizations operate from a spiritual-based perspective, they naturally behave responsibly on behalf of themselves, their communities, society, the environment, and all of creation, i.e., they consider followers in the broad sense.
According to Fry (2003) spiritual leadership adds components to the existing leadership literature that have been explicitly missing: a sense of calling on the part of leaders and followers, the creation of organizational cultures characterized by altruistic love whereby leaders and followers express genuine care, concern, and appreciation for both self and others (Avolio, Walumbwa & Weber, 2009). Pruzan and Miller (2006) claim that spirituality, however individual leaders define and understand it, can provide a powerful foundation for individual and organizational identity, responsibility and success.
Spiritual leaders transform organizations from merely mission-driven activities into places where individual and collective spirituality are encouraged and
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
31
spiritual development is integrated into the day-to-day work life (Konz & Ryan, 1999). Among outcomes of spirituality, authors have claimed results of enhanced organizational learning (Bierly, Kessler & Christensen, 2000), unified and built communities (Cavanaugh, Hanson, Hanson & Hinojoso, 2001), connecting to others at work, and to work itself (Khanna & Srinivas, 2000), and a healing and harmonizing expression of compassion, wisdom, and connectedness (Dent et al., 2005). Organizations driven by spiritual leaders, who are more willing to use their personal spiritual values to make business decisions and transform organizations and who instill values that become the standard against which all organizational activities are measured, are believed to be more profitable and perform very well (e.g., Biberman & Whitty, 1997; Biberman et al., 1999; Cacioppe, 2000; Dehler & Welsh, 1994; Konz & Ryan, 1999; Mitroff & Denton, 1999; Sass, 2000).
There are several problematic issues connected with spiritual leadership, for example, the fact that it is difficult to describe because it is highly individual and intensely personal as well as inclusive and universal (Howard, 2002). Some authors note that spirituality, by definition, is anti-materialist and, therefore, they question whether increased workplace spirituality leads (or should lead) to increased productivity or profitability (Dent et al., 2005). Another controversial issue is the moral conduct of spiritual leaders: some of them can act immorally despite their claims to be true to their higher selves. They can maintain the belief that they are somehow above the moral requirements that apply to the rest of the world and rationalize engaging in prohibited behaviors. There is a danger of potential pseudo-leaders or false prophets presenting themselves as spiritual leaders who might misuse their followers (Dent et al., 2005).
RL shares with spiritual leadership the relatedness to constructs such as emotional intelligence, ethics and values, and the responsible behavior on behalf of oneself, the communities, society, and the environment. However, RL does not intend to develop followers spiritually and promote their experience of transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense of being connected to others in a way that provides feelings of completeness and joy (which are quite abstract feelings), but RL rather focuses on more down-to-earth activities of building and cultivating sustainable relationships inside and outside the organization with the intention of creating benefit for all parties involved (Maak, 2007). Since responsible leaders have moral character and relational qualities (Maak & Pless, 2006b) and since RL is an ethical phenomenon, it does not involve the danger of would-be
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
32
prophets possibly feeling superior, justifying their pseudo-moral intentions and misusing their followers.
2.3.8. Virtuous Leadership Pearce, Waldman and Csikszentmihalyi (2006) define virtuous leadership as
“distinguishing right from wrong in one’s leadership role, taking steps to ensure justice and honesty, influencing and enabling others to pursue righteous and moral goals for themselves and their organizations and helping others to connect to a higher purpose” (p. 62). Havard (2007) adds that virtuous leadership defines each of the classical human virtues important for leadership: magnanimity, humility, prudence, courage, self-control, and justice. According to Cameron (2011), virtuousness is based on eudaemonism (the assumption that an inclination toward moral goodness exists in all human beings); on inherent value (the assumption that virtuousness represents “goods of first intent”); and on amplification (the assumption that observing virtuousness creates a self-reinforcing cycle toward more virtuousness).
Virtuous leadership facilitates learning within organizations and it can help establish conditions of trust (Pearce et al., 2006). According to Cameron (2011), virtuous leadership provides a fixed point for coping with change (i.e., it helps identify a universally accepted standard for what leaders can consider best or good for individuals and their organizations); and it also provides benefits for constituencies who may never be affected otherwise (i.e., by focusing on virtuous outcomes, desirable ends can be reached, e.g., organizational commitment or organizational performance outcomes, which can provide advantages for all constituencies rather than benefiting some at the expense of others).
Similarly to RL, virtuous leaders, due to their broad-ranging values of morality and justice, attempt to balance the interests of all stakeholders (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Waldman, Siegel & Javidan, 2006). However, in the case of RL, the objective is to create social value and desirable change that advances the situation for all parties involved, while in the case of virtuous leadership, the objective is to enhance the welfare of the firm and leverage its learning potential (Pearce et al., 2006).
2.3.9. Steward Leadership Stewardship theory has its roots in psychology and sociology and examines
situations in which leaders, as stewards, are motivated to act in the best interests of
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
33
their principals (Donaldson & Davis, 1989, 1991). When a steward has a choice between self-serving behavior and pro-organizational behavior, he or she will not depart from the interests of his or her organization. Stewards believe their interests are aligned with that of the corporation and its owners and their interests and utility motivations are directed to organizational rather than personal objectives (Davis, Schoorman & Donaldson, 1997).
In the past, if there were heterogeneous groups of stakeholders and competing shareholder objectives, the steward was motivated to make decisions that he or she perceived were in the best interests of the group (which was mostly manifested by increased organizational wealth through improved performance). Recently, steward leadership has begun to be seen from a broader perspective as a new, humane and sustainable vision for the role of business and as a form of leadership that focuses on others, the community, and society at large rather than the self (April, Kukard & Peters, 2013). The stewardship model casts business in the role of being a responsible steward contributing to the well-being of customers, employees and the community; acting with positive ethics; and partnering with other social institutions for the common good. The moral position of ethical stewardship is that organizational leaders have the obligation to pursue long-term wealth creation by implementing systems that strengthen the organizational commitment of each stakeholder (Caldwell & Karri, 2005).
A steward leader cares for those with whom he or she works. A steward leader realizes that he or she is accountable to someone else to not only care for, but also maximize the potential of, the resources in their purview – all this on a long-term basis (Hernandez, 2012). This requires an active role both in working toward a mission of the organization, but also in particular when it comes to developing people so that they thrive as individuals in pursuit of a team goal. The role of a steward leader is to exemplify a standard and then encourage and coach others toward personal growth unique to them and to also model that standard to others. Some of the features of steward leaders include trustworthiness, humility, integrity, courage, honesty, transparency, and the ability to listen and admit one’s mistakes (Vincent & Krivickas, 2012).
RL shares the approach of the long-term view, but steward leadership is broader and focuses on the leaders’ dealings with the resources of which they are custodians with the objective of maximizing the profit of the majority and adopting this point of view also for individual profit (the question arises of ethics and morality). In comparison, RL focuses more on the human element of building and
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
34
maintaining trustful relationships and is geared toward benefitting all involved. While steward leadership used to focus more on the organizational objectives (as pointed out, recently also striving to contribute to the well-being of entities outside of the organization), RL has always been inclusive of broader groups of stakeholders and has tried to find a consensus solution acceptable for all of them.
2.3.10. Relational Leadership Researchers in leadership have studied closely the relationships between
leaders and followers and the concept of authority or power. Arguably, the point of view on these constructs has changed radically from the unequal, imbalanced hierarchical relationship of obedience toward much more inclusive and partner-like ones, in which followers have their rights and responsibilities, for example, the right to contribute to leadership development (Kellerman, 2008). Such shifts are also in line with the change of the whole paradigm from the hierarchical bureaucratic organizational structures to more fluid or “radix” ones, as described by Schneider (2002) earlier.
Uhl-Bien (2006) shifts the meaning of “relational” even more when she speaks about relational leadership. She describes the shift from the top-down approach, or the behavioral styles that are relationship-oriented (i.e., focused on support, trust and high-quality work relationships) to relational view of leadership. Relational leadership identifies individuals through their connections and interpersonal relationships to other entities, and it describes leadership as a process of social construction, the certain meaning of which results from a shared understanding and relational dialogue. Uhl-Bien (2006) emphasizes the relational dynamics of leadership and organizing and offers a “Relational Leadership Theory (RLT) as an overarching framework for the study of leadership as a social influence process through which emergent coordination (e.g., evolving social order) and change (e.g., new approaches, values, attitudes, behaviors, ideologies) are constructed and produced” (p. 654). Relational Leadership Theory is the study of both the relationships (interpersonal relationships as outcomes of or as contexts for interactions) and relational dynamics (social interactions, social constructions) of leadership. From the entity perspective, relational processes are centered in individuals’ perceptions and cognitions as they engage in exchanges and influence relationships with one another. From the relational perspective, persons and organizations are ongoing multiple constructions made “in” processes and not the makers “of” processes (Hosking, 2000).
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
35
RL is similar in the fact that it also puts into the center of attention the interaction of relationships which are not based on hierarchy and organizational order, but RL focuses less on constructing the common understanding and change only within an organization, and more on the common, mutually beneficial social change which is not limited by organizational borders. RL also emphasizes the active role of responsible leaders as “makers” who bring together different stakeholders with the aim of achieving a shared and morally sound vision (Maak & Pless, 2006b), rather than relying on the process of social construction resulting from individuals’ perceptions and cognitions throughout their interaction. RL also underlines the ethical and moral element employing the vision of achieving mutually shared objectives beneficial for the broader society – something that is not emphasized in relational leadership.
2.3.11. Shared Leadership Some recent definitions of leadership stress that the leadership influence
process involves a relationship component (e.g., Lord & Brown, 2001, 2004; Waldman, Ramirez, House & Puranam, 2001). There is a relationship between a leader and followers involved in the leadership process, a relationship that can be hierarchically or geographically distant and not require face-to-face interaction (Waldman & Yammarino, 1999). Although a number of authors have discussed the idea of shared leadership, academic leadership literature only recently started to focus on it. Shared or collective leadership in organizations becomes more common as hierarchical levels are deleted and team-based structures are inserted. Avolio, Walumbwa and Weber (2009) refer to the terms “shared leadership,” “distributed leadership,” and “collective leadership” interchangeably, paralleling their usage in the leadership literature. The term “shared leadership” overlaps with relational and complexity leadership, and differs from more traditional, hierarchical, or vertical models of leadership (Pearce & Sims, 2002).
Pearce and colleagues (e.g., Pearce & Conger, 2003; Pearce & Manz, 2005) articulated shared leadership theory by building on the idea of leadership as embedded in relationships. Shared leadership theory emphasizes that leadership can flow in multiple directions in organizations: both vertically and horizontally among peers. Shared leadership is defined as “the serial emergence of multiple leaders based on the task demands and the knowledge, skills and abilities of those involved in the task” (Pearce, et al., 2006, p. 61). Shared leadership is distributed within a group or a team of individuals rather than localized in any one individual who
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
36
serves in the role of supervisor (Pearce & Conger, 2003). Shared leadership is an emergent state and it occurs when all members of a team are collectively and fully engaged in the leadership of the team (Day, Gronn & Salas, 2004) and are simultaneously and mutually influencing each other while becoming official as well as unofficial leaders (Pearce, 2004). It is a team-level outcome and when it is “viewed as a property of the whole system, as opposed to solely the property of individuals, effectiveness in leadership becomes more a product of those connections or relationships among the parts than the result of any one part of that system (such as the leader)” (O’Connor & Quinn, 2004, p. 423).
RL shares with shared leadership the active engagement of the team members as followers, yet is broader in the definition of followers who should be actively taken into consideration to include all employees in the organization and all subjects and constituencies outside the organization. While it seems that the role of the leader in shared leadership is suppressed and substituted by the mutual influence of all team members, RL still emphasizes the important role of the leader as the one who inspires with a vision, is a role model, and plays an active role in achieving “mutually shared objectives based on a vision of business as a force of good for the many, and not just a few (shareholders, managers)” (Maak, 2007, p. 331). Shared leadership is a team-level outcome not possible to define in advance, while RL helps initiate within each individual a responsible leader with prior intentions of certain desirable outcomes and leads to outcomes on multiple levels.
Table 2.1. summarizes the main characteristic of each leadership theory described and thus allows an easy comparison and contrasting with RL, e.g., through their theoretical grounding, key characteristics or antecedents, relationship toward followers, objectives, or outcomes.
Having placed the construct of RL into the broader field of leadership theories, the aim is now to study this construct further and clarify its constituting features. In order to provide solid ground for the synthesis of knowledge available about RL, the field of scholarly literature on RL will now be reviewed and the results of the profound literature survey will be shared.
2.4. Methodology On November 25, 2013, we searched the Business Source Premier database
(the leader in full text coverage in all disciplines of business, including management, marketing, economics, accounting, finance, etc.) using EBSCO Host search engine
Tabl
e 2.
1.: T
able
Com
parin
g Re
spon
sible
Lea
ders
hip
and
Oth
er L
eade
rshi
p Th
eorie
s Le
ader
ship
Th
eory
M
ain
Aut
hors
Th
eore
tical
G
roun
ding
K
ey
Cha
ract
erist
ics
/ Con
stitu
ting
Feat
ures
Obj
ectiv
es
Basis
of R
espo
nsib
ility
R
elat
ions
hip
Tow
ard
Follo
wer
s O
utco
mes
Li
mita
tions
Res
pons
ible
Le
ader
ship
M
aak
& P
less
(2
006a
,b);
Maa
k (2
007)
; Ple
ss
(200
7); P
less
&
Maa
k (2
009)
•St
akeh
olde
r th
eory
•Bu
sines
s eth
ics
•CS
R•
Lead
ersh
ipth
eorie
s
•M
oral
cha
ract
er
and
rela
tiona
lqu
aliti
es
•To
cap
ture
the
rela
tiona
l na
ture
of t
hele
ader
–sta
keho
lder
pr
ojec
t and
its
impl
icat
ions
for m
atte
rsof
resp
onsib
ility
•
To re
spon
d to
oth
ers’
inte
rests
and
nee
ds,
incl
udin
g th
ose
ofou
tside
stak
ehol
ders
and
soci
ety
at la
r ge
•Sp
iritu
al, h
uman
istic
,m
oral
, or a
ny o
ther
valu
es ro
oted
inre
ligio
n, fa
mily
,tra
ditio
n, e
duca
tion,
and
so o
n •
Or s
impl
y re
cogn
izin
gth
at a
ctin
g w
ithre
spon
sibili
ty is
the
right
thin
g to
do
•In
tern
al a
ndex
tern
alsta
keho
lder
s •
The
impo
rtanc
eof a
full-
rang
e vi
ewof
lead
er–
stake
hold
er
rela
tions
hips
•M
utua
lly sh
ared
obje
ctiv
es b
ased
on
avi
sion
of b
usin
ess a
s afo
rce
of g
ood
for t
h em
any,
not
just
a fe
w•
The
crea
tion
of so
cial
valu
e an
d th
e su
ppor
t of
desir
able
soci
al c
hang
e(e
.g.,
pove
rty a
llevi
atio
n,
equa
l opp
ortu
nity
, etc
.) at
the
loca
l lev
el
•Th
e ai
m to
resp
ond
toth
e ne
eds a
ndr e
quire
men
ts of
oth
ers
(sta
keho
lder
s in
a br
oad
sens
e) m
ay p
oten
tially
slo
w d
own
the
proc
ess
lead
ing
tow
ard
taki
ngste
ps to
find
ing
aso
lutio
n ac
cept
able
for
all p
artie
s inv
olve
d
Stak
ehol
der
Lead
ersh
ip
Schn
eide
r (20
02)
•S t
akeh
olde
r th
eory
•St
akeh
olde
r m
anag
emen
t
•T h
e im
porta
nce
of c
onte
xt,
rela
tions
hips
, le
ader
role
-set
s, an
d le
ader
attri
bute
s
•To
mee
t the
cha
lleng
esof
fluc
tuat
ing
verti
cal,
late
ral,
and
exte
rnal
dem
a nds
•To
enc
oura
gein
tera
ctio
ns a
ndne
twor
ks u
sing
posit
ive
emot
ion
(rath
er th
anfo
rmal
aut
horit
y)
•Th
e w
hole
par
adig
m
shift
from
the
top-
dow
nap
proa
ch to
war
d th
ere
latio
nal v
iew
or
mul
tidire
ctio
nal
influ
ence
•Ve
rtica
l, la
tera
l, an
d ex
tern
alde
man
ds
•Le
ader
effe
ctiv
enes
s in
the
time
is ch
arac
teriz
ed
by th
e sh
ift fr
om th
ebu
reau
crat
icor
gani
zatio
nal f
orm
to
war
d th
e ra
dix
orga
niza
tion
•Sc
hnei
der’s
stak
ehol
der
mod
el o
f org
aniz
atio
nal
lead
ersh
ip h
elps
topr
edic
t lea
der
effe
ctiv
enes
s with
out
stres
sing
resp
onsib
ility
an
d ac
coun
tabi
lity
Ethi
cal
Lead
ersh
ip
Brow
n, T
revi
ño
& H
arris
on
(200
5); B
row
n &
Tre
viño
(200
6)
•Th
e in
ters
ectio
nof
the
ethi
cs a
ndle
ader
ship
liter
atur
es
•A
lead
er is
apo
sitiv
e ro
lem
odel
who
beha
ves
virtu
ously
, ac
ts ac
cord
ing
toet
hica
l sta
ndar
ds,
insu
res e
thic
alan
d pr
o-so
cial
cond
uct i
n th
ew
orkp
lace
•To
influ
ence
follo
wer
sby
dem
onstr
atin
get
hica
l con
duct
, ofte
nth
roug
h tra
nsac
tiona
lm
echa
nism
s
•U
sing
prin
cipl
esof
mor
al re
ason
ing
tom
ake
deci
sions
•Cl
assic
alle
ader
ship
dya
dof
lead
er–
subo
rdin
ate
i nth
e or
gani
zatio
n
•M
icro
-leve
l out
com
es,
such
as l
eade
ref
fect
iven
ess,
empl
oyee
jo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n, a
ndde
dica
tion
•Im
prov
ed e
ffect
iven
ess
is th
e en
d of
usin
ggu
idan
ce b
y le
ader
s in
orga
niza
tions
•
The
lead
er m
ust b
ehav
eet
hica
lly in
the
lead
er’s
prof
essio
nal a
s wel
l as
per s
onal
life
Serv
ant
Lead
ersh
ip
Gre
enle
af (1
977)
; Bu
rns (
1978
); G
reen
leaf
(200
2);
Ciul
la (2
006)
; V
an D
iere
ndon
ck
(201
1)
•Th
e cu
rrent
de
man
d fo
r mor
eet
hica
l and
peop
le-c
ente
red
man
agem
ent
•Se
rvan
t-lea
ders
show
hum
ilit y
and
are
auth
entic
•Th
ey a
re
stew
ards
who
wor
k fo
r the
go
od o
f the
who
le
•To
serv
e th
e ne
eds a
ndle
gitim
ate
inte
rests
of
follo
wer
s or
stake
hold
ers
•To
pro
vide
dire
ctio
n,
empo
wer
and
dev
elop
peop
le
•Se
rvan
t lea
ders
are
driv
en b
y sp
iritu
ality
or a
n in
ner c
allin
g
•Se
rvan
tle
ader
ship
unde
rsta
nds
stake
hold
ers a
sfo
llow
ers i
n th
ew
orkp
lace
•Se
rvan
t lea
ders
hip
enco
urag
es se
lf-ac
tual
izat
ion,
pos
itive
job
attit
udes
, per
form
ance
and
a str
onge
ror
gani
zatio
nal f
ocus
on
susta
inab
ility
and
CSR
•Se
rvan
t lea
ders
hip
isot
her-d
irect
ed a
nd th
ese
rvic
e to
oth
ers m
ay
som
etim
es g
o be
yond
self
sacr
ifice
•
Serv
ant l
eade
rshi
pre
cogn
izes
stak
ehol
ders
as fo
llow
ers i
n th
ew
orkp
lace
Aut
hent
ic
Lead
ersh
ip
Geo
rge
(200
3);
Luth
ans &
Avo
lio
(200
3); C
amer
on,
Dut
ton
& Q
uinn
(2
003)
; Coo
per
& N
elso
n (2
006)
; W
alum
bwa,
A
volio
, Gar
dner
, W
erns
ing
&
Pete
rson
(200
8)
•Th
e in
ters
ectio
nof
the
lead
ersh
ip,
ethi
cs, a
ndpo
sitiv
eor
gani
zatio
nal
beha
vior
and
scho
lars
hip
liter
atur
es
•A
n in
crea
sed
self-
awar
enes
s,re
latio
nal
trans
pare
ncy,
inte
rnal
ized
posit
ive
mor
alpe
rspe
ctiv
e
•To
influ
ence
, ene
rgiz
ean
d de
velo
p fo
llow
ers
•To
enc
oura
geau
then
ticity
am
ong
the
follo
wer
s
•A
ltrui
sm (s
how
ing
care
and
conc
ern
for p
eopl
e)
•H
igh
ethi
cal s
tand
ards
that
gui
de d
ecisi
on
mak
ing
and
beha
vior
•M
ostly
su
bord
inat
es (i
nth
e or
gani
zatio
n);
yet G
eorg
e al
soco
nsid
ers
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stake
hold
ers
•A
uthe
ntic
lead
ersh
ip h
aspo
sitiv
e or
gani
zatio
nal
impa
ct b
y he
lpin
gem
ploy
ees f
ind
mea
ning
at w
ork,
by
cont
ribut
ing
to su
stain
ed p
erfo
rman
cean
d gr
owth
thro
ugh
long
-te
rm v
alue
cre
atio
n fo
r sh
areh
olde
rs
•Et
hica
l qua
litie
s are
posit
ive
psyc
holo
gica
lre
sour
ces l
eadi
ng to
posit
ive
orga
niza
tiona
lou
tcom
es e
nhan
cing
lead
ersh
ip e
ffect
iven
ess
37
Lead
ersh
ip
Theo
ry
Mai
n A
utho
rs
T heo
retic
al
Gro
undi
ng
Key
C
hara
cter
istic
s / C
onst
itutin
g Fe
atur
es
Obj
ectiv
es
Basis
of R
espo
nsib
ility
R
elat
ions
hip
Tow
ard
Follo
wer
s
Out
com
es
Lim
itatio
ns
Tran
sfor
ma-
tiona
l Le
ader
ship
Burn
s (19
78);
Bass
(1
985)
; Avo
lio e
t al.
(199
1); B
ass &
A
volio
(199
5)
•Fi
rst i
ntro
duce
d by
Burn
s (19
78) i
n th
eco
ntex
t of p
oliti
cal
lead
ersh
ip, t
hen
furth
er d
evel
oped
and
conc
eptu
aliz
edby
Bas
s (19
85) a
ndhi
s col
leag
ues
•In
telle
ctua
lst
imul
atio
n•
Tran
sfor
mat
ion
al n
otio
ns o
fvi
sion,
in
spira
tion
and
indi
vidu
aliz
edco
nsid
erat
ion
•To
raise
follo
wer
s’ co
nsci
ousn
ess a
ndtra
nsfo
rm th
em in
tole
ader
s•
To a
ccom
plish
orga
niza
tiona
l goa
lsan
d en
hanc
e fo
llow
ers’
perfo
rma n
ce
•A
ltrui
sm (s
how
ing
care
and
con
cern
for
peop
le)
•St
akeh
olde
rsin
side
the
orga
niza
tion
•Tr
ansf
orm
atio
nal l
eade
rsus
ually
influ
ence
follo
wer
s for
the
instr
umen
tal p
urpo
se o
fen
hanc
ing
perfo
rman
cean
d ac
com
plish
ing
orga
niza
tiona
l obj
ectiv
es(e
.g.,
impr
ovin
g th
e ec
onom
ic b
otto
m-li
ne,
satis
fyin
g sh
areh
olde
rs)
•N
arro
w u
nder
stand
ing
offo
llow
ers
•Po
ssib
ly in
strum
enta
l use
of c
hang
e /
trans
form
a tio
n•
Pote
ntia
l cha
rism
atic
or
narc
issist
ic ri
sks o
ftra
nsfo
rmat
iona
l lea
ders
•Fo
cus o
n in
divi
dual
rath
er th
an re
latio
nal
aspe
cts
Cha
rism
atic
Le
ader
ship
W
eber
(194
7);
Hou
se (1
977)
; Br
yman
(199
2);
Gar
dner
& A
volio
(1
998)
; Sha
mir
(199
8); K
anun
go
(200
1); M
endo
nca
(200
1); G
rint (
2002
)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
lle
ader
ship
liter
atur
e•
Char
ism
atic
lead
ersh
ip is
root
edin
stro
ng e
thic
alva
lues
•Th
e ch
aris
ma
of th
e le
ader
is
the
key
dyna
mic
of
influ
ence
from
th
e le
ader
toth
e fo
llow
er
•Th
eir f
ortit
ude
give
sch
aris
mat
ic le
ader
s the
cour
age
to fa
ce ri
sks
and
wor
k at
over
com
ing
obsta
cles
inth
e pu
rsui
t of g
oals
•St
rong
eth
ical
val
ues
•G
uida
nce
by m
oral
lyal
truist
ic p
rinci
ples
that
refle
ct a
hel
ping
conc
ern
for o
ther
sev
en a
t con
sider
able
pers
onal
sacr
ifice
or
inco
nven
ienc
e
•Th
eir v
ision
sar
e ju
st an
d in
sync
with
the
dem
ands
of
vario
ussta
keho
lder
s, no
t jus
tsh
areh
olde
rs
•Vi
sion
fulfi
llmen
t by
envi
sioni
ng a
ndst
imul
atin
g fo
llow
ers t
ofo
llow
lead
er’s
visio
n
•Ch
aris
mat
ic le
ader
’spe
rson
a po
ssib
ly
incl
udin
g el
emen
ts o
fdi
stanc
e fro
m fo
llow
ers,
of a
chie
ving
her
o sta
tus,
of n
arci
ssist
ic p
erso
nalit
yte
nden
cies
, and
pos
sibly
se
lf-ag
gran
dize
men
tSp
iritu
al
Lead
ersh
ip
Fry
(200
3); D
ent,
Hig
gins
& W
harff
(2
005)
; Pr
uzan
&
Mill
er (2
006)
•Is
rela
ted
toco
nstru
cts s
uch
asem
otio
nal
inte
llige
nce,
eth
ics,
valu
es, a
nd to
lead
ersh
ip m
odel
ssu
ch a
sch
aris
mat
ic,
stew
ards
hip,
tra
nsfo
rmat
iona
l,an
d se
rvan
t
•Th
e va
lues
,at
titud
es, a
ndbe
havi
ors t
hat
are
nece
ssar
yto
intri
nsic
ally
mot
ivat
e se
lfan
d ot
hers
soth
at th
ey h
ave
a se
nse
ofsp
iritu
alsu
rviv
al•
Emot
iona
lin
telli
genc
e,et
hics
, val
ues
•Sp
iritu
al le
ader
s ins
pire
and
ener
gize
beh
avio
r in
em
ploy
ees b
ased
on
mea
ning
and
pur
pose
rath
er th
an re
war
ds a
ndse
curit
y, th
usco
mpe
lling
em
ploy
ees
to tr
ansc
end
thei
r sel
f-in
tere
sts fo
r the
we l
fare
of th
eir o
r gan
izat
iona
lm
embe
rs, t
he sa
ke o
fth
e m
issio
n a
nd fo
r the
good
of h
uman
ity a
ndth
e na
tura
l wor
ld
•Sp
iritu
al le
ader
s are
mot
ivat
ed b
y se
rvic
eto
God
or t
ohu
man
ity a
nd th
eyvi
ew th
eir l
eade
rshi
pw
ork
as a
“ca
lling
”•
Altr
uism
(sho
win
gca
re a
nd c
once
rn fo
r pe
ople
)
•Be
havi
ngre
spon
sibly
on
beha
lf of
them
selv
es,
thei
r co
mm
uniti
es,
soci
ety,
the
envi
r onm
ent
and
all o
fcr
eatio
n (i.
e.,
they
con
sider
follo
wer
s in
the
broa
dse
nse)
•En
hanc
ed o
rgan
izat
iona
lle
arni
ng, u
nifie
d an
dbu
ilt c
omm
uniti
es,
conn
ectin
g to
oth
ers a
tw
ork,
and
to w
ork
itsel
f,an
d a
heal
ing
and
harm
oniz
ing
expr
essio
nof
com
pass
ion,
wisd
om,
and
conn
ecte
dnes
s •
Org
aniz
atio
ns d
riven
by
spiri
tual
lead
ers a
rebe
lieve
d to
be
mor
epr
ofita
ble
and
perfo
rm
very
wel
l
•A
cont
rove
rsia
l iss
ue is
the
mor
al p
art o
f spi
ritua
lle
ader
s: so
me
pote
ntia
lps
eudo
-lead
ers o
r fal
sepr
ophe
ts m
ight
misu
seth
eir f
ollo
wer
s•
Ther
e is
the
issue
of t
hean
ti-m
ater
ialis
t nat
ure
ofsp
iritu
ality
que
stion
ing
whe
ther
wor
kpla
cesp
iritu
ality
lead
s (or
shou
ld le
ad) t
o in
crea
sed
prod
uctiv
ity o
r pr
ofita
bilit
yVi
rtuo
us
Lead
ersh
ip
Cam
eron
, Brig
ht &
Ca
za (2
004)
; Pea
rce,
W
aldm
an &
Cs
iksz
entm
ihal
yi
(200
6)
•Li
tera
ture
on
virtu
ousn
ess,
ethi
cs, a
ndpo
sitiv
ity
•Pe
rson
alch
arac
teris
tics
(resp
onsib
ility
di
spos
ition
)•
The
role
of
envi
ronm
enta
lcu
es (e
.g.,
ethi
cs c
odes
, re
war
dsy
stem
s, et
c.)
•To
enh
ance
the
wel
fare
of th
e fir
m, w
hile
si
mul
tane
ously
bala
ncin
g th
e ne
eds o
fth
e va
rious
stak
ehol
ders
•St
rong
eth
ical
val
ues
and
mor
ally
altr
uisti
cpr
inci
ples
•Br
oad-
rang
ing
mor
alan
d ju
stice
val
ues
•Ba
lanc
edin
tere
sts o
f all
stake
hold
ers
•By
focu
sing
on v
irtuo
usou
tcom
es, v
irtuo
usle
ader
ship
pro
duce
sde
sirab
le e
nds (
e.g.
or
gani
zatio
nal
com
mitm
ent,
orga
niza
tiona
lpe
rform
ance
out
com
es)
whi
ch c
an p
rovi
dead
vant
ages
for a
llco
nstit
uenc
ies
•Le
vera
ging
orga
niza
tiona
l lea
rnin
g
•Vi
rtuou
s lea
ders
hip
aim
sat
enh
anci
ng th
e w
elfa
reof
the
firm
and
leve
ragi
ng it
s lea
rnin
gpo
tent
ial n
ot so
muc
hfo
cusin
g on
cre
atin
gso
cial
val
ue a
nd d
esira
ble
chan
ge
38
Lead
ersh
ip
Theo
ry
Mai
n A
utho
rs
Theo
retic
al
Gro
undi
ng
Key
Cha
ract
erist
ics
/ Con
stitu
ting
Feat
ures
Obj
ectiv
es
Basis
of
Res
pons
ibili
ty
Rel
atio
nshi
p To
war
d Fo
llow
ers
Out
com
es
Lim
itatio
ns
Stew
ards
hip
Theo
ry /
Lead
ersh
ip
Don
alds
on &
D
avis
(198
9,
1991
); D
avis,
Sc
hoor
man
&
Don
alds
on
(199
7); C
aldw
ell
& K
arri
(200
5);
Cald
wel
l, Tr
uong
, Li
nh &
Tua
n (2
011)
•Ps
ycho
logy
and
soci
olog
y •
Trus
twor
thin
ess,
hum
ility
, abi
lity
tolis
ten
and
adm
iton
e’s m
istak
es•
Inte
grity
, cou
rage
,ho
nesty
and
trans
pare
ncy
•To
real
ize
that
the
stew
ard
lead
er is
acco
unta
ble
to so
meo
neel
se a
nd sh
ould
not
onl
y ca
re fo
r, bu
t also
max
imiz
e th
e po
tent
ial
of, t
he re
sour
ces i
n hi
sor
her
pur
view
– a
ll th
is on
a lo
ng-te
rm b
asis
•Th
e ste
war
dbe
lieve
s tha
t by
wor
king
tow
ard
orga
niza
tiona
l, co
llect
ive
ends
,pe
rson
al n
eeds
are
met
•Bu
sines
s is
a re
spon
sible
stew
ard
cont
ribut
ing
toth
e w
ellb
eing
of c
usto
mer
s,em
ploy
ees a
ndth
e co
mm
unity
•Lo
ng-te
rm w
ealth
crea
tion
by m
axim
izin
gth
e po
tent
ial o
f the
re
sour
ces a
ndim
plem
entin
g sy
stem
sth
at st
reng
then
the
orga
niza
tiona
lco
mm
itmen
t of e
ach
stake
hold
er
•Th
e qu
estio
n of
eth
ics a
ndm
oral
ity a
rises
in re
latio
nw
ith th
e ob
ject
ive
ofm
axim
izat
ion
of th
e pr
ofit
of th
e m
ajor
ity a
ndad
optin
g th
is po
int o
f vie
wal
so fo
r ind
ivid
ual p
rofit
Rel
atio
nal
Lead
ersh
ip
Uhl
-Bie
n (2
006)
•
Rela
tions
hip-
orie
nted
lead
ersh
ip•
Soci
al n
etw
orks
•Re
latio
nal
cons
truct
ioni
sm
•Re
latio
nal
proc
esse
s are
cent
ered
inin
divi
dual
s’ pe
rcep
tions
and
cogn
ition
s as t
hey
enga
ge in
exch
ange
s and
influ
ence
rela
tions
hips
with
one
anot
her
•Pe
rson
s and
orga
niza
tions
are
ongo
ing
mul
tiple
cons
truct
ions
mad
e“i
n” p
roce
sses
and
no
t the
mak
ers “
of”
proc
esse
s
•To
iden
tify
indi
vidu
als
thro
ugh
thei
r co
nnec
tions
and
inte
rper
sona
lre
latio
nshi
ps to
oth
er
entit
ies
•To
con
struc
t mea
ning
(or n
ew a
ppro
ache
s, va
lues
, atti
tude
s,be
havi
ors,
ideo
logi
es)
on th
e ba
sis o
f a sh
ared
unde
rsta
ndin
g an
dre
latio
nal d
ialo
gue
•Re
latio
nal
dyna
mic
s of
lead
ersh
ip a
ndor
gani
zing
•Fo
llow
ers
beyo
nd th
edy
adic
rela
tions
hip:
lead
ersh
ip is
an in
tera
ctiv
epr
oces
s
•Em
erge
nt c
oord
inat
ion
(e.g
., ev
olvi
ng so
cial
orde
r) an
d ch
ange
(e.g
.,ne
w a
ppro
ache
s, va
lues
,at
titud
es, b
ehav
iors
,id
eolo
gies
)
•Re
lyin
g on
the
proc
ess o
fso
cial
con
struc
tion
resu
lting
from
indi
vidu
als’
perc
eptio
ns a
nd c
ogni
tions
thro
ugho
ut th
eir
inte
ract
ion
rath
er th
anha
ving
the
activ
e ro
le o
f“m
aker
s” a
nd v
ision
arie
s•
The
ethi
cal a
nd m
oral
elem
ents
as w
ell a
sac
hiev
ing
soci
al c
hang
e
Shar
ed
Lead
ersh
ip
Pear
ce &
Sim
s (2
002)
; Pea
rce
&
Cong
er (2
003)
; D
ay e
t al.
(200
4)
•Sh
ared
or
colle
ctiv
ele
ader
ship
inor
gani
zatio
nsbe
com
es m
ore
com
mon
as
hier
arch
ical
le
vels
are
dele
t ed
and
team
-bas
edstr
uctu
res a
rein
serte
d
•Sh
ared
lead
ersh
ipca
paci
ty th
at v
arie
sba
sed
on th
e in
puts,
pr
oces
ses,
and
outc
omes
of t
hete
am
•Re
cipr
ocal
influ
ence
whi
chre
info
rces
and
deve
lops
furth
er
rela
tions
hips
betw
een
team
m
embe
rs
•To
lead
one
ano
ther
toth
e ac
hiev
emen
t of
grou
p or
org
aniz
atio
nal
goal
s or b
oth
•Sh
ared
lead
ersh
ipca
paci
ty th
atde
velo
psth
roug
hout
a te
am’s
lifes
pan
•Sh
ared
lead
ersh
ip is
distr
ibut
edw
ithin
a g
roup
or a
team
of
indi
vidu
als
rath
er th
anlo
caliz
ed in
any
one
indi
vidu
al w
hose
rves
in th
ero
le o
f lea
der
•Ef
fect
iven
ess i
nle
ader
ship
bec
omes
mor
ea
prod
uct o
f the
conn
ectio
ns o
rre
latio
nshi
ps a
mon
g th
epa
rts th
an th
e re
sult
ofan
y on
e pa
rt of
that
syste
m (s
uch
as th
ele
ader
)
•Th
e ro
le o
f the
lead
er in
shar
ed le
ader
ship
issu
ppre
ssed
and
subs
titut
edby
the
mut
ual i
nflu
ence
of
all t
eam
mem
bers
•Sh
ared
lead
ersh
ip is
a te
am-le
vel o
utco
me,
not
poss
ible
to d
efin
e in
adva
nce
39
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
40
for scholarly (peer reviewed) journals, including articles and papers in proceedings, concerning the topic of responsible leadership. We searched the title or author-supplied abstract, without any time restriction for the date of publication of the article, for the following key words or phrases and any of their meaningful combinations. Here is the list of the key terms searched for a free match (i.e., their occurrence is anywhere within the selected search destinations): responsible leadership (67 results), responsibility leadership (198 results), responsible leader (71 results), responsible leading (22 results), leader responsibility (146 results), CSR leadership (10 results), CSR leader (11 results), social responsibility leadership (33 results), corporate responsibility leadership (21 results), corporate social responsibility leadership (17). The results yielded 596 entries in total.
To narrow down the results for the first time, we checked the relevancy of the journal domain (in order to omit any health care- , nursing- , finance- , and high school education-focused journals, and also exclude articles which focused on other leadership theories and dealt with responsible leadership only marginally), we removed duplicate articles and briefly reviewed the titles of the articles and subjects using key words. We were left with 95 articles that seemingly corresponded to the studied topic. The provided annotations of each of the 95 articles were then reviewed to ensure that the article was relevant for the subject of interest, and the number of articles was further narrowed down to 72.
After the second reduction, we added several articles that we obtained on the basis of personal recommendation or from references of related relevant articles by means of a direct search in the database. We also included 19 relevant book chapters on responsible leadership (Doh & Stumpf, eds. 2005a; Maak & Pless, eds. 2006a). We then summarized the articles and analyzed all abstracts for inclusion. Some texts were dropped from inclusion into the final pool of texts even though they had responsible leadership in the title, for instance when the term “responsible leadership” was simply used as a catchphrase and the text dealt with CSR or corporate citizenship.
We were left with the total of 57 articles, which were then closely examined, analyzed and summarized with respect to the studied notion of responsible leadership. The articles forming the basis of the analysis for the literature review are listed in Table 2.2.
Tabl
e 2.
2.: T
he 5
7 Ar
ticle
s whi
ch W
ere
Subj
ect t
o th
e Li
tera
ture
Sur
vey
on R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p A
utho
rs
Yea
r Ti
tle
Jour
nal
Lynh
am, S
. A.
1998
Th
e de
velo
pmen
t and
eva
luat
ion
of a
mod
el o
f Res
pons
ible
Lea
ders
hip
for P
erfo
rman
ce
Hum
an R
esou
rce
Dev
elop
men
t Int
erna
tiona
l
Ples
s, N
. M.,
& M
aak,
T.
2005
Re
latio
nal I
ntel
ligen
ce fo
r Lea
ding
Res
pons
ibly
in a
Con
nect
ed W
orld
Ac
adem
y of
Man
agem
ent A
nnua
l Mee
ting
Proc
eedi
ngs
Doh
, J. P
., &
Stu
mpf
, S. A
. 20
05b
Tow
ards
a fr
amew
ork
of re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip a
nd g
over
nanc
e H
andb
ook
on R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p An
d G
over
nanc
e in
Glo
bal B
usin
ess (
Doh
and
Stu
mpf
, 200
5a)
Fom
brun
, C. J
. 20
05
The
lead
ersh
ip c
halle
nge:
bui
ldin
g re
silie
nt c
orpo
rate
repu
tatio
ns
Han
dboo
k on
Res
pons
ible
Lea
ders
hip
And
Gov
erna
nce
in G
loba
l Bus
ines
s (D
oh a
nd S
tum
pf, 2
005a
) U
seem
, M.
2005
Le
ader
ship
: mak
ing
resp
onsib
le d
ecisi
ons
Han
dboo
k on
Res
pons
ible
Lea
ders
hip
And
Gov
erna
nce
in G
loba
l Bus
ines
s (D
oh a
nd S
tum
pf, 2
005a
) C
amer
on, K
., &
Caz
a, A
. 20
05
Dev
elop
ing
strat
egie
s and
skill
s for
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
H
andb
ook
on R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p An
d G
over
nanc
e in
Glo
bal B
usin
ess (
Doh
and
Stu
mpf
, 200
5a)
Ale
xand
er, J
., &
Wils
on, M
. 20
05
Foun
datio
ns o
f res
pons
ible
lead
ersh
ip: f
rom
self-
insig
ht to
inte
grity
and
altr
uism
H
andb
ook
on R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p An
d G
over
nanc
e in
Glo
bal B
usin
ess (
Doh
and
Stu
mpf
, 200
5a)
Wal
dman
, D. A
., &
Sie
gel,
D.
2005
Th
e in
fluen
ce o
f CEO
tran
sfor
mat
iona
l lea
ders
hip
on fi
rm-le
vel c
omm
itmen
t to
corp
orat
e so
cial
re
spon
sibili
ty
Han
dboo
k on
Res
pons
ible
Lea
ders
hip
And
Gov
erna
nce
in G
loba
l Bus
ines
s (D
oh a
nd S
tum
pf, 2
005a
) Sa
ckm
ann,
S. A
. 20
05
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
: a c
ross
-cul
tura
l per
spec
tive
Han
dboo
k on
Res
pons
ible
Lea
ders
hip
And
Gov
erna
nce
in G
loba
l Bus
ines
s (D
oh a
nd S
tum
pf, 2
005a
) Q
uigl
ey, N
. R.,
de L
uque
, M. S
., &
Hou
se, R
. J.
2005
Re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip a
nd g
over
nanc
e in
a g
loba
l con
text
: ins
ight
s fro
m th
e G
LOBE
stud
y H
andb
ook
on R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p An
d G
over
nanc
e in
Glo
bal B
usin
ess (
Doh
and
Stu
mpf
, 200
5a)
Scal
berg
, E. J
. 20
05
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
and
gov
erna
nce
in g
loba
l bus
ines
s: th
e ro
le o
f bus
ines
s edu
catio
n H
andb
ook
on R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p An
d G
over
nanc
e in
Glo
bal B
usin
ess (
Doh
and
Stu
mpf
, 200
5a)
Lynh
am, S
. A.,
& C
herm
ack,
T. J
. 20
06
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p fo
r Per
form
ance
: A T
heor
etic
al M
odel
and
Hyp
othe
ses
Jour
nal o
f Lea
ders
hip
& O
rgan
izat
iona
l Stu
dies
Wal
dman
, D. A
., Su
lly d
e Luq
ue, M
., W
ashb
urn,
N.,
& H
ouse
, R. J
. 20
06
Cultu
ral a
nd L
eade
rshi
p Pr
edic
tors
of C
orpo
rate
Soc
ial R
espo
nsib
ility
Val
ues o
f Top
Man
agem
ent:
A
GLO
BE S
tudy
of 1
5 Co
untri
es
Jour
nal o
f Int
erna
tiona
l Bus
ines
s Stu
dies
Wal
dman
, D. A
., Si
egel
, D. S
., &
Jav
idan
, M.
2006
Co
mpo
nent
s of C
EO T
rans
form
atio
nal L
eade
rshi
p an
d Co
rpor
ate
Soci
al R
espo
nsib
ility
Jo
urna
l of M
anag
emen
t Stu
dies
Dug
an, J
. P.
2006
In
volv
emen
t and
Lea
ders
hip:
A D
escr
iptiv
e A
naly
sis o
f Soc
ially
Res
pons
ible
Lea
ders
hip
Jour
nal o
f Col
lege
Stu
dent
Dev
elop
men
t
Ciu
lla, J
. B.
2006
Et
hics
: the
hea
rt of
lead
ersh
ip
Resp
onsi
ble
Lead
ersh
ip (M
aak
and
Ples
s, 20
06a)
Maa
k T.
, & P
less
, N. M
. 20
06
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
: a re
latio
nal a
ppro
ach
Resp
onsi
ble
Lead
ersh
ip (M
aak
and
Ples
s, 20
06a)
Pain
e, L
. S.
2006
A
com
pass
for d
ecisi
on m
akin
g Re
spon
sibl
e Le
ader
ship
(Maa
k an
d Pl
ess,
2006
a)
Pruz
an, P
., &
Mill
er, W
. C.
2006
Sp
iritu
ality
as t
he b
asis
of re
spon
sible
lead
ers a
nd re
spon
sible
com
pani
es
Resp
onsi
ble
Lead
ersh
ip (M
aak
and
Ples
s, 20
06a)
Bren
kert
, G. G
. 20
06
Inte
grity
, res
pons
ible
lead
ers a
nd a
ccou
ntab
ility
Re
spon
sibl
e Le
ader
ship
(Maa
k an
d Pl
ess,
2006
a)
Sack
man
n, S
. A.
2006
Le
adin
g re
spon
sibly
acr
oss c
ultu
res
Resp
onsi
ble
Lead
ersh
ip (M
aak
and
Ples
s, 20
06a)
Schr
aa-L
iu, T
., &
Tro
mpe
naar
s, F.
20
06
Tow
ards
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
thro
ugh
reco
ncili
ng d
ilem
mas
Re
spon
sibl
e Le
ader
ship
(Maa
k an
d Pl
ess,
2006
a)
Die
rmei
er, D
. 20
06
Lead
ing
in a
wor
ld o
f com
petin
g va
lues
: a st
rate
gic
pers
pect
ive
on c
orpo
rate
soci
al re
spon
sibili
ty
Resp
onsi
ble
Lead
ersh
ip (M
aak
and
Ples
s, 20
06a)
Van
de L
oo, E
. 20
06
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
at A
BN A
MRO
Rea
l: th
e ca
se o
f Fab
io B
arbo
sa
Resp
onsi
ble
Lead
ersh
ip (M
aak
and
Ples
s, 20
06a)
Ples
s, N
. M.,
& S
chne
ider
, R.
2006
To
war
ds d
evel
opin
g re
spon
sible
glo
bal l
eade
rs: t
he U
lyss
es e
xper
ienc
e Re
spon
sibl
e Le
ader
ship
(Maa
k an
d Pl
ess,
2006
a)
Maa
k, T
., &
Ple
ss, N
. M.
2006
b Re
spon
sible
Lea
ders
hip
in a
Sta
keho
lder
Soc
iety
- A
Rel
atio
nal P
ersp
ectiv
e Jo
urna
l of B
usin
ess E
thic
s
Ples
s, N
. M.
2007
U
nder
stand
ing
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p: R
ole
Iden
tity
and
Mot
ivat
iona
l Driv
ers
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
Maa
k, T
. 20
07
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p, S
take
hold
er E
ngag
emen
t, an
d th
e Em
erge
nce
of S
ocia
l Cap
ital
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
41
Aut
hors
Y
ear
Title
Jo
urna
l
Wal
dman
, D. A
., &
Gal
vin,
B. M
. 20
08
Alte
rnat
ive
Pers
pect
ives
of R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p O
rgan
izat
iona
l Dyn
amic
s
Wal
dman
, D. A
., &
Sie
gel,
D.
2008
D
efin
ing
the
soci
ally
resp
onsib
le le
ader
Th
e Le
ader
ship
Qua
rter
ly
Ples
s, N
. M.,
& M
aak,
T.
2008
a Re
spon
sible
Lea
ders
as A
gent
s of W
orld
Ben
efit:
Lea
rnin
gs fr
om “
Proj
ect U
lyss
es”
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
Ples
s, N
. M.,
& M
aak,
T.
2008
b Re
spon
sible
Lea
ders
hip:
Ver
antw
ortli
che
Fuhr
ung
im K
onte
xt e
iner
glo
bale
n St
akeh
olde
r-Ges
ellsh
caft.
(R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p in
a G
loba
l Sta
keho
lder
Soc
iety
. With
Eng
lish
sum
mar
y.)
Zeits
chrif
t für
Wir
tscha
fts- u
nd U
nter
nehm
ensth
ik
Maa
k, T
., &
Ple
ss, N
. M.
2009
Bu
sines
s Lea
ders
as C
itize
ns o
f the
Wor
ld. A
dvan
cing
Hum
anism
on
a G
loba
l Sca
le
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
DeM
aCar
ty, P
. 20
09
Fina
ncia
l Ret
urns
of C
orpo
rate
Soc
ial R
espo
nsib
ility
, and
the
Mor
al F
reed
om a
nd R
espo
nsib
ility
of B
usin
ess
Lead
ers
Busi
ness
and
Soc
iety
Rev
iew
: Jou
rnal
of t
he C
ente
r for
Bu
sine
ss E
thic
s at B
entle
y C
olle
ge
Màr
ia, J
., &
Loz
ano,
J.
2010
Re
spon
sible
Lea
ders
for I
nclu
sive
Glo
baliz
atio
n: C
ases
in N
icar
agua
and
the
Dem
ocra
tic R
epub
lic o
f the
Co
ngo
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
Ket
ola,
T.
2010
Re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip: B
uild
ing
bloc
ks o
f ind
ivid
ual,
orga
niza
tiona
l and
soci
etal
beh
avio
r C
orpo
rate
Soc
ial R
espo
nsib
ility
& E
nviro
nmen
tal
Man
agem
ent
Del
ios,
A.
2010
H
ow C
an O
rgan
izat
ions
Be
Com
petit
ive
but D
are
to C
are?
Ac
adem
y of
Man
agem
ent P
ersp
ectiv
es
Voe
gtlin
, C.
2011
D
evel
opm
ent o
f a S
cale
Mea
surin
g D
iscur
sive
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p Jo
urna
l of B
usin
ess E
thic
s
Wal
dman
, D. A
. 20
11
Mov
ing
Forw
ard
with
the
Conc
ept o
f Res
pons
ible
Lea
ders
hip:
Thr
ee C
avea
ts to
Gui
de T
heor
y an
d Re
sear
ch
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
Gro
ves,
K.,
& L
aRoc
ca, M
. 20
11
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p O
utco
mes
Via
Sta
keho
lder
CSR
Val
ues:
Testi
ng a
Val
ues-
Cent
ered
Mod
el o
f Tr
ansf
orm
atio
nal L
eade
rshi
p Jo
urna
l of B
usin
ess E
thic
s
Gon
d, J
., Ig
alen
s, J.
, Sw
aen,
V.,
& E
l A
krem
i, A
. 20
11
The
Hum
an R
esou
rces
Con
tribu
tion
to R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p: A
n Ex
plor
atio
n of
the
CSR-
HR
Inte
rface
Jo
urna
l of B
usin
ess E
thic
s
Cam
eron
, K.
2011
Re
spon
sible
Lea
ders
hip
as V
irtuo
us L
eade
rshi
p Jo
urna
l of B
usin
ess E
thic
s
Doh
, J.,
Stum
pf, S
., &
Tym
on, W
. 20
11
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p H
elps
Ret
ain
Tale
nt in
Indi
a Jo
urna
l of B
usin
ess E
thic
s
Mar
itz, R
., Pr
etor
ius,
M.,
& P
lant
, K.
2011
Ex
plor
ing
the
Inte
rface
Bet
wee
n St
rate
gy-M
akin
g an
d Re
spon
sible
Lea
ders
hip
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
Free
man
, R. E
., &
Aus
ter,
E. R
. 20
11
Val
ues,
Aut
hent
icity
, and
Res
pons
ible
Lea
ders
hip
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
Berg
er, R
., C
hoi,
C.,
& K
im, J
. 20
11
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p fo
r Mul
tinat
iona
l Ent
erpr
ises i
n Bo
ttom
of P
yram
id C
ount
ries:
The
Kno
wle
dge
of
Loca
l Man
ager
s Jo
urna
l of B
usin
ess E
thic
s
Maa
k, T
., &
Ple
ss, N
. M.
2011
Re
spon
sible
Lea
ders
hip:
Pat
hway
s to
the
Futu
re (i
ntro
duct
ion
artic
le)
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
Ples
s, N
. M.,
Maa
k, T
., &
Sta
hl, G
. K.
2011
D
evel
opin
g Re
spon
sible
Glo
bal L
eade
rs T
hrou
gh In
tern
atio
nal S
ervi
ce-L
earn
ing
Prog
ram
s: Th
e U
lyss
es
Expe
rienc
e Ac
adem
y of
Man
agem
ent L
earn
ing
& E
duca
tion
Voe
gtlin
, C.,
Patz
er, M
., &
Sch
erer
, A
. G.
2012
Re
spon
sible
Lea
ders
hip
in G
loba
l Bus
ines
s: A
New
App
roac
h to
Lea
ders
hip
and
Its M
ulti-
Leve
l Out
com
es
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
Ples
s, N
. M.,
& M
aak,
T.
2012
Th
inki
ng a
bout
doi
ng th
e rig
ht th
ing
– m
appi
ng th
e re
spon
sibili
ty m
inds
ets o
f lea
ders
- pa
per o
verv
iew
Ac
adem
y of
Man
agem
ent B
est P
aper
Pro
ceed
ings
Ket
ola,
T.
2012
Lo
sing
your
self:
man
ager
ial p
erso
na a
nd sh
adow
pre
ssur
es k
illin
g re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip
Jour
nal o
f Man
agem
ent D
evel
opm
ent
Roz
uel,
C.,
& K
etol
a, T
. 20
12
A v
iew
from
with
in: e
xplo
ring
the
psyc
holo
gy o
f res
pons
ible
lead
ersh
ip (g
uest
edito
rial)
Jour
nal o
f Man
agem
ent D
evel
opm
ent
Mac
aux,
W. P
. 20
12
Gen
erat
ive
lead
ersh
ip: r
espo
ndin
g to
the
call
for r
espo
nsib
ility
Jo
urna
l of M
anag
emen
t Dev
elop
men
t
Col
dwel
l, D
. D.,
Joos
ub, T
. T.,
&
Papa
geor
giou
, E. E
. 20
12
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p in
Org
aniz
atio
nal C
rises
: An
Ana
lysis
of t
he E
ffect
s of P
ublic
Per
cept
ions
of
Sele
cted
SA
Bus
ines
s Org
aniz
atio
ns’ R
eput
atio
ns
Jour
nal o
f Bus
ines
s Eth
ics
Ples
s, N
. M.,
Maa
k, T
., &
Wal
dman
, D
. A.
2012
D
iffer
ent A
ppro
ache
s Tow
ard
Doi
ng th
e Ri
ght T
hing
: Map
ping
the
Resp
onsib
ility
Orie
ntat
ions
of L
eade
rs
Acad
emy
of M
anag
emen
t Per
spec
tives
Maa
k, T
., &
Sto
ette
r, N
. 20
12
Soci
al E
ntre
pren
eurs
as R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rs: ‘
Fund
ació
n Pa
ragu
aya’
and
the
Case
of M
artin
Bur
t Jo
urna
l of B
usin
ess E
thic
s
Ples
s, N
. M.,
Maa
k, T
., &
Sta
hl, G
. K.
2012
Pr
omot
ing
corp
orat
e so
cial
resp
onsib
ility
and
susta
inab
le d
evel
opm
ent t
hrou
gh m
anag
emen
t dev
elop
men
t: W
hat c
an b
e le
arne
d fro
m in
tern
atio
nal s
ervi
ce le
arni
ng p
rogr
ams?
H
uman
Res
ourc
e M
anag
emen
t
42
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
43
In order to gain an insight into the set of articles comprising the field of responsible leadership, we came up with 8 criteria that break down the analysis into comprehensive categories. The choice of categories was inspired by the logic of recurrent categories present in the analyzed articles and by other literature review articles (e.g., on “Servant Leadership” by Van Dierendonck (2011) and “Spiritual Leadership” by Dent, Higgins & Wharff (2005)). The categories were the following: 1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical; 2. Research Questions; 3. Natureof the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis; 4. Theoretical Basis; 5. Definition of Responsible Leadership; 6. Understanding of Followers; 7. Antecedents of Responsible Leadership; 8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership. The SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) software was used in order to obtain basic statistical data about the analyzed sample of articles.
2.5. Results Looking at the sample of 57 articles on RL that were analyzed, the results of
the cross-tabulation of the journal of publication vs. year of publication criteria show that the first publication classified as relevant for RL literature survey was published in 1998 in Human Resource Development International with a break until 2005. The rise of publications on responsible leadership started in 2005 with 10 contributions on this topic and with 15 contributions in 2006, continued slowly and boomed again in 2011 with 11 contributions. Most articles on RL were published in the Journal of Business Ethics: 19 out of 57 (33%). Up to now (the end of 2013), the most fruitful year of publishing on the topic of RL was 2006 with 15 contributions (10 of which were in the book on Responsible Leadership edited by Maak and Pless).
2.5.1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical The analysis showed that out of 57 publications, more than half (33) are
conceptual articles (questioning the foundations of the concept, aiming at the clarification of the definition, construct, or making propositions) and 24 are empirical contributions that investigate the phenomena related to the existing state of responsible leadership by means of qualitative or quantitative methods. Since 2006, the number of conceptual contributions has been rising gradually until 2011 (with 5 conceptual contributions). Since 2011, empirical contributions became more numerous with 6 empirical contributions in 2011 and 7 in 2012.
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
44
2.5.2. Research Questions The research questions addressed in the literature on RL so far can be
summarized as follows (and sometimes more than one research question can be found within one article): a substantial group of authors study the objective factors that gave rise to RL (e.g., globalized, interconnected world, complexity of moral and ethical decisions, growing stakeholders’ demands, leadership misconducts, crises, world’s pressing problems, etc.) (e.g., articles by Maak & Pless, 2006b; Mària & Lozano, 2010; Voegtlin, Patzer & Scherer, 2012; Maritz, Pretorius & Plant, 2011; and Coldwell, Joosub & Papageorgiou, 2012).
Other authors ask the questions: what is RL (and thus deal with the definition issues), to whom should a leader be responsible (potential beneficiaries from RL), and why he or she should be responsible to that body. These questions tie to the area of conceptualization of the construct of RL, the underlying theoretical bases, and broader societal context in which responsible leaders operate. They include, for example, the economic vs. stakeholder dimensions of RL (Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Waldman, Sully de Luque, Washburn & House, 2006; Waldman, 2011; Waldman & Siegel, 2008), the study of RL mindset (Pless & Maak, 2012), the inclusion of minorities (Mària & Lozano, 2010; Voegtlin et al., 2012), and the fight against worldwide pressing problems (Maak & Pless, 2009).
Another group of authors study quantitative measurement and correlation with classical organizational measures such as performance and competitiveness, namely the discussions on whether RL leads to improved performance and competitiveness (e.g., Lynham & Chermack, 2006; Gond, Igalens, Swaen & El Akremi, 2011; Lynham, 1998; DeMaCarty, 2009; Cameron, 2011) and how to measure RL (Voegtlin, 2011; Gond et al., 2011). Another battery of questions concerns certain micro-level phenomena within a company, for example, “What is the contribution of HR to RL?” or “What is the connection of RL to strategy-making?”
Some authors study the mechanism of RL – its components and antecedents. They ask the questions: what does the “black box” of RL consist of (i.e., what are the values, visions, roles and virtues of a responsible leader) (e.g., Mària & Lozano, 2010; Waldman et al., 2006; Ketola, 2010; Pless, 2007), what are the prerequisites for RL (Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Dugan, 2006; Maak & Pless, 2006a,b), and what are the best practices of responsible leaders (e.g., Coldwell et al., 2012). Similarly, there are questions concerning the antecedents of RL at the organizational level, e.g.,
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
45
“What capacities should a company possess at the organizational level in order to promote RL?”
Policy measures toward RL development, i.e., discussion of the effectiveness of traditional managerial education, are addressed by Scalberg (2005) and Alexander and Wilson (2005) among others, and discussion of the development of responsible (global) leaders by means of experiential education such as service learning are dealt with by Pless, Maak and Stahl (2011, 2012), Pless and Schneider (2006), Pless and Maak (2008) among others.
2.5.3. Nature of the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis On what level(s) do the authors see RL operate? Is it a micro-level
phenomenon (emerging at the individual level), or is it a macro-level phenomenon (emerging at the level of organizational processes)? In order to determine the nature of the phenomenon of RL and to observe the prevalent views on this topic among the authors, we looked at the levels of analysis at which the authors studied the phenomenon of RL. According to Yammarino, Dionne, Schriesheim and Dansereau (2008, p. 695), “levels of analysis are the entities or objects of study about which we theorize and are integral parts of the definitions of constructs, operationalizations of measures, and empirical tests of theoretical associations (Dansereau & Yammarino, 2000; Yammarino & Dansereau, 2002).” Yammarino et al. (2008) differentiate two key levels of analysis: individual level of individuals or persons (independent human beings; dyads (two-person groups and interpersonal relationships), groups (work groups and teams)), and organizations (collectives larger than groups and groups of groups).
Adopting this definition in our analysis, looking at the overall number of articles and their level of analysis, it can be observed that the majority of authors (65%) analyze the studied phenomenon of RL at the individual level. Five articles (9%) analyze the phenomenon at the organizational level and 15 articles (26%) study the phenomenon at multiple levels. We could observe that some authors see RL as an individual-level phenomenon – inherent in the characteristics, values, behavior and practices of individual protagonists – leaders in organizations (e.g., Mària & Lozano, 2010; Waldman, 2011; Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Cameron & Caza, 2005; Ciulla, 2006). Within the articles that see RL as an individual-level phenomenon, we count the 3 articles whose authors see RL also as a group, team or departmental-level phenomenon. Other authors see RL as functioning at both individual and organizational levels (e.g., Doh, Stumpf & Tymon, 2011; Groves
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
46
& LaRocca, 2011; Freeman & Auster, 2011; Lynham & Chermack, 2006) and other authors claim that this construct operates at more than two levels surpassing the organizational level to the broader societal and environmental levels (e.g., Maritz, Pretorius & Plant, 2011; Cameron, 2011). It comes out from the literature survey that a substantial number of authors regard RL as a multi-level phenomenon, that is, functioning at both individual and organizational levels, having both individual and collective aspects, sometimes even surpassing the organizational level to the broader societal and environmental levels.
2.5.4. Theoretical Basis Out of 57 articles surveyed, 12 articles are building upon or referring to RL
theory (e.g., Voegtlin, 2011; Groves & LaRocca, 2011; Rozuel & Ketola, 2012). Authors of a substantial number of articles concerning RL ground their research in stakeholder theory (14 articles, e.g., Waldman, 2011; Cameron, 2011; Maritz, Pretorius & Plant, 2011; Maak & Stoetter, 2012), and/or CSR literature (7 articles, e.g., Mària & Lozano, 2010; Diermeier, 2006), and/or business ethics (4 articles,e.g., Freeman & Auster, 2011; Doh & Stumpf, 2005b; Sackmann, 2006). Five articles mention relational theory, which is connected to stakeholder theory (and also RL) by its focus on networks and the value in relationship building (e.g., Freeman & Auster, 2011; Maak & Pless, 2006b).
Other underlying theories, approaches and literatures included: different leadership theories (e.g., transformational, charismatic, authentic, servant leadership), or various psychological, or educational theories, which were referred to in the texts (10, 24.5, and 18 times respectively).
2.5.5. Definition of Responsible Leadership Studying what definitions authors writing about RL used helped us identify
the components (i.e., constituting features or characteristics) of RL. Looking into the definitional issues, we observed that 27 articles (almost half of the 57 articles analyzed) did not use any specific definition of RL. Of the 30 articles that used or referred to some definition of RL, all definitions were individual-level ones. Eight articles (14%) were articles by Maak and/or Pless using one of their definitions of RL. Twelve articles (21% of texts), referred to and/or extended a definition of Maak and Pless. Six articles (10.5%) used a different definition of RL (e.g., Lynham & Chermack, 2006; Cameron & Caza, 2005; Fombrun, 2005). The remaining articles (4) did not adhere to any particular definition of RL and stated that the
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
47
definition depended on various viewpoints (e.g., Waldman, 2011; Waldman & Galvin, 2009).
Up to 35% (20) of the 57 analyzed texts used or referred to a definition of Maak and Pless and 17 of the 20 texts explicitly mentioned a part of a definition by Maak and Pless. In the following, we analyze these 17 texts in more depth. Most often cited (10 times) was the text by Maak and Pless (2006b); in 5 cases, the definition of RL from the book edited by Maak and Pless (2006a) was used. Four authors referred to the definition of RL provided in the text by Pless (2007) and three other authors used another definition by Pless and Maak.
No author used or referred to a definition of RL before 2006, the year when the two texts by Maak and Pless (2006a and 2006b) were published. A key characteristic is that all the definitions studied mentioned the stakeholder perspective and understood RL as a values-centered and/or ethical phenomenon. More than half of the texts (11 articles) referring to a definition by Maak and Pless mentioned the relational aspect of RL. Six texts mentioned a shared sense of meaning and purpose and four texts emphasized a desirable and sustainable social change and accountability for and fight against pressing problems. Two texts mentioned different roles of a responsible leader and one text emphasized inclusion.
Twelve of the 17 articles explicitly mentioning a part of a definition by Maak and Pless used one or more of 3 recurrent parts of a definition: 8 articles used the same definition of RL as Maak and Pless (2006a) and Pless (2007): “…the art of building and sustaining… relationships to all relevant stakeholders…” (e.g., Coldwell et al., 2012; Mària & Lozano, 2010; Maak & Stoetter, 2012). Five articles see RL as Maak and Pless (2006b): “…a relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction…“ (e.g., Gond et al., 2011; Mària & Lozano, 2010). Four articles perceive RL similarly as Maak and Pless (2006b) and Pless (2007) as “…a values-based and through ethical principles driven relationship between leaders and stakeholders…“ (e.g., Groves & LaRocca, 2011; Maak & Pless, 2009). A list of 4 definitions building on and extending the understanding of a definition of RL by Maak and Pless involves the definition of RL based on the steps of discursive conflict resolution: “Responsible leadership can thus be understood as the awareness and consideration of the consequences of one’s actions for all stakeholders, as well as the exertion of influence by enabling the involvement of the affected stakeholders and by engaging in an active stakeholder dialogue. Therein responsible leaders strive to weigh and balance the interests of the forwarded claims” (Voegtlin, 2011, p. 59);
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
48
and, “In the context of this article, we therefore understand responsible leadership as the awareness and consideration of the consequences of one’s actions for all stakeholders, as well as the exertion of influence by enabling the involvement of the affected stakeholders and by engaging in an active stakeholder dialogue” (Voegtlin et al., 2012). Another definition cited in Cameron (2011) defines RL using the connotation of virtuousness: “responsibility is associated with promoting goodness for its own sake (Cameron, Dutton & Quinn, 2003)” (p. 26), such responsible leadership “is characterized by three core assumptions – a eudaemonic assumption, an inherent value assumption, and an amplification assumption (Bright, Cameron & Caza, 2006; Cameron & Winn, 2012)” (p. 28). In their article, Freeman and Auster (2011) say (in connection to Maak & Pless, 2006b) that RL “requires the effort to be authentic understood in the sense of starting with one’s values, seeking to understand the influence of the past, the set of connections or relationships in which one is entangled (Uhl-Bien, 2006, p. 658), and one’s aspirations. This conception of the poetic self means that leaders must think beyond followers and take on at least some responsibility for the stakeholders in the organizations that they lead, as Maak and Pless argue (2006b, p. 105).” Table 2.3. enlists the articles which used or referred to a specific definition of RL.
2.5.6. Understanding of Followers The term “follower” is understood as someone who supports and is guided by another person, the leader. The vast majority of the authors of the analyzed articles (almost 80%, i.e., 44 out of 57 articles) understood followers as “stakeholders in a broad sense.” An example of how stakeholders in a broad sense can be understood is provided by Maak (2007, p. 330): “Still, there are both theoretical and practical challenges with respect to stakeholder salience in general (Jones et al., 2007; Mitchell et al., 1997), andevaluating and balancing the various and often conflicting claims of multiple stakeholders (employees, clients, shareholder, suppliers, NGOs, communities, government, nature, future generations, etc.) in particular.”
Almost 11% of authors understand the term followers also in a broad sense; yet focus in the article on employees within an organization. Almost 11% of the articles claim understanding of the breadth of stakeholders according to the adopted perspective (e.g., economical-shareholder vs. stakeholder perspective) (e.g., Waldman, 2011; Groves & LaRocca, 2011; Waldman & Siegel, 2008).
Tabl
e 2.
3.: T
he A
rticl
es w
hich
Use
d or
Ref
erre
d to
a S
peci
fic D
efin
ition
of R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p A
utho
rs
Type
of D
efin
ition
D
efin
ition
R
efer
red
to
Wor
ding
of t
he D
efin
ition
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
6a)
Orig
inal
arti
cle
by
Maa
k an
d/or
Ple
ss
x P.
41:
“Re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip is
the
art o
f bui
ldin
g an
d su
stain
ing
mor
ally
soun
d re
latio
nshi
ps w
ith a
ll re
leva
nt st
akeh
olde
rs o
f an
orga
niza
tion.
” M
aak
& P
less
(2
006b
) O
rigin
al a
rticl
e by
M
aak
and/
or P
less
M
aak
& P
less
(2
006a
) P.
103
: “Re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip is
a re
latio
nal a
nd e
thic
al p
heno
men
on, w
hich
occ
urs i
n so
cial
pro
cess
es o
f int
erac
tion
with
thos
e w
ho
affe
ct o
r are
affe
cted
by
lead
ersh
ip a
nd h
ave
a sta
ke in
the
purp
ose
and
visio
n of
the
lead
ersh
ip re
latio
nshi
p (F
reem
an e
t al.,
200
6).”
P.
103
: “...
the
purp
ose
of le
ader
ship
can
be
unde
rsto
od a
s to
build
and
cul
tivat
e su
stain
able
and
trus
tful r
elat
ions
hips
to d
iffer
ent
stake
hold
ers i
nsid
e an
d ou
tside
the
orga
niza
tion
and
to c
o-or
dina
te th
eir a
ctio
n to
ach
ieve
com
mon
obj
ectiv
es (e
.g. t
riple
bot
tom
-line
go
als)
, bus
ines
s sus
tain
abili
ty a
nd le
gitim
acy
and
ultim
atel
y to
hel
p to
real
ize
a go
od (i
.e.,
ethi
cally
soun
d) a
nd sh
ared
bus
ines
s visi
on.”
P.
104
: “Re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip is
the
art o
f bui
ldin
g an
d su
stain
ing
good
rela
tions
hips
to a
ll re
leva
nt st
akeh
olde
rs (M
aak
and
Ples
s, 20
06: 4
0). A
resp
onsib
le le
ader
's co
re ta
sk is
to w
eave
a w
eb o
f inc
lusio
n w
here
the
lead
er e
ngag
es h
imse
lf am
ong
equa
ls.”
Maa
k (2
007)
O
rigin
al a
rticl
e by
M
aak
and/
or P
less
M
aak
& P
less
(2
006a
), M
aak
& P
less
(200
6b)
P. 3
34: “
As I
hav
e de
mon
strat
ed e
lsew
here
(Maa
k an
d Pl
ess,
2006
a, 2
006b
), re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip c
an b
e de
fined
as t
he a
rt an
d ab
ility
in
volv
ed in
bui
ldin
g, c
ultiv
atin
g an
d su
stain
ing
trustf
ul re
latio
nshi
ps to
diff
eren
t sta
keho
lder
s, bo
th in
side
and
outsi
de th
e or
gani
zatio
n,
and
in c
o-or
dina
ting
resp
onsib
le a
ctio
n to
ach
ieve
a m
eani
ngfu
l, co
mm
only
shar
ed b
usin
ess v
ision
.”
P. 3
34: “
...it
is a
rela
tiona
l and
eth
ical
phe
nom
enon
whi
ch o
ccur
s in
soci
al in
tera
ctio
n w
ith th
ose
who
are
affe
cted
by
or a
ffect
the
lead
ersh
ip p
roje
ct a
nd th
us h
ave
a sta
ke in
bot
h pu
rpos
e an
d vi
sion
of th
e le
ader
ship
rela
tions
hip
(Fre
eman
et a
l., 2
006;
Maa
k an
d Pl
ess,
2006
b).”
Pl
ess (
2007
) O
rigin
al a
rticl
e by
M
aak
and/
or P
less
Pl
ess &
Maa
k (2
006)
– m
eani
ng
actu
ally
Maa
k &
Ple
ss (2
006b
)
P. 4
38: “
I und
ersta
nd re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip a
s a v
alue
s-ba
sed
and
thro
ugh
ethi
cal p
rinci
ples
driv
en re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n le
ader
s and
sta
keho
lder
s who
are
con
nect
ed th
roug
h a
shar
ed se
nse
of m
eani
ng a
nd p
urpo
se th
roug
h w
hich
they
raise
one
ano
ther
to h
ighe
r lev
els o
f m
otiv
atio
n an
d co
mm
itmen
t for
ach
ievi
ng su
stain
able
val
ues c
reat
ion
and
soci
al c
hang
e (P
less
and
Maa
k, 2
006)
.”
P. 4
51: “
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
can
be
unde
rsto
od a
s the
art
of b
uild
ing
and
susta
inin
g so
cial
and
mor
al re
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
busin
ess
lead
ers a
nd d
iffer
ent s
take
hold
ers (
follo
wer
s), b
ased
on
a se
nse
of ju
stice
, a se
nse
of re
cogn
ition
, a se
nse
of c
are
and
a se
nse
of
acco
unta
bilit
y fo
r a w
ide
rang
e of
eco
nom
ic, e
colo
gica
l, so
cial
, pol
itica
l and
hum
an re
spon
sibili
ties.”
Pl
ess &
Maa
k (2
008a
) O
rigin
al a
rticl
e by
M
aak
and/
or P
less
M
aak
& P
less
(2
006a
), M
aak
& P
less
(200
6b),
Ples
s (20
07),
Maa
k (2
007)
P. 6
1: “
Maa
k an
d Pl
ess (
2006
a, b
) und
ersta
nd re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip a
s a re
latio
nal a
nd e
thic
al p
heno
men
on th
at “
occu
rs in
inte
ract
ion
with
thos
e w
ho a
ffect
or a
re a
ffect
ed b
y le
ader
ship
” (2
006b
, p. 1
03).
Ples
s (20
07) d
efin
es a
resp
onsib
le le
ader
as a
per
son
who
re
conc
iles “
the
idea
of e
ffect
iven
ess w
ith th
e id
ea o
f cor
pora
te re
spon
sibili
ty b
y be
ing
an a
ctiv
e ci
tizen
and
pro
mot
ing
activ
e ci
tizen
ship
” (p
. 450
). M
aak
(200
7) st
ates
that
resp
onsib
le le
ader
s bui
ld a
nd c
ultiv
ate
“sus
tain
able
rela
tions
hips
with
stak
ehol
ders
insid
e an
d ou
tside
the
orga
niza
tion
to a
chie
ve m
utua
lly sh
ared
obj
ectiv
es b
ased
on
a vi
sion
of b
usin
ess a
s a fo
rce
of g
ood
for t
he m
any,
and
no
t jus
t a fe
w (s
hare
hold
ers,
man
ager
s)”
(p. 3
31).
This
can
impl
y th
e cr
eatio
n of
soci
al v
alue
and
the
supp
ort o
f des
irabl
e so
cial
cha
nge
(e.g
., po
verty
alle
viat
ion,
equ
al o
ppor
tuni
ty, e
tc.)
at th
e lo
cal l
evel
.”
P. 6
1: “
...de
sirab
le so
cial
cha
nge
requ
ires r
espo
nsib
le g
loba
l lea
ders
– le
ader
s who
lead
with
hea
d, h
and,
and
hea
rt; w
ho h
ave
a re
spon
sible
min
dset
, car
e fo
r the
nee
ds o
f oth
ers,
and
act a
s glo
bal a
nd re
spon
sible
citi
zens
.”
Ples
s & M
aak
(200
8b)
Orig
inal
arti
cle
by
Maa
k an
d/or
Ple
ss
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
6a),
Maa
k &
Ple
ss (2
006b
)
refe
r to
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
9)
Orig
inal
arti
cle
by
Maa
k an
d/or
Ple
ss
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
6b),
Ples
s (2
007)
P. 5
39: “
...w
e de
fine
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
as a
val
ues-
base
d an
d pr
inci
ple-
driv
en re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n le
ader
s and
stak
ehol
ders
who
ar
e co
nnec
ted
thro
ugh
a sh
ared
sens
e of
mea
ning
and
pur
pose
thro
ugh
whi
ch th
ey ra
ise to
hig
her l
evel
s of m
otiv
atio
n an
d co
mm
itmen
t fo
r ach
ievi
ng su
stain
able
val
ue c
reat
ion
and
resp
onsib
le c
hang
e (M
aak
and
Ples
s, 20
06b;
Ple
ss, 2
007)
.”
Ples
s & M
aak
(201
1)
Orig
inal
arti
cle
by
Maa
k an
d/or
Ple
ss
Ples
s (20
07)
P. 5
: “W
e un
ders
tand
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
as a
val
ues-
base
d an
d th
orou
gh e
thic
al p
rinci
ples
-driv
en re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n le
ader
s and
sta
keho
lder
s who
are
con
nect
ed th
roug
h a
shea
red
sens
e of
mea
ning
and
pur
pose
thro
ugh
whi
ch th
ey ra
ise o
ne a
noth
er to
hig
her l
evel
s of
mot
ivat
ion
and
com
mitm
ent f
or a
chie
ving
susta
inab
le v
alue
s cre
atio
n an
d so
cial
cha
nge
(Ple
ss 2
007,
p. 4
38).”
P.
5: “
All
thes
e au
thor
s em
phas
ize
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
as a
rela
tiona
l, va
lues
-cen
tere
d co
ncep
t tha
t aim
s to
gene
rate
pos
itive
ou
tcom
es fo
r fol
low
ers a
s sta
keho
lder
s, as
spec
ified
furth
er n
ext.”
49
Aut
hors
Ty
pe o
f Def
initi
on
Def
initi
on
Ref
erre
d to
W
ordi
ng o
f the
Def
initi
on
Màr
ia &
Lo
zano
(201
0)
Usin
g or
refe
rring
to
a de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
6b)
P. 9
5: M
aak
and
Ples
s und
ersta
nd R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p as
“…
a re
latio
nal a
nd e
thic
al p
heno
men
on, w
hich
occ
urs i
n so
cial
pro
cess
es
of in
tera
ctio
n w
ith th
ose
who
affe
ct o
r are
affe
cted
by
lead
ersh
ip a
nd h
ave
a sta
ke in
the
purp
ose
and
visio
n of
the
lead
ersh
ip
rela
tions
hip”
(Maa
k &
Ple
ss, 2
006,
p. 1
03).
P. 9
4: M
aak
and
Ples
s adv
ocat
e a
new
und
ersta
ndin
g of
lead
ersh
ip a
s “th
e ar
t of b
uild
ing
and
susta
inin
g go
od re
latio
nshi
ps to
all
rele
vant
stak
ehol
ders
” (M
aak
& P
less
, 200
6, p
. 104
).
P. 9
4: “
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p pr
eten
ds to
bal
ance
the
pow
er d
ynam
ics i
n sta
keho
lder
rela
tions
by
alig
ning
the
valu
es o
f the
var
ious
pa
rties
in a
way
that
serv
es e
very
one’
s int
eres
ts (P
aint
er-M
orla
nd, 2
008,
p. 5
11).”
Be
rger
, Cho
i &
Kim
(201
1)
Usin
g or
refe
rring
to
a de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
6b),
Ples
s &
Maa
k (2
009)
No
expl
icit
defin
ition
of r
espo
nsib
le le
ader
ship
pro
vide
d, o
nly
refe
renc
e to
Maa
k an
d Pl
ess
P. 5
59: “
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
in th
e tw
enty
-firs
t cen
tury
(De
Jong
, 200
9; P
less
and
Maa
k, 2
009)
requ
ires a
gre
ater
glo
bal c
itize
nshi
p,
and
requ
ires a
gre
ater
app
reci
atio
n of
loca
l man
ager
s’ in
stitu
tiona
l val
ue a
nd th
e ov
erco
min
g of
psy
chic
dist
ance
tow
ards
loca
l m
anag
ers o
f bot
tom
of p
yram
id c
ount
ries.”
D
oh, S
tum
pf
& T
ymon
(2
011)
Usin
g or
refe
rring
to
a de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
Ples
s & M
aak
(200
4)
P. 8
6: D
efin
e “r
espo
nsib
le le
ader
s” w
ith re
gard
to P
less
& M
aak
(200
4) “
as o
ne w
ho c
reat
es a
cul
ture
of i
nclu
sion
built
on
solid
mor
al
grou
nd…
” P.
86:
“Re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip is
an
incl
usiv
e co
ncep
t whe
reby
em
ploy
ees p
erce
ive
thei
r org
aniz
atio
n as
hav
ing
an e
thic
al a
nd p
roac
tive
stake
hold
er p
ersp
ectiv
e to
war
ds c
onsti
tuen
ts ou
tside
the
orga
niza
tion
and
the
empl
oyee
s the
mse
lves
.”
Gon
d, Ig
alen
s, Sw
aen
& E
l A
krem
i (20
11)
Usin
g or
refe
rring
to
a de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
Ples
s & M
aak
(200
6) –
mea
ning
, ac
tual
ly M
aak
& P
less
(200
6b)
P. 1
16-1
17: R
espo
nsib
le le
ader
ship
repr
esen
ts, a
t the
org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
, an
appr
oach
of l
eade
rshi
p as
a so
cial
and
rela
tiona
l ph
enom
enon
that
focu
ses o
n th
e le
ader
-follo
wer
rela
tions
hip.
The
lead
er-fo
llow
er re
latio
nshi
p in
clud
es a
bro
ader
rang
e of
stak
ehol
ders
(P
less
and
Maa
k, 2
006,
p. 1
03);
ther
e is
a no
rmat
ive
dim
ensio
n “t
o no
t be
resp
onsib
le is
to n
ot b
e an
effe
ctiv
e le
ader
” (W
aldm
an &
G
alvi
n, 2
008,
p. 3
27);
lead
ers a
re se
en a
s fac
ilita
tors
of r
elat
iona
l pro
cess
es w
ithin
and
acr
oss s
take
hold
er re
latio
ns (P
less
& M
aak,
20
06, p
. 104
). G
rove
s &
LaR
occa
(2
011)
Usin
g or
refe
rring
to
a de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
Ples
s (20
07),
Maa
k &
Ple
ss (2
006a
) P.
39:
Res
pons
ible
lead
ersh
ip is
def
ined
with
rega
rd to
Ple
ss (2
007)
as “
…a
valu
es-b
ased
and
thro
ugh
ethi
cal p
rinci
ples
driv
en
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
lead
ers a
nd st
akeh
olde
rs w
ho a
re c
onne
cted
thro
ugh
a sh
ared
sens
e of
mea
ning
and
pur
pose
thro
ugh
whi
ch th
ey
raise
one
ano
ther
to h
ighe
r lev
els o
f mot
ivat
ion
and
com
mitm
ent f
or a
chie
ving
susta
inab
le v
alue
s cre
atio
n an
d so
cial
cha
nge”
(p. 4
38).
P. 3
8: T
he c
once
pt o
f res
pons
ible
lead
ersh
ip w
as d
evel
oped
as a
n or
gani
zing
fram
ewor
k fo
r val
ues-
cent
ered
lead
ersh
ip (M
aak
& P
less
, 20
06a;
Doh
& S
tum
pf, 2
005;
Wal
dman
and
col
leag
ues)
. P.
38:
Lea
ders
hip
mus
t be
unde
rsto
od a
s “a
mor
al, v
alue
s-ba
sed,
and
thus
nor
mat
ive
phen
omen
on”
(Maa
k an
d Pl
ess,
2006
a; p
. 102
) in
whi
ch le
ader
s and
follo
wer
s dev
elop
a c
olle
ctiv
e id
entit
y an
d se
nse
of sh
ared
stak
ehol
der v
alue
s tha
t ext
end
beyo
nd th
eir s
elf-i
nter
ests
and
thos
e of
thei
r res
pect
ive
orga
niza
tion.
M
aritz
, Pr
etor
ius
& P
lant
(201
1)
Usin
g or
refe
rring
to
a de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
6b)
P. 1
02: R
espo
nsib
le le
ader
s as “
…as
act
ors o
f stra
tegy
who
wan
t to
lead
for l
ong
term
susta
inab
le su
cces
s.”
P. 1
03: “
Maa
k an
d Pl
ess (
2006
, p.1
06) i
ntro
duce
a “
role
s mod
el”
high
light
ing
the
vario
us q
ualit
ies a
nd ro
les o
f the
resp
onsib
le le
ader
. In
add
ition
to th
e qu
alita
tive
role
s of c
itize
n, se
rvan
t, vi
siona
ry a
nd st
ewar
d, th
e m
ore
oper
atio
nal r
oles
of a
rchi
tect
, cha
nge
agen
t, co
ach
and
story
telle
r are
disc
usse
d. It
is n
oted
that
thes
e ro
les a
re p
art o
f the
inte
grat
ed c
once
pt o
f res
pons
ible
lead
ersh
ip, w
here
the
resp
onsib
le le
ader
fulfi
ls a
mul
titud
e of
inte
grat
ed ro
les.
It is
furth
erm
ore
criti
cal t
o al
so v
iew
this
lead
er fr
om th
e sta
keho
lder
pe
rspe
ctiv
e w
here
the
lead
er b
ecom
es a
co-
ordi
nato
r and
cul
tivat
or o
f rel
atio
nshi
ps to
war
ds d
iffer
ent s
take
hold
er g
roup
s (M
aak
and
Ples
s, 20
06, p
. 100
).”
Col
dwel
l, Jo
osub
&
Papa
geor
giou
(2
012)
Usin
g or
refe
rring
to
a de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
6a)
Def
initi
on o
f res
pons
ible
lead
ersh
ip a
ccor
ding
to M
aak
and
Ples
s (20
06a)
P.
133
: “M
aak
and
Ples
s (20
06, p
. 5) d
efin
e re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip a
s ‘th
e ar
t of b
uild
ing
and
susta
inin
g m
oral
ly so
und
rela
tions
hips
w
ith a
ll sta
keho
lder
s of a
n or
gani
zatio
n’.”
Maa
k an
d St
oette
r (2
012)
U
sing
or re
ferri
ng to
a
defin
ition
by
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
6b)
Def
initi
on o
f RL
as u
sed
by M
aak
and
Ples
s 200
6b
P. 4
22: “
The
auth
ors a
rgue
that
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
is th
e ar
t of b
uild
ing
and
susta
inin
g tru
stful
rela
tions
with
all
rele
vant
sta
keho
lder
s, ba
sed
on a
visi
on fo
r the
goo
d of
the
man
y, a
nd n
ot ju
st a
few
. It d
epen
ds o
n ad
optin
g sp
ecifi
c le
ader
ship
role
s: at
the
core
th
ose
of a
serv
ant,
a ste
war
d, a
citi
zen,
a c
hang
e ag
ent a
nd a
visi
onar
y.”
Cam
eron
(2
011)
Bu
ildin
g on
and
ex
tend
ing
the
x P.
26,
28:
Res
pons
ible
lead
ersh
ip u
sing
the
conn
otat
ion
of v
irtuo
usne
ss: “
resp
onsib
ility
is a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith p
rom
otin
g go
odne
ss fo
r its
own
sake
(Cam
eron
, Dut
ton,
& Q
uinn
, 200
3)”
(p. 2
6), s
uch
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
“is
char
acte
rized
by
thre
e co
re a
ssum
ptio
ns –
50
Aut
hors
Ty
pe o
f Def
initi
on
Def
initi
on
Ref
erre
d to
W
ordi
ng o
f the
Def
initi
on
defin
ition
by
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
a eu
daem
onic
ass
umpt
ion,
an
inhe
rent
val
ue a
ssum
ptio
n, a
nd a
n am
plifi
catio
n as
sum
ptio
n (B
right
, Cam
eron
, & C
aza,
200
6; C
amer
on
& W
inn,
201
2).”
(p. 2
8).
Free
man
&
Aus
ter
(201
1)
Build
ing
on a
nd
exte
ndin
g th
e de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
Maa
k &
Ple
ss
(200
6b)
P. 2
2: R
espo
nsib
le le
ader
ship
(in
conn
ectio
n to
Maa
k &
Ple
ss, 2
006b
) “re
quire
s the
effo
rt to
be
auth
entic
und
ersto
od in
the
sens
e of
sta
rting
with
one
’s v
alue
s, se
ekin
g to
und
ersta
nd th
e in
fluen
ce o
f the
pas
t, th
e se
t of c
onne
ctio
ns o
r rel
atio
nshi
ps in
whi
ch o
ne is
en
tang
led
(Uhl
-Bie
n, 2
006,
p. 6
58),
and
one’
s asp
iratio
ns.
This
conc
eptio
n of
the
poet
ic se
lf m
eans
that
lead
ers m
ust t
hink
bey
ond
follo
wer
s and
take
on
at le
ast s
ome
resp
onsib
ility
for t
he st
akeh
olde
rs in
the
orga
niza
tions
that
they
lead
, as M
aak
and
Ples
s arg
ue
(200
6b, p
. 105
).“
P. 2
2: C
reat
ing
poet
ic, a
uthe
ntic
org
aniz
atio
ns w
hich
are
mor
e fit
for h
uman
bei
ngs i
s the
wor
k of
resp
onsib
le le
ader
s and
resp
onsib
le
lead
ersh
ip.
Voe
gtlin
(201
1)
Build
ing
on a
nd
exte
ndin
g th
e de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
x P.
59:
New
def
initi
on o
f res
pons
ible
lead
ersh
ip b
ased
on
the
steps
of d
iscur
sive
conf
lict r
esol
utio
n: “
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
can
thus
be
unde
rsto
od a
s the
aw
aren
ess a
nd c
onsid
erat
ion
of th
e co
nseq
uenc
es o
f one
’s a
ctio
ns fo
r all
stake
hold
ers,
as w
ell a
s the
exe
rtion
of
influ
ence
by
enab
ling
the
invo
lvem
ent o
f the
affe
cted
stak
ehol
ders
and
by
enga
ging
in a
n ac
tive
stake
hold
er d
ialo
gue.
The
rein
re
spon
sible
lead
ers s
trive
to w
eigh
and
bal
ance
the
inte
rests
of t
he fo
rwar
ded
clai
ms.”
V
oegt
lin,
Patz
er &
Sc
here
r (20
12)
Build
ing
on a
nd
exte
ndin
g th
e de
finiti
on b
y M
aak
& P
less
x P.
4: “
In th
e co
ntex
t of t
his a
rticl
e, w
e th
eref
ore
unde
rsta
nd re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip a
s the
aw
aren
ess a
nd c
onsid
erat
ion
of th
e co
nseq
uenc
es o
f one
’s a
ctio
ns fo
r all
stake
hold
ers,
as w
ell a
s the
exe
rtion
of i
nflu
ence
by
enab
ling
the
invo
lvem
ent o
f the
affe
cted
sta
keho
lder
s and
by
enga
ging
in a
n ac
tive
stake
hold
er d
ialo
gue.
”
Lynh
am (1
998)
D
iffer
ent d
efin
ition
of
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
x
P. 2
10: “
Resp
onsib
le L
eade
rshi
p re
flect
s effe
ctiv
enes
s, et
hics
and
end
uran
ce a
nd c
lear
ly d
emon
strat
ing
thes
e, b
oth
qual
itativ
ely
and
quan
titat
ivel
y, to
war
ds p
erfo
rman
ce a
nd p
eopl
e (W
hite
New
man
, 199
3).”
C
amer
on
& C
aza
(200
5)
Diff
eren
t def
initi
on o
f re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip
x D
efin
ition
of R
L in
the
Posit
ive
Org
aniz
atio
nal S
cien
ces (
POS)
sens
e:
P. 8
8: “
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
in th
e PO
S se
nse
focu
ses o
n po
sitiv
e de
vian
ce, i
n th
at it
focu
ses o
n ex
traor
dina
ry p
ositi
ve o
utco
mes
and
th
e pr
oces
ses t
hat p
rodu
ce th
em.”
P.
206
: und
ersta
ndin
g (re
spon
sible
) lea
ders
hip
as a
tem
pora
ry st
ate
rath
er th
an a
per
man
ent a
ttrib
ute
Fom
brun
(2
005)
D
iffer
ent d
efin
ition
of
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
x
P. 6
6: “
…re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip is
a b
alan
cing
act
… it
invo
lves
bal
anci
ng th
e in
tere
sts o
f mul
tiple
stak
ehol
ders
, allo
win
g pr
imac
y an
d as
cend
ancy
to n
one.
It re
quire
s bal
anci
ng a
com
pany
’s fi
nanc
ial a
nd so
cial
miss
ions
: its
inve
stors
’ dem
ands
for p
erfo
rman
ce a
gain
st its
em
ploy
ees’
dem
ands
for e
quita
ble
shar
ing
of g
ains
. It i
nvol
ves b
alan
cing
the
inte
rests
of t
he m
any
agai
nst t
he in
tere
sts o
f the
few
.”
P. 5
7: “
A c
ompa
ny w
ith re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip th
eref
ore
(a) r
ecog
nize
s the
mul
tiple
inte
rests
of i
ts m
ajor
stak
ehol
ders
, (b)
val
ues a
nd
mon
itors
thei
r opi
nion
s, an
d (c
) tak
es a
ctio
n to
add
ress
thei
r con
cern
s.”
Lynh
am
& C
herm
ack
(200
6)
Diff
eren
t def
initi
on o
f re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip
x P.
77:
“Le
ader
ship
that
is re
spon
sible
is th
at w
hich
dem
onstr
ates
, and
is ju
dged
to d
emon
strat
e, e
ffect
iven
ess,
ethi
cs, a
nd e
ndur
ance
(D
ePre
e 19
89, 1
997,
Tre
vion
, Bro
wn
& H
artm
an, 2
003;
Whi
te N
ewm
an, 1
993)
. Wha
t con
stitu
tes t
hese
3E ’
s is d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e co
nstit
uenc
y of
the
perfo
rman
ce sy
stem
in w
hich
the
lead
ersh
ip o
ccur
s (Ba
ss, 1
990;
Bea
ucha
mp
& B
owie
, 199
7; B
rady
, 198
5;
Freu
dber
g, 1
986;
Fro
oman
, 199
9; Jo
nes &
Wic
ks, 1
999;
Khu
ntia
& S
uar,
2004
; Kna
pp &
Olso
n, 1
996;
Sta
vrou
, Kle
anth
ous,
& A
nasta
siou,
200
5).”
P.
77:
“...
wha
t we
mig
ht c
all r
espo
nsib
le le
ader
s (an
d w
hat L
utha
ns m
ight
cal
l hop
eful
), ar
e le
ader
s tha
t com
mun
icat
e fre
quen
tly w
ith
thei
r co-
wor
kers
, and
for w
hom
thos
e co
-wor
kers
enj
oy c
omin
g to
wor
k.”
Schr
aa-L
iu &
Tr
ompe
naar
s (2
006)
Diff
eren
t def
initi
on o
f re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip
x P.
140
: “…
our d
efin
ition
of r
espo
nsib
le le
ader
ship
is th
at le
ader
s are
thos
e w
ho ta
ke re
spon
sibili
ty to
war
ds th
e bo
ttom
-line
and
sh
areh
olde
rs o
f the
org
aniz
atio
n, w
hile
at t
he sa
me
time
– th
roug
h re
conc
iliat
ion
– ta
ke re
spon
sibili
ty to
war
ds in
tegr
atin
g a
dive
rse
wor
kfor
ce, m
ultic
ultu
ral c
usto
mer
s and
supp
liers
, loc
al a
nd g
loba
l com
mun
ities
, NG
Os,
envi
ronm
enta
l con
cern
s and
soci
ety
at la
rge.
Th
ese
lead
ers r
ecog
nize
and
resp
ect m
ultip
le d
eman
ds, i
nter
ests,
nee
ds a
nd c
onfli
cts s
tem
min
g fro
m d
iver
se re
spon
sibili
ties a
nd
reco
ncile
them
by
mob
ilizi
ng a
nd su
cces
sful
ly e
ngag
ing
the
orga
niza
tion
and
vary
ing
stake
hold
ers.”
Pl
ess,
Maa
k &
Sta
hl (2
011)
D
iffer
ent d
efin
ition
of
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
x
Def
initi
on o
f “re
spon
sible
glo
bal l
eade
rs”:
P.
238
: “Fo
r the
pur
pose
of t
his s
tudy
, we
defin
e re
spon
sible
glo
bal l
eade
rs a
s “in
divi
dual
s who
effe
ct si
gnifi
cant
pos
itive
cha
nge
in
orga
niza
tions
by
build
ing
com
mun
ities
thro
ugh
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f tru
st an
d th
e ar
rang
emen
t of o
rgan
izat
iona
l stru
ctur
es a
nd p
roce
sses
in
a c
onte
xt in
volv
ing
mul
tiple
cro
ss-b
ound
ary
stake
hold
ers,
mul
tiple
sour
ces o
f ext
erna
l cro
ss-b
ound
ary
auth
ority
, and
mul
tiple
cu
lture
s und
er c
ondi
tions
of t
empo
ral,
geog
raph
ical
, and
cul
tura
l com
plex
ity”
(Men
denh
all,
2008
: 17)
.”
51
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
52
2.5.7. Antecedent Variables of Responsible Leadership First of all, let us define how we understand the terms antecedents variables
(antecedents). Walker and Avant (1995) define antecedents as characteristics present whenever the concept occurs. Antecedents provide additional insight about the attributes and illustrate the context in which the concept is used. In the following, we will look at the contextual influences (occurring at different levels and usually interlinked also among each other) that enable the phenomenon of RL to manifest itself and be recognized and distinguished from other leadership theories. Looking at the antecedents of RL, within the 57 analyzed articles, it was the individual (including group) level variables of leadership/managerial behavior that were mentioned most times (26 times, e.g., acting authentically, interest in employee’s well-being, engagement in dialogue as equals, leading as a model), followed by ethical and moral qualities (22 times, e.g., trustworthiness, honesty, ethics, endurance, respect for dignity and human rights, integrity, care, etc.),psychological/personal characteristics (15 times, e.g., anticipation of achievement, role experimentation, pride and satisfaction with the organization, etc.), leader to follower(s) relationship (14 times, e.g., encouraging and building motivational confidence, team orientation, empowerment of others, etc.), values (13 times, e.g., self-transcendent values, social justice values, citizenship, stakeholder values, etc.), and leaders’ competencies or abilities (11 times, e.g., ability and willingness to learn, reflection skills, critical thinking, foresight and planning, etc.). From the organizational level variables, it was organizational strategy, structure and processes that were mentioned the most times (14 times, e.g., hierarchy, clear definitions of roles and functions, inclusive HR practices, clear concept of CSR, etc.), followed by organizational culture and its elements (7 times, e.g., clear communication and shared understanding, creating a culture of trust and integrity, network ties, etc.). Societal or cultural variables were mentioned in 3 articles (e.g., laws and regulations, market factors, stakeholders’ demands, the leader’s family background, etc.). See Table 2.4. for the results.
Tabl
e 2.
4.: A
ntec
eden
t Var
iabl
es (C
onte
xtua
l Inf
luen
ces)
of R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p A
utho
r Ty
pe o
f Ant
eced
ent V
aria
ble
Subc
ateg
ory
of A
ntec
eden
t Var
iabl
e Ex
ampl
es o
f Ant
eced
ent V
aria
bles
Ly
nham
(199
8)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el v
aria
bles
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Stra
tegy
, stru
ctur
e, p
roce
sses
, firm
size
, etc
.•
Psyc
holo
gica
l / p
erso
nal c
hara
cter
istic
s; le
ader
tofo
llow
er(s
)
•“P
erfo
rman
ce-s
yste
ms v
iew
” of
the
com
plex
ity o
f the
org
aniz
atio
n•
The
lead
ersh
ip c
ompo
nent
s; th
e le
ader
ship
–fol
low
ersh
ip d
imen
sion
Ples
s & M
aak
(200
5)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al);
psyc
holo
gica
l /pe
rson
al c
hara
cter
istic
s•
Rela
tiona
l int
ellig
ence
, em
otio
nal i
ntel
ligen
ce; r
efle
ctiv
e an
d (s
elf-)
criti
cal t
hink
ing,
bei
ng a
ble
to e
xerc
ise re
flect
ion
and
orie
ntat
ion
Doh
& S
tum
pf (2
005b
) •
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•St
rate
gy, s
truct
ure,
pro
cess
es, f
irm si
ze, e
tc.
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); va
lues
; lea
der t
ofo
llow
er(s
)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l cha
ract
erist
ics:
CSR,
Gov
erna
nce
and
Acc
ount
abili
ty•
Valu
es-b
ased
lead
ersh
ip; q
ualit
y sta
keho
lder
rela
tions
hips
Fom
brun
(200
5)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el v
aria
bles
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es
•St
rate
gy, s
truct
ure,
pro
cess
es, f
irm si
ze, e
tc.;
orga
niza
tiona
l cul
ture
•Le
ader
ship
/ m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r; le
ader
to fo
llow
er(s
)
•Tr
ansp
aren
cy, v
isibi
lity,
con
siste
ncy
(bei
ng c
onsis
tent
in a
ctio
ns a
ndco
mm
unic
atio
ns to
stak
ehol
ders
)•
Cons
isten
cy a
nd d
istin
ctiv
enes
sU
seem
(200
5)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Lead
ersh
ip /
man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior
•Fi
ve c
riter
ia fo
r res
pons
ible
dec
ision
s
Cam
eron
& C
aza
(200
5)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el v
aria
bles
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal c
ultu
re•
Lead
ersh
ip /
man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior;
lead
er to
follo
wer
(s)
•Po
sitiv
e w
ork
orie
ntat
ion
and
posit
ive
clim
ate
•Po
sitiv
e co
mm
unic
atio
n; p
ositi
ve re
latio
nshi
psA
lexa
nder
& W
ilson
(200
5)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Lead
ersh
ip /
man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior;
psyc
holo
gica
l /pe
rson
al c
hara
cter
istic
s•
Inte
grity
, fos
tere
d by
self-
insig
ht a
nd fu
sed
with
altr
uism
Wal
dman
& S
iege
l (20
05)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Psyc
holo
gica
l / p
erso
nal c
hara
cter
istic
s•
Stra
tegy
, stru
ctur
e, p
roce
sses
, firm
size
, etc
.•
Pers
onal
qua
litie
s or a
ttrib
utes
of k
ey d
ecisi
on m
aker
s•
Stra
tegi
c va
riabl
es th
at c
onsti
tute
pre
dict
ors o
f CSR
: R&
D sp
endi
ngan
d ad
verti
sing
inte
nsity
Sack
man
n (2
005)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Ps
ycho
logi
cal /
per
sona
l cha
ract
erist
ics;
lead
er’s
com
pete
ncie
s / a
bilit
ies;
lead
er to
follo
wer
(s)
•In
tegr
ity, i
nclu
ding
attr
ibut
es su
ch a
s bei
ng tr
ustw
orth
y, ju
st an
dho
nest
Qui
gley
, de
Luqu
e &
Hou
se
(200
5)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Psyc
holo
gica
l / p
erso
nal c
hara
cter
istic
s; le
ader
’sco
mpe
tenc
ies /
abi
litie
s; le
ader
to fo
llow
er(s
)•
Bein
g tru
stwor
thy,
just
and
hone
st (h
avin
g in
tegr
ity);
havi
ng fo
resig
htan
d pl
anni
ng a
head
; bei
ng p
ositi
ve, d
ynam
ic; e
ncou
ragi
ng, m
otiv
atin
gan
d bu
ildin
g co
nfid
ence
Scal
berg
(200
5)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Psyc
holo
gica
l / p
erso
nal c
hara
cter
istic
s; le
ader
’sco
mpe
tenc
ies /
abi
litie
s; le
ader
to fo
llow
er(s
)•
Hon
esty
and
inte
grity
; cor
e bu
sines
s kno
wle
dge,
glo
bal m
ind-
set,
cultu
ral i
nter
est a
nd se
nsiti
vity
, abi
lity
to th
ink
crea
tivel
y an
d ta
kea
broa
d sy
stem
ic v
iew
; em
pow
erm
ent o
f oth
ers
Lynh
am &
Che
rmac
k (2
006)
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•St
rate
gy, s
truct
ure,
pro
cess
es, f
irm si
ze, e
tc.
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); le
ader
ship
/m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r
•RL
for P
erfo
rman
ce fr
amew
ork:
follo
wer
ship
, pro
cess
, effe
ctiv
enes
s•
Ethi
cs, e
ndur
ance
, effe
ctiv
enes
s
Wal
dman
, Sul
ly d
e Lu
que,
W
ashb
urn
& H
ouse
(200
6)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es
•So
ciet
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); va
lues
;le
ader
ship
/ m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r•
Soci
etal
or c
ultu
ral a
ntec
eden
ts
•In
tegr
ity; c
once
rn fo
r: sh
areh
olde
r/ow
ners
, sta
keho
lder
s and
the
com
mun
ity /
state
wel
fare
; CEO
visi
onar
y le
ader
ship
and
inte
grity
•H
ighe
r ins
titut
iona
l col
lect
ivism
and
low
er p
ower
dist
ance
Wal
dman
, Sie
gel &
Jav
idan
(2
006)
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•St
rate
gy, s
truct
ure,
pro
cess
es, f
irm si
ze, e
tc.
•Le
ader
ship
/ m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r•
Firm
size
, R&
D in
tens
ity, p
rior p
rofit
leve
ls•
The
CEO
’s in
telle
ctua
l stim
ulat
ion
Dug
an (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Va
lues
•
Citiz
ensh
ipM
aak
& P
less
(200
6b)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al)
•Re
latio
nal i
ntel
ligen
ce (e
mot
iona
l and
eth
ical
inte
llige
nce)
Ciu
lla (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); va
lues
•Et
hics
and
val
ues b
ase
Maa
k &
Ple
ss (2
006a
) •
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); le
ader
’sco
mpe
tenc
ies /
abi
litie
s•
Char
acte
r and
virt
ues,
ethi
cal i
ntel
ligen
ce, i
.e.,
mor
al a
war
enes
s,re
flect
ion
skill
s, cr
itica
l thi
nkin
g an
d m
oral
imag
inat
ion
Pain
e (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); le
ader
ship
/m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r; le
ader
to fo
llow
er(s
)•
Set o
f ana
lytic
al fr
ames
or m
oral
lens
es: p
urpo
se, p
rinci
ples
, peo
ple,
and
pow
erPr
uzan
& M
iller
(200
6)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Lead
ersh
ip /
man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior;
resp
onsib
le•
Bein
g th
e le
ast c
once
rned
with
max
imiz
ing
pers
onal
wea
lth a
s a to
p
53
Aut
hor
Type
of A
ntec
eden
t Var
iabl
e Su
bcat
egor
y of
Ant
eced
ent V
aria
ble
Exam
ples
of A
ntec
eden
t Var
iabl
es
lead
ersh
ip m
inds
et; l
eade
r to
follo
wer
(s)
prio
rity;
the
spiri
tual
-bas
ed p
ersp
ectiv
e; h
avin
g in
clus
ive
I-ide
ntity
Bere
nker
t (20
06)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al)
•M
oral
stan
dard
s, m
oral
sens
e of
inte
grity
, act
s of r
espo
nsib
lele
ader
ship
Sack
man
n (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Ps
ycho
logi
cal /
per
sona
l cha
ract
erist
ics;
lead
er’s
com
pete
ncie
s / a
bilit
ies
•In
tegr
ity, h
ones
ty, t
rustw
orth
ines
s; be
ing
empa
thet
ic a
nd a
ble
to ta
ckle
dile
mm
as o
penl
y an
d co
nstru
ctiv
ely;
bei
ng se
nsiti
ve to
cul
tura
lsp
ecifi
cs, h
avin
g go
od d
iagn
ostic
and
soci
al sk
ills
Schr
aa-L
iu &
Tro
mpe
naar
s (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Le
ader
’s co
mpe
tenc
ies /
abi
litie
s•
The
com
pete
nce
in re
conc
iling
dile
mm
as
Die
rmei
er (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Le
ader
’s co
mpe
tenc
ies /
abi
litie
s•
Und
ersta
ndin
g an
d an
ticip
atin
g co
mpe
ting
valu
e-or
ient
atio
n
van
de L
oo (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Va
lues
; Lea
ders
hip
/ man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior;
psyc
holo
gica
l / p
erso
nal c
hara
cter
istic
s; le
ader
tofo
llow
er(s
)
•Va
lues
and
stro
ng b
elie
fs; d
iscip
line,
resu
lt-or
ient
atio
n, c
ontin
uous
self-
deve
lopm
ent,
resp
ect,
self-
awar
enes
s and
con
fiden
ce; p
atie
nce,
cons
isten
ce, r
esili
ence
; the
abi
lity
to a
dapt
the
style
and
lang
uage
acco
rdin
g to
the
spec
ific
cont
ext;
havi
ng a
gift
in re
latin
g to
peo
ple;
incl
usiv
e of
all
stake
hold
ers
Ples
s & S
chne
ider
(200
6)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Psyc
holo
gica
l / p
erso
nal c
hara
cter
istic
s; le
ader
’sco
mpe
tenc
ies /
abi
litie
s; le
ader
to fo
llow
er(s
)•
Inte
grity
, res
pons
ibili
ty, f
ores
ight
; abi
lity
to st
rive
in a
com
plex
,gl
obal
, div
erse
and
con
nect
ed e
nviro
nmen
t; bu
ildin
g su
stain
able
and
flour
ishin
g re
latio
nshi
ps w
ith d
iffer
ent s
take
hold
ers
Ples
s (20
07)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al);
psyc
holo
gica
l /pe
rson
al c
hara
cter
istic
s; le
ader
’s co
mpe
tenc
ies /
abili
ties
•Th
e ne
ed fo
r jus
tice,
exp
lora
tion,
ass
ertio
n an
d re
cogn
ition
,at
tach
men
t and
affi
liatio
n, a
sens
e of
car
e, re
spon
sibili
ty a
nden
joym
ent;
curio
sity;
abi
lity
and
will
ingn
ess t
o le
arn
Maa
k (2
007)
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l cul
ture
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); le
ader
ship
/m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r
•N
etw
ork
ties,
netw
ork
conf
igur
atio
n, a
nd a
ppro
pria
te o
rgan
izat
ion
•Et
hica
l qua
lity
of so
cial
cap
ital:
rela
tiona
l dim
ensio
n, c
ogni
tive
dim
ensio
n; c
entra
lity
of th
e le
ader
, em
bedd
edne
ssW
aldm
an &
Gal
vin
(200
8)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Valu
es; l
eade
rshi
p / m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r•
Stak
ehol
der v
alue
s: im
porta
nce
of th
e ne
eds a
nd in
tere
sts o
f a w
ide
varie
ty o
f ind
ivid
uals;
lead
ers’
long
-term
aut
hent
icity
and
bei
ng tr
ue to
thei
r sta
ted
valu
es a
nd b
elie
fsW
aldm
an &
Sie
gel (
2008
) •
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Va
lues
; lea
ders
hip
/ man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior
•Pe
rson
al m
oral
val
ues (
man
ager
ial)
valu
es o
r ins
trum
enta
l thi
nkin
g or
the
desir
able
com
bina
tion
of b
oth;
put
ting
an e
mph
asis
on b
alan
cing
mul
tiple
stak
ehol
der n
eeds
Ples
s & M
aak
(200
8a)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Valu
es; l
eade
rshi
p / m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r; re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip m
inds
et•
Carin
g fo
r the
nee
ds o
f oth
ers,
resp
ect,
tole
ranc
e; a
ctin
g as
a g
loba
lan
d re
spon
sible
citi
zen,
inte
ract
ing
with
mul
tiple
stak
ehol
ders
Ples
s & M
aak
(200
8b)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al)
•Q
ualit
ies
Maa
k &
Ple
ss (2
009)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); le
ader
ship
/m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r•
Ethi
cal p
rinci
ples
; mob
ilizi
ng o
ther
s as c
olla
bora
tors
, rai
sing
one
anot
her
DeM
aCar
ty (2
009)
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•St
rate
gy, s
truct
ure,
pro
cess
es, f
irm si
ze, e
tc.
•Le
ader
ship
/ m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r; pe
rspe
ctiv
e•
Crea
ting
valu
e by
find
ing
strat
egie
s mut
ually
ben
efic
ial t
o al
l•
Stak
ehol
der l
oyal
ty; d
epen
ding
on
the
view
poin
t: in
strum
enta
l (or
econ
omic
) per
spec
tive,
or s
take
hold
er p
ersp
ectiv
eM
ària
& L
ozan
o (2
010)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); le
ader
ship
/m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r•
Resp
ect f
or d
igni
ty a
nd h
uman
righ
ts, to
lera
nce,
trus
t; ac
tive
invo
lvem
ent a
gain
st ex
clus
ion
of m
inor
ities
, eng
agem
ent i
n di
alog
ueas
equ
als,
prom
otio
n of
spac
es o
f tru
stK
etol
a (2
010)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Va
lues
; lea
ders
hip
/ man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior;
psyc
holo
gica
l / p
erso
nal c
hara
cter
istic
s; le
ader
tofo
llow
er(s
)
•Ca
re, c
oura
ge, i
nteg
rity;
val
ue b
asis;
bei
ng a
nd a
ctin
g co
nsist
ent;
self-
imag
e vs
. ext
erna
l im
age,
tim
e pe
rspe
ctiv
e, ro
le e
xper
imen
tatio
n,an
ticip
atio
n of
ach
ieve
men
t; le
ader
-follo
wer
rela
tion
Del
ios (
2010
) •
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Soci
etal
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Stra
tegy
, stru
ctur
e, p
roce
sses
, firm
size
, etc
.•
Soci
etal
or c
ultu
ral a
ntec
eden
ts•
Act
ivity
in a
dopt
ing
a so
cial
car
ing
agen
da, w
ithou
t sac
rific
ing
com
petit
iven
ess;
law
s and
regu
latio
ns
54
Aut
hor
Type
of A
ntec
eden
t Var
iabl
e Su
bcat
egor
y of
Ant
eced
ent V
aria
ble
Exam
ples
of A
ntec
eden
t Var
iabl
es
Voe
gtlin
(201
1)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el v
aria
bles
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Stra
tegy
, stru
ctur
e, p
roce
sses
, firm
size
, etc
.•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al)
•H
iera
rchy
•Tr
ustw
orth
ines
s, ho
nesty
Wal
dman
(201
1)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Pers
pect
ive
•St
akeh
olde
r per
spec
tive,
vs.
econ
omic
/ in
strum
enta
l per
spec
tive
Gro
ves &
LaR
occa
(201
1)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Valu
es, p
ersp
ectiv
e•
Stak
ehol
der v
alue
s, ec
onom
ic v
alue
s, se
lf-tra
nsce
nden
t val
ues,
colle
ctiv
istic
wor
k va
lues
, soc
ial j
ustic
e va
lues
; sta
keho
lder
pers
pect
ive,
vs.
econ
omic
/ in
strum
enta
l per
spec
tive
Gon
d, Ig
alen
s, Sw
aen
& E
l A
krem
i (20
11)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Lead
ersh
ip /
man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior
•St
rate
gy, s
truct
ure,
pro
cess
es, f
irm si
ze, e
tc.;
orga
niza
tiona
l cul
ture
•Cl
ear c
omm
unic
atio
n an
d sh
ared
und
ersta
ndin
g•
Clea
r org
aniz
atio
nal d
efin
ition
s of C
SR a
nd H
R ro
les a
nd fu
nctio
ns
Cam
eron
(201
1)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al);
valu
es•
Virtu
ousn
ess,
inhe
rent
val
ueD
oh, S
tum
pf &
Tym
on (2
011)
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•St
rate
gy, s
truct
ure,
pro
cess
es, f
irm si
ze, e
tc.
•Le
ader
ship
/ m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r; ps
ycho
logi
cal /
pers
onal
cha
ract
erist
ics
•In
clus
ive
HR
prac
tices
•M
anag
eria
l sup
port:
tale
nt m
anag
emen
t, in
tere
st in
em
ploy
ee’s
wel
l-be
ing,
lead
ing
by e
xam
ple;
prid
e in
the
orga
niza
tion,
satis
fact
ion
with
the
orga
niza
tion
Mar
itz, P
reto
rius
& P
lant
(201
1)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el v
aria
bles
•
Stra
tegy
, stru
ctur
e, p
roce
sses
, firm
size
, etc
.•
Char
acte
ristic
s ass
ocia
ted
with
stra
tegy
-mak
ing
Free
man
& A
uste
r (2
011)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); le
ader
ship
/m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r•
Aut
hent
icity
: see
king
to u
nder
stand
one
’s va
lues
; act
ing
auth
entic
ally
:on
the
perc
eive
d va
lues
Berg
er, C
hoi &
Kim
(201
1)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el v
aria
bles
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal c
ultu
re•
Faire
r, eq
ual t
reat
men
t of a
ll m
anag
ers,
i.e.,
both
exp
atria
te a
nd lo
cal
man
ager
s with
in M
NEs
Ples
s & M
aak
(201
1)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al);
valu
es;
pers
pect
ive;
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
min
dset
•Vi
rtues
, val
ues,
ethi
cal d
ecisi
on m
akin
g; ty
pe o
f the
resp
onsib
lele
ader
ship
min
dset
(eco
nom
ic /
strat
egic
vs.
stake
hold
er)
Ples
s, M
aak
& S
tahl
(201
1)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al);
lead
er’s
com
pete
ncie
s / a
bilit
ies;
psyc
holo
gica
l / p
erso
nal
char
acte
ristic
s; re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip m
inds
et
•M
oral
judg
men
t, th
e ca
paci
ty to
bal
ance
con
tradi
ctio
ns, a
soun
dun
ders
tand
ing
of m
atte
rs o
f glo
bal j
ustic
e an
d fa
irnes
s; tra
its,
cogn
itive
orie
ntat
ion;
six
core
dim
ensio
ns o
f glo
bal l
eade
rshi
pco
mpe
tenc
ies
Voe
gtlin
, Pat
zer
& S
cher
er (2
012)
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal c
ultu
re•
Lead
ersh
ip /
man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior
•O
peni
ng to
a b
road
er ta
rget
gro
up (s
take
hold
ers)
to g
ain
legi
timac
y•
Solid
arity
; disc
ursiv
e co
nflic
t res
olut
ion
Ples
s & M
aak
(201
2)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
min
dset
•D
iffer
ent r
espo
nsib
ility
min
dset
s: al
truist
, eco
nom
ist, o
ppor
tuni
st(s
trate
gist)
, int
egra
tor
Ket
ola
(201
2)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el v
aria
bles
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal c
ultu
re•
Lead
ersh
ip /
man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior;
psyc
holo
gica
l /pe
rson
al c
hara
cter
istic
s
•M
atur
ity, a
war
enes
s of o
ne’s
pers
ona
and
shad
ow•
Self-
scru
tiniz
ing
one’
s con
scio
usne
ss, b
ecom
ing
awar
e
Roz
uel &
Ket
ola
(201
2)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al)
•Co
nsci
ous a
war
enes
s of t
he se
lf in
its e
ntire
ty, a
uthe
ntic
ity to
self
inon
e’s a
ctio
ns a
nd re
flect
ive
mor
al d
evel
opm
ent
Mac
aux
(201
2)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Qua
litie
s (us
ually
eth
ical
and
mor
al);
valu
es;
lead
ersh
ip /
man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior;
lead
er to
follo
wer
(s)
•To
lera
nce
of d
iffer
ence
s; at
titud
e of
car
e an
d in
clus
ion,
bro
ad sc
ope
ofco
ncer
n, c
onsc
ious
ness
of b
eing
a g
uide
; enc
oura
ging
of o
ther
s to
lead
in th
eir o
wn
style
and
voi
ce; e
mph
asis
on th
e in
terp
erso
nal
Col
dwel
l, Jo
osub
& P
apag
eorg
iou
(201
2)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el v
aria
bles
•In
divi
dual
leve
l var
iabl
es•
Stra
tegy
, stru
ctur
e, p
roce
sses
, firm
size
, etc
.•
Lead
ersh
ip /
man
ager
ial b
ehav
ior
•Co
mpa
ny a
ctio
n in
resp
onse
to c
rises
•M
anag
emen
t res
pons
ible
reac
tions
to c
risis
Ples
s, M
aak
& W
aldm
an (2
012)
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
var
iabl
es•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•St
rate
gy, s
truct
ure,
pro
cess
es, f
irm si
ze, e
tc.
•Q
ualit
ies (
usua
lly e
thic
al a
nd m
oral
); re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip m
inds
et; p
ersp
ectiv
e
•D
iffer
ent r
espo
nsib
le m
inds
ets,
com
petit
ive
adva
ntag
e, re
puta
tion,
PR
•D
iffer
ent r
espo
nsib
le m
inds
ets
Maa
k &
Sto
ette
r (2
012)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•So
ciet
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Le
ader
ship
/ m
anag
eria
l beh
avio
r•
Soci
etal
or c
ultu
ral a
ntec
eden
ts•
Diff
eren
t lea
ders
hip
role
s•
Fam
ily b
ackg
roun
dPl
ess,
Maa
k &
Sta
hl (2
012)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel v
aria
bles
•Le
ader
’s co
mpe
tenc
ies /
abi
litie
s; re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip m
inds
et; l
eade
r to
follo
wer
(s)
•G
loba
l lea
ders
hip,
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
, and
self-
lead
ersh
ip
55
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
56
2.5.8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership When studying the phenomenon of RL, we also looked at its outcome
variables (outcomes or consequences of RL) that could be identified in the literature survey. We used the following definitions of the outcomes on each level by Voegtlin et al. (2012): the individual (micro-) level is the level of personal interaction of individual agents; the organizational (meso-) level is the level of internal organizational structures and practices; and the broader societal or cultural (macro-) level is the level encompassing the interaction of organizations with the broader (global) society.
From the literature survey of 57 articles, we could identify that most authors see outcomes of RL at the individual level (mentioned 48 times). Also, a lot of authors see outcomes of RL at the organizational level (mentioned 38 times). Societal level outcomes were mentioned 17 times. There were 5 articles that did not speak about specific outcomes and rather contributed to the conceptualization of the theory of RL in general. Examples of individual level outcomes of RL are the following: 1. concerning stakeholders: reduced unethical behavior of employees, inclusion of marginalized individuals and social groups, better benefit for all stakeholders including the owners; 2. desirable outcomes at the individual level: job satisfaction, responsibility and inspired commitment on the part of followers, increased performance; 3. responsible or CSR behavior: follower organizational citizenship behaviors,addressing community problems, socially responsible leadership, and community service; 4. individual characteristics and benefits: the “poetic self,” self-awareness, increased leadership learning.
Examples of organizational-level outcomes of RL include: 1. improved working environment and company culture: more ethical work environment, diversity management or gender equality programs that feed responsible leadership; 2. desirable organizational outcomes: improved job satisfaction, commitment,performance, firm’s competitive position and its broader societal context.
Societal or cultural-level outcomes of RL included: a flourishing nation: adding value to national stability, sustainable economic performance, and long-term social growth and human development. Table 2.5. presents the results.
Tabl
e 2.
5.: O
utco
me
Varia
bles
(Con
sequ
ence
s) o
f Res
pons
ible
Lea
ders
hip
Aut
hor
Type
of O
utco
me V
aria
ble
Subc
ateg
ory
of O
utco
me V
aria
ble
Exam
ples
of O
utco
me V
aria
bles
Ly
nham
(199
8)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Des
irabl
e in
divi
dual
out
com
e•
Des
irabl
e or
gani
zatio
nal o
utco
mes
•Su
stain
able
(dur
able
) lea
ders
hip
whi
ch sa
tisfie
s the
con
cern
s for
bot
h pe
rform
ance
(eco
nom
ics)
and
peo
ple
(inte
grity
and
eth
ics)
Ples
s & M
aak
(200
5)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•So
ciet
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•Co
ncer
ning
stak
ehol
ders
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Des
irabl
e so
cial
cha
nge
•In
tera
ctin
g w
ith d
iffer
ent s
take
hold
ers i
n an
eth
ical
way
; res
olvi
ng c
onfli
cts a
ndre
conc
iling
dile
mm
as•
Trig
gerin
g a
high
er le
vel s
olut
ions
•Su
ppor
ting
lead
ers t
o m
eet t
he g
loba
l lea
ders
hip
chal
leng
es o
f tod
ay a
nd to
mor
row
Doh
& S
tum
pf (2
005b
) •
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior
•Re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ipFo
mbr
un (2
005)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•In
divi
dual
cha
ract
erist
ics o
r ben
efits
•D
istin
ctiv
enes
s, vi
sibili
ty, c
onsis
tenc
y, a
uthe
ntic
ity, t
rans
pare
ncy
Use
em (2
005)
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Wor
king
env
ironm
ent
•Re
spon
sible
dec
ision
s
Cam
eron
& C
aza
(200
5)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•D
esira
ble
indi
vidu
al o
utco
me
•W
orki
ng e
nviro
nmen
t
•Po
sitiv
e w
ork
orie
ntat
ion,
pos
itive
clim
ate,
pos
itive
com
mun
icat
ion,
and
pos
itive
rela
tions
hips
•Re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip e
nabl
es e
spec
ially
pos
itive
out
com
esA
lexa
nder
& W
ilson
(200
5)
• In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•In
divi
dual
cha
ract
erist
ics o
r ben
efits
•Ch
arac
teris
tics o
f org
aniz
atio
n•
Self-
insig
ht, d
evel
opin
g in
tegr
ity, c
onsis
tenc
y, p
redi
ctab
ility
•A
ltrui
sm m
ore
popu
lar i
n th
e w
orkp
lace
; dev
elop
ing
ethi
cal o
rgan
izat
ions
Wal
dman
& S
iege
l (20
05)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Resp
onsib
le o
r CSR
beh
avio
r•
Posit
ive
impa
ct o
n su
bseq
uent
CSR
act
ivity
for s
trate
gica
lly-o
rient
ed C
SR, w
hile
not f
or so
cial
ly-o
rient
ed C
SRSa
ckm
ann
(200
5)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Enha
ncin
g ef
fect
ive
lead
ersh
ip u
nive
rsal
ly, b
ut th
e sp
ecifi
c en
actm
ent n
eeds
diff
erac
ross
cul
ture
sQ
uigl
ey, d
e Lu
que
& H
ouse
(200
5)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Soci
etal
leve
l out
com
es
•In
divi
dual
cha
ract
erist
ics o
r ben
efits
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Cultu
ral /
Soc
ieta
l ant
eced
ents
•Co
ntex
tual
influ
ence
indi
vidu
al fa
ctor
s with
in a
soci
ety
•Co
ntex
tual
influ
ence
org
aniz
atio
nal f
acto
rs w
ithin
a so
ciet
y•
Cont
extu
al in
fluen
ce o
n in
stitu
tiona
l fac
tors
with
in a
soci
ety
Scal
berg
(200
5)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•Le
ader
ship
dev
elop
men
t•
Dev
elop
ing
glob
al le
ader
sLy
nham
& C
herm
ack
(200
6)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Perfo
rman
ce
Wal
dman
, Sul
ly d
e Lu
que,
W
ashb
urn
& H
ouse
(200
6)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Resp
onsib
le o
r CSR
beh
avio
r•
Des
irabl
e or
gani
zatio
nal o
utco
mes
•Co
ncer
n fo
r sta
keho
lder
CSR
val
ues
•Va
rious
firm
-leve
l out
com
esW
aldm
an, S
iege
l &
Jav
idan
(200
6)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Resp
onsib
le o
r CSR
beh
avio
r•
Des
irabl
e or
gani
zatio
nal o
utco
mes
•St
rate
gic
and
focu
sed
appr
oach
to C
SR•
Firm
’s co
mpe
titiv
e po
sitio
n an
d its
bro
ader
soci
etal
con
text
Dug
an (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior
•Le
ader
ship
dev
elop
men
t•
Soci
ally
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
and
com
mun
ity se
rvic
e•
Lead
ersh
ip d
evel
opm
ent a
nd le
arni
ngM
aak
& P
less
(200
6b)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Resp
onsib
le o
r CSR
beh
avio
r•
Des
irabl
e or
gani
zatio
nal o
utco
mes
•Fo
sterin
g co
llabo
ratio
n an
d m
obili
zing
and
alig
ning
stak
ehol
ders
•Fo
llow
ing
a sh
ared
and
mor
ally
soun
d vi
sion
Ciu
lla (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Lead
ers w
ho d
o th
ings
righ
t and
do
the
right
thin
gs
Maa
k &
Ple
ss (2
006a
) •
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•So
ciet
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•In
divi
dual
cha
ract
erist
ics o
r ben
efits
•Cu
ltura
l / S
ocie
tal a
ntec
eden
ts•
Dem
ands
of l
eadi
ng b
usin
ess i
n so
ciet
y
Pain
e (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•In
divi
dual
cha
ract
erist
ics o
r ben
efits
•Ch
arac
teris
tics o
f org
aniz
atio
n•
Ethi
cally
soun
d de
cisio
n m
akin
g•
Shap
ing
an o
rgan
izat
ion’
s mor
al p
erso
nalit
yPr
uzan
& M
iller
(200
6)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Soci
etal
leve
l out
com
es
•Co
ncer
ning
stak
ehol
ders
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Des
irabl
e so
cial
cha
nge
•Be
havi
ng re
spon
sibly
on
beha
lf of
one
self
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l ide
ntity
, res
pons
ibili
ty a
nd su
cces
s•
Beha
ving
resp
onsib
ly o
n be
half
of o
ne’s
com
mun
ities
, soc
iety
, the
env
ironm
ent
and
all o
f cre
atio
n
57
Aut
hor
Type
of O
utco
me V
aria
ble
Subc
ateg
ory
of O
utco
me V
aria
ble
Exam
ples
of O
utco
me V
aria
bles
Be
renk
ert (
2006
) •
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•In
divi
dual
cha
ract
erist
ics o
r ben
efits
•In
tegr
ity
Sack
man
n (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•In
divi
dual
cha
ract
erist
ics o
r ben
efits
•Se
nsiti
vity
to c
ultu
ral s
peci
fics,
good
dia
gnos
tic a
nd so
cial
skill
s, em
path
y, th
eab
ility
to ta
ckle
dile
mm
as o
penl
y an
d co
nstru
ctiv
ely
Schr
aa-L
iu
& T
rom
pena
ars (
2006
) •
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•So
ciet
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•Co
ncer
ning
stak
ehol
ders
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Des
irabl
e so
cial
cha
nge
•Re
conc
iling
and
alig
ning
the
dem
ands
, nee
ds, i
nter
est,
valu
es a
nd o
ppos
ites
•In
trins
ic re
spon
sibili
ty o
f lea
ders
tow
ards
em
ploy
ees,
custo
mer
s, su
pplie
rs,
com
mun
ities
, sha
reho
lder
s, N
GO
s, th
e en
viro
nmen
t and
soci
ety
at la
rge
Die
rmei
er (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•Co
ncer
ning
stak
ehol
ders
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Stra
tegi
c or
ient
atio
n th
at h
elps
lead
ers t
o ev
alua
te c
ompe
ting
valu
e-or
ient
atio
n of
stake
hold
ers
van
de L
oo (2
006)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•Co
ncer
ning
stak
ehol
ders
•W
orki
ng e
nviro
nmen
t; de
sirab
leor
gani
zatio
nal o
utco
mes
•In
volv
ing
in th
e ch
ange
all
stake
hold
ers
•In
spiri
ng a
nd m
obili
zing
peo
ple
and
orga
niza
tions
Ples
s & S
chne
ider
(200
6)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•So
ciet
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•Co
ncer
ning
stak
ehol
ders
; res
pons
ible
or
CSR
beha
vior
•D
esira
ble
soci
al c
hang
e
•D
eepl
y ro
oted
hum
an v
alue
s (lik
e eq
ualit
y, c
are
for o
ther
hum
an b
eing
s,re
cogn
ition
, coo
pera
tion)
•Ca
pabi
litie
s to
build
susta
inab
le re
latio
nshi
ps, m
otiv
atio
n to
initi
ate
furth
er so
cial
chan
ge in
side
and
outsi
de th
e or
gani
zatio
nPl
ess (
2007
) •
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior
•Re
spon
sible
beh
avio
r
Maa
k (2
007)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•So
ciet
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•D
esira
ble
indi
vidu
al o
utco
me
•Cu
ltura
l / S
ocie
tal a
ntec
eden
ts
•Bu
ildin
g so
cial
cap
ital a
nd v
alue
net
wor
ks a
nd le
adin
g to
susta
inab
le b
usin
ess a
ndth
e co
mm
on g
ood
•Bu
ildin
g so
cial
cap
ital a
nd v
alue
net
wor
ksW
aldm
an &
Gal
vin
(200
8)
• In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•Co
ncer
ning
stak
ehol
ders
; des
irabl
ein
divi
dual
out
com
e•
Bette
r ben
efit
for a
ll sta
keho
lder
s inc
ludi
ng th
e ow
ners
; res
pons
ibili
ty a
nd in
spire
dco
mm
itmen
t on
the
part
of fo
llow
ers
Wal
dman
& S
iege
l (20
08)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•In
divi
dual
cha
ract
erist
ics o
r ben
efits
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es
•M
anag
eria
l int
uitio
n an
d ac
ting
acco
rdin
g to
man
ager
s’ m
oral
val
ues
•St
rate
gic
CSR
activ
ities
that
lead
to p
rofit
max
imiz
atio
nPl
ess &
Maa
k (2
008a
) •
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Soci
etal
leve
l out
com
es•
Lead
ersh
ip d
evel
opm
ent
•D
esira
ble
soci
al c
hang
e•
Syste
mat
ic d
evel
opm
ent t
hrou
gh a
serv
ice
and
expe
rient
ial l
earn
ing
met
hodo
logy
•Re
spon
sible
bus
ines
s lea
ders
act
ing
as a
gent
s of w
orld
ben
efit
Ples
s & M
aak
(200
8b)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Soci
etal
leve
l out
com
es•
Conc
erni
ng st
akeh
olde
rs•
Des
irabl
e so
cial
cha
nge
•Cr
eatin
g va
lue
for s
take
hold
ers i
n bu
sines
s and
soci
ety
Maa
k &
Ple
ss (2
009)
•
Soci
etal
leve
l out
com
es•
Cultu
ral /
Soc
ieta
l ant
eced
ents
•Es
tabl
ishin
g an
eth
ical
ly so
und
mar
ket f
ram
ewor
kD
eMaC
arty
(200
9)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Resp
onsib
le o
r CSR
beh
avio
r•
Retu
rns o
f CSR
and
CSI
Màr
ia &
Loz
ano
(201
0)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Conc
erni
ng st
akeh
olde
rs•
Incl
usio
n of
mar
gina
lized
indi
vidu
als a
nd so
cial
gro
ups
Ket
ola
(201
0)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior
•W
orki
ng e
nviro
nmen
t
•Re
spon
sible
beh
avio
r: ta
ke a
ctio
n to
cor
rect
the
wro
ng in
any
situ
atio
n an
d de
spite
any
cons
eque
nces
•Re
spon
sibili
ty is
con
tagi
ous
Del
ios (
2010
) •
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Soci
etal
leve
l out
com
es•
Wor
king
env
ironm
ent
•Cu
ltura
l / S
ocie
tal a
ntec
eden
ts•
Crea
ting
an e
nviro
nmen
t of n
orm
s tha
t pro
mot
es a
har
mon
izat
ion
in c
ross
-nat
iona
lsta
ndar
ds fo
r lev
els o
f soc
ial r
espo
nsib
ility
Voeg
tlin
(201
1)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•Co
ncer
ning
stak
ehol
ders
; des
irabl
ein
divi
dual
out
com
e•
Wor
king
env
ironm
ent
•Re
spon
sible
lead
ersh
ip is
abl
e to
redu
ce u
neth
ical
beh
avio
r am
ong
the
prim
ary
stake
hold
er g
roup
, the
em
ploy
ees;
job
satis
fact
ion
•H
elpi
ng to
cre
ate
a m
ore
ethi
cal w
ork
envi
ronm
ent
Wal
dman
(201
1)
•N
ot m
entio
ned
– ot
her
cont
ribut
ion
to th
eory
Gro
ves &
LaR
occa
(201
1)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•So
ciet
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior
•D
esira
ble
soci
al c
hang
e
•Fo
llow
er o
rgan
izat
iona
l citi
zens
hip
beha
vior
s and
bel
iefs
in th
e sta
keho
lder
vie
wof
CSR
•A
ddre
ssin
g co
mm
unity
pro
blem
s
58
Aut
hor
Type
of O
utco
me V
aria
ble
Subc
ateg
ory
of O
utco
me V
aria
ble
Exam
ples
of O
utco
me V
aria
bles
G
ond,
Igal
ens,
Swae
n &
El
Akr
emi (
2011
) •
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior
•W
orki
ng e
nviro
nmen
t; le
ader
ship
deve
lopm
ent
•H
R tu
rns e
mpl
oyee
s int
o CS
R su
ppor
ters
•D
iver
sity
man
agem
ent o
r gen
der e
qual
ity p
rogr
ams t
hat f
eed
resp
onsib
lele
ader
ship
Cam
eron
(201
1)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Virtu
ous l
eade
rshi
p pr
oduc
es d
esira
ble
ends
(e.g
., or
gani
zatio
nal c
omm
itmen
t,or
gani
zatio
nal p
erfo
rman
ce o
utco
mes
, or s
ettin
g vi
rtuou
s goa
ls fo
r fie
lds o
fstu
dies
)D
oh, S
tum
pf &
Tym
on
(201
1)
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Empl
oyee
s’ pr
ide
in th
e or
gani
zatio
n, sa
tisfa
ctio
n w
ith th
e or
gani
zatio
n, a
ndre
tent
ion
Mar
itz, P
reto
rius
& P
lant
(2
011)
•
Not
men
tione
d –
othe
rco
ntrib
utio
n to
theo
ryFr
eem
an &
Aus
ter (
2011
) •
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•In
divi
dual
cha
ract
erist
ics o
r ben
efits
•W
orki
ng e
nviro
nmen
t; ch
arac
teris
tics o
for
gani
zatio
n
•Th
e “p
oetic
self,
” se
lf-aw
aren
ess
•“P
oetic
org
aniz
atio
ns,”
self-
awar
enes
s
Berg
er, C
hoi &
Kim
(201
1)
• O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es•
Lead
er-fo
llow
er•
Leve
rage
use
ful k
now
ledg
e re
sour
ces,
bond
s, an
d co
llect
ive
actio
n•
Ove
rcom
ing
of p
sych
ic d
istan
ce to
war
ds lo
cal m
anag
ers o
f bot
tom
of p
yram
idco
untri
esPl
ess &
Maa
k (2
011)
•
Not
men
tione
d –
othe
rco
ntrib
utio
n to
theo
ryPl
ess,
Maa
k &
Sta
hl (2
011)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•So
ciet
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior,
indi
vidu
alch
arac
teris
tics o
r ben
efits
•D
esira
ble
soci
al c
hang
e
•Le
arni
ng in
six
area
s rel
evan
t to
resp
onsib
le g
loba
l lea
ders
hip;
dee
per r
efle
ctio
n
•En
gagi
ng w
ith p
eopl
e in
the
loca
l com
mun
ities
Voeg
tlin,
Pat
zer &
Sch
erer
(2
012)
•
Indi
vidu
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•So
ciet
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•D
esira
ble
indi
vidu
al o
utco
me
•Ch
arac
teris
tics o
f org
aniz
atio
n
•Cu
ltura
l / S
ocie
tal a
ntec
eden
ts
•Fo
llow
ers’
attit
udes
and
cog
nitio
ns (e
.g.,
job
satis
fact
ion,
mot
ivat
ion,
com
mitm
ent
or o
rgan
izat
iona
l citi
zens
hip
beha
vior
)•
Ethi
cal c
ompa
ny c
ultu
re, c
ultu
re o
f disc
ursiv
e co
nflic
t res
olut
ion
and
delib
erat
ive
prac
tices
, per
ceiv
ed im
porta
nce
of C
SR, e
ncou
ragi
ng so
cial
ent
repr
eneu
rshi
p,im
prov
ing
orga
niza
tion’
s fin
anci
al a
nd so
cial
per
form
ance
•Le
gitim
acy
of a
com
pany
, bui
ldin
g tru
stful
stak
ehol
der r
elat
ions
, enh
anci
ng th
eso
cial
cap
ital i
nher
ent i
n sta
keho
lder
rela
tions
Ples
s & M
aak
(201
2)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Soci
etal
leve
l out
com
es•
Conc
erni
ng st
akeh
olde
rs•
Cultu
ral /
Soc
ieta
l ant
eced
ents
•St
akeh
olde
r-orie
nted
dec
ision
mak
ing
•St
reng
then
ed so
cial
con
tract
bet
wee
n bu
sines
s and
soci
ety
Ket
ola
(201
2)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Resp
onsib
le o
r CSR
beh
avio
r•
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
Roz
uel &
Ket
ola
(201
2)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Indi
vidu
al c
hara
cter
istic
s or b
enef
its•
Des
irabl
e or
gani
zatio
nal o
utco
mes
•Et
hica
l aw
aren
ess a
nd re
spon
sible
act
ion
as le
ader
s, fo
llow
ers
•Et
hica
l aw
aren
ess a
nd re
spon
sible
act
ion
as o
rgan
izat
iona
l age
nts
Mac
aux
(201
2)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Conc
erni
ng st
akeh
olde
rs•
Lead
ersh
ip d
evel
opm
ent
•Co
ncer
n fo
r the
gre
ater
goo
d•
In-d
epth
per
sona
l ref
lect
ion
and
deve
lopm
ent
Col
dwel
l, Jo
osub
&
Pap
ageo
rgio
u (2
012)
•
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Des
irabl
e or
gani
zatio
nal o
utco
mes
•Re
puta
tion
capi
tal b
uilt
up th
roug
h re
spon
sible
man
agem
ent a
ctio
n
Ples
s, M
aak
& W
aldm
an
(201
2)
•In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•So
ciet
al le
vel o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior;
desir
able
indi
vidu
al o
utco
me
•D
esira
ble
soci
al c
hang
e
•Cr
eatin
g so
cial
val
ue fo
r tar
gete
d sta
keho
lder
s in
need
or s
ocie
ty a
s a w
hole
•Cr
eatin
g lo
ng-te
rm e
cono
mic
val
ue fo
r sha
reho
lder
s / st
akeh
olde
rsM
aak
& S
toet
ter (
2012
) •
Org
aniz
atio
nal l
evel
out
com
es•
Soci
etal
leve
l out
com
es•
Lead
ersh
ip d
evel
opm
ent
•D
esira
ble
soci
al c
hang
e•
Enha
ncin
g fin
anci
al li
tera
cy a
mon
g en
trepr
eneu
rs•
Self-
suffi
cien
t agr
icul
tura
l sch
ool;
runn
ing
smal
l-sca
le, o
n-ca
mpu
s bus
ines
ses
Ples
s, M
aak
& S
tahl
(201
2)
• In
divi
dual
leve
l out
com
es
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
•Re
spon
sible
or C
SR b
ehav
ior
•Le
ader
ship
dev
elop
men
t•
Dev
elop
ing
resp
onsib
le b
usin
ess l
eade
rs•
Supp
ortin
g a
com
pany
’s CS
R an
d su
stain
abili
ty e
fforts
59
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
60
2.6. Discussion and Suggestions for Further Research Responsible leadership is a new phenomenon valuable for both theoretical
exploration and practical application. A growing number of scholars study it and a growing number of companies are setting up programs aimed at developing responsible leaders (Pless et al., 2011 and 2012; Pless & Borecká, 2014). The desired outcome of this study is the synthesis of knowledge available about RL, the clarification of the concept of RL and further progress in the identification of the constituting features of the phenomenon of RL. The following passages will discuss the results obtained in the literature survey on RL and suggest areas for further research.
2.6.1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical One of the indicators to identify the progress within a field of a theory is the
kind of contributions that can be found on the topic. The results of the literature survey on RL show a shift in the nature of the contributions concerning RL: in the past (since 2005), two conceptual contributions (by Doh and Stumpf (2005a) linking RL and governance, and by the authors in Maak and Pless (2006a)) focused on carving the conceptual foundations of RL (Pless & Maak, 2011). Within the last eight years, the predominating number of conceptual articles (58% of texts) in comparison with empirical articles (42% of analyzed texts) implies that the field of RL has not still reached the point of a matured theory.
Although still nascent, the interest in the topic of RL and the field of RL is growing and the proof is also two special issues on RL: Journal of Business Ethics in 2011 (taking the ethics and leadership theories as a starting point) and Journal of Management Development in 2012 (exploring the psychology of responsible leaders). It is possible to predict that both conceptual and empirical contributions will be subjects of interest in the future, with the number of empirical contributions growing as the theory of RL becomes more established.
2.6.2. Research Questions The choice of research questions or topics that are the subject of investigation
in the contributions on RL corresponds to the previously discussed fact that the majority of contributions are conceptual ones. A substantial number of authors still deal with the question of conceptualization of the construct of RL (the definition issues, the components and factors conditioning RL, and the broader societal context in which responsible leaders operate). The articles that represent empirical
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
61
contributions are even scarcer and their findings need further exploration in order to obtain results that can be generalized (e.g., the attempts to measure RL, how RL leads to improved performance, competitiveness, job satisfaction, etc.). Authors of future studies should focus on the refinement of the construct variables of RL and gradually also on the issues of operationalization of RL variables and on the measurement of RL.
Looking at the angle from which the authors discuss RL, it is obvious that they do see it through an ethical lens as a phenomenon disposing of the potential to address important issues in the world, for example, the involvement of all stakeholders in dialogue, the inclusion of minorities, and the fight against the world’s pressing problems (Maak & Pless, 2009). We can observe a shift toward the importance of an ethical way of leading a business and a number of authors reflect this through their focus on the methods and ways of developing responsible leaders, for example, by means of experiential education or international service learning programs (Pless et al., 2011, 2012). Researchers should further study, among other topics, the element of relationality (in relation to shared or distributed leadership), and the questions of leadership complexity when dealing with ethical dilemmas in daily decision-making.
2.6.3. Nature of the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis As Kozlowski and Klein (2000) put it, micro phenomena are embedded in
macro contexts and macro phenomena usually emerge through the interaction and dynamics of lower-level elements. The micro perspective is rooted in psychological origins and focuses on variations among individual characteristics leading toward individual reactions and outcomes. The macro perspective is rooted in sociological origins and it assumes that there are regularities in social behavior that transcend the apparent differences among social actors, therefore, it is possible to focus on aggregates or collective responses.
According to Dent, Higgins and Wharff (2005), it is deeply rooted in tradition and supported by twentieth-century research that leadership is an individual-level phenomenon (i.e., that formal leaders in the hierarchy of an organization are carriers of influence over dyadic, group, or organizational outcomes) (Waldman, 2011). Also, our literature survey showed that most of the authors writing about RL seem to continue the traditional focus of leadership on the internal, group level of analysis (Waldman, 2011), and also on the individual persons and their attributes (looking at the constituting features, components or antecedents of RL, the values, behavior, and
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
62
practices of individual leaders). However, a substantial number of authors suggest that the nature of the phenomenon of RL demonstrates itself as both individual and organizational. The suggestions that leadership could be a collective phenomenon have been put forward only recently and this broader view on leadership depicts “leadership as a process of influence within organizations in which formal leaders are only a part” (Waldman, 2011, p. 81), or, as an aspect possessed by the community (e.g., the group, the team, organization, nation, etc.) (Drath, 2001). As Waldman (2011) points out, this is in line with newly established theory and research on complexity leadership (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007), leadership capacity (Day et al., 2004), and shared leadership (Pearce & Conger, 2003), that is, “a dynamic process of mutual influence among peers or individuals at differing hierarchical levels in an organization” (Pearce and Conger, 2003; as cited in Waldman, 2011, p. 81). In Waldman’s (2011) words, though there are authors who mention that RLoperates at organizational level, RL should not be confused with organizational-level phenomena (as it is sometimes misunderstood). Yet it should rather be related to individuals and processes shared by individuals, such as distributed or shared leadership. In other words, “responsible leadership should not be considered as being synonymous with responsible organizations” (Waldman, 2011, p. 81).
In line with the results of the literature survey, RL is perceived as a multi-level phenomenon operating mostly at an individual level within the organizations and social networks which they form, that is, within social context that is in a system of mutual influence and interaction (Zinnbauer, Pargament & Scott, 1999). Still, the exact dimensions of each level of the phenomenon of RL should be explored in further research. It would also be beneficial to investigate and further differentiate the manifestation of RL within the level of groups or teams (or even organization departments) which Yammarino et al. (2008) categorize as individual level entities. Even though we have seen in the literature survey that few authors identified RL as operating at the group or team level, it is possible to expect the raising interest in shared forms of (responsible) leadership distributed within a group or a team of individuals rather than localized in one leader (Pearce & Conger, 2003). Within the focus on the group level, it would be equally valuable to investigate the role of top management or executive teams whose members are involved in the highest decision-making and who set forth the company strategy and the corporate governance issues. Future research could also try to see into the issue of how RL demonstrated at the individual level translates to the group and organization level.
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
63
2.6.4. Theoretical Basis We have seen in the results of the literature survey that stakeholder theory,
business ethics, and CSR were most often referred to in connection with RL. Stakeholder theory and business ethics can be perceived as diversification streams of what started out as CSR (Maak, 2008). What stands out very strongly is the feature of RL aiming at initiating and integrating relationships from business to society. Relationship building (cultivating ethically sound relationships with and among stakeholders) and establishing dialogue with a wide spectrum of stakeholders with the aim of meeting the needs of all those influenced by a company’s practices is a central theme of stakeholder theory (Maak & Pless, 2006a; Kaptein & Van Tulder, 2003; Galan, 2006). The area of ethical decision-making and behavior (e.g., Brown & Treviño, 2006; Crilly, Schneider & Zollo, 2008; Kish-Gephart, Harrison & Treviño, 2010) forms an integral part of both CSR and stakeholder theory and is crucial for RL. According to Maak (2007), “responsible leadership in business needs leadership ethics (...), [e]thics is at the “heart of leadership” (Ciulla, 1998, cited in Maak, 2007, p. 330-331). The stream of CSR has been calling for the broader sense of responsibility of businesses and leaders beyond the requirements of law, shareholders’ and owners’ expectations, usually aiming at reaching a sustainable business balancing the triple bottom line objectives of the economic, ecological and social needs (Székely & Knirsch, 2005).
These and other contemporary influential leadership theories and approaches which have been discussed earlier have a certain common ground with RL, by, for example, sharing a common concern for a moral dimension of leadership or for the importance of creating lasting organizations which contribute to building community and bridges within it. A shared and morally-sound vision directed toward desirable social change at the local level includes not only the characteristics of socially responsible behavior (Heslin & Ochoa, 2008; Schwartz & Carroll, 2003) but also the transformational element typical of leadership theories (e.g. transformational leadership and authentic leadership) (Burns, 1978; Bass, 1985; George, 2003).
It should still be explored further what other streams are (or will be) influencing RL and what those exact connections are as well as any overlapping and differentiating areas. Some interesting fields that are potentially connected and beneficial for RL are, for instance, literature on global leadership, on multinational leadership, strategic leadership, echelon theory, and so on.
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
64
2.6.5. Definition of Responsible Leadership We have shown in the Results and in Table 2.3. that the definition of RL most
commonly used or referred to is a definition coined by Maak and Pless mentioning that RL is “…the art of building and sustaining… relationships to all relevant stakeholders…” (Maak & Pless, 2006a; Pless, 2007); or “…a relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction…” (Maak & Pless, 2006b); or “…a values-based and through ethical principles driven relationship between leaders and stakeholders…” (Maak & Pless, 2006b; Pless, 2007). The stakeholder, relational and ethical aspects of the definition of RL seem to be recurrent and therefore broadly accepted. Four authors tried to build upon and extend a definition of Maak and Pless by introducing new aspects to it, for example, discursive conflict resolution (Voegtlin, 2011) and active stakeholder dialogue (Voegtlin et al., 2012); virtuousness (Cameron, 2011); and authenticity (Freeman & Auster, 2011). However, it should still be proven by further research and practice whether some of these aspects would offer a valuable and justifiable extension of the definition of RL.
All the definitions speak about the phenomenon of RL at the individual level. Therefore, the components (constituting features identified) also correspond to characteristics of RL manifested at the individual level, in the attitudes, behaviors and competencies of individual responsible leaders.
2.6.6. Understanding of Followers Regarding the terms “leader” and “followers”, it is important to mention that in
today’s leadership theories, the leader is no longer seen as the frontal figure standing out from the rest and “leading” the “followers”. The discussion now moves to recognition of the importance of the leaders’ relationship with the followers and an interdependency of roles. It is no longer the solo or hero leader but the team leader. Also the use of the term “followers” has been scrutinized. This is connected with the main change influencing the demands for leadership in the 21st century which is the shift in decision-making legitimacy. The source of business-management legitimacy has shifted from the powerful top of a heavy hierarchical structure to the flat pool of broadly defined stakeholders. In today’s world, leaders confront the demands of a number of culturally heterogeneous “followers” – stakeholder groups from inside and outside the organization who require a solution acceptable and beneficial for all constituencies involved (Voegtlin, 2011). Some groups of people who have been so far neglected and socially excluded should also be invited to the dialogue (Mària
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
65
& Lozano, 2010). The findings of our literature survey – that 80% of the authors refer to “stakeholders in a broad sense” – are in line with the shift in today’s society toward recognizing followers as stakeholders who are gaining voice, importance, and power, and who influence company decision-making.
It has become clear that the potential beneficiaries of RL do not belong to only one group, but rather to different groups of stakeholders. This is connected to Waldman and Galvin’s claim that “responsible leadership is not the same concept in the minds of all” (2008, p. 328). Rather, companies will focus on specific stakeholder groups depending on the companies’ scope of “responsible mindset,” by, for example, showing that RL might comprise responsibility with different intentions, aims and effects (Pless & Maak, 2012). This aspect of the scope of responsibility a company undertakes is worthy of further exploration. Also, studying the stakeholder outreach of RL (i.e., the stakeholder network of individual companies and individual leaders more closely) represents a valuable research topic that could help answer the questions such as who the different groups of stakeholders are and whether and how they could be ranked according to their importance.
2.6.7. Antecedent Variables of Responsible Leadership It seems obvious from the literature survey that RL has antecedents of
multiple dimensions (Table 2.4. provides the details). The survey of 57 articles shows that there is no common agreement in literature about which are the antecedents of RL and what is the exact structure (components) of RL as a social phenomenon. Some authors (Voegtlin, 2011; Groves & LaRocca, 2011; Maak & Pless, 2006b; Lynham, 1998; Rozuel & Ketola, 2012; Doh & Stumpf, 2005b; Fombrun, 2005, etc.) consider the antecedents of RL to be well-structured and point out the factors that cause them or also its components (e.g., responsible leadership conduct, relational and emotional intelligence, conscious awareness of the self, authenticity and reflective moral development, ethics, etc.). However, the majority of the authors (e.g., Waldman & Siegel, 2008; Alexander & Wilson, 2005; Brenkert, 2006; Sackmann, 2006; Pless & Schneider, 2006; and others) prefer to describe RL in general terms without a strict definition of what the antecedents or components are. Looking closely into the issue of antecedents and components of RL, we can see that there is a certain confusion in categorization and potentially a high number of overlaps between antecedents and components (or characteristics) of RL, especially at the individual level. These findings again show the multi-dimensionality and
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
66
complexity of the construct of RL and call for further research, investigation and clarification with regard to the antecedents and components of this phenomenon and their categories and sub-categories.
2.6.8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership The survey of literature on RL showed that RL has outcomes at multiple
levels (see Table 2.5. for details): most were identified at the individual level (e.g., enhancing responsible or CSR behavior, positively influencing stakeholders, bringing individual benefits such as integrity, gaining self-insight or learning ethically sound decision-making), at the level of the organization (e.g., bringing desirable organizational outcomes such as commitment, job satisfaction, and performance; improving the working environment, or leadership development), and at the societal or cultural level (e.g., contributing to desirable social change or to building social capital and value networks). The findings, i.e., the identification of multi-level outcomes of RL, seem to correspond to the findings of Voegtlin et al. (2012) who come up with 8 propositions offering the positive influence of deliberative RL: (a) at the macro-level: 1. on the legitimacy of a company; 2. on building trustful stakeholder relations; 3. on enhancing the social capital inherent in stakeholder relations; (b) at the mezzo-level: 4. on the ethical company culture and on encouraging a culture of discursive conflict resolution and deliberative practices; 5. on perceived importance of CSR in an organization; 6. on encouraging socialentrepreneurship; 7. on improving organization’s financial and social performance; and (c) at the micro-level: 8. on follower’s attitudes and cognitions (e.g., job satisfaction, motivation, commitment or organizational citizenship behavior).
We have seen that RL has multi-level outcomes; authors writing about RL mention a lot of desirable outcomes (or consequences of RL) at each level, sometimes coming to the same conclusions, sometimes enlisting different or new categories. As it is still not clear enough what the exact outcomes are at each level, we encourage further empirical research in this area, which would refine and possibly measure the outcomes at each level.
2.7. Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership In the previous passages, we have studied in detail several categories identified
throughout the review of literature on RL. In order to transparently summarize what has been written so far about RL, we have put together a Conceptual Working Model
Figu
re 2
.1.:
Conc
eptu
al W
orki
ng M
odel
of R
espo
nsib
le L
eade
rshi
p
So
ciet
al o
r cul
tura
l lev
el v
aria
bles
- G
loba
lizat
ion,
tech
nolo
gy d
evel
opm
ent
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ws a
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gula
tions
, mar
ket f
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rs-
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ands
from
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ehol
ders
to b
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sible
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pany
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rnin
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plex
ity o
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al d
ilem
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-
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ent s
take
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ps a
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lve
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plex
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ntel
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ce a
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ies w
ith th
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iling
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ng g
aps b
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lity
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arn
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avio
r
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bler
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e to
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(A) A
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FLU
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l inf
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ualit
ies a
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g.,
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nesty
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ce, i
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rity,
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e, e
tc.
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ycho
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sona
l cha
ract
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ticip
atio
n of
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ieve
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ide
and
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fact
ion
with
th
e or
gani
zatio
n, e
tc.
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ader
to fo
llow
er(s
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atio
nshi
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.g.,
enco
urag
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t, te
am o
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n, e
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wer
men
t, et
c.
- Le
ader
’s co
mpe
tenc
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r abi
litie
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efle
ctio
n sk
ills,
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cal t
hink
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abi
lity
and
will
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ess t
o le
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rgan
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l lev
el v
aria
bles
- O
rgan
izat
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tegy
, stru
ctur
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ture
,e.
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t and
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lear
role
san
d fu
nctio
ns, i
nclu
sive
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tices
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com
mun
icat
ion,
cul
ture
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rust,
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. -
Nec
essit
y to
mee
t the
nee
ds o
f var
ious
stak
ehol
der
grou
ps
- D
eman
d to
ach
ieve
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ther
with
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ehol
ders
mut
ually
be
nefic
ial w
in-w
in so
lutio
ns c
ontri
butin
g to
com
mon
go
od; c
reat
ing
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al v
alue
In
divi
dual
leve
l out
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es-
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com
es c
once
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g sta
keho
lder
s,e.
g., r
educ
ed u
neth
ical
beh
avio
r of
empl
oyee
s, in
clus
ion
of m
argi
naliz
ed
grou
ps, e
tc.
- Jo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n, re
spon
sibili
ty a
nd
insp
ired
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mitm
ent,
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ease
d pe
rform
ance
-
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onsib
le o
r CSR
beh
avio
ur, e
.g.,
orga
niza
tiona
l citi
zens
hip,
co
mm
unity
serv
ice,
etc
.
O
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
el o
utco
mes
- Im
prov
ed w
orki
ng e
nviro
nmen
t and
ethi
cal c
ompa
ny c
ultu
re, e
.g.,
cultu
re
of d
iscur
sive
conf
lict r
esol
utio
n an
d de
liber
ativ
e pr
actic
es
- D
esira
ble
orga
niza
tiona
l out
com
es,
e.g.
, im
prov
ed jo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n,co
mm
itmen
t, fin
anci
al a
nd so
cial
pe
rform
ance
, firm
’s co
mpe
titiv
e po
sitio
n, e
tc.
67
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
68
of RL that synthesizes the antecedents (contextual influences), components (characteristics), and outcomes (consequences) of the phenomenon of RL. See Figure 2.1. for details.
The Conceptual Working Model of RL summarizes how different authors view the phenomenon of RL. Despite the need to further fine-tune and bring more clarity to the results within each category of antecedent variables, components and outcome variables, this working model represents a first step in viewing the new theory of RL in its entirety and encompassing the concept of RL in its complexity and multi-dimensionality. Further research should try to disentangle the antecedents, components, behaviors, and outcomes and focus on identifying the mutual relationships as well as mediating or moderating processes. Given the limited empirical evidence that is currently available, the logical next step is finding suitable empirical methods to verify and test the relationships proposed in this model.
2.8. Conclusions
In this article we elucidated the construct of responsible leadership, compared and contrasted it with eleven other dominant and related leadership streams, and mapped the state of the art of the theory of responsible leadership. We came up with a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership summarizing and synthesizing the antecedents, components, and outcome variables of responsible leadership as a social and relational phenomenon.
Our findings showed that, apart from conceptual contributions, there is a growing number of empirical texts on responsible leadership implying that this field is a subject of interest of researchers and that the theory of responsible leadership is gradually becoming more established. Common research topics involve: justification of the responsible leadership theory, the breadth of responsibility, discussing antecedents and constituting characteristics of responsible leadership, association with performance or other outcome variables, and questioning how to develop responsible leaders. We have shown that the theory of responsible leadership grows from stakeholder theory and business ethics, which can be perceived as diversification streams of what started out as CSR (Maak, 2008). We have also shown that the definitions by Maak and Pless touching upon the stakeholder, relational, and ethical aspects are recurrent and seem broadly accepted; also the vast majority of authors understand followers not in the traditional sense as direct reports or employees inside the organization, but as “stakeholders in a broad
What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society
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sense, both inside and outside the organization,” which is in line with the shift in today’s society toward stakeholders gaining importance and power.
Most of the authors studying responsible leadership seem to continue in the traditional focus of leadership on the internal, group level of analysis (Waldman, 2011), and also on the individual persons and their attributes and virtues. We have found out that the construct of responsible leadership is mostly seen as operating at the individual level and has multiple dimensions that constitute it, yet there is a certain confusion in the categorization of antecedents and components and, potentially, a high number of overlaps between the categories, which is an area that needs clarification in further research. Outcomes of responsible leadership are multilevel: the benefit is for individuals, organizations and societies.
Responsible leadership is “a multilevel theory that connects individual, organizational, and institutional factors” (Quigley et al., 2005, cited in Pless & Maak, 2011, p. 5). Despite the fact that this theory is relatively new, it has great potential for leadership and management researchers as it responds better than any other existing leadership theory to the challenges leaders of today’s world are facing (e.g., interconnectedness and globalization, poverty, exclusion of minorities, environmental degradation, human rights violation, wars, and pandemic diseases). Responsible leaders strive to build and maintain trustful, sustainable and inclusive relationships within a diverse stakeholder network. They address complex dilemmas and multifaceted demands of various stakeholders groups based on ethical and moral decision-making; they aim at achieving mutually beneficial solutions leading toward the creation of social value or desirable social change (Maak & Pless, 2006b). By means of putting the relational capabilities into practice, responsible leaders reconcile differences and bridge the gaps between people – citizens of this planet – who can then identify with a shared and morally sound vision and together achieve higher aims. Consequently, the questions of how to develop responsible leaders who embody all these qualities and competencies gain paramount importance for management scholars and leadership development researchers.
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Chapter 3 Developing Responsible Global Leaders Thomas Maak, Nicola M. Pless, and Markéta Borecká Current status (July 2014): Published in the journal Advances in Global Leadership (2014, Vol. 8, pp. 339 - 364), edited by: Joyce S. Osland, Ming Li, Ying Wang. The final publication is available at the website of Emerald Insight at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/books.htm?chapterid=17113717 DOI: 10.1108/S1535-120320140000008023
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3. Developing Responsible Global Leaders Abstract
Two major trends have shaped the international business field over the past decade: globalization and the quest for responsible leadership. Yet, what are the qualities that predispose business leaders to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, interlinked world, and thus to meet new social, environmental and political responsibilities? How can organizations develop these qualities in their current and future leaders? In this chapter, we provide tentative answers to both questions by fleshing out some of the qualities global leaders need to succeed in a connected world and by comparing three innovative executive development programs that use international service learning assignments as a way to instill these qualities in their executives. These programs are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps. Keywords
Responsible leadership, leadership development, international service learning, corporate volunteering, organizational development, community development, corporate social responsibility
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3.1. The Responsible Global Leadership Challenge Two major trends have shaped the international business field over the past decade – globalization and the quest for responsible leadership (Stahl, Pless & Maak, 2013). In response to the first trend, various authors have pointed out (Beechler & Javidan, 2007; Bird & Osland, 2004; Levy et al., 2007; Mendenhall, 2008) that the challenges facing managers in the global arena are much tougher than those found at home. This is because the global context increases the complexity and depth of several dimensions for managers and leaders. These settings include wide-ranging diversity both culturally and in terms of cognitive complexity. Hence the need for: knowledge spanning functions and cultures; the need to involve a range of stakeholders in decision-making. This in turn leads to: (1) broader and more frequent spanning of boundaries (both within and across organizational and national boundaries); (2) greater ambiguity in decision-making, especially in connection with ethical dilemmas arising from globalization (Donaldson, 1996).
The second trend (the quest for responsible leadership in business) is both a response to: (1) high-profile business scandals and the global financial crisis in 2008; (2) changes and new demands in the global marketplace (Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011; Puffer & McCarthy, 2008; Waldman & Galvin, 2008). One such demand is stakeholders’ expectation that corporations and their leaders will take a more active role in contributing to environmental, social, and economic value (Bansal, 2002; Hart & Milstein, 2003), while acting as good citizens wherever they operate. More specifically, business leaders are expected to shoulder new political duties given the shift in power from public to private sectors in many fields, including health, education and human rights (Scherer et al., 2013). Accordingly, business leaders are likely to incur sanctions, suffer stakeholder pressure and lose legitimacy if they fail to acknowledge these seismic shifts in the corporate environment (Suchman, 1995; Kostova & Zaheer, 1999).
Demands that leaders “contribute to the creation of economic and societal progress in a globally responsible and sustainable way” (EFMD, 2005: 3) raise two fundamental questions. They are: (1) What are the qualities that make business leaders willing to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, global, and interconnected world (and thus to meet new social, environmental and political responsibilities)?; (2) How can organizations develop these qualities in their current and future leaders?
In this chapter, we provide tentative answers to both questions by fleshing out some of the qualities global leaders need to succeed in an interconnected world. In doing so, we compare three innovative executive development programs that use
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international service learning assignments to instill these qualities in their executives. These programs are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps.
3.2. Responsible Global Leadership Research on global leadership has stressed the importance of qualities such as honesty and integrity (e.g., Black et al., 1999; McCall & Hollenbeck, 2002). However, there is no agreement on what competencies a responsible global leader should have. According to a review conducted by Scalberg (2005), the competencies most commonly referred to in global leadership research are: core business knowledge or business savvy, global mindset, cultural interest and sensitivity, honesty and integrity, ability to think creatively, ability to take a broad systemic view, ability to work effectively in social systems, and empowerment of others.
For the most part, this research has failed to address the complex ethical dilemmas that global leaders may encounter (e.g. child labor, see Pless et al., 2012), and their choices for resolving those dilemmas. There is growing awareness in globally operating businesses that executives must balance global integration of norms and values and responsiveness to local conditions and standards. That is to say, they must ensure globally consistent Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) while also being sensitive to local cultural norms and expectations (Donaldson & Dunfee, 1999; Husted & Allen, 2006; Pless et al., 2011). Dealing effectively with these challenges requires moral judgment (Brown & Treviño, 2006), an ability to balance contradictions (Marquardt & Berger, 2000), and a means to determine when ‘different is different’ and when ‘different is simply wrong’ (Donaldson, 1996).
Schraa-Liu and Trompenaars (2006) argue that responsible global leaders are those who recognize, respect and reconcile multiple values and demands of a diverse workforce, multicultural customers and suppliers, local and global communities, as well as all other relevant stakeholders. Thus, the propensity to deal with value tensions and ambiguity, to grapple with paradoxes and to reconcile dilemmas in responsible and sustainable ways becomes one of the core qualities of a responsible global leader. In other words, he or she needs “moral character and relational qualities to build sustainable relationships and cope with the complex leadership challenges in a global, uncertain and interconnected environment” (Maak & Pless, 2006: 112). This involves listening to diverse constituencies, empathizing with their needs and interests, acknowledging conflicting values and expectations, recognizing dilemmas when they arise, and using moral and social imagination to reconcile dilemmas (Maak & Pless, 2006; McGaw, 2005; Werhane, 1999). Responsible global
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leaders are thus mindful of challenges as they occur (Mirvis, 2008) and “effect significant positive change in organizations by building communities through the development of trust and the arrangement of organizational structures and processes in a context involving multiple cross-boundary stakeholders, multiple sources of external cross-boundary authority, and multiple cultures under conditions of temporal, geographical, and cultural complexity” (Mendenhall, 2008: 17). Yet, how do companies master the educational challenge of developing current and future responsible global leaders? This is the core question to which we devote the remainder of this chapter. 3.3. Developing Responsible Global Leaders
There is strong evidence in research on adult learning that traditional teaching methods (such as classroom teaching) do not lead to fundamental shifts in perspectives, assumptions by and premises of either individuals or corporations (e.g., Taylor, 2001; Yorks & Kasl, 2002). As Adler et al., (2005) have noted, most learning programs continue to focus primarily on building intellectual knowledge and tend to neglect the emotional dimensions of learning as well as the action-based application of new knowledge and skills. Thus, “3-dimensional learning” (Strebel & Keys, 2005: 7) is needed – management educators must design and build into their programs learning experiences that support the intellectual, emotional and behavioral dimensions of learning.
On the content side, management scholars, policymakers and educators have called for new ways to support the development of the leadership competences, mindsets and skills (Giacalone & Thompson, 2006; Ghoshal, 2005; Mintzberg, 2004; Mintzberg & Gosling, 2002; Pfeffer, 2005; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002) needed to navigate a safe course through the hazards of global business context and disrupted organizational dynamics (Broberg & Krull, 2010; Coldwell et al., 2012; Gitsham, 2012). When it comes to developing responsible global leaders the crucial question is how to envision and design educational formats fostering responsible global leadership competencies along the aforementioned trajectories. What program format (if any): (1) triggers learning leading to cross-cultural competencies and a global mindset; (2) teaches executives to cope with social and environmental challenges, ethical dilemmas and trade-offs; (3) improves the relational and emotional abilities of participants to cope with the challenges posed by relationships with multiple stakeholders? Put another way, is there a format that teaches responsible global leadership?
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Pless, Maak and Stahl (2011) in their analysis of the PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program suggest that effective training and development programs in the area of responsible global leadership are those that enable experiences fostering the intellectual, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of learning, and thus learning at the cognitive, affective and behavioral levels, or “3-dimensional learning” (Strebel & Keys, 2005). For instance, the Ulysses Program, which will be described in more detail below, triggers learning through paradoxical experiences. It enables participants to develop a new perspective of self and the world, and forces the executives to make sense of the emotions experienced in challenging contexts (Pless et al., 2011), thereby laying the foundation for truly transformative experiences.
For a program to be truly transformational, experiences are needed that require individuals to deal with challenges unique to current or future leadership roles and responsibilities, such as creating change, working across organizational boundaries with multiple stakeholders, or influencing people and processes over which one has no direct control (DeRue & Wellman, 2009). In general, this “pedagogy of challenge” (Higham, Freathy & Wegeri, 2010), is considered to be effective because it puts “learners in situations where they are confronted with very different perspectives, beliefs and priorities and thereby forced to reconsider, defend and adapt their own” (p. 424). As a consequence, real-world learning, or new developmental approaches and methodologies based on experiential learning are stressed. Experiential learning builds on the work and methodology of David Kolb (1984) but has its roots in the work of American pragmatist John Dewey (1916, 1938) who located meaningful education firmly in the context of social interaction and experience. According to Kolb, “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb 1984: 38). Kolb’s theory rests on six assumptions: (1) learning is a process, not an outcome; (2) learning is rooted in experience; (3) learning requires the learner to resolve the tension between dialectically opposed demands; (4) learning is a holistic process; (5) learning involves the interplay between a person and the environment; (6) learning results in knowledge creation (see Kayes, 2002: 139; Kolb, 1984: 25).
In light of the specific challenges and core trajectories of responsible global leadership, it is hardly surprising that service learning experiences have emerged as the format of choice in leadership development programs. Service learning represents a form of experiential education, or “high-impact learning” (Dugan et al., 2011), in which participants “engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote [their] learning and development; service-learning combines service
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objectives with learning objectives with the intent that the activity changes both the recipient and provider of the service” (Jacoby, 1996: 5). The specialist literature stresses the potential of service learning assignments for moral development (Boss, 1994; Markus, Howard & King, 1993), for raising awareness of social issues (Kolenko et al., 1996), for encouraging civic and social responsibility (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Fleckenstein, 1997; Gabelnick, 1997; Godfrey et al., 2005; Lester et al., 2005; Morgan & Streb, 1999), for developing greater tolerance of diversity (Dumas, 2002) and for enhancing relational abilities (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Rhoads, 1997) – qualities that are essential for responsible global leadership.
3.4. The Rise of International Service Learning Programs
Given that most leaders lack the competencies, qualities, education and training to cope with the wider social, political, ecological, and ethical challenges they encounter in the global arena, a growing number of companies have started to explore new ways to prepare their current and future executives for the demands of leading responsibly in a global stakeholder environment (e.g., Cameron & Caza, 2005; Kashyap, Mir & Iyer, 2006; Samuelson, 2006; Spreitzer, 2006).
While corporate volunteering and ‘giving back to communities’ (sic) have a relatively long history, their use across borders is a relatively new phenomenon (Caligiuri et al., 2013). In this chapter we will employ the term ‘International Service Learning Programs’ (ISLP) for programs designed to create learning experiences abroad and ‘community service’ for learning at home (Pless et al., 2011). Through ISLP, companies send top performers and high-potentials on sabbaticals to developing countries to lend their expertise to nonprofit organizations, communities and (social) entrepreneurs. ISLP represent an innovative mechanism to develop employee leadership skills through social engagement and to expand business opportunities while driving growth in emerging markets (Hills & Mahmud, 2007).
ISLP can be seen as the “most powerful experience in shaping the perspective and capabilities of effective global leaders” (Black et al., 1999: 2). It has been argued that such international assignments and consciousness-raising experiences help develop leaders capable of addressing some of the most pressing global issues and of supporting and driving the company’s sustainability strategy. Generally speaking, companies implementing ISLP sponsor their employees to work on voluntary cross-border projects in developing countries either on their own or in teams. The projects last for between two weeks and a year. Program participants work with small businesses, nonprofit entities, government agencies, charities,
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universities and associations in varied industries. They leverage their core competencies and skills to provide for instance free consulting services in areas such as strategic planning, marketing, finance, IT, and project management (Thompson, Ahern & Schroeder, 2010). Examples of cross-border ISLP starting early in this decade are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellowship Program and EY’s Americas Corporate Responsibility Fellows Program. Since then, other companies, including IBM, Intel, GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, HP, Cisco, HSBC, Starbucks, Dow Corning, PepsiCo, FedEx and Mars, have implemented various forms of ISLP. These programs differ according to the target group of employees, length and focus of the assignment, geographic location, and funding structure (Thompson, Ahern & Schroeder, 2010; Hills & Mahmud, 2007). Currently, over 27 Fortune 500 companies operate some kind of international corporate volunteering program in emerging economies such as India, Brazil, Vietnam, and Ghana (CDC Development Solutions Survey, 2012).
3.5. International Service Learning at PricewaterhouseCoopers, Pfizer
and IBM – A Cross-Company Comparison For the purpose of illustrating ISLP’s potential to develop the next generation
of responsible global leaders, we compare three innovative programs, which differ in terms of target groups, length and scope of the program, and stated objectives. The three programs have distinct track records but are all well- established in the ISLP field. The programs are: PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program (hereinafter PwC Ulysses), launched in 2001; Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program (Pfizer GHFP), launched in 2003; and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps (IBM CSC), launched in 2008.
PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program (PwC Ulysses) is a highly-structured leadership development program in which multi-cultural teams of 3 to 4 executives work for almost two months in developing countries in collaboration with NGOs, international organizations or social entrepreneurs (see Pless et al., 2011 for an in-depth analysis). A typical cross-sector assignment is the 2005 Rural Electrification Project in Madagascar where four PwC Partners from Russia, France, Indonesia, and the US went to the Andapa and Sambava Districts of Madagascar. There, they worked with UNDP on a socio-economic study whose purpose was to scout for projects to alleviate poverty and boost economic growth in Madagascar’s poorer regions. Examples of other assignments include poverty alleviation in East Timor; strengthening coordination in the fight against HIV/AIDS in Uganda; or a child helpline in India. The program triggered profound learning in: global
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mindset; cross-cultural competence; ethical mindset; the ability to deal with ambiguity and reconcile dilemmas; social and emotional intelligence; the ability to connect to stakeholders (Pless et al., 2011). Among the benefits for PwC as a company is the creation of a sustainable brand, defined and differentiated by the quality of relationships with its employees, clients and communities. Ulysses was designed to create the next generation of leaders at PwC, but it is also transforming PwC into a ‘next generation organization’, that is, a truly value-oriented community (Deiser, 2009).
Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program (Pfizer GHFP) is a global skill-based volunteer program launched in 2003. It sends individual Pfizer employees on health-related assignments with leading international development organizations in developing and emerging markets. Its 20-25 participants each year are considered high-performing employees. Since 2010 Pfizer has also launched team-based fellowships. Examples of assignments include working alongside Mothers2Mothers in South Africa to scale up services to combat the spread of HIV from mothers to their children; or addressing core needs of Infectious Diseases Institute in Uganda, helping to build new capacity and contributing to significant growth of the company.
IBM’s Corporate Service Corps (IBM CSC) is an international community service assignment and leadership development program for high-potential IBM employees inspired by the U.S. Peace Corps. Each year, approximately 500 high-flyers are sent in multi-cultural teams to developing countries to work on social, economic, business or environment issues. Examples of assignments include helping the Electricity Company of Ghana through an IT governance model to help standardize IT systems and ensure consistency in its management approach; or helping Nigeria’s Cross River State with two programs to facilitate free health care to mothers and young children. Frequently, the programs are designed in a way so that IBM staff can contribute their IT-related and consultant skills, for instance by focusing on the design of ‘smart cities’ in Mexico.
3.5.1. General Program Features
The various features of all three programs are summarized in Table 3.1. The stated objectives of the three ISLP cover: community development and improving health (Pfizer GHFP); boosting economic and social development and protecting the environment (PwC Ulysses and IBM CSC). Leadership development objectives and thus the learning objectives for participants and the benefits for the company are implicit in the company’s program communication. These benefits include for
Tabl
e 3.
1.: C
hara
cter
istic
s of I
nter
natio
nal S
ervi
ce L
earn
ing
Prog
ram
s (IS
LP)
Pric
ewat
erho
useC
oope
rs’
Uly
sses
Pro
gram
(Pw
C U
lyss
es)
Pfiz
er’ s
Glo
bal H
ealth
Fel
low
s Pro
gram
(P
fizer
GH
FP)
IBM
’ s C
orpo
rate
Ser
vice
Cor
ps
(IBM
CSC
) Ta
rget
gro
up
of
part
icip
ants
•H
igh-
pote
ntia
l, se
nior
leve
l lea
ders
(par
tner
s)•
Hig
h-pe
rform
ers
•H
igh-
perfo
rmer
s, to
p ta
lent
s who
are
pas
siona
te a
bout
com
mun
ity w
ork
enga
gem
ent
Size
and
co
mpo
sitio
n of
the
team
•3-
4 pe
ople
, mul
tinat
iona
l•
Parti
cipa
nts w
ork
indi
vidu
ally
(sin
ce 2
010
also
team
-bas
edfe
llow
ship
s)•
12-1
5 pe
ople
, bro
ken
into
sub-
team
s, m
ultin
atio
nal
Num
ber o
f pa
rtic
ipan
ts
each
yea
r
•20
•20
-25
•A
ppro
x. 5
00
Leng
th o
f the
as
signm
ents
•
8 w
eeks
•3-
6 m
onth
s•
4 w
eeks
Prog
ram
ph
ases
•
(1) N
omin
atio
n ph
ase,
•(2
) Pre
para
tion
phas
e,•
(3) I
nduc
tion
phas
e,•
(4) A
ssig
nmen
t pha
se,
•(5
) Deb
riefin
g ph
ase,
•(6
) Net
wor
king
pha
se.
•(1
) App
licat
ion/
inte
rvie
w/ s
elec
tion,
(2) O
rient
atio
n/ p
repa
ratio
n fo
r fie
ldin
g,•
(3) F
ield
ing
of a
ssig
nmen
t,(4
) Fin
al re
porti
ng/c
ompl
etio
n/re
turn
/eva
luat
ion.
•Th
e in
itiat
ives
are
6 m
onth
s in
tota
l:(1
) 3 m
onth
s of “
pre-
wor
k” p
repa
ratio
n,(2
) 1 m
onth
abr
oad,
(3) 2
mon
ths o
f “po
st-w
ork”
.
Spec
ific
lear
ning
m
etho
ds
appl
ied
•36
0-de
gree
feed
back
, coa
chin
g, te
am b
uild
ing,
proj
ect-b
ased
lear
ning
, med
itatio
n an
d yo
ga,
refle
ctiv
e ex
erci
ses,
and
story
-telli
ng se
ssio
ns to
achi
eve
lear
ning
at t
he c
ogni
tive,
affe
ctiv
e, a
ndbe
havi
oral
leve
ls.•
Parti
cipa
nts a
lso w
ork
on th
eir p
erso
nal d
evel
opm
ent
plan
s of w
hat t
hey
wan
t to
lear
n fro
m N
GO
par
tner
s.
•A
rigor
ous m
anda
tory
orie
ntat
ion
for a
ll ne
wly
sele
cted
Fello
ws i
nclu
ding
on-
line
mod
ules
for i
ndiv
idua
l stu
dy,
virtu
al/li
ve m
eetin
gs a
nd re
sour
ce li
brar
y.
•Th
e ro
bust
curri
culu
m in
clud
es o
nlin
e le
arni
ng, e
duca
tion
abou
t hos
t cou
ntrie
s, pr
ojec
t pro
blem
stat
emen
ts, ti
me
for
team
bui
ldin
g vi
a te
leco
nfer
ence
s and
soci
al n
etw
orki
ngw
ebsit
es, l
eade
rshi
p de
velo
pmen
t wor
ksho
ps a
nd o
nlin
ele
arni
ng m
odul
es o
n cu
ltura
l aw
aren
ess,
inte
rnat
iona
lde
velo
pmen
t and
cor
pora
te re
spon
sibili
ty.
How
is th
e le
arni
ng
debr
iefe
d in
a
revi
ew
phas
e
•Th
e de
brie
fing
phas
e in
clud
es: s
harin
g th
e pr
ojec
tex
perie
nce
with
all
parti
cipa
nts a
nd U
lyss
es te
am,
debr
iefin
g th
e ex
perie
nces
with
faci
litat
ors i
n la
rger
grou
p an
d on
e-in
-one
, wor
king
on
360-
feed
back
dim
ensio
ns w
ith c
oach
es, u
sing
lear
ning
stor
ies a
ndpr
esen
ting
them
, sha
ring
indi
vidu
al’s
visio
nsta
tem
ents,
the
oppo
rtuni
ty to
pra
ctic
e yo
ga a
ndm
edita
tion
each
day
.
•It
is do
ne th
roug
h as
sess
men
t sur
veys
take
n im
med
iate
afte
rth
e fe
llow
ship
and
one
-yea
r lat
er b
y bo
th th
e Fe
llow
s and
the
partn
er o
rgan
izat
ion.
•Le
arni
ng is
shar
ed th
roug
h ca
se st
udie
s and
par
ticip
atio
n in
conf
eren
ces/
even
ts, th
roug
h str
ong
inte
rnal
com
mun
icat
ions
plan
to c
onne
ct a
cros
s all
Pfiz
er si
tes t
o co
lleag
ues,
man
ager
san
d le
ader
ship
as w
ell a
s par
tner
s.
•Tw
o m
onth
s pos
t-ser
vice
wor
k in
clud
es: s
ynth
esiz
ing
less
ons l
earn
ed, o
ngoi
ng sh
arin
g of
the
expe
rienc
e up
onre
turn
, with
col
leag
ues,
fam
ily, f
riend
s and
hom
eco
mm
unity
and
con
nect
ing
to IB
M’s
busin
ess d
evel
opm
ent
proc
ess.
•Th
e pa
rtici
pant
s ref
lect
on
lear
ning
for t
heir
care
ers a
ndop
portu
nitie
s and
ofte
n se
rve
as m
ento
rs to
succ
eedi
ngte
ams.
Wha
t is d
one
to fa
cilit
ate
the
lear
ning
tr
ansf
er
•In
-dep
th d
ebrie
fing
•Be
com
ing
part
of th
e U
lyss
es N
etw
ork
– a
glob
alne
twor
k of
Uly
sses
par
ticip
ants
that
shar
e, re
flect
and
supp
ort e
ach
othe
r tow
ard
resp
onsib
lele
ader
ship
.
•In
201
0, th
e G
HF
Alu
mni
Bus
ines
s Net
wor
k w
as fo
unde
d to
enab
le sh
arin
g of
GH
F in
sight
s and
inno
vatio
ns th
roug
hm
eani
ngfu
l col
labo
ratio
n ac
ross
the
busin
ess,
supp
ortin
gre
crui
tmen
t, m
ento
ring
curre
nt F
ello
ws,
raisi
ng a
war
enes
sab
out p
rogr
am a
nd p
artn
ersh
ips a
cros
s site
s.•
Alu
mni
Bus
ines
s Net
wor
k’s a
ctiv
ities
supp
ort d
emon
strat
ing
lear
ning
bac
k to
the
busin
ess a
nd th
e G
HF
prog
ram
shar
es it
sle
arni
ng th
roug
h ca
se st
udie
s and
par
ticip
atio
n in
conf
eren
ces/e
vent
s, an
d sh
arin
g th
roug
h ex
tern
al re
ques
ts.
•St
ruct
ured
act
iviti
es to
shar
e ex
perie
nces
and
tran
sfer
know
ledg
e an
d re
latio
nshi
ps g
aine
d w
ith lo
cal I
BM te
ams.
•Th
e pa
rtici
pant
s ofte
n se
rve
as m
ento
rs to
succ
eedi
ngte
ams.
•Si
nce
2012
, the
re h
as b
een
a pr
actic
al g
uide
to re
-ent
ry.
•A
conn
ectio
n to
oth
er A
lum
ni th
roug
h fo
rum
s and
inte
rnal
netw
orks
is a
vaila
ble.
•A
pplic
atio
n of
lear
ning
to th
e di
vers
e jo
b pr
ofile
s is l
eft t
oth
e pa
rtici
pant
s.
94
Developing Responsible Global Leaders
95
instance developing new market opportunities, business innovation, improving key stakeholder relationships (Pless & Borecká, 2014).
All programs target high performers or talents: PwC Ulysses focuses on senior level leaders or top managers, predominantly partners, sending them in diverse teams with a maximum of 4 people. The team size in IBM CSC is significantly larger (12-15) but people are divided into sub-teams when on assignment. Moreover, IBM has recently created the Executive Service Corps (ESC) to provide a tailored experience to smaller teams of senior executives. Pfizer GHFP sends participants to work on individual assignments, although it has also diversified the program in 2010, creating shorter, team-based fellowships.
Finally, when it comes to program length, the three ISLP differ significantly. PwC Ulysses sends some 20 participants each year on 8-week-long assignments. Pfizer GHFP sends 20-25 participants a year for about 3 to 6 months, depending on participant and project, making it more of a longer-term secondment. IBM CSC usually lasts four weeks but enables roughly 500 participants a year to go on a service learning assignment, thereby creating a significant scaling effect within the company.
3.5.2. Program Design Regarding program design, it should be noted that all three ISLP are
structured in a similar way (but with slight differences in their terms and stage lengths): (1) pre-assignment and preparation: (2) in-country placement: (3) post-assignment. Depending on the program, these blocks are split into sub-phases. For example, both PwC Ulysses and Pfizer GHFP distinguish between the nomination or application phase (during which the participants are selected) and the actual preparation phase (guidance and preparation for the field work). PwC Ulysses has six stages: (1) nomination; (2) preparation; (3) induction; (4) assignment; (5) debriefing; (6) networking. Here, phases one through three are pre-assignment and phases five and six, post-assignment. Both induction and debriefing have proven vital to preparing participants for learning and debriefing linked to individual leadership objectives (Pless et al., 2011). The stages correspond to the basic elements of service learning as described by Dumas (2002) – namely, preparation, service, reflection, celebration. The matching of participants’ skills and background to create the ‘optimal’ program experience is either coordinated internally by the program management (PwC Ulysses and Pfizer GHFP) or with the help of external partners (for IBM CSC). For its CSC, and in light of the large number of participants, IBM enlists the help of
Developing Responsible Global Leaders
96
3 implementation partners with experience of placing individuals in short-term business assignments in the developing world: Australian Business Volunteers (ABV), Citizens Development Corps (CDC) Development Solutions, and Digital Opportunity Trust (DOT) (IBM Company Website, 2013).
During the field assignment, participants have to use their professional skills (in consulting, finance, IT, project management, marketing, or whatever else). With few exceptions the assignments require only the use of general management skills, albeit in challenging contexts. Only the Pfizer-program also focuses on improving health service delivery or optimizing supply chains – both issues that are directly linked to the firm’s core business (Pless & Borecká, 2014). The host countries range from large emerging economies such as Brazil, China, and Russia to countries as diverse as Kenya, Egypt, Vietnam, Nigeria, and South Africa.
3.5.3. Program Methodology General features. The specific learning methods applied in the programs
usually involve a combination of elements: individual study (readings and on-line learning), teambuilding (also virtual via teleconferences), workshops and live training. Depending on the program aims, residential induction and post-experience review modules may be crucial elements for facilitating learning. As Table 3.1. shows, while they differ in the depth and breadth of the induction stage, all programs have a specific ‘post-assignment’ phase in which participants review their learning, network, finalize their reports and work on questions bearing on re-entry; the latter being of particular importance for longer programs such as Pfizer’s or PwC’s. Coaching – a frequent method in leadership development (Boyce et al., 2010; Bone et al., 2009; Hall et al., 1999), 360-degree feedback, yoga and meditation are also sometimes used to support the learning ‘journeys’. Moreover, PwC Ulysses uses a specific integrated service-learning approach to leadership development combining 360-degree feedback, coaching, team building, project-based learning, meditation and yoga, reflective exercises, and story-telling sessions to achieve learning at the cognitive, affective, and behavioral levels (Pless et al., 2011). The three elements at the core of the integrated service learning methodology – assessment, challenge, support – have been identified as crucial for effective leadership development processes (Van Velsor et al., 1998).
In the debriefing phase, participants are helped to make sense of and learn from their experience. All programs feature debriefing of participants’ learning, although they differ in details depending on the nature and scope of the assignments. For instance, in the case of IBM CSC, the debriefing is carried out with the external
Developing Responsible Global Leaders
97
partner organizations. The debriefing aims to evaluate project outcomes. This is in line with the program emphasis on community impact rather than personal transformation, which plays a more significant role within PwC Ulysses and Pfizer GHFP. As mentioned above in connection with PwC Ulysses, the debriefing phase is very important and includes storytelling and pooling experience, debriefing by facilitators, working on 360-feedback dimensions with coaches, using team-learning stories and presenting them, sharing individuals’ vision statements, setting learning goals and preparing a development plan (Pless et al., 2011). Cari Caldwell, a London-based consultant on cultural diversity emphasizes “the need to really support the participants throughout the process by helping them to make sense of the experience personally and professionally (...) Without giving participants new frames of reference, they may risk being ‘development tourists,’ or experience traditional development attitudes of being there to ‘show NGOs the way’” (Caldwell, 2004).
Within IBM CSC, the post-service work lasts for two months and includes: synthesizing lessons learned, ongoing sharing of the experience upon return, with colleagues, family, friends and home community and connecting to IBM’s business development process. The participants reflect on learning for their careers and opportunities and often serve as mentors to succeeding teams. Since 2013, participants have been asked to review their work against the IBM competency framework and note any changes with a 6-9-month delay after return, to give the opportunity for proper on-the-job reflection (Pless & Borecká, 2014). Both, PwC Ulysses and IBM CSC also mention the reflective element towards future careers or visions of the participants.
Learning transfer in all three programs is encouraged through sharing and reflecting on the experiences. Also, the effect of becoming part of the program’s global Alumni network offers the support and opportunities for sharing and networking. In all studied programs, it seems that the application of experience and thus learning to the job environment is left to the participants, which indicates both the individualized character of the specific learning journeys and the fact that the majority of participants play some kind of management or leadership role.
3.6. Outcomes and Benefits of International Service Learning Programs What makes ISLP a method of choice to develop responsible global leaders?
Before we provide a tentative answer to this question, it should be noted that benefits occur at various levels (individual, organizational, and societal). Thus, while centered on individual learning experiences, ISLP provide the benefit of multi-level
Developing Responsible Global Leaders
98
outcomes not just for program participants but also for companies, project partners, communities and society at large. Moreover, ISLP are both effective and transformational given that participants “return as different people, deeper thinking people, people that have stretched their brains and hearts, opened their eyes and figured out solutions to problems that they likely had never thought of before…” (Colbert, 2011). Specifically, research has shown that service learning and experiences abroad lead to enhanced critical thinking and problem solving (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Lester et al., 2005); moral development and increased moral awareness (Boss, 1994; Pless et al., 2011); civic engagement and volunteerism (Dewey, 1938; Langseth & Plater, 2004; Tomkovick et al., 2008); social responsibility and values development (Eyler, Giles, Stenson & Gray, 2000; Lester et al., 2005; Papamarcos, 2005); and self-efficacy and confidence (Giles & Eyler, 1994; Papamarcos, 2005; Tucker & McCarthy, 2001; Brower, 2011). The literature stresses the potential of service-learning assignments for developing a greater tolerance of diversity (Dumas, 2002); for raising awareness of social issues (Kolenko et al., 1996; Pless et al., 2011); for encouraging civic and social responsibility (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Fleckenstein, 1997; Gabelnick, 1997; Godfrey et al., 2005; Lester et al., 2005; Morgan and Streb, 1999), and for enhancing relational abilities (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Rhoads, 1997; Pless et al., 2011) – all qualities which are essential for responsible global leadership (Pless et al., 2011). The specific value added by international service learning assignments is that it mirrors the real-life complexity in international business, often in challenging conditions. For instance, Ulysses participants work frequently ‘off the beaten track,’ where they need to connect to local communities and stakeholders and face the complexity of problem solving ‘from the bottom up.’ Pless et al., (2011) have shown in their in-depth analysis of learning stories collected from Ulysses participants that this frequently requires dealing with paradoxes arising from local-global tensions, coping with dilemmas and finding ways to solve – both qualities needed for responsible leadership in an interconnected world. The authors conclude that the Ulysses Program is highly effective in fostering the qualities sought in responsible global leaders, namely: global mindset; cultural intelligence: responsible mindset: ethical literacy: self-awareness; relationship-building.
Of course, sending current and future leaders abroad for this kind of ISLP experience comes at a cost – companies need to make-up for participants’ time and the overall program costs can be significant, depending on the number of participants, scope and location of the projects, and so forth. Yet, ISLP provide a completely different level of stretch and personal development than do alternative
Developing Responsible Global Leaders
99
home programs. Moreover, home programs (while offering plenty of service-learning opportunities) do not stretch people nearly as much as global programs do. Often, domestic programs leave participants to choose the work they would like to undertake, or place individuals on the basis of the skills they already have (Farmer, 2012). However, participants achieve a much greater personal-development impact when matched to projects on the basis of their development needs, as well as their skills while being sent thousands of miles away, with no support network (Farmer, 2012). According to Kanter (in Olson, 2011), such short-term international projects are actually cost-effective ways to build skills and relationships in diverse teams, mirroring the way of working where people are thrust into new situations and have to learn and react fast and at the same time adjust quickly to different cultures and circumstances. ISLP participants have to coordinate with local stakeholders to achieve outcomes, work more intensely to make an impact in the light of cross-cultural differences in values and working styles, and be resilient and think on their feet. ISLP require participants to constantly re-evaluate how they are contributing to their team’s assignment in order to reach their goals in a short timeframe (MacArthur, 2012), creating a sense of urgency to deliver. All of these skills are essential for any company looking to operate in today’s global marketplace. When it comes to organizational-level outcomes, Pless and Borecká (2014) suggest in a comparison of ISLP that participants gain business-relevant experience in developing and emerging markets; improved global team and collaboration skills; and enhanced technical skills. At the company level, programs may: generate new insights and knowledge on new business and market opportunities (particularly at the ‘bottom of the pyramid’); foster innovation and new business models; improve stakeholder relationships and brand perception; build and strengthen a global team culture and talent network; create a pool of global leaders and managers. At the community and broader societal levels, the programs spur positive changes in the communities where the projects take place; organizational development and process improvement; knowledge transfer and capacity-building. Figure 3.1. summarizes the generic features of ISLP, including the aforementioned outcomes.
Figu
re 3
.1.:
Feat
ures
and
Out
com
es o
f Int
erna
tiona
l Ser
vice
Lea
rnin
g Pr
ogra
ms (
ISLP
)
Co
mm
unity
deve
lopm
ent
Le
ader
ship
dev
elop
men
t(o
r ski
ll de
velo
pmen
t)
Co
mpa
ny d
eve l
opm
ent
- ne
w m
arke
tde
velo
pmen
t -
busin
ess i
nnov
atio
n -
build
ing
a su
stain
able
bu
sines
s in
a m
ulti-
stake
hold
er
envi
ronm
ent
Out
com
es in
gen
eral
For t
he p
artic
ipan
ts-
lead
ersh
ip c
apab
ilitie
s, ot
her
skill
s -
expe
rienc
e fr
om n
ew m
arke
ts -
posit
ion-
rela
ted
outc
omes
For o
rgan
izat
ions
- bu
sines
s opp
ortu
nitie
s and
inno
vatio
n -
impr
ovin
g sta
keho
lder
re
latio
nshi
ps a
nd b
rand
-
build
ing
glob
al le
ader
s -
rete
ntio
n an
d co
mm
itmen
t
For b
road
er so
ciet
y-
build
i ng
the
capa
city
for t
hein
divi
dual
ben
efic
iarie
s -
scal
able
, sus
tain
able
eco
nom
ic
valu
e -
acce
ss to
tech
nolo
gy in
the
com
mun
ities
Indi
vidu
al le
arni
ng o
utco
mes
Resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
com
pete
ncie
s-
resp
onsib
le m
ind-
set
- et
hica
l lite
racy
G
loba
l lea
ders
hip
com
pete
ncie
s-
glob
al m
ind-
set
- cu
ltura
l int
ellig
ence
- in
terc
ultu
ral c
ompe
tenc
ies
- et
hica
l lite
racy
O
ther
com
pete
ncy
area
s rel
ated
tore
spon
sible
glo
bal l
eade
rshi
p-
self-
deve
lopm
ent
- co
mm
unity
bui
ldin
g
Com
posit
ion
of th
e te
am
ta
rget
gro
up: h
igh-
perfo
rmer
s or t
alen
ts, le
ader
s, to
p m
anag
ers
di
vers
e te
ams o
f 3 to
10
peop
le o
r ind
ivid
uals
12
– 5
00 p
artic
ipan
ts a
year
Des
ign
of th
e pr
ogra
m a
nd le
ngth
of p
hase
s
Le
arni
ng m
etho
dolo
gy
Deb
rief
ing
met
hodo
logy
9 d
ays t
o 3
mon
ths
N
o min
atio
n /
App
licat
ion
phas
e-
sele
ctio
n ph
ase
Pr
epar
atio
n ph
ase
- m
atch
ing
ofpa
rtici
pant
s w
ith p
artn
er
orga
niza
tions
4 w
eeks
to 6
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3.7. Discussion and Conclusion Whether short-term or long-term, our analysis suggests that ISLP are the
method of choice for developing responsible global leaders. Among other things, ISLP promote global mindset, intercultural skills, ability to deal with dilemmas, and relational qualities in order to successfully engage with stakeholders at home and abroad. However, there are differences in program characteristics and design that are worth discussing since they may influence the degree to which ISLP will be effective in developing global leaders, businesses and addressing major global issues (Hills & Mahmud, 2007). One of the experienced implementation partners, CDC Development Solutions (which helps corporations design ISLP) stresses that programs should be designed to further staff development, business expansion, public relations strategies while reflecting each firm’s business strategy, budget, geographic footprint, HR goals, and core competencies (CDC Development Solutions and International Corporate Volunteerism, leaflet 2010). De Vries and Korotov (2007) examined five major challenges in program design, which they identified as: (1) selecting participants; (2) identifying the focal issue they will work on; (3) the creation of a safe transitional space that enables the change process; (4) using the group dynamic to foster transformation and to arrive at internalization of the change process; (5) the educational implications for the program designers and the serving institution. Grusky (2000) noted that without thoughtful preparation, orientation, program development, and critical analysis and reflection, programs can easily recreate cultural misunderstandings and simplistic stereotypes and replay, on a smaller scale, the huge disparities in income and opportunity that characterize North-South relations today. Therefore, according to Bartsch (2012), the program design should include: (1) introduction and preparation (setting individual learning topic and choosing the beneficiary organization); (2) the experience in the chosen beneficiary organization and daily reflection; (3) evaluation and concept transfer; (4) follow-up coaching.
All the studied ISLP stress carefully crafted pre-assignment phases, although they differ in the details. For instance, only PwC Ulysses and Pfizer GHFP use residential induction modules, while IBM CSC relies on a longer individual distance preparation phase. While tailored stage-setting formats are highly desirable to ensure the effectiveness of the learning process, the scale of IBM’s program effectively rules out such modules. When it comes to the on-site experience, one should note that the actual learning unit differs in the programs. Both IBM and PwC use participant teams while Pfizer stresses the individual participant. All the programs have a good track record in selecting partnering organizations and projects to work
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on. Finding the right partners and projects is a key factor in the success of ISLP experiences. From a program perspective, one needs reliable partners who can offer projects that are challenging enough to ‘stretch’ participants. We observe that to ensure consistent quality of assignments, companies either work with specialized intermediaries (IBM) or build relationships to selected partners in assignment countries (PwC).
The most demanding task for any ISLP management is arguably the post-assignment phase, specifically the debriefing of learning and learning transfer and thus facilitating application of the knowledge, skills and attitudes gained in the ISLP context back to the work place. Our data suggest that the more challenging the experience and the deeper the emotional impact on participants, the more attention (debriefing, coaching, etc.) is needed to make a successful transition. The programs employ a variety of methods to facilitate this process: e.g., presentation of learning stories and case studies, team sessions with skilled facilitators, individual coaching, drafting and sharing of individual vision statements. Learning transfer is a challenge for all training programs (Belling, James & Ladkin, 2003; Haskins & Clawson, 2006; Johnson, Garrison, Broome, Fleenor & Steed, 2012), but it is particularly so for ISLP because of the inherent difficulty of capturing what is usually a 3D learning experience. Moreover, to date none of the programs features a specific re-entry routine; it seems that both re-entry and subsequent use of the program experience are left mainly to the participants. Alumni networks, where they exist, can provide an important point of reference and support, connecting former participants who keep in touch, meet on a regular basis, share experiences, mentor new participants, etc. However, the information regarding program alumni networks is vague and patchy. Clearly, further research is needed in order to investigate whether and how they work and to what extent they may contribute to ISLP sustainability.
As international service learning and corporate volunteering continue to grow and as firms improve and hone their programs, researchers may want to study the impact ISLP have on other constituencies in a more systematic way. While ISLP are the method of choice for developing responsible global leaders, we urge research that sheds light on the impact of ISLP on companies, partnering organizations and host communities. To date, there is only anecdotal evidence of the positive impact for organizations and individuals on the ‘receiving end.’ More substantial evidence of the effects on stakeholders may provide important insights on the effectiveness of integrated service-learning approaches (i.e., programs linking global exposure, local stakeholder engagement, individual learning and development, community service).
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Looking to the future of ISLP, we are likely to see more fine-tuning, greater impact and scaling up of ISLP. As Hills and Mahmud (2007) suggest, corporations can think more broadly about their goals: they can go beyond simply running an effective international corporate volunteering program and find opportunities for scaling up their efforts and thus increase the impact. One trend that has emerged in recent years is partnering with clients – the IBM program being a prime example. IBM has not only helped half-dozen other companies put together similar programs, including FedEx, John Deere and Dow Corning (Litow, 2011) but also taken staff from client firms on IBM CSC assignments. In 2011, for example, FedEx sent four people along with 10 IBM staffers on a CSC engagement to northeastern Brazil (Litow, 2011). Such learning partnerships have the potential to take client relationships to a deeper level, thereby reinforcing and sustaining business lifelines.
Furthermore, ISLP can serve as incubator for cross-sector collaboration beyond corporate philanthropy and volunteering. Such collaboration would bring deeper expertise embodying a broader range of competencies and perspectives, while building relationships with non-business stakeholders. In addition, IBM has co-founded the Center of Excellence for International Corporate Volunteerism. The Center has helped other firms learn from IBM’s experience to build their own programs. Thus, the company is leveraging its growing expertise and disseminates its knowledge through specified services to clients.
When it comes to new ISLP formats, we may see future examples of high-impact international volunteering. Hills and Mahmud (2007) give an example of an ISLP team that might consist of a GE engineer, an IBM technology expert, a Pfizer research scientist, and an Accenture consultant. If managed well, they could bring a range of expertise and talent to bear on targeted problems. Another potentially fruitful direction is to explore local models of service learning programs, despite the caveats discussed above. Given the relatively high cost and potential life disruptions of cross-border models, local service can offer a great way to scale up and enhance service learning formats on a company’s doorstep. Let us consider the local Novo Nordisk TakeAction! Program. It aims at engaging employees in volunteer activities reaching out to communities and supporting the ‘Novo Nordisk way,’ that is, engaging external stakeholders in changing eating habits, diabetes treatment, and in other therapy areas (Make the Fight Personal – Introduction to TakeAction, 2012). Another example is IBM’s local program ‘On Demand Community’ – a tightly focused and coordinated effort intended to help IBM volunteers assist their communities (On Demand Community help and FAQs). This program alone
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increased from 25,000 volunteers in the first year to 80,000 in the third year (Hills & Mahmud, 2007).
In conclusion, it is likely that we will witness both more fine-tuned, high-impact ISLP (in-company and cross-company) and national or local ‘spin-offs’ to scale up the leadership development efforts at the local level. Once equipped with a smart, learning-transfer oriented design and clear learning objectives, ISLP are not only highly effective in developing the next generation of responsible global leaders but are also a means to advance business goals and to address critical global issues.
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Chapter 4 Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference Thomas Maak, Markéta Borecká, and Nicola M. Pless Current status (July 2014): Accepted for publication as a book chapter for Edward Elgar Publishing: Research Handbook of Global Leadership: Making a difference (2014)
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4. Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference Abstract
Current leaders have no other choice than to operate in an environment that is interconnected, complex, and globalized. In order to cope in such an environment while satisfying the needs of various stakeholder groups, leaders need competencies that will help them meet the new responsibilities and make a difference. This article looks at the new trend of International Service Learning Programs that organizations use to develop responsible global leadership competencies. Specifically, four different programs are compared – PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses, HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program – their differences are discussed, and the questions of how and to what extent these programs develop global leaders who (will) make a difference are addressed. The analysis of the four programs showed the beneficial outcomes of International Service Learning Programs for individual participants, for their organizations, and for broader communities. Keywords
International service learning programs, responsible leadership, leadership development, corporate volunteering, organizational development, community development, corporate social responsibility
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4.1. In Search of Leaders Who Make a Difference The past decade has seen a seminal shift in the global business environment:
“rapidly increasing global interconnectedness” (Adler, 2006) forces business leaders to adapt their organizations to a seamless environment, in which poverty and diseases in Africa, the speed and reliance on IT-services in India, large-scale pollution in China, and increasingly critical consumers in home markets are all connected. At the same time, we witness a power shift from local economies towards global corporations. According to UNCTAD data, 51 of the world’s largest economies are now corporations, not nation states. In light of this power shift, stakeholders call on business and their leaders to make a difference and thus to take a more active role in solving the world’s most pressing problems, such as protecting and promoting human rights, global warming, contributing to poverty alleviation and the fight against diseases such as malaria and HIV/AIDS (Maak & Pless, 2009). According to Lodge & Wilson (2006, p. 40), farsighted leaders already “have recognized that the source of their legitimacy has moved, and that alongside shareholder satisfaction (...) has come the servicing of community needs, however they might be defined.” More specifically, Maak & Pless argue that responsible business leaders “inspire and spearhead a humanist business culture that seeks to serve human needs, solve social and environmental problems, and generate well-being and prosperity for everyone” (2008, p. 359).
Surveys of senior executives (McKinsey, 2010) reveal, however, that a knowing–doing gap persists with regard to responsible global leadership: Executives recognize their broader responsibilities as global citizens, but they also struggle to cope effectively with the wider social, political, and environmental issues. This comes as no surprise as business schools are struggling as well to respond to the changing demands in developing the next generation of leaders. The late Sumantra Ghoshal (2005) has argued convincingly that we need to rethink business education and, thus, how we educate future business leaders. Ghoshal claims that academic research has had “some very significant and negative influences on the practice of management.” In fact, “by propagating ideologically inspired amoral theories, business schools have actively freed their students from any sense of moral responsibility” (2005, p. 76). No wonder, Ghoshal concludes that we get “… ruthlessly hard-driving, strictly top-down, command-and-control focused, shareholder-value-obsessed, win-at-any-cost business leaders …” (p. 85). Business schools, therefore, should start to rethink and revamp their course contents, suspend old ideologies to enable true integration of moral and ethical issues into
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research and teaching, specifically when it comes to leadership. Far too long, leadership research and teaching has been obsessed with the effectiveness of a leader to get others to do his wishes, or those of the organization; thereby neglecting the fact that leadership, by its very nature, is inextricably based on normative decisions about what is a good and desirable purpose, what leaders do and how they get others to do what is considered worth doing. Or, as Ciulla argues, ethics is at the very heart of leadership by way of normative decisions about “how leaders get people to do things (impress, organize, persuade, influence and inspire) and how what is to be done is decided (forced obedience, voluntary consent, dictated by the leader or a reflection of mutual purposes)” (2006, p. 21).
Bennis & O’Toole (2005) argue that in order to overcome the “methodolatry” at business schools one has “to restore balance to the curriculum and the faculty” to meet “the task of educating competent and ethical practitioners” and future leaders (2005, p. 103). Consequently, if “business schools have lost their way”, as Bennis & O’Toole (2005) contend, and if “bad theories are destroying good practices”, as Ghoshal (2005) argues, then we face some fundamental challenges in educating our current and future leaders. But what is it that we have to teach them; what makes a responsible global leader? As Maak (2007, p. 330) argues, “we still have little knowledge about responsible leadership and even less about how to develop responsibility in leaders to prepare them for the challenges of a global and interconnected stakeholder society”. Let’s turn to a practical example as a case in point.
Tex Gunning, the former president of Unilever Bestfoods Asia, joint Unilever in the mid-nineties when markets were saturated. Brought in as an expert for restructuring, which at that time was an open code word for laying off workers, he decided to seek new, uncommon ways to grow the business without laying off people. He decided to build a human community where individuals work together, enjoy what they are doing, care for each other, and – based on values such as trust, honesty and authenticity – take the business in creative and innovative directions (WIE, 2005). As a result, the business turned around quickly. A key to this success were multiple “breakouts”: demanding experiential learning retreats in places like Jordan, India, China or Malaysia. And, as president of Unilever Bestfoods Asia, he not only started the food business in 15 countries, but also set as his goal to significantly improve the nutrition and well-being of children in Asia (WIE, 2005). The vision for improving the livelihood of people the impact of living a social mission intrinsic to the business on a daily basis; the caring spirit unleashed by
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“breakouts” to the real world with real problems, all this is encapsulated in the Tsunami relief efforts of Unilever Best Foods in Sri Lanka (Unilever, 2005). Reflecting back on the journey of more than one hundred employees, Gunning notes: “(W)e realized again that if we inculcate a meaningful spirit, if we develop the right values of service, care and belonging and we help our people to grow as human and business beings that the rest will follow much more easily. As leaders, we need a whole new level of consciousness about the functioning of organizations. Recognize that it is a living and therefore continuously changing organism, adjusting itself to its new circumstances and adjusting to the human players that make up the organization” (WIE, 2005, p. 96).
When asked what makes a leader outstanding, Tex Gunning answers: “Average leaders take care of themselves and their families. Good leaders take care of themselves, their families and some of the community. Great leaders – and great companies – not only take care of these stakeholders but also want to change the world. They want to leave the world better than they found it” (WIE, 2005, p. 96). Gunning epitomizes the nature of a servant leader who acts as steward of values and resources (Maak & Pless, 2006), but more importantly who helps others to grow as persons so that they can become leaders in their own right (Greenleaf, 1977/2002). He also fits the definition Mendenhall (2008, p. 17) gives of a responsible global leader: “individuals who effect significant positive change in organizations by building communities through the development of trust and the arrangement of organizational structures and processes in a context involving multiple cross-boundary stakeholders, multiple sources of external cross-boundary authority, and multiple cultures under conditions of temporal, geographical and cultural complexity.”
Extending this complexity even further, executives of global corporations must balance various needs, such as global integration and local responsiveness, to ensure global consistency in corporate social responsibility approaches and initiatives while also being sensitive to local cultural norms and expectations (Donaldson & Dunfee, 1999; Husted & Allen, 2006; Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011). Dealing effectively with these challenges requires moral judgment (Brown & Treviño, 2006), an ability to balance contradictions (Marquardt & Berger, 2000), and a means to determine when different is different and when different is simply wrong (Donaldson, 1996).
Moreover, it has been argued that leaders need a specific global mindset (e.g., Levy et al., 2007) which enables them to understand the dynamics of different
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markets, operating environments, and cultures in highly interdependent societies (Hills & Mahmud, 2007; Kok-Yee, Dyne & Soon, 2009; Thompson, Ahern & Schroeder, 2010). It has also been noted that leaders need boundary spanning capabilities to succeed in multi-stakeholder environments, specifically when engaged in cross-sector collaborations between for-profit businesses and not-for-profit entities which are growing in number and importance in light of pressing public problems (Bryson et al., 2006; Kale & Singh, 2009), like, e.g., Grameen Alliances or CARE collaborations. The parties in such collaborations differ in their goals, logics, resources, and governance structures (Austin, 2000; Berger, Cunningham & Drumwright, 2004; Doh & Teegen, 2003; Hardy, Lawrence & Phillips, 2006; Kanter, 1999; LeBer & Branzei, 2010; Rondinelli & London, 2003; Waddell & Brown, 1997). Such collaborations require not only boundary spanning capabilities, i.e., being able to extensively communicate through individual ties to external organizational entities and serve as exchange agents between organizations and environments (Wilensky, 1967), but they also offer opportunities for mutual learning experiences in generating innovative solutions to today’s global challenges.
A growing trend that has emerged in executive education in recent years is to utilize cross-sector experiences in systematic ways, usually coupled with service learning assignments, to develop responsible global leadership capabilities. Specifically, Pless at al. (2011) have shown the effectiveness of international service learning programs in the development of global mindset and intercultural competencies; ethical mindset and moral competencies; as well as social and emotional competencies and the ability to relate to others, including diverse stakeholders – all qualities that are essential for global leaders and arguably a pre-condition to make a difference.
In what follows, we will first introduce this trend in more detail. We will then discuss the benefits of international service learning programs. Specifically, we will compare four different programs – PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses; HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program; IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program – and discuss their differences and how, and to what extent, these programs develop global leaders who (will) make a difference. 4.2. International Service Learning Programs (ISLP)
As indicated, numerous multinational corporations have started to send selected executives and employees on “mini-sabbaticals” to developing countries
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with the aim to lend their expertise to non-profit organizations or high-impact social entrepreneurs and contribute to improving some of the world’s burning issues (Hewlett, 2012a). For example, Novartis through its Entrepreneurial Leadership Program is sending global teams of high-performing talent to emerging markets to develop solution to country-specific health challenges; EY has the Americas Corporate Responsibility Fellows Program in which employees help entrepreneurs in emerging markets to develop their businesses; and the Intel Education Service Corps program enables talented employees to work with NGOs in developing countries to support the deployment of Intel-powered classmate PCs, including pro-bono teaching and training. Among the companies which have adopted ISLP are furthermore IBM, Pfizer, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), GlaxoSmithKline, Cisco, HSBC, Starbucks, and Mars. These companies operate programs with varied parameters – target group of leaders/employees, length and focus of assignment, geographic location, and funding structure (Thompson et al., 2010; Hills & Mahmud, 2007); yet they share the common feature of challenging cross-border assignments, stakeholder engagement, and service learning.
The cross-border model of international corporate volunteering and service learning programs is a relatively new phenomenon in multinational companies, although the methodology as such is not. ISLP offer a unique and an innovative mechanism to develop leadership skills and capacity through social engagement, while serving as potential drivers of growth in emerging markets. It also marks a shift from local service models (and thus traditional corporate volunteering) to more elaborate international programs which can leverage corporate assets and expertise more strategically (Thompson et al., 2010; Hills & Mahmud, 2007) and, more importantly, provide a unique learning format fostering the above mentioned global leadership capabilities.
We use the term International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) when referring to cross-border corporate volunteering programs because the term ISLP is broader and goes beyond the usual understanding of volunteering in emphasizing the learning experience through service provided to local beneficiaries (Pless et al., 2011). In principle, ISLP are carefully designed experiential corporate volunteering programs that send employees on mini-sabbaticals to overseas locations (often developing or emerging markets) for a limited period of time to contribute their knowledge and expertise in areas such as strategic planning, marketing, finance, IT, and project management while providing pro bono consulting services to a social partner (e.g., a selected group of NGOs, social entrepreneurs, government agencies,
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charity organizations, universities and associations in varied industries) and, in exchange, develop leadership skills and adopt a broader picture (Thompson et al., 2010).
Methodologically and functionally, ISLP are a hybrid of service and experiential learning. Service learning represents a form of experiential education in which participants “engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote [their] learning and development; service-learning combines service objectives with learning objectives with the intent that the activity change both the recipient and provider of the service” (Jacoby, 1996, p. 5). The philosophical roots of service learning can be traced back to the American pragmatist philosopher and educational reformer John Dewey (1859-1952). Dewey emphasized the importance of genuine learning through focusing the attention on real-world issues in a real-world context and subsequent reflection upon the experience, enabling participants to develop the capacity for intelligent thought and action (Harkavy & Hartley, 2010). Student-centered service-learning programs have a long history, specifically in colleges and universities in the United States, such that they are integrated into the curriculum (at, e.g., University of Pennsylvania, University of Nebraska, Boston College) (Crews, 2010) with the overall objective to enable “transformative learning, education for democracy, and research to better understand and improve the World” (Harkavy & Hartley, 2010, p. 419).
The use of service learning assignments, specifically ISLP, in business is a relatively recent trend though. ISLP respect service learning principles while extending the idea of community service across borders, incorporating an integrated learning concept that combines field experiences with individual assessment, coaching, and team building (Pless et al., 2011). ISLP provide a completely different level of stretch and personal development than domestic volunteering programs. Usually, domestic programs leave participants to freely choose the work they would like to undertake, or place individuals on the basis of the skills they already have (Farmer, 2012). However, participants achieve a much greater personal-development impact when matched to projects on the basis of their development needs, as well as their skills, while being sent abroad, with no regular support network in place (Farmer, 2012).
According to Kanter (in Olson, 2011), short-term international projects are cost-effective ways to build skills and relationships in a diverse team. They mirror a way of working where people are thrust into new situations and have to learn and
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react fast and at the same time adjust quickly to different cultures and circumstances. The participants on the assignments have to coordinate with local people to get things done, work more intensely to make an impact in light of cross-cultural differences, employ out-of-the-box thinking, be resilient and think on their feet. ISLP require employees to constantly re-evaluate how they are contributing to their team’s assignment in order to reach their goals in a short timeframe (MacArthur, 2012). The time-limited nature of the assignments and the social value they are expected to create lead to an urgency to deliver. All of these skills are essential for any company looking to operate in today’s global marketplace (Farmer, 2012).
It has been argued that ISLP can play a key role in developing responsible global leaders and thereby enhance a company’s CSR and sustainability efforts (e.g., Colvin, 2009; Googins, Mirvis & Rochlin, 2007; Hart & Milstein, 2003; Mirvis, 2008). Yet, with a few exceptions (Pless et al., 2011), there is a lack of empirical research on the outcomes of ISLP, how these outcomes are achieved and sustained. In the following, we will summarize what we know thus far.
4.3. Outcomes and Benefits of ISLP
As a general assessment, it is noted that ISLP create business and societal value simultaneously such that they are a triple win for companies, program participants, and local clients and communities, all of whom benefit from the partnerships, through life-changing experiences and new skills learned, and the pro-bono services provided (Thompson et al., 2010; Hewlett, 2012b). Extant research thus far has focused primarily on studying the effects and outcomes on the participants, and for the companies sending executives and employees.
When it comes to program participants, and thus individual-level outcomes, Gitsham (2012) comments on the positive impact of ISLP on participants’ general understanding, perspective and intent. Pless et al. (2011, 2012) provide evidence for the actual effectiveness of ISLP experiences in developing responsible global leadership. Specifically, the authors stress the positive developmental impact on responsible mindset, ethical literacy, cultural intelligence, self-development, community building, and global mindset. Further, more general, overall positive effects on the cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal development of ISLP participants have been noted (Green, 2001; Jay, 2008; Jones & Abes, 2004; Lechuga, Clerc & Howell, 2009; Litke, 2002; Myers-Lipton, 1998; Rockquemore & Schaffer, 2000; Vogelgesang & Astin, 2000, Einfeld & Collins, 2008; Keen & Hall, 2009; Dugan, 2006).
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The specific individual learning outcomes of service learning and ISLP include enhanced critical thinking and real world problem solving (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Lester et al., 2005; Salimbene, Buono, Lafarge & Nurick, 2005; Papamarcos, 2005); moral development (Boss, 1994; Markus, Howard & King, 1993); civic engagement and volunteerism (Langseth & Plater, 2004; Tomkovick et al., 2008); social responsibility and values development (Eyler, Giles, Stenson & Gray, 2000; Lester et al., 2005; Papamarcos, 2005); as well as attitudes toward enabling to better recognize nuances when reconciling tension under conditions of complexity and gaining awareness of the broader impact of individuals’ decisions on their surroundings (Pless et al., 2011; Maznevski and El-Agamy, 2009); developing a greater tolerance for diversity (Dumas, 2002); and for enhancing relational abilities (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Rhoads, 1997); self-efficacy and confidence (Giles & Eyler, 1994; Papamarcos, 2005; Tucker & McCarthy, 2001). The programs also seem to have an impact on strengthening participants’ intent and commitment to act and support their organizations’ activities in the area of engagement (Gitsham, 2012).
Among the potential disadvantages noted by researchers are time limitations, given that many ISLP are relatively short-term, as well as the lack of true innovation when it comes to project outcomes; moreover, some studies found a high rate of departure for executives returning from assignments who could not align with the culture at company headquarters or who found themselves off the management track (Olson, 2011).
As for the organizational outcomes, according to MacArthur (2012) the benefits of skills-based volunteering abroad through an ISLP include: company loyalty, leadership skills, adaptability, team building and cultural competence, among other things. Companies running ISLP have generated new knowledge of potential clients and partners in countries important to business expansion. Their personnel succeeded in obtaining new knowledge about working in emerging markets, improving resiliency and the ability to lead in uncertain circumstances (MacArthur, 2012). Guarnieri & Kao (2008) also point out to increased staff engagement, retention and performance, increased trust in the company culture and enhanced corporate reputation among partners and potential clients in ISLP countries. Companies implementing ISLP manage to better attract and retain in-demand talents (Hewlett, 2012b). There are also new opportunities for building public relations through positive media coverage around the work of participating employees, including videos and blogs as many of them write from the field (Hewlett, 2012b; Tergesen, 2012; Guarnieri & Kao, 2008). As Muthuri, Matten
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& Moon (2009) add, employee volunteering influences the different dimensions of social capital – networks, trust and norms of cooperation which connect to the creation, maintenance and management of meaningful stakeholder relations (Maak, 2007). By providing tools enabling the dissemination of ISLP experiences on the organizational level, the personal experience can be elevated into organizational ethical learning (Deiser, 2009). To gather a more refined understanding of what exactly is learned in ISLP and how companies may adapt ISLP to fit their specific needs, we have studied the outcomes of four established ISLP and will compare them in the next section.
4.4. Developing Leaders Who Make a Difference: International Service
Learning at PwC, HSBC, IBM, and Novartis For the purpose of this chapter, we have chosen to study ISLP run by
multinational corporations from four different industries (accounting and advisory services; banking; IT and consulting; and pharma). Since the programs differ in scope and length – from as short as one week to eight weeks of assignments in multinational teams – we capture a broad spectrum of approaches and will discuss the major differences, their learning impact and how they help to grow leaders who make a difference further below. Table 4.1. summarizes basic program descriptions.
The Ulysses Program at PricewaterhouseCoopers is a highly structured
leadership-development program in which multi-cultural teams work for two months in developing countries in collaboration with social organizations, NGOs, or UN agencies. The Ulysses Program was launched in 2001 and it has various key focus areas (economic and social development, health, education, environment, etc.). When participants are sent to their overseas assignments, they work on activities such as creating a framework for good governance, anticorruption and poverty reduction, developing a strategy and business plan of sustainable growth, designing a microfinance credit-loaning model for SMEs in the region, to name a few. Specific examples of assignments are growing sustainable business in Madagascar, poverty alleviation in East Timor, strengthening coordination in the fight against HIV/AIDS in Uganda, or child helpline support in India. Participants’ learning journeys focus on enhancing ethical mindset, global mindset and relational skills and thus core capabilities for leaders to succeed in responsible and sustainable ways in the 21st century.
Tabl
e 4.
1.: G
ener
al In
form
atio
n ab
out t
he In
tern
atio
nal S
ervi
ce L
earn
ing
Prog
ram
s (IS
LP)
Pric
ewat
erho
useC
oope
rs’
The
Uly
sses
Pro
gram
H
SBC
’s N
ext G
ener
atio
n D
evel
opm
ent P
rogr
am
IBM
’s C
orpo
rate
Ser
vice
Cor
ps
The
Nov
artis
Ent
repr
eneu
rial
Le
ader
ship
Pro
gram
D
escr
iptio
n of
the I
SLP
A hi
ghly
stru
ctur
ed le
ader
ship
-de
velo
pmen
t pro
gram
in w
hich
m
ulti-
cultu
ral t
eam
s wor
k in
de
velo
ping
cou
ntrie
s in
colla
bora
tion
with
soci
al
orga
niza
tions
A le
ader
ship
dev
elop
men
t pro
gram
de
signe
d to
dev
elop
futu
re le
ader
s of
the
HSB
C G
roup
focu
sing
on
prac
tical
app
licat
ion
of le
arni
ng a
nd
real
out
com
es
An
inte
rnat
iona
l com
mun
ity
serv
ice
assig
nmen
t and
lead
ersh
ip
deve
lopm
ent p
rogr
am fo
r hig
h-po
tent
ial I
BM e
mpl
oyee
s in
spire
d by
the
U.S
. Pea
ce C
orps
An
actio
n-ba
sed
lead
ersh
ip
deve
lopm
ent p
rogr
am se
ndin
g gl
obal
team
s of t
alen
t to
emer
ging
m
arke
ts to
dev
elop
a so
lutio
n to
co
untry
-spe
cific
hea
lth c
halle
nges
Year
of
laun
ch
2001
(with
a b
reak
in 2
002,
at
this
mom
ent,
the
prog
ram
is
pend
ing)
2007
20
08
2010
Size
of t
he
team
•
3-4
peop
le•
12-1
5 pe
ople
•12
-15
peop
le, b
roke
n in
to su
b-te
ams
•6-
10 p
eopl
e
Leng
th o
f pl
acem
ents
•
8 w
eeks
•1
wee
k•
4 w
eeks
•4
wee
ks
Key
focu
s ar
ea
Vario
us: E
cono
mic
and
soci
al
deve
lopm
ent,
heal
th, e
duca
tion,
en
viro
nmen
t, et
c.
Vario
us: E
cono
mic
and
soci
al
deve
lopm
ent,
envi
ronm
enta
l, et
c.
Vario
us:
Soci
al, e
cono
mic
, bu
sines
s, en
viro
nmen
t, ed
ucat
ion,
he
alth
, etc
.
Soci
al: H
ealth
Type
s of
activ
ities
pa
rtic
ipan
ts
do o
n as
signm
ents
•E.
g., c
reat
ing
fram
ewor
k fo
rgo
od g
over
nanc
e,an
ticor
rupt
ion
and
pove
rtyre
duct
ion,
•D
evel
opin
g a
strat
egy
and
busi n
ess p
lan
of su
stain
able
grow
th,
•D
esig
ning
a m
icro
finan
cecr
edit-
loan
ing
mod
el fo
rSM
Es in
the
regi
on, e
tc.
•E.
g., s
take
hold
er m
eetin
gs,
mee
ting
prim
ary
clie
nts (
NG
Os)
,fie
ld v
isits,
•D
evel
opin
g bu
sines
s mod
els,
prod
ucin
g a
mar
ketin
g pl
an,
com
plet
ing
a bu
sines
s pla
n to
impr
ove
prod
uct d
istrib
utio
n an
dpr
ofita
bilit
y, a
nd o
ther
act
iviti
esai
med
at s
uppo
rting
the
partn
erco
mpa
ny
•In
crea
sing
the
com
petit
iven
ess
of S
MEs
by,
e.g
.,•
Stra
tegy
dev
elop
men
t,•
Mar
ketin
g,•
HR
man
agem
ent,
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l des
ign,
spec
ial
proj
ects
(web
sites
, fea
sibili
tystu
dies
, pro
posa
ls fo
r fun
ding
,de
velo
ping
bus
ines
s stra
tegi
es,
etc.
)
•E.
g., s
take
hold
er in
terv
iew
s,•
Ana
lyzi
ng m
arke
t con
ditio
nsan
d pa
tient
jour
ney,
•D
evel
opin
g bu
sines
s mod
els o
rim
prov
ed se
rvic
e de
liver
yop
portu
n itie
s, et
c.
Exam
ples
of
assig
nmen
ts
•G
row
ing
susta
inab
le b
usin
ess
in M
adag
asca
r•
Pove
rty a
llevi
atio
n in
Eas
tTi
mor
•St
reng
then
ing
coor
dina
tion
inth
e fig
ht a
gain
st H
IV/A
IDS
inU
gand
a•
Child
hel
plin
e su
ppor
t in
Indi
a
•W
orki
ng w
ith a
n N
GO
in In
dia
prov
idin
g co
llect
ion
of a
yurv
edic
herb
s hel
ping
the
wom
en-o
wne
rsfra
nchi
se th
e m
odel
•W
orki
ng w
ith a
n N
GO
con
serv
ing
a ra
info
rest
in A
rgen
tina
onde
velo
ping
a m
odel
that
was
hybr
id b
etw
een
char
ity a
nddo
natio
n an
d in
vestm
ent m
odel
•H
elpi
ng E
lect
ricity
Com
pany
of G
hana
by
prop
osin
g an
ITgo
vern
ance
mod
el to
hel
psta
ndar
dize
IT sy
stem
s and
ensu
re c
onsis
tenc
y in
man
agem
ent
•H
elpi
ng N
iger
ia’s
Cros
s Riv
erSt
ate
with
two
prog
ram
s whi
chpr
ovid
es fr
ee h
ealth
car
e to
mot
hers
and
you
ng c
hild
ren
•Co
llabo
rativ
ely
reso
lvin
gsu
pply
-cha
in p
robl
ems o
fm
alar
ia d
rug
in T
anza
nia
•Lo
okin
g fo
r pot
entia
l sol
utio
nsco
ncer
ning
NCD
s (no
n-co
mm
unic
able
dise
ases
) bur
den
in lo
w in
com
e co
mm
uniti
es in
Mex
ico
and
Sout
h A
frica
127
Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference
128
The Next Generation Development Program at HSBC, launched in 2007, is described as a leadership development program designed to develop future leaders of the HSBC Group focusing on the practical application of learning and real outcomes. Its key focus areas are similar to the Ulysses Program and include economic and social development and issues related to sustainability. The key difference is that the actual field assignments are much shorter (1 week), and the post-assignment project work significantly longer. The methodology utilizes three core disciplines: “sensing”, “reflection” and “action.” During the field assignments participants engage in stakeholder meetings, meet primary clients (NGOs), and conduct field visits. They then develop business models for their social partners, produce a marketing plan, complete a business plan to improve product distribution and profitability, and engage in other activities aimed at supporting the partner company. For example, groups of 12-15 participants worked with an NGO in the area of rainforest protection in Argentina, specifically in the development of a hybrid model at the intersection of charity, donation and investment. After completion of the field assignment, a 6-month-long work starts in virtual teams on a real life business project for HSBC, involving a sustainability component.
IBM’s Corporate Service Corps was launched in 2008. This program is an international community service assignment and leadership development program for high-potential IBM employees inspired by the U.S. Peace Corps and it has various foci (social, economic, business, environment, education, health, etc.). The project assignments include improving the competitiveness of SMEs through strategy development, marketing, HR management, organizational design, or by working on special projects (creating websites, feasibility studies, proposals for funding, developing business strategies, etc.), but also assistance to public companies. For example, IBMers have helped in their four-week-long projects the Electricity Company of Ghana by designing an IT governance model to standardize IT systems and ensure consistency in management; or Nigeria’s Cross River State with two programs with the objective to provide free health care to mothers and young children.
Finally, the Novartis Entrepreneurial Leadership Program is an action-based leadership development program that sends global teams of talent to emerging markets to develop a solution to country-specific health challenges. The program was launched in 2010 and its key focus area is health and is therefore close to the core of the company’s core business. While on assignment, participants engage in stakeholder interviews, analyzing market conditions and patient journeys, developing business models or improving services. Typical examples would be
Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference
129
a 4-week assignment in Tanzania to work with local stakeholders on resolving supply-chain problems of malaria drug distribution, or looking for potential solutions concerning non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in low income communities in Mexico and South Africa.
4.5. ISLP Outcomes Based on semi-structured interviews with ISLP representatives of the
aforementioned companies, as well as publicly available secondary sources, we now review some of the specific ISLP outcomes related to three key constituencies: program participants, the firms, and stakeholders on the ground, that is to say, project partners and local constituencies.
Evidently, each individual learning journey is unique and depends on participants’ developmental readiness, team composition, assignment, and the challenges resulting from the assignment, including the socio-cultural and economic context in which it is embedded. To enable deep-level learning rather than surface-level experience, it is recommended that the assignments should be challenging and the teams diverse enough to get program participants out of their comfort zone (Pless et al., 2011). An the individual level, the following learning outcomes are reported: (1) leadership capabilities and other soft skills, like, e.g., ability to work in a multi-cultural environment, cultural intelligence, relationship building skills, stakeholder engagement skills, innovation skills, perspective-taking and a new view of the world, resilience, understanding of the company’s CSR commitment and role in the developing world, and desire to make a positive impact in the world; (2) team-work skills, such as global teaming and collaboration skills, mutual learning in cross-functional teams, ability to lead a diverse team; (3) experience from growth markets, such as an increased understanding of the target population and delivery systems, learning to deliver in a more disruptive and creative way, creating sustainable solutions respecting limited resources, and ability to work with complex, multi-stakeholder projects and situations. In addition, (4) functional outcomes like a promotion, or new responsibilities at work, are mentioned; as well as (5) service work-related outcomes, like, e.g., an increased motivation of participants to continue community work after the completion of the program, or a continuous involvement of participants in the firm’s ISLP as volunteers. Finally, in light of the unsettling nature of ISLP, (6) personal and professional disturbances may occur, such as difficulties to settle into the unchanged work context at least in the first few weeks after returning from the assignment – which highlights the necessity of re-entry support; in some cases the mind boggling nature of the assignment might be such
Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference
130
that participants may question the meaning of both, their work and their purpose in life. In these cases, the re-entry phase will turn out to be the most crucial. Table 4.2. summarizes the individual-level impact of the ISLP studied.
Among the outcomes of ISLP assignments that are most beneficial at the firm level, company representatives mention the following: (1) building and developing global leaders and managers who understand the challenges of emerging markets; (2) alignment of the new skills and mindsets with the strategic focus of the company, for example, when it comes to understanding cultural differences and communicating and problem solving in a global context; (3) fostering innovation and generating new business models in untapped market segments; (4) global teaming and building a network within the firm by working on projects with participants from different continents and cultures; (5) team building and cohesiveness to the extent that program participants continue to collaborate on other community development projects or as company volunteers; (6) being able to deliver responsible and sustainable business solutions through collaboration with multiple stakeholders; (7) retaining high-potentials, improved employee morale, as well as attracting new talent; (8) improved stakeholder relationships and positive effects from a brand perspective; (9) generating new business and sales opportunities; and (10) preparing for future business opportunities, e.g., through familiarization with supply chains and country environments in emerging markets. Table 4.3. summarizes the firm-level impact of the ISLP studied.
At both individual and firm level, we observe significant positive effects of ISLP. But what about the communities in which the assignments take place? The most frequently noted outcomes include (1) overall positive change effects in the communities where projects take place through the pro-bono services provided; (2) capacity building on the ground and numerous process improvements, for instance in building smart communities and concerted approaches across boundaries to fight HIV AIDS; and, lastly, (3) instilling and revitalizing of civic commitment among employees since many continue to engage in community work after the completion of the program. Table 4.4. provides a brief overview of the key effect at the macro level.
T abl
e 4.
2.: I
SLP
Parti
cipa
nt O
utco
mes
O
utco
me
Cat
egor
y Pr
icew
ater
hous
eCoo
pers
’ The
U
lyss
es P
rogr
am
HSB
C’s
Nex
t Gen
erat
ion
Dev
elop
men
t Pro
gram
IB
M’s
Cor
pora
te S
ervi
ce C
orps
Th
e N
ovar
tis E
ntre
pren
euri
al
Lead
ersh
ip P
rogr
am
Lead
ersh
ip
capa
bilit
ies a
nd
othe
r sof
t ski
lls
•Re
spon
sible
min
d-se
t•
Ethi
cal l
itera
cy•
Cultu
ral i
ntel
ligen
ce•
Glo
bal m
ind-
set
•Se
lf-de
velo
pmen
t•
Com
mun
ity b
uild
ing
•In
terc
ultu
ral c
ompe
tenc
e•
Loca
l sen
sitiv
ity•
Non
judg
men
taln
ess
•M
oral
refle
ctio
n•
Self-
awar
enes
s•
Des
ire to
mak
e a
posit
ive
impa
ct in
the
wor
ld
•W
orki
ng in
a m
ulti-
cultu
ral
envi
ronm
ent
•A
bilit
y to
giv
e an
d re
ceiv
efe
edba
ck•
Abi
lity
to h
ave
‘diff
icul
tco
nver
satio
ns’
•Id
entif
ying
lead
ersh
ip p
urpo
se,
bran
d an
d va
lues
•U
nder
stand
ing
and
inte
grat
ing
susta
inab
ility
asp
ects
into
day
to d
ay w
ork
of th
e ba
nk•
Build
ing
rela
tions
hips
acr
oss
geog
raph
ies a
nd b
usin
ess u
nits
•Se
lf co
nfid
ence
to o
pera
te in
ale
ader
ship
role
in a
glo
bal
envi
ronm
ent
•Cu
ltura
l aw
aren
ess
•U
nder
stand
ing
of th
eco
mpa
ny’s
CSR
com
mitm
ent
and
role
in th
e de
velo
ping
wor
ld•
Glo
bal a
war
enes
s and
citiz
ensh
ip•
New
per
spec
tive
on th
e w
orld
,ot
her c
ultu
res a
nd o
nese
lf•
Stro
nger
per
sona
l res
ilien
ce•
Rela
tions
hip
build
ing
skill
s•
Stak
ehol
der e
ngag
emen
t ski
lls
•In
terc
ultu
ral s
kills
•In
nova
tion
skill
s•
Tran
sfor
mat
iona
l lea
ders
hip
skill
s•
Patie
nt c
entri
city
skill
s
Team
-wor
k sk
ills
•A
bilit
y to
lead
a d
iver
se te
am•
Abi
lity
to le
ad a
glo
bal v
irtua
lte
am
•G
loba
l tea
min
g an
dco
llabo
ratio
n sk
ills
•M
utua
l lea
rnin
g in
cro
ss-
func
tiona
l tea
ms
Not
e: p
artic
ipan
ts d
o no
t wor
k in
te
ams
Expe
rien
ce fr
om
grow
th m
arke
ts
•A
bilit
y to
iden
tify
stake
hold
erne
eds a
nd d
eliv
er re
sults
•W
orki
ng w
ith c
ompl
ex, m
ulti-
stake
hold
er p
roje
cts a
ndsit
uatio
ns
•Le
arni
ng to
del
iver
in a
mor
edi
srup
tive
and
crea
tive
way
•Cr
eatin
g su
stain
able
solu
tions
resp
ectin
g lim
ited
reso
urce
s
•In
crea
sed
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
targ
et p
opul
atio
n an
d de
liver
ysy
stem
s
Posit
ion-
rela
ted
outc
omes
•
Prom
otio
n•
New
resp
onsib
ilitie
s at w
ork
Serv
ice
wor
k-re
late
d ou
tcom
es
•M
otiv
atio
n of
par
ticip
ants
toco
ntin
ue c
omm
unity
wor
kev
en a
fter t
he c
ompl
etio
n of
the
prog
ram
•M
ost p
artic
ipan
ts en
d up
as
cons
ulta
nts f
or N
GO
s afte
r the
prog
ram
(giv
e stg
. fin
anci
ally
on
thei
r ow
n, c
arry
out
rela
tions
hips
with
the
orga
niza
tions
)
•M
otiv
atio
n of
par
ticip
ants
toco
ntin
ue c
omm
unity
wor
k ev
enaf
ter t
he c
ompl
etio
n of
the
prog
ram
•St
ayin
g in
volv
ed w
ith th
epr
ogra
m a
s vol
unte
ers
Pote
ntia
l pe
rson
al a
nd
prof
essio
nal
dist
urba
nces
•Fi
ndin
g it
diffi
cult
to se
ttle
the
first
few
wee
ks a
fter r
etur
ning
from
ass
ignm
ent (
the
nece
ssity
of re
-ent
ry su
ppor
t)
•Re
cons
ider
ing
the
mea
ning
of
thin
gs n
ever
que
stion
ed o
rre
form
ulat
ing
life
purp
oses
(if
not r
esol
ved
wel
l in
the
struc
ture
d re
-ent
ry p
hase
)
131
T abl
e 4.
3.: I
SLP
Org
aniza
tiona
l-lev
el O
utco
mes
O
utco
me
Cat
egor
y Pr
icew
ater
hous
eCoo
pers
’ Th
e U
lyss
es P
rogr
am
HSB
C’s
Nex
t Gen
erat
ion
Dev
elop
men
t Pro
gram
IB
M’s
Cor
pora
te S
ervi
ce C
orps
Th
e N
ovar
tis E
ntre
pren
euri
al L
eade
rshi
p Pr
ogra
m
Build
ing
glob
al le
ader
s an
d m
anag
ers
•Bu
ildin
g gl
obal
lead
ers
and
man
ager
s•
Self
conf
iden
ce to
ope
rate
ina
lead
ersh
ip ro
le in
a g
loba
len
viro
nmen
t
•D
evel
opin
g fu
ture
lead
ers w
ho u
nder
stand
chal
leng
es o
f dev
elop
ing
mar
kets
Alig
nmen
t of t
he n
ew
lear
ning
with
the
stra
tegi
c fo
cus o
f the
co
mpa
ny
•U
nder
stand
ing
cultu
ral
diffe
renc
es in
pro
blem
solv
ing,
com
mun
icat
ing
ingl
obal
con
text
•So
me
busin
ess p
roje
cts d
evel
oped
a ta
rget
ed so
cial
med
ia id
entit
y,str
ateg
y an
d ca
mpa
ign
for t
he b
ank,
a cu
stom
er c
ontra
ct fo
r a g
eogr
aphy
to su
ppor
t tra
nspa
renc
y an
d bu
ildin
gtru
st w
ith th
e cu
stom
ers,
and
anem
ploy
ee v
alue
pro
posit
ion
Fost
erin
g in
nova
tion,
ne
w b
usin
ess m
odel
s •
Foste
ring
inno
vatio
n•
New
bus
ines
s mod
els i
n un
tapp
ed m
arke
t seg
men
tsG
loba
l tea
min
g an
d ne
twor
king
•
Glo
bal t
eam
ing
and
build
ing
a ne
twor
k w
ithin
the
firm
by
wor
king
on
proj
ect w
ith p
artic
ipan
tsfro
m a
ll ov
er th
e w
orld
•Bu
ildin
g re
latio
nshi
ps a
cros
sge
ogra
phie
s and
bus
ines
s uni
ts•
Glo
bal t
eam
ing
and
build
ing
a ne
twor
k w
ithin
the
firm
by
wor
king
on
proj
ect w
ithpa
rtici
pant
s fro
m a
ll ov
er th
e w
orld
Team
coh
esiv
enes
s •
Glu
ing
parti
cipa
nts t
oget
her,
cohe
siven
ess o
f tea
ms,
wor
king
on o
ther
(com
mun
ity d
evel
opm
ent)
proj
ects
or a
s com
pany
vol
unte
ers
Sust
aina
bilit
y an
d sh
ared
val
ue
•Be
ing
able
to d
eliv
erre
spon
sible
and
susta
inab
lebu
sines
s sol
utio
ns th
roug
hle
arni
ng h
ow to
cre
ate
shar
ed v
alue
,un
ders
tand
ing
and
coop
erat
ion
with
mul
tiple
stake
hold
ers
•U
nder
stand
ing
and
inte
grat
ing
susta
inab
ility
asp
ects
into
day
to d
ay w
ork
of th
e ba
nk
•Be
ing
able
to d
eliv
er re
spon
sible
and
susta
inab
le b
usin
ess s
olut
ions
thro
ugh
lear
ning
how
to c
reat
esh
ared
val
ue, u
nder
stand
ing
and
coop
erat
ion
with
mul
tiple
stake
hold
ers
Incr
ease
d re
tent
ion
and
com
mitm
ent o
f em
ploy
ees,
tale
nt
attr
actio
n
•In
crea
sed
com
mitm
ent o
fpa
rtici
pant
s•
Incr
ease
d re
tent
ion
and
com
mitm
ent o
f em
ploy
ees,
attra
ctio
n of
top
tale
nts
Impr
ovin
g st
akeh
olde
r re
latio
nshi
ps, b
rand
im
prov
emen
t
•Br
and
impr
ovem
ent
•Im
prov
ing
stake
hold
er re
latio
nshi
ps
Pres
ent b
usin
ess
oppo
rtun
ities
•
Ope
ning
new
pos
sibili
ties f
or th
ebu
sines
s•
Gen
erat
ing
new
bus
ines
s and
sale
sop
portu
nitie
sFu
ture
bus
ines
s op
port
uniti
es
•G
ener
atin
g ne
w o
ppor
tuni
ties i
nsid
eex
istin
g in
itiat
ives
•Pr
epar
ing
grou
nd fo
r fut
ure
busin
ess i
n de
velo
ping
cou
ntrie
s•
Fam
iliar
izat
ion
with
supp
ly c
hain
s and
cou
ntry
envi
ronm
ent
•U
sing
the
pote
ntia
l to
reac
h a
new
cus
tom
er b
ase
•A
ccel
erat
ing
grow
th in
dev
elop
ing
mar
kets
132
T abl
e 4.
4.: I
SLP
Out
com
es fo
r Com
mun
ities
and
Bro
ader
Soc
iety
O
utco
me
Cat
egor
y Pr
icew
ater
hous
eCoo
pers
’ The
U
lyss
es P
rogr
am
HSB
C’s
Nex
t Gen
erat
ion
Dev
elop
men
t Pro
gram
IB
M’s
Cor
pora
te S
ervi
ce C
orps
Th
e N
ovar
tis E
ntre
pren
euri
al
Lead
ersh
ip P
rogr
am
Posit
ive
chan
ge in
th
e co
mm
unity
w
here
the
proj
ects
to
ok p
lace
•G
row
ing
susta
inab
le b
usin
ess
in M
adag
asca
r•
Pove
rty a
llevi
atio
n in
Eas
tTi
mor
•
Stre
ngth
enin
g co
ordi
natio
n in
the
fight
aga
inst
HIV
/AID
S in
Uga
nda
•Ch
ild h
elpl
ine
supp
ort i
n In
dia
•W
orki
ng w
ith a
com
mun
ity o
nth
eir o
wn
finan
cial
stab
ility
resu
lted
in th
e es
tabl
ishm
ent o
fa
com
mun
ity b
ank
whi
ch is
up
and
runn
ing
•W
orki
ng w
ith a
n N
GO
cons
ervi
ng a
rain
fore
st in
Arg
entin
a on
dev
elop
ing
am
odel
that
was
hyb
rid b
etw
een
char
ity a
nd d
onat
ion
and
inve
stmen
t mod
el
•H
elpi
ng E
lect
ricity
Com
pany
of
Gha
na b
y pr
opos
ing
an IT
gove
rnan
ce m
odel
to h
elp
stand
ardi
ze IT
syste
ms a
nden
sure
con
siste
ncy
inm
anag
emen
t•
Hel
ping
Nig
eria
’s Cr
oss R
iver
Stat
e w
ith tw
o pr
ogra
ms:
Proj
ect
HO
PE &
CO
MFO
RT, w
hich
prov
ides
free
hea
lth c
are
tom
othe
rs a
nd y
oung
chi
ldre
n
•Co
llabo
rativ
ely
reso
lvin
g su
pply
-ch
ain
prob
lem
s of m
alar
ia d
rug
in T
anza
nia
•Lo
okin
g fo
r pot
entia
l sol
utio
nsco
ncer
ning
NCD
s (no
n-co
mm
unic
able
dise
ases
) bur
den
in lo
w in
com
e co
mm
uniti
es in
Mex
ico
and
Sout
h A
frica
Build
ing
the
capa
city
for t
he
indi
vidu
al
bene
ficia
ries
•D
evel
opin
g bu
sines
s mod
els
for s
ocia
l par
tner
s, pr
oduc
ing
a m
arke
ting
plan
, com
plet
ing
a bu
sines
s pla
n to
impr
ove
prod
uct d
istrib
utio
n an
dpr
ofita
bilit
y, a
nd e
ngag
ing
inot
her a
ctiv
ities
aim
ed a
tsu
ppor
ting
the
partn
er c
ompa
nyC
omm
unity
co
ntri
butio
n-re
late
d ou
tcom
es
•M
otiv
atio
n of
par
ticip
ants
toco
ntin
ue c
omm
unity
wor
k ev
enaf
ter t
he c
ompl
etio
n of
the
prog
ram
•M
ost p
artic
ipan
ts en
d up
as
cons
ulta
nts f
or N
GO
s afte
r the
prog
ram
(giv
e stg
. fin
anci
ally
on th
eir o
wn,
car
ry o
utre
latio
nshi
ps w
ith th
eor
gani
zatio
ns)
•M
otiv
atio
n of
par
ticip
ants
toco
ntin
ue c
omm
unity
wor
k ev
enaf
ter t
he c
ompl
etio
n of
the
prog
ram
133
Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference
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4.6. Developing Leaders Who Make a Difference Extant research and the results of our exploratory study show that International
Service Learning Programs make a real difference. An international service-learning assignment makes a difference for participants, their firms and the host communities and stakeholders they engage with. For participants, it is often a “once in lifetime-experience”, as a Ulysses team framed it; participants are pushed outside their comfort zone and need to cope with diversity and ambiguity. In so doing, they build essential leadership competencies. As they have to deal with the complexity of problem solving in the real world, usually in a not for profit- context (Salimbene, Buono, Lafarge & Nurick, 2005; Papamarcos, 2005; Kenworthy-U’Ren, 2003), with resource constraints, ambiguous habits, and multiple stakeholder demands, program participants explore the fringes of the world they know and, as a consequence, adopt a new outlook on the same. In other words, ISLP prepare current and future leaders to see the real challenges many parts of the world are facing; to reflect on and understand their own role as leaders; and ultimately to develop the competencies to make a difference.
What that difference is depends on the transformational impact of the ISLP experience, the organizational objectives, and the boundary conditions of the individual leadership project. Clearly, ISLP participants are equipped to make a difference both in and beyond the immediate boundaries of their organizations. The organizations benefit from having built more experienced, confident and responsible global leaders which are able to work across geographies and business units on international projects, lead multi-cultural teams, and who can identify, and better assess, diverse stakeholder needs. Participants also return from the assignments with a broader understanding of sustainability issues and pressing social problems and the ability to apply this learning in their organizations and their work with clients. As such, ISLP bear the potential to help develop present and create future business opportunities, improve stakeholder relations and brand, and bring social as well as business innovation into companies.
As indicated, ISLP make a difference for the communities in which projects are located, and broader society at home and abroad. ISLP build capacity, improve the living or economic conditions of local stakeholders and have an overall positive impact on the communities. More specific outcomes for local NGOs and other partnering organizations include organizational development and process improvements; and, since many participants are motivated to continue similar pro-bono work once being back home, the overall impact on society in general, while difficult to measure, is positive.
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It is in the nature of complex learning experiences that affect individual cognition, emotions and behaviors that outcomes are difficult to measure. Mostly, these are evaluated using customized metrics, surveys, interviews, and inquiries. Thus far, no systematic measurement has been put forward (Pless & Borecká, 2014). If the impact on business is evaluated, it is done on an ad-hoc basis, e.g., by looking at the extent to which ISLP are able to develop innovative social business models, partnerships or opportunities to enter new market segments or expand the company’s presence in existing segments. Next to more systematic research on ISLP, researchers should further examine the specific benefits to companies that invest in developing leaders “that make a difference”.
We will conclude with one example of the positive impact ISLP can make, taken from HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program (NGDP). In 2013 a team of 14 HSBC’s employees went to India to work with an NGO facilitating the collection of ayurvedic herbs with women as business owners. The task was to help the organization understand how they could improve business opportunities for the benefit of the communities and quality of life. Suggestions from the client were that they were keen to explore a franchise model, as well as integrating across the supply chain. During the “sensing phase” the team met with the founders of the NGO, the current manager, the women herb gatherers and owners, their communities, the buyers of the herbs, procurement center managers, local hospitals who use the herbs, toured medicine facilities, met local ayurvedic doctors to understand the health system of ayurvedic medicine. The team discovered many ideas to support the NGO through these meetings and visits. They then needed to prioritize what would meet the client’s needs. They discovered that the procurement managers of the sites were not in favor of a franchise model. They worked to gain buy-in and support with this key stakeholder. They also looked at the production steps and how to add value through the supply chain to be able to sell products for a higher price. Moreover, they also explored new Indian legislation requiring companies to support sustainability efforts and what might be required and available resources in light of the new legislation.
The main deliverable from the field challenge project was that the NGO received a clear road map on how to plan their intended franchising strategy. It contained a matrix scorecard which allowed the NGO to rate and score potential franchisee partners. The team also hosted a meeting with potential franchisees to open the dialogue and also a meeting with the local bank to explore funding/credit options for their expansion, starting an on-going relationship between HSBC and
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the NGO resulting in a number of follow up activities with the HSBC sustainability team in India.
Worth mentioning is also the follow-up business project the participants worked on once back at HSBC: participants commenced a 6-month business project in the bank’s retail division with the objective of improving the use of digital channels and customer experience. The project built on and utilized the same core disciplines that the group had learnt and experienced working together in India, that is to say, “sensing”, “reflection” and “action”. It enabled the group to experience both personal and team development alongside exploring and identifying the key ingredients to building and sustaining high performing teams within the firm environment.
Vanessa Bateson, Head Global Learning Solutions at HSBC Bank PLC, sums up the philosophy and impact of the program as follows: “There is a clear need to refocus behaviour on meeting customers’ and stakeholders’ needs to restore trust into the financial industry. Culture change interventions like the NGDP that I designed with Future Considerations really do shift culture and we will be investing more in these types of programmes. The NGDP provided us with a view about what it takes to create a high performing organisation and culture and how working collaboratively with our customers and our communities is a winning formula. This learning is being used to inform our global culture change programme, where we focus on fundamental human values like mutual respect and trust to create responsible leaders that respond to the responsibilities of organisations in society. When we are collaborating between our employees, customers and communities we can truly fulfil our purpose ‘to enable businesses to thrive and economies to prosper, helping people fulfil their hopes and dreams and realise their ambitions’ which is hugely exciting.”
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Chapter 5
Comparative Analysis of International Service Learning Programs
Nicola M. Pless, and Markéta Borecká
Current status (July 2014): Published in the special issue of the Journal of Management Development on The experience of learning: Approaches to sustainability & ethics education (2014, Vol. 33, No. 6, pp. 526 - 550).
The final publication is available at the website of Emerald Insight at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=17115179&WT.mc_id=journaltocalerts DOI: 10.1108/JMD-04-2014-0034
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5. Comparative Analysis of International Service LearningPrograms
Abstract
Purpose – International service learning is a new trend in management development and a new field of research. International Service Learning Programs are experiential corporate volunteering initiatives designed to give employees the chance to work for a short spell abroad (often in a developing or emerging market) on a service assignment with a partner from the social sector (e.g., NGO, social enterprise). The service assignment is a project defined with a social-sector partner on which the corporate employee works full-time on a pro-bono basis and contributes his/her knowledge and expertise in exchange for a rich learning experience. This paper focuses on the use of International Service Learning Programs in business firms and conducts a comparative analysis of six programs set up by multinational corporations from three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services). It identifies characteristics and similarities among programs, discusses differences, offers criteria for program classification, and areas for future research. As such, it is an important starting point for quantitative studies. Design/methodology/approach – This is a qualitative study based on six International Service Learning Programs. The data was gathered through desk research, interviews with program representatives and a structured questionnaire containing closed and open-ended questions. Findings – Regardless of the stated aims (which usually stress value for the participants, the company and the communities), most programs had one clear focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development) while two showed closely-linked foci (with slightly greater emphasis on organization development than on the other areas). Research limitations/implications – The authors suggest that the type of International Service Learning Program has an effect on the learning outcomes. Since companies are still testing usefulness and outcomes of these programs, academic research that provides comparative quantitative data on the outcomes of such programs is of great value for business practice. Practical implications – This systematic overview and classification of International Service Learning Programs is a starting point for empirical program
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comparisons as well as for the evaluation of different service learning approaches. This could prove very useful for other companies planning to set up or refine their own International Service Learning Programs to achieve certain outcomes. Originality/value – This is the first article that compares International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations. It identifies a number of category areas in which they differ (e.g., in placement length, nature of the assignment – individual or in teams, learning methods used) and provides a typology for program classification (leadership development, organization development or community development). Keywords – service learning, corporate volunteering, international leadership development, organizational development, community development, responsible leadership Paper type – Research paper
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5.1. Introduction Doing business in a global stakeholder environment forces managers and
leaders to face fundamental challenges (e.g., global warming, political unrest) and more demanding public expectations (e.g., taking broader responsibilities as a corporate citizen). This in turn requires a wider knowledge base and new competencies for coping with social problems, resolving ethical issues and engaging with different stakeholder groups in ways that cannot be based on traditional management education (Giacalone and Thompson, 2006; Ghoshal, 2005; Mintzberg, 2004; Mintzberg and Gosling, 2002; Pfeffer, 2005; Pfeffer and Fong, 2002; Broberg and Krull, 2010; Coldwell et al., 2012). Hence the need for new ways of learning and development (Pless et al., 2011).
To prepare current and future managers and leaders to deal with global social, political, ecological, and ethical challenges, a growing number of companies have started to explore new vistas in management education (Cameron and Caza, 2005; Kashyap et al., 2006; Samuelson, 2006; Spreitzer, 2006; Pless et al., 2011). Recently, multinational corporations have started sending their employees on International Service Learning Programs (hereinafter ISLP) to give staff the chance to work for a short spell abroad. ISLP are experiential corporate volunteering initiatives designed to provide employees the opportunity to work for a limited period of time in a foreign country (often developing or emerging market) on an international service assignment (hereinafter ISA) with a partner from the social sector (e.g., NGO, social enterprise). The ISA is a project defined with a social-sector partner, on which the corporate employees work full-time on a pro-bono basis in a foreign country such as India, Brazil, Vietnam, and Ghana (Hewlett, 2012; CDS, International Corporate Volunteerism Survey, 2012). In exchange for a rich learning experience, they lend their knowledge and expertise to non-profit organizations or high-impact entrepreneurs in addressing some of the world’s burning issues (Hewlett, 2012). Currently, some 27 Fortune 500 companies, including IBM, Intel, Pfizer, EY, Dow Corning, PepsiCo, FedEx, and HSBC run programs based on ISA.
Service learning is a form of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984) on which ISLP are based. While service learning has a long tradition as a learning methodology at colleges and universities, it has only recently been applied in business firms in general and in leadership development in particular (see Pless et al., 2011). The first program was set up in 2001 by PricewaterhouseCoopers. Apart from empirical studies of this program (Pless et al., 2011, 2012) and a few case study descriptions of other programs (Marquis and Kanter, 2009; Stolz et al., 2012;
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Gitsham, 2012), no systematic investigation of corporate programs using ISA has been undertaken. The purpose of this article is to give an overview of various ISA-based programs, describe their characteristics (objectives, design, etc.), identify similarities and differences between these programs and offer a typology for classifying them (depending on the kinds of specific benefits sought by the programs for the participants, the companies and society in general) as a leadership development program, an organization development program, and a community development program. This systematic overview and classification will guide future research and be the starting point for empirically comparing programs.
The article is structured as follows: we start with a brief introduction which is followed by a literature review on service learning. After giving an overview of our methodological approach, we share the results of the program comparison and specifically outline the similarities and differences of the programs according to chosen criteria, namely: program objectives; target group of participants; placement length; team size; local partner organizations; types of activities; program design; learning methods used. We then classify the programs into three categories and end by discussing the implications of the findings for the programs’ learning outcomes and by outlining areas for future research.
5.2. Service Learning Service learning is a form of experiential education in which participants
“engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote [their] learning and development; service-learning combines service objectives with learning objectives with the intent that the activity change both the recipient and provider of the service” (Jacoby, 1996, p. 5). Some corporations have started using service learning in the form of ISA and consciousness-raising experiences. The aim is to develop responsible leaders willing to tackle the most pressing global issues and support and drive the firm’s sustainability strategy. The commonest ways of defining such strategies are in terms of Elkington’s (1997) “triple bottom line” (creating environmental, social and economic value), or Porter and Kramer’s (2011) “concept of shared value” (i.e., practices both boosting a company’s competitiveness and economic and social progress of the communities in which it operates).
There are also various experiential learning cross-border or local partnership models of international (non-profit) organizations and corporations. These models design and deliver programs for developing participants’ key leadership skills,
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teamwork and cultural integration skills. They do so bringing together corporations and communities to tackle sustainability issues. These include the corporate partnership schemes of the Earthwatch Institute and LEAD International (which have been delivering leadership development and community/scientific benefits for decades) as well as a number of consultancies and social entrepreneurial entities such as Emzingo, TiE, Three Hands (all offering comparable services in partnership with local NGOs).
Authors writing on ISLP argue that ISLP create business and societal value simultaneously in emerging markets; they are a triple win for the companies, the program participants, and local clients all of whom benefit from the partnerships, the life-changing experiences and new skills learned, and the services provided (Thompson et al., 2010; Hewlett, 2012). Service learning literature authors stress that such experiences abroad have the potential for moral development of the participants (Boss, 1994; Markus et al., 1993), help the participants become more tolerant of diversity (Dumas, 2002), more aware of social issues (Kolenko et al., 1996), and more civically and socially responsible (Eyler and Giles, 1999; Fleckenstein, 1997; Gabelnick, 1997; Godfrey et al., 2005; Lester et al., 2005; Morgan and Streb, 1999; Pless and Maak, 2008). Research has shown that ISA-based leadership programs may help in developing responsible leaders (possessing certain characteristics and performing particular roles) (Pless et al., 2011, Maak and Pless, 2006). There are some empirical studies (e.g., Pless et al., 2011, 2012; Marquis and Kanter, 2009; Stolz et al., 2012) on how individuals learn to become better, more responsible leaders through service learning assignments and the benefits are for all parties involved. Other studies have explored both the nature of the outcomes achieved by ISLP and participants’ perceptions of what aspects of these programs were most important in achieving these outcomes (Gitsham, 2012). The company-related benefits identified in the literature include: greater staff engagement and performance (Guarnieri and Kao, 2008); talent attraction and retention (Hewlett, 2012); increased trust in the company culture (Guarnieri and Kao, 2008); and a generally high return on investment in the form of new knowledge of the countries important to business expansion (MacArthur, 2012). The communities and broader society benefit from ISLP through having their problems addressed free of charge (Litow, 2012).
However, given the growing emphasis on internationalization and the requisite intercultural skills and dispositions necessary in a global society, more research is needed to explore the intersections between global (and local) priorities
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and experiential learning practices (Engberg and Fox, 2011). Also Pless et al. (2011) call for more research on the effectiveness of different approaches for delivering service learning programs. Similarly, Kok-Yee et al. (2009) suggest that researchers should examine how international assignments can be designed to maximize leadership development, assess the developmental components of foreign assignments, and discover what leaders learn.
Apart from the description of individual programs (often available on company websites, in newsletters, in popular journals, or in journals dealing with high school education), there has been no systematic investigation of what distinguishes one corporate ISLP from another in terms of program composition (design), placement length, motivation and benefits, among other things. Neither have there been attempts to classify programs based on their aims and claimed benefits.
There are several compelling reasons for carrying out a systematic comparative analysis of ISLP. First, identifying characteristics of ISLP will give insights into what aspects may influence a program’s short-term and long-term outcomes, impact and effectiveness. Drawing distinctions between ISLP is thus an important preliminary step before evaluating programs’ effectiveness/impact. Second, identifying ISLP differentiating features and classifying the programs into three categories helps one compare service learning approaches. Third, providing a detailed program comparison will also help learning and education officers in their search for new developmental methods. Finally, this comparison will help researchers select programs for empirical comparison.
5.3. Methodology The article compares various ISA-based programs, describing their
characteristics, identifying similarities and differences, and classifying the programs according to their claimed benefits. We conducted qualitative research of six ISLP run by multinational corporations. The programs were chosen using the following criteria: the programs had to be company developmental initiatives categorized as ISLP in which: (1) participants cross international borders and provide service to local partners based primarily on the skills they use in their daily jobs; (2) participants are engaged in an activity that falls beyond their common tasks and responsibilities; (3) participants carry out projects that do not generate revenue for their firms and are intended to provide economic or social benefits to local businesses and communities (CDS, International Corporate Volunteerism Survey,
Comparative Analysis of International Service Learning Programs
154
2012); (4) the programs had to be launched in 2010 or earlier in order to see the results.
The six ISLP that met the above-mentioned criteria and whose representatives agreed to data-gathering were: (1) PricewaterhouseCoopers’ The Ulysses Program (hereinafter PwC-Ulysses), launched in 2001; (2) Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program (Pfizer-GHFP), launched in 2003; (3) EY’s Americas Corporate Responsibility Fellows Program (EY-ACRFP), launched in 2005; (4) IBM’s Corporate Service Corps (IBM-CSC), launched in 2008; (5) Intel Education Service Corps Program (Intel-IESC), launched in 2009; (6) The Novartis Entrepreneurial Leadership Program (Novartis-ELP), launched in 2010. The sample of firms with ISLP covers three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services), most of them being headquartered in the US.
Data on the programs were gathered through interviews or questionnaire inquiry with program representatives based on a structured questionnaire with mostly open-ended questions. The questionnaire covered five areas (general information about the ISLP, target group of participants, information on the assignments, nature of the initiative and learning methods, outcomes) and consisted of 28 questions. Sample questions are: What is the target group of participants? How long are the assignments? What is the key focus area of the assignments (e.g., social or environmental issues, health or education issues, business/economic issues or community development issues)? What is the design of the initiative (e.g., preparation phase, assignment phase, review phase)? What are key learning outcomes for the participants? The categories and items were identified based on a literature review (Pless and Schneider, 2006; Pless et al., 2011; Thompson et al., 2010; Marquis and Kanter, 2009; Stolz et al., 2012). All interviews were transcribed verbatim and sent back to the program representatives for approval; all questionnaires completed in the written form were analyzed and we asked the program representatives additional questions in case clarification was needed. In order to ensure the credibility and validity of the results, we triangulated the data sources (Yin, 2009; Anand et al., 2007) using the following secondary sources of evidence: written information about each program available on company web pages, in academic or practitioner journals and books, in case studies, company presentations, measurement reports, blogs, videos, and other promotional materials. Before analyzing the data, gathered information was sent back to the respective program representative asking for additional information where needed and providing opportunities for adding missing information. The final data set was then
Comparative Analysis of International Service Learning Programs
155
analyzed in order to identify themes or patterns and organize them into consistent categories describing the characteristics of each ISLP; based on this analysis, cases were compared. After conducting the comparative analysis and finalizing the article, we shared the manuscript with the participating companies, again providing them the chance for some minor revisions.
5.4. Results The ISLP and their basic descriptions are included in Table 5.1. The programs have the following characteristics in common. All six programs have been launched within the first decade of the 21st Century; PwC-Ulysses being the first one (started in 2001) and Novartis-ELP being the newest (launched in 2010). All programs use an international service component, sending participants into developing or emerging markets to work on social issues with partner organizations at the local community level. Except for EY-ACRFP (which is reaching exclusively, through partnership with the NGO Endeavor, to high-impact entrepreneurs or for-profit organizations in emerging economies), all programs are partnering with local organizations such as NGOs or social enterprises, some also with governmental entities or international bodies. All programs foster community development but have different foci: two programs focus particularly on health (Pfizer-GHFP and Novartis-ELP), two on economic development (EY-ACRFP and Intel-IESC), one (Intel-IESC) also on education and training, and two others (PWC-Ulysses and IBM-CSC) on different fields (e.g., economic and social development, health, education, environment). All but one program representative stated directly that one of the objectives of the ISLP is leadership development (only Intel-IESC did not directly mention leadership development but rather spoke of skill-development). Five of the representatives mentioned activities benefiting their company as objectives (e.g., business innovation, building a sustainable business in a multi-stakeholder setting, improving key stakeholder relationships, or new market development).
While all programs are designed for company high-flyers, three programs (PwC-Ulysses, EY-ACRFP and Novartis-ELP) explicitly target employees with leadership experience, either managers or senior leaders; IBM-CSC also targets potential leaders. PwC-Ulysses and Novartis-ELP programs target the highest management level. In 3 cases (Pfizer-GHFP, EY-ACRFP and Novartis-ELP), the ISLP is an incremental part of a systematic talent development process or a career development program.
Tabl
e 5.
1.: G
ener
al In
form
atio
n on
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Ser
vice
Lea
rnin
g Pr
ogra
ms (
ISLP
) Stu
died
Pr
icew
ater
hous
eCoo
per
s’ Th
e U
lyss
es
Prog
ram
(Uly
sses
)
Pfiz
er’s
Glo
bal H
ealth
Fe
llow
s Pro
gram
(G
HFP
)
EY’s
Am
eric
as C
orpo
rate
R
espo
nsib
ility
Fel
low
s Pr
ogra
m (A
CR
FP)
IBM
’s C
orpo
rate
Ser
vice
Cor
ps
(CSC
) In
tel E
duca
tion
Serv
ice
Cor
ps P
rogr
am (I
ESC
) Th
e N
ovar
tis
Entr
epre
neur
ial
Lead
ersh
ip P
rogr
am
(ELP
) D
escr
iptio
n of
th
e IS
LP
A hi
ghly
stru
ctur
ed
lead
ersh
ip-d
evel
opm
ent
prog
ram
in w
hich
mul
ti-cu
ltura
l tea
ms w
ork
in
deve
lopi
ng c
ount
ries i
n co
llabo
ratio
n w
ith
soci
al o
rgan
izat
ions
.
A gl
obal
skill
s-ba
sed
volu
ntee
r pro
gram
that
pl
aces
Pfiz
er e
mpl
oyee
s in
shor
t-ter
m a
ssig
nmen
ts w
ith le
adin
g in
tern
atio
nal
deve
lopm
ent
orga
niza
tions
in
deve
lopi
ng a
nd e
mer
ging
m
arke
ts.
A sk
ill-b
ased
vol
unte
erin
g pr
ogra
m h
elpi
ng to
impr
ove
the
succ
ess o
f hig
h im
pact
en
trepr
eneu
rs o
pera
ting
with
in e
mer
ging
mar
kets
in
Latin
Am
eric
a.
An
inte
rnat
iona
l com
mun
ity se
rvic
e as
signm
ent a
nd le
ader
ship
de
velo
pmen
t pro
gram
for h
igh-
pote
ntia
l IBM
em
ploy
ees i
nspi
red
by th
e U
.S. P
eace
Cor
ps.
An
Inte
rnat
iona
l Cor
pora
te
Volu
ntee
ring
prog
ram
en
ablin
g ta
lent
ed e
mpl
oyee
s to
wor
k w
ith N
GO
s in
deve
lopi
ng c
ount
ries t
o su
ppor
t the
dep
loym
ent o
f In
tel c
lass
mat
e PC
s in
clud
ing
teac
hing
and
tra
inin
g.
An
actio
n-ba
sed
lead
ersh
ip
deve
lopm
ent p
rogr
am
send
ing
glob
al te
ams o
f ta
lent
to e
mer
ging
mar
kets
to d
evel
op a
solu
tion
to
coun
try-s
peci
fic h
ealth
ch
alle
nges
.
Year
of L
aunc
h 20
01 (w
ith a
bre
ak in
20
02, a
t thi
s mom
ent,
the
prog
ram
is p
endi
ng)
2003
20
05
2008
20
09
2010
Loca
l Par
tner
ing
Org
aniz
atio
ns
•N
GO
s and
mul
tilat
eral
orga
niza
tions
, U.N
.ag
ency
, or o
ther
soci
al se
ctor
orga
niza
tions
.
•M
ore
than
40
partn
eror
gani
zatio
ns; c
urre
ntpa
rtner
s, e.
g., P
roje
ctH
OPE
, Pha
rmA
cces
s,Sa
ve th
e Ch
ildre
n,U
SAID
, etc
.
•H
igh-
impa
cten
trepr
eneu
rs in
emer
ging
eco
nom
ies v
iath
e N
GO
End
eavo
r.
•Sm
all b
usin
esse
s, go
vern
men
tag
enci
es, c
ivil
soci
ety
orga
niza
tions
, and
NG
Os i
nem
ergi
ng m
arke
ts.
•In
tern
atio
nal N
GO
s (e.
g.,
Wor
ld V
ision
, Sav
e th
eCh
ildre
n, C
ARE
, etc
.),lo
cal N
GO
s,go
vern
men
ts.
•So
cial
bus
ines
ses,
NG
Os,
gove
rnm
ents.
•W
orki
ng w
ithco
mpa
nies
, sm
alle
rbu
sines
ses o
r alo
ne(d
epen
ding
on
the
scop
eof
the
chal
leng
es).
Key
Foc
us A
rea
•Va
rious
: Eco
nom
ican
d so
cial
deve
lopm
ent,
heal
th,
educ
atio
n,en
viro
nmen
t, et
c.
•So
cial
: Hea
lth•
Econ
omic
: SM
Ede
velo
pmen
t•
Vario
us:
Soci
al, e
cono
mic
,bu
sines
s, en
viro
nmen
t,ed
ucat
ion,
hea
lth, e
tc.
•So
cial
: Edu
catio
n an
dtra
inin
g•
Econ
omic
: Tec
hnol
ogy
depl
oym
ent
•So
cial
: Hea
lth
Proc
laim
ed
Obj
ectiv
es o
f th
e Pr
ogra
m
•Le
ader
ship
deve
lopm
ent
•Bu
sines
s inn
ovat
ion
•Bu
ildin
g a
susta
inab
le b
usin
ess
in a
mul
ti-sta
keho
lder
envi
ronm
ent
•Co
mm
unity
pro
blem
-so
lvin
g•
Lead
ersh
ipde
velo
pmen
t•
Impr
ovin
g ke
ysta
keho
lder
rela
tions
hips
•Co
mm
unity
pro
blem
-so
lvin
g an
d de
velo
pmen
t•
Lead
ersh
ip d
evel
opm
ent
•Co
mm
unity
pro
blem
-sol
ving
and
deve
lopm
ent
•Le
ader
ship
dev
elop
men
t•
New
mar
ket d
evel
opm
ent f
or th
eco
mpa
ny
•N
ew m
arke
tde
velo
pmen
t for
the
com
pany
•Sk
ill d
evel
opm
ent
•Co
mm
unity
pro
blem
-so
lvin
g an
d de
velo
pmen
t
•Co
mm
unity
pro
blem
-so
lvin
g•
Lead
ersh
ip d
evel
opm
ent
•N
ew m
arke
tde
velo
pmen
t•
Impr
ovin
g ke
ysta
keho
lder
rela
tions
hips
Targ
et G
roup
of
Par
ticip
ants
•
Hig
h-po
tent
ial,
seni
or le
vel l
eade
rs(p
artn
ers)
•H
igh-
perfo
rmer
s•
Hig
h-pe
rform
ing
empl
oyee
s at t
hem
anag
er o
r ass
istan
tdi
rect
or le
vel a
nd a
bove
•H
igh-
perfo
rmer
s, to
p ta
lent
s,po
tent
ial l
eade
rs•
Pass
iona
te a
bout
com
mun
ityw
ork
enga
gem
ent
•H
igh-
perfo
rmer
s, fu
ll-tim
e em
ploy
ees
•Fi
tting
the
role
of
teac
her,
SW e
ngin
eer
or p
roje
ct m
anag
er
•Se
nior
man
ager
s and
top
tale
nts
Part
of a
Tal
ent
Dev
elop
men
t Pr
oces
s or
a C
aree
r D
evel
opm
ent
Prog
ram
•N
ot sy
stem
atic
ally
in a
ll co
untri
es•
Both
•Ye
s as w
ell a
s a m
obili
tyex
perie
nce
•W
ith it
s stro
ng c
omm
unity
serv
ice
core
, the
pro
gram
isa
lear
ning
and
dev
elop
men
tex
perie
nce
for t
hose
who
shar
eth
e pa
ssio
n to
eng
age
•N
ot fo
rmal
ly•
Yes
156
Comparative Analysis of International Service Learning Programs
157
The programs vary (follow in Tables 5.2.-5.4.): IBM-CSC sends the largest number of participants on ISA – approximately 500 a year. The other programs send 12 to 75 participants a year. Assignment length varies between 2 weeks (Intel-IESC) and up to six months (Pfizer-GHFP). Two programs (IBM-CSC and Novartis-ELP) send employees for 4 weeks and two programs use seven to eight-week assignments (EY-ACRFP and PwC-Ulysses). Most programs (two-thirds) send participants in teams, only two companies send participants individually (EY-ACRFP and Pfizer-GHFP – Pfizer also launched team-based assignments in 2010; however, they were not included in this study). Programs using team assignments send participants either in teams of 3-5 people (PwC-Ulysses, Intel-IESC) or in larger cohorts of 6-10 people (Novartis-ELP) or even 12-15 people (IBM-CSC). However, in the IBM-CSC case, teams are broken up into sub-teams. Except for Intel-IESC, all programs stress diversity criteria when making up the teams.
There are also differences among the programs regarding the placement of participants. Two firms use external implementation partners (EY-ACRFP, IBM-CSC) to match the participants’ skills and expertise with local organizations’ needs; in the other four firms, the process is coordinated internally by the program management or local unit in cooperation with the partner organization (PwC-Ulysses, Pfizer-GHFP, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP). All projects require participants to use various professional skills, knowledge, and assets, usually by means of offering consulting services in areas such as strategic planning, marketing, finance, IT, or project management.
The design of all programs follows three phases (all of them slightly different in nature and length): a pre-assignment phase, a field assignment phase and a post-assignment phase. Regarding the pre-assignment phase, the programs distinguish between a nomination phase (during which participants are selected) and the actual learning preparation (offering orientation and preparation for the field work). All programs apply a post-assignment phase with PwC-Ulysses offering the most comprehensive debriefing in the form of a one-week on-site learning event.
The learning methods used in the programs usually involve a combination of individual study (specifically on-line learning), teambuilding (also virtual via teleconferences), workshops and live training. Three representatives of PwC-Ulysses, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP mentioned coaching as a learning measure, which is a frequently-used method in leadership development (Boyce et al., 2010; Bone et al., 2009; Hall et al., 1999). PwC-Ulysses also uses 360-degree feedback, yoga and meditation. Schneider et al. (2010) stress the usefulness of the latter in developing socially responsible managers and leaders.
Tabl
e 5.
2.: I
nfor
mat
ion
abou
t the
Tar
get G
roup
and
Ass
ignm
ents
(Pla
cem
ents)
Pr
icew
ater
hous
eCoo
per
s’ Th
e U
lyss
es P
rogr
am
(Uly
sses
)
Pfiz
er’s
Glo
bal H
ealth
Fel
low
s Pr
ogra
m (G
HFP
) EY
’s A
mer
icas
Cor
pora
te
Res
pons
ibili
ty F
ello
ws
Prog
ram
(AC
RFP
)
IBM
’s C
orpo
rate
Ser
vice
C
orps
(CSC
) In
tel E
duca
tion
Serv
ice
Cor
ps P
rogr
am (I
ESC
) Th
e N
ovar
tis
Entr
epre
neur
ial
Lead
ersh
ip P
rogr
am
(ELP
) N
umbe
r of
Part
icip
ants
pe
r Yea
r
20
20-2
5 12
in 2
011
and
2012
A
ppro
x. 5
00
App
rox.
75
15-2
0
Leng
th o
f Pl
acem
ents
8
wee
ks
12-2
4 w
eeks
(3
-6 m
onth
s)
7 w
eeks
4
wee
ks
2 w
eeks
4
wee
ks
Size
and
C
ompo
sitio
n of
Te
am
•3-
4 pe
ople
•M
ultin
atio
nal
•Pa
rtici
pant
s wor
k in
divi
dual
ly•
(Sin
ce 2
010
also
team
-bas
edfe
llow
ship
s – n
ot st
udie
d he
re)
•Pa
rtici
pant
s wor
kin
divi
dual
ly•
12-1
5 pe
ople
, bro
ken
into
sub-
team
s•
Mul
tinat
iona
l
•5
peop
le•
Div
ersit
y is
not t
hefo
cus
•6-
10 p
eopl
e•
As d
iver
se a
s pos
sible
Mat
chin
g Pa
rtic
ipan
ts’
Expe
rtise
with
Lo
cal
Org
aniz
atio
ns’
Nee
ds
•It
is do
ne th
roug
hdi
rect
disc
ussio
n of
the
proj
ect t
eam
and
the
partn
er o
rgan
izat
ion
rega
rdin
g th
e sk
ills-
need
s mat
ch.
•It
is do
ne th
roug
h di
rect
disc
ussio
n of
the
proj
ect t
eam
and
the
partn
er o
rgan
izat
ion
rega
rdin
g th
e sk
ills-
need
sm
atch
.
•A
not-f
or-p
rofit
orga
niza
tion
Ende
avor
mat
ches
the
parti
cipa
nts
with
thei
r hos
t com
pani
esin
ord
er to
mat
ch th
epr
ojec
ts an
d pa
rtici
pant
s’ pr
ofes
siona
l ski
ll se
t.
•3
impl
emen
tatio
n pa
rtner
she
lp p
lace
the
parti
cipa
nts
(Aus
tralia
n Bu
sines
sVo
lunt
eers
, CD
CD
evel
opm
ent S
olut
ions
,an
d D
igita
l Opp
ortu
nity
Trus
t).
•It
is do
ne th
roug
hdi
rect
disc
ussio
n of
the
proj
ect t
eam
and
the
partn
er o
rgan
izat
ion
rega
rdin
g pa
rtici
pant
sele
ctio
n, sc
ope
of th
epr
ojec
t and
ens
urin
gco
ntin
uity
bet
wee
nas
signm
ents.
•Th
e de
sign
and
scop
ing
of th
e pr
ojec
t and
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f the
solu
tion
is do
ne b
yN
ovar
tis’ l
ocal
bus
ines
sun
its in
inte
ract
ion
with
the
loca
ls (C
DC
Dev
elop
men
t Sol
utio
nsis
only
a p
artn
er in
term
sof
logi
stics
).Ty
pes o
f A
ctiv
ities
Pa
rtic
ipan
ts
Do
on
Ass
ignm
ents
•E.
g., c
reat
ing
fram
ewor
k fo
r goo
dgo
vern
ance
,an
ticor
rupt
ion
and
pove
rty re
duct
ion,
•D
evel
opin
g a
strat
egy
and
busin
ess p
lan
ofsu
stain
able
gro
wth
,•
Des
igni
ng a
mic
rofin
ance
cre
dit-l
oani
ngm
odel
for S
MEs
in th
ere
gion
, etc
.
•E.
g., o
ptim
izin
g su
pply
cha
ins
and
busin
ess f
unct
ions
,•
Scal
ing
up p
rom
ising
hea
lthpr
even
tion
appr
oach
es,
•A
dmin
istra
tion
syste
mde
velo
pmen
t,•
Non
-clin
ical
and
clin
ical
train
ing,
•Sa
les a
nd m
arke
ting,
•Se
rvin
g as
nur
ses,
doct
ors,
teac
hers
, bus
ines
s con
sulta
nts,
etc.
•U
tiliz
ing
the
wor
kpla
cesk
ills a
nd k
now
ledg
e (in
acco
untin
g, ta
x, a
udit,
IT,
and
proj
ect m
anag
emen
t)•
Impr
ovin
g a
rang
e of
busin
ess p
roce
sses
,•
Fina
ncia
l rep
ortin
g,•
Mar
ketin
g an
d in
form
atio
nte
chno
logy
,•
Impr
ovin
g ca
sh fl
owm
onito
ring,
etc
.
•In
crea
sing
the
com
petit
iven
ess o
f SM
Esby
, e.g
.,•
Stra
tegy
dev
elop
men
t,•
Mar
ketin
g,•
HR
man
agem
ent,
•O
rgan
izat
iona
l des
ign,
spec
ial p
roje
cts (
web
sites
,fe
asib
ility
stud
ies,
prop
osal
s for
fund
ing,
deve
lopi
ng b
usin
ess
strat
egie
s, et
c.)
•Pr
imar
ily te
chni
cal
insta
llatio
n, se
t up
and
troub
lesh
ootin
g of
hard
war
e an
d so
ftwar
e,•
Trai
ning
of t
each
ers,
stude
nts a
nd sc
hool
lead
ers o
n th
e ef
fect
ive
use
of te
chno
logy
,•
Proj
ect/
prog
ram
man
agem
ent t
oco
ordi
nate
the
impl
emen
tatio
n of
the
team
’s w
ork.
•E.
g., s
take
hold
erdi
alog
ue/ e
ngag
emen
t,es
p. in
low
-inco
me
setti
ngs,
•A
naly
zing
mar
ket
cond
ition
s and
pat
ient
jour
ney,
•D
evel
opin
g bu
sines
sm
odel
s or i
mpr
oved
serv
ice
deliv
ery
oppo
rtuni
ties,
etc.
Exam
ples
of
Ass
ignm
ents
•
Gro
win
g su
stain
able
busin
ess i
nM
adag
asca
r•
Pove
rty a
llevi
atio
nin
Eas
t Tim
or•
Stre
ngth
enin
gco
ordi
natio
n in
the
fight
aga
inst
HIV
/AID
S in
Uga
nda
•Ch
ild h
elpl
ine
supp
ort
in In
dia
•W
orki
ng a
long
side
Mot
hers
2Mot
hers
in S
outh
Afri
ca to
scal
e up
serv
ices
toco
mba
t the
spre
ad o
f HIV
from
mot
hers
to th
eir c
hild
ren
•A
ddre
ssin
g co
re n
eeds
of
Infe
ctio
us D
iseas
es In
stitu
te in
Uga
nda,
hel
ping
bui
ld n
ewca
paci
ty a
nd c
ontri
butin
g to
signi
fican
t gro
wth
of t
heco
mpa
ny
•Im
prov
ing
the
fore
casti
ngan
d m
anag
ing
the
annu
albu
dget
of t
he B
uin
Zoo
inCh
ile•
Ass
istin
g Bl
ueM
essa
ging
,a
busin
ess t
hat o
ffers
orga
niza
tions
a m
essa
ging
plat
form
bas
ed o
n ar
tific
ial
inte
llige
nce,
on
finan
cial
proc
esse
s
•H
elpi
ng E
lect
ricity
Com
pany
of G
hana
by
prop
osin
g an
ITgo
vern
ance
mod
el to
hel
psta
ndar
dize
IT sy
stem
s and
ensu
re c
onsis
tenc
y in
man
agem
ent
•H
elpi
ng N
iger
ia’s
Cros
sRi
ver S
tate
with
two
prog
ram
s whi
ch p
rovi
defre
e he
alth
car
e to
mot
hers
and
youn
g ch
ildre
n
•W
orki
ng w
ith L
’Eco
lede
Cho
ix, a
new
scho
olin
Hai
ti, to
set u
pco
mpu
ters
in th
eir
scho
ol a
nd p
rovi
detra
inin
g to
thei
rte
ache
rs a
nd st
uden
ts(th
e fir
st te
am w
as se
ntin
201
1, a
nd tw
ofo
llow
up
team
s in
2012
)
•Co
llabo
rativ
ely
reso
lvin
gsu
pply
-cha
in p
robl
ems o
fm
alar
ia d
rug
in T
anza
nia
•Lo
okin
g fo
r pot
entia
lso
lutio
ns c
once
rnin
gN
CDs (
non-
com
mun
icab
le d
iseas
es)
burd
en in
low
inco
me
com
mun
ities
in M
exic
oan
d So
uth
Afri
ca
158
Tabl
e 5.
3.: D
esig
n El
emen
ts an
d Le
arni
ng M
etho
ds o
f the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Ser
vice
Lea
rnin
g Pr
ogra
ms (
ISLP
) Stu
died
Pr
icew
ater
hous
eCoo
pers
’ The
U
lyss
es P
rogr
am (U
lyss
es)
Pfiz
er’s
Glo
bal H
ealth
Fel
low
s Pr
ogra
m (G
HFP
) EY
’s A
mer
icas
Cor
pora
te
Res
pons
ibili
ty F
ello
ws
Prog
ram
(AC
RFP
)
IBM
’s C
orpo
rate
Ser
vice
Cor
ps
(CSC
) In
tel E
duca
tion
Serv
ice
Cor
ps
Prog
ram
(IES
C)
The
Nov
artis
En
trep
rene
uria
l Le
ader
ship
Pro
gram
(E
LP)
Com
posit
ion
(Pha
ses)
of
the
ISLP
•( 1
) Nom
inat
ion
phas
e,•
(2) P
repa
ratio
n ph
ase,
•(3
) Ind
uctio
n ph
ase,
•(4
) Ass
ignm
ent p
hase
,•
(5) D
ebrie
fing
phas
e,•
(6) N
etw
orki
ng p
hase
.
•( 1
) App
licat
ion/
inte
rvie
w/
sele
ctio
n,•
(2) O
rient
atio
n/ p
repa
ratio
nfo
r fie
ldin
g,•
(3) F
ield
ing
of a
ssig
nmen
t,•
(4) F
inal
repo
r ting
/co
mpl
etio
n/ re
turn
/ eva
luat
ion.
•(1
) App
licat
ion/
inte
rvie
w/
sele
ctio
n,•
(2) 2
-day
live
trai
ning
, •
(3) O
nsite
wor
king
for 7
wee
ks,
•(4
) Eva
luat
ion
and
debr
iefin
g.
•(1
) 4 m
onth
s of a
pplic
atio
n(n
omin
atio
n) p
hase
and
sele
ctio
n,•
( 2) 3
mon
ths o
f “pr
e-w
ork”
prep
arat
ion,
•(3
) 1 m
onth
abr
oad,
•(4
) 2 m
onth
s of “
post
-wor
k”.
•(1
) App
licat
ion
win
dow
(4w
eeks
), •
(2) I
nter
view
s (2
wee
ks),
•(3
) Log
istic
s (2
wee
ks),
•(4
) Tra
inin
g (4
wee
ks, 8
hrs
/wk)
, •
(5) I
n-co
untry
pla
cem
ent (
2w
eeks
), •
(6) P
ost-m
orte
m (2
wee
ks, 4
-8hr
s/wk)
.
•(1
) Pro
ject
sele
ctio
n,•
(2) P
artic
ipan
tse
lect
ion,
•(3
) Pre
para
tion
phas
e,
•(4
) In-
coun
try
depl
oym
ent,
•(5
) Re-
entry
.
Spec
ific
Lear
ning
M
etho
ds
App
lied
•36
0-de
gree
feed
back
, co
achi
ng, t
eam
bui
ldin
g,pr
ojec
t-bas
ed le
arni
ng,
med
itatio
n an
d yo
ga,
refle
ctiv
e ex
erci
ses,
and
story
-te
lling
sess
ions
. •
Parti
cipa
nts a
lso w
ork
on th
eir
pers
onal
dev
elop
men
t pla
ns o
fw
hat t
hey
wan
t to
lear
n fro
m
NG
O p
artn
ers.
•A
rigor
ous m
anda
tory
or
ient
atio
n fo
r all
new
ly
sele
cted
Fel
low
s inc
ludi
ng o
n-lin
e m
odul
es fo
r ind
ivid
ual
study
, virt
ual/
live
mee
tings
and
reso
urce
libr
ary.
•2-
day
live
train
ing
•Th
e ro
bust
curri
culu
m in
clud
eson
line
lear
ning
, edu
catio
n ab
out
host
coun
tries
, pro
ject
pro
blem
sta
tem
ents,
tim
e fo
r tea
m b
uild
ing
via
tele
conf
eren
ces a
nd so
cial
netw
orki
ng w
ebsit
es, l
eade
rshi
pde
velo
pmen
t wor
ksho
ps a
ndon
line
lear
ning
mod
ules
on
cultu
ral a
war
enes
s, in
tern
atio
nal
deve
lopm
ent,
corp
orat
ere
spon
sibili
ty.
•Th
e m
etho
ds in
clud
e: e
xten
sive
coac
hing
bef
ore
the
plac
emen
ts,
mee
tings
virt
ually
in te
ams v
iaSk
ype,
pho
ne, t
elec
onfe
renc
esw
ith sl
ides
, vid
eoco
nfer
ence
,fa
ce-to
-face
trai
ning
day
in
clud
ing
hand
s-on
HW
and
SW
de
mos
, tea
mbu
ildin
g, e
tc.
•Th
e Alu
mni
shar
e ex
perie
nces
with
the
next
team
and
men
tor
them
.
•Th
e m
etho
ds in
clud
e:w
orks
hop
and
virtu
alle
arni
ng c
ompo
nent
s, tra
inin
g, in
divi
dual
pr
epar
atio
n, a
ctio
nba
sed
lear
ning
, co
achi
ng a
nded
ucat
ion
faci
litat
ion
durin
g th
ede
ploy
men
t, pe
er
coac
hing
,in
tern
al/e
xter
nal
spea
kers
.H
ow is
the
Lear
ning
D
ebri
efed
in
a R
evie
w
Phas
e
•Sh
arin
g th
e pr
ojec
t exp
erie
nce
with
all
parti
cipa
nts a
ndU
lyss
es te
am, d
ebrie
fing
the
expe
rienc
es w
ith fa
cilit
ator
sin
larg
er g
roup
and
one
-in-
one,
wor
king
on
360-
feed
back
dim
ensio
ns w
ith c
oach
es,
usin
g le
arni
ng st
orie
s and
pres
entin
g th
em, s
harin
gin
divi
dual
’s vi
sion
state
men
ts,
the
oppo
rtuni
ty to
pr a
ctic
eyo
ga a
nd m
edita
tion
each
day
.
•It
is do
ne th
roug
h as
sess
men
tsu
rvey
s tak
en im
med
iate
ly
afte
r the
fello
wsh
ip a
nd o
ne-
year
late
r by
both
the
Fello
ws
and
the
partn
er o
rgan
izat
ion.
•
The
less
ons a
re sh
ared
thro
ugh
case
stud
ies a
nd p
artic
ipat
ion
in c
onfe
renc
es/ e
vent
s,th
roug
h str
ong
inte
rnal
com
mun
icat
ions
pla
n to
conn
ect a
cros
s all
Pfiz
er si
tes
to c
olle
ague
s, m
anag
ers a
ndle
ader
ship
as w
ell a
s par
tner
s.
•Co
mbi
natio
n of
surv
eys a
ndin
divi
dual
pho
ne c
alls.
•
Revi
ew o
f fin
al d
eliv
erab
les
subm
itted
, deb
riefin
g w
ithex
tern
al p
artn
er E
ndea
vor.
•In
divi
dual
less
ons s
hare
d in
team
and
offi
ce m
eetin
gs,
etc.
•A
nnua
l com
mun
icat
ions
plan
with
in th
e Am
eric
as to
shar
e th
e re
sults
of t
he c
lass
.•
Form
al fe
edba
ck fo
r eac
hin
divi
dual
refle
ctin
gfe
edba
ck fr
om th
e ho
st.
•Tw
o m
onth
s pos
t-ser
vice
wor
kin
clud
es: s
ynth
esiz
ing
less
ons
lear
ned,
ong
oing
shar
ing
of th
eex
perie
nce
upon
retu
rn w
ithco
lleag
ues,
fam
ily, f
riend
s and
hom
e co
mm
unity
and
con
nect
ing
to IB
M’s
busin
ess d
evel
opm
ent
proc
ess.
•Th
e pa
rtici
pant
s ref
lect
on
lear
ning
for t
heir
care
ers a
nd o
ppor
tuni
ties
and
ofte
n se
rve
as m
ento
rs to
succ
eedi
ng te
ams.
•D
ebrie
fing
occu
rs in
two
stage
s:Ex
tern
al d
ebrie
fing
take
s pla
cew
ith th
e fie
ld re
pres
enta
tive
ofth
e N
GO
and
revi
ews t
heac
com
plish
men
ts an
dre
com
men
ds n
ext s
teps
. Int
erna
lde
brie
fing
take
s pla
ce w
ith th
eIE
SC te
am a
nd o
ther
inte
rnal
stake
hold
ers;
the
proj
ect i
sre
view
ed, i
nter
nal i
mpr
ovem
ents
reco
mm
ende
d, a
ndre
com
men
datio
ns fo
r the
clie
ntar
e sh
ared
.
•I t
is do
ne th
roug
ha
clos
ing
wor
ksho
p(la
st da
y of
in-
coun
try) a
ndfe
edba
ck o
nin
divi
dual
surv
ey
resu
lts, s
harin
gle
arni
ng re
sults
and
beco
min
g pa
rt of
the
ELP
Glo
bal A
lum
niN
etw
ork.
•D
ebrie
fing
the
lear
ning
usin
ga
coac
h.W
hat i
s D
one
to
Faci
litat
e Le
arni
ng
Tran
sfer
•Th
e m
etho
ds u
sed
in th
ede
brie
fing
phas
e.
•Be
com
ing
part
of th
e U
lyss
esN
etw
ork
– a
glob
al n
etw
ork
ofU
lyss
es p
artic
ipan
ts th
at sh
are,
refle
ct a
nd su
ppor
t eac
h ot
her
tow
ard
resp
onsib
le le
ader
ship
.
•In
201
0, th
e G
HF
Alu
mni
Busin
ess N
etw
ork
was
foun
ded
enab
ling
shar
ing
GH
F in
sight
s and
inno
vatio
nsth
roug
h m
eani
ngfu
lco
llabo
ratio
n ac
ross
the
busin
ess,
supp
ortin
gre
crui
tmen
t, m
ento
ring
curre
ntFe
llow
s, ra
ising
aw
aren
ess
abou
t pro
gram
and
partn
ersh
ips a
cros
s site
s.
•In
tern
al c
omm
unic
atio
ns,
enco
urag
ing
the
parti
cipa
nts
to sh
are
thei
r exp
erie
nces
at
even
ts.
•St
ruct
ured
act
iviti
es to
shar
eex
perie
nces
and
tran
sfer
know
ledg
e an
d re
latio
nshi
psga
ined
with
loca
l IBM
team
s.•
The
parti
cipa
nts o
ften
serv
e as
men
tors
to su
ccee
ding
team
s.•
Sinc
e 20
12, t
here
has
bee
na
prac
tical
gui
de to
re-e
ntry
.•
Conn
ectio
n to
oth
er A
lum
nith
roug
h fo
rum
s and
inte
rnal
netw
orks
. •
The
appl
icat
ion
of th
e ex
perie
nces
to th
e di
vers
e jo
bs is
left
to th
e pa
rtici
pant
s the
ms e
lves
.
•Th
e tra
nsfe
r is n
ot sy
stem
atic
ally
en
cour
aged
. The
focu
s is o
nsh
arin
g th
e ex
perie
nce
and
story
telli
ng th
roug
h so
cial
med
iaan
d in
tern
al c
hann
els s
uch
asha
ving
a b
row
n ba
g lu
nch
sess
ions
, an
open
foru
m w
ith th
ete
am o
r bus
ines
s uni
t or s
ite, e
tc.
•W
ritin
g bl
ogs o
n th
ein
trane
t and
info
rmin
g te
ams
whi
le in
cou
ntry
. •
Afte
r ret
urn,
cont
inui
ng to
tran
sfer
th
e ne
w k
now
ledg
ean
d sk
ills t
o th
eor
gani
zatio
n, su
ppor
tin
read
justi
ng to
the
wor
kpla
ce,
netw
orki
ngop
portu
nitie
s, pe
erco
achi
ng.
159
Tabl
e 5.
4.: B
enef
its o
f the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Ser
vice
Lea
rnin
g Pr
ogra
ms (
ISLP
) Stu
died
Pr
icew
ater
hous
eCoo
pers
’ Th
e U
lyss
es P
rogr
am
(Uly
sses
)
Pfiz
er’s
Glo
bal H
ealth
Fe
llow
s Pro
gram
(G
HFP
)
EY’s
Am
eric
as C
orpo
rate
R
espo
nsib
ility
Fel
low
s Pr
ogra
m (A
CR
FP)
IBM
’s C
orpo
rate
Ser
vice
C
orps
(CSC
) In
tel E
duca
tion
Serv
ice
Cor
ps P
rogr
am (I
ESC
) Th
e N
ovar
tis
Entr
epre
neur
ial
Lead
ersh
ip P
rogr
am
(ELP
) C
laim
ed
Bene
fits f
or
Part
icip
ants
•Le
ader
ship
cap
abili
ties a
ndot
her s
oft s
kills
•Te
am-w
ork
skill
s•
Posit
ion-
rela
ted
outc
omes
•Po
tent
ial p
erso
nal a
ndpr
ofes
siona
l dist
urba
nces
•Le
ader
ship
cap
abili
ties
and
othe
r sof
t ski
lls•
Expe
rienc
e fro
mde
velo
ping
and
emer
ging
mar
kets
•H
ard
and
tech
nica
lsk
ills
•Le
ader
ship
cap
abili
ties a
ndot
her s
oft s
kills
•Le
ader
ship
cap
abili
ties a
ndot
her s
oft s
kills
•Te
am-w
ork
skill
s•
Expe
rienc
e fro
mde
velo
ping
and
em
ergi
ngm
arke
ts•
Pote
ntia
l per
sona
l and
prof
essio
nal d
istur
banc
es
•Le
ader
ship
cap
abili
ties
and
othe
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160
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Debriefing of participants to review learning is a feature of all the programs. However, there are big differences in terms of execution. The results of the experience are usually reviewed internally. Some firms also carry out debriefing with external partners to evaluate project outcomes (PwC-Ulysses, EY-ACRFP, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP). With regard to internal debriefing, the programs use: surveys (Pfizer-GHFP, EY-ACRFP, Novartis-ELP); phone calls (EY-ACRFP); coaching (Novartis-ELP). Some companies prefer to review project outcomes in numerical terms (e.g., Intel-IESC), while others add learning outcomes (e.g., PwC-Ulysses, Novartis-ELP). PwC-Ulysses seems to stress the debriefing phase most – it runs a one-week module on reviewing the lessons learned. In this week, the experience is transformed into learning through a sophisticated distilling process based on Kolb’s learning cycle (1984) involving reflection, analysis of previous experiences, and discourse with others who faced similar challenges (Pless et al. 2011). Storytelling, as the forming and sharing of rich learning narratives, is systematically used as a distilling method aided by coaches and facilitators at the individual and group level. To support the learning transfer, sharing of experiences through social media and blogs and also talks at internal and external events are actively encouraged by all programs. Some of the programs have set up Alumni networks to support exchange among participants. Those with a formal network approach aim at strengthening the ties among participants and facilitating ongoing learning (e.g., PwC-Ulysses and IBM-CSC). Novartis-ELP also applies peer coaching to facilitate learning transfer. Nevertheless, to transfer deep learning experiences back into an unchanged workplace still poses one of the biggest challenges.
The ISLP produce beneficial outcomes at the individual, organizational and broader societal level. We shall now give a brief overview of the individual learning benefits as stated by program representatives. All programs seem to develop (albeit to varying degrees) leadership capabilities and other (inter)personal competencies – for example, awareness of cultural differences, inclusion, empathy, relationship-building skills. Various program representatives mentioned learning gains in the following areas: business-relevant learning gains from assignment experience in developing and emerging markets, such as increased understanding of the target population (e.g., in the case of Novartis-ELP, there is a strong patient-focus learning outcome) and delivery systems, learning to deliver in a more disruptive and creative way (Pfizer-GHFP, IBM-CSC and Intel-IESC); improved team-work skills – for example, global team and collaboration skills, mutual learning in cross-functional teams (PwC-Ulysses, IBM-CSC, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP); and enhanced hard
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and technical skills – Health Management Information Systems, skills in hardware and software (Pfizer-GHFP and Intel-IESC).
The service assignments also provide relevant benefits for the companies sending the participants. These include: development of new business knowledge (about supply chains and country environment important for penetrating developing markets) and the creation of new business and sales opportunities (Pfizer-GHFP, EY-ACRFP, IBM-CSC, Intel-IESC, Novartis-ELP); fostering innovation and generating new business models in untapped market segments (EY-ACRFP and Novartis-ELP); improved stakeholder relationships (e.g., building trust and respect even before entering a new market) and brand image (e.g., raising brand awareness) (Pfizer-GHFP, EY-ACRFP, IBM-CSC, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP); building and strengthening a global team culture and a global talent network (Intel-IESC, IBM-CSC, PwC-Ulysses); and creating a pool of global leaders and managers (PwC-Ulysses, EY-ACRFP and Novartis-ELP).
The service assignments also come with benefits for the communities and society at large. All program representatives mentioned positive changes in the community where the projects took place (see examples of assignments in Table 5.2.). Specific outcomes for the partnering organizations are, for instance, organizational development and process improvement, knowledge transfer and capacity-building.
Having compared the programs, at first sight, the picture remained relatively undifferentiated with regard to key program emphases and objectives: leadership development, organization development and community contributions. We therefore conducted a more in-depth analysis, which, while confirming this general impression, yielded a finer-grained picture. This was achieved by sorting individual program characteristics and their values (see Table 5.5.) into 3 categories – LDP (Leadership Development Program) category with 16 values, ODP (Organization Development Program) category with 13 values, and CDP (Community Development Program) category with 12 values.1
1 The values of characteristics were identified based on respondents’ replies and other secondary sources and matched with one of the 3 categories (LDP, ODP, CDP) resulting in 16 possible values for the category of LDP, 13 values for ODP and 12 values for CDP. We assessed each program based on these values. Table 5.5. shows the methodology used for matching the values of characteristics with the 3 categories. All values corresponding to each category were summed, which resulted in the final number of matches for each category as shown in Figure 5.1.: Classification of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP).
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Table 5.5.: Typology for Classifying International Service Learning Programs as Leadership Development Program, Organization Development Program or
Community Development Program
Leadership Development Program (LDP)
Organization Development Program (ODP)
Community Development Program (CDP)
Characteristics Values (max. 16) Values (max. 13) Values (max. 12)
Description of the Program
• Leadership development program • Volunteering program • Community-service program
Proclaimed Objectives of the Program
• Leadership development • Business or organization development • Community problem-solving
Target Group of Participants
• Leaders • Engaged in community work
Teams • Working in teams• Team diversity is stressed
• Different teams return to the partner organization in several rounds
Program Design
• Distinguishes debriefing andnetworking in the program design
• Relies on the effect of the Alumninetwork
• Reviews the achievements with theexternal partner
• Uses various learning methods • Debriefs the learning using facilitators
and coaches• Stresses the reflective element towards
the future careers or visions of theparticipants
• Relies on the effect of the Alumninetwork
• Encourages individual learning(personal development plans)
Embeddedness of the Program
• The program is part of a talentdevelopment process or career development program
Claimed Benefits for Participants
• Develops skills important forleadership
• Hard and technical skills
• Provides valuable experience from developing and emerging markets
• Team-work skills• Position-related outcomes
Claimed Benefits for Companies
• Future business opportunities • Improving stakeholder relationships,
brand improvement• Building global leaders and managers• Increased retention and commitment of
employees, talent attraction• Fostering innovation, new business
models• Global teaming and networking • Sustainability and shared value• Present business opportunities • Alignment of the new learning with the
strategic focus of the company• Team cohesiveness
Claimed Benefits for Communities and Broader Society
• Positive change in the community wherethe projects took place
• Community contribution-relatedoutcomes
• Building the capacity for the individualbeneficiaries, process improvements
• Helping create thriving companies thatgenerate employment opportunities
• Creating scalable, sustainable economicvalue and inspiration for futuregenerations to innovate and take risks
• Increased access to technology in thecommunities
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This enabled us to identify which program ranks the highest in each category and which programs have prioritized objectives. Figure 5.1. shows the results.
Figure 5.1.: Classification of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP)
Legend: LDP = Leadership Development Program; ODP = Organization Development Program; CDP = Community Development Program
Overall, IBM-CSC, PwC-Ulysses and Novartis-ELP showed the highest number of matches across programs (≥22). These programs were also the ones that scored highest in the area of leadership development, yielding between 10 (IBM-CSC) and 14 (PwC-Ulysses) out of 16 possible matches. PwC-Ulysses (88%) and Novartis-ELP (81%) placed the main emphasis on leadership development, while IBM-CSC showed the highest focus on organization development (69%) followed
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by leadership development (59%) and community development (50%). EY-ACRFP and Intel-IESC, on the other hand, gave nominally and percentage-wise the greatest and clearest priority to community development (incorporating 58% of the CDP values). Most programs had one clear program focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development). While IBM-CSC had closely-linked objectives (organization development first but with leadership development and community development scoring right behind), Pfizer-GHFP was the only program in which all three areas were given nearly the same emphasis (with the difference within the range of 8%), with slightly greater stress on organization development.
Looking at each program individually and comparing it with its proclaimed objectives, the following can be noted. PwC-Ulysses was communicated mainly as a leadership development program focusing less on organization development and community development. This was also confirmed by our analysis. Pfizer-GHFP was promoted as a program aimed at providing contribution for all parties involved (the community, participants and the company). The analysis showed that, in reality, it focused on organization development, closely followed by community development and then by leadership development objectives. EY-ACRFP, given that its reason for starting the program was community problem-solving and leadership development, proved from our analysis to provide comparable benefits (focusing a bit less on organization development). IBM-CSC was presented as focusing on community problem-solving, leadership development and new market development but our analysis led us to classify it as an organization development program closely connected with leadership development (IBM-CSC ranked highest in the criteria for an organization development program). Intel-IESC can be classified as a community development program and this was in keeping with its focus on technology deployment and education in communities (the strategic focus on organization and business development has not shown strong enough). Novartis-ELP stresses in communication the creation of shared value and our analysis led us to classify it as a strong leadership development program but with less impact on organization development and least impact on community development.
5.5. Discussion and Suggestions for Further Research The use of international service assignments is a new trend in business practice
in general (Hills and Mahmud, 2007) and in management development (Colvin, 2009; Gitsham, 2012) in particular. A growing number of companies explore ISLP as a new way of building awareness for the broader social and environmental
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challenges facing mankind (climate change, poverty, access to food and water, pandemics) and developing talents for dealing with the challenges of managing in a global stakeholder setting.
While the number of participants sent annually on ISLP seems to be rather small (ranging between 0.0001% and 0,0012% of the workforce of the companies participating in this study), programs are usually not geared toward the overall population of a company, but target specific segments (e.g., current or future leaders). For instance in the case of IBM, thousands of future leaders participate in ISLP. It can be expected that this will have a significant impact on the way executives lead – Pless et al. (2011, 2012) showed that ISLP foster the development of responsible leadership competence – and on organizational change towards sustainability (Millar and Gitsham, 2013). Thus, academic research that provides comparative data on the outcomes of such programs is highly relevant to business practice.
Research on international service learning is still in its infancy. While programs’ learning outcomes are evaluated using internally-developed metrics, surveys, interviews, inquiries, and by external consultancies (the case of Pfizer-GHFP, IBM-CSC), hardly any systematic measurement has been published so far. IBM made an internal survey on how the CSC experience helped to develop certain IBM competencies. The survey yielded benefits regarding global cooperation, communication and influencing skills, trust-building, and partnering for client success. Pless et al. (2011) showed in a scientific study including all PwC-Ulysses participants (2003-2007) that an integrative service-learning design applied in PwC-Ulysses is an appropriate methodology for developing learning outcomes in the area of global mindset, cultural intelligence, responsible mindset, ethical literacy, self-awareness and relationship-building. However, to better understand the generalizability of the findings, they suggest the Ulysses research study be replicated.
The purpose of this qualitative study was to compare various programs as a starting point for further comparative studies. We provided a typology for differentiating programs (leadership development, organization development and community development – see Table 5.5.). We suggest that it is likely that the type of program affects learning outcomes. So, while all programs may achieve relatively high learning gains in the area of cultural competence due to the international nature of service programs, community development programs may specifically foster learning in the field of community-building and other learning areas that have not been captured by, e.g., PwC-Ulysses (focusing primarily on leadership
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development). Organization development programs, on the other hand, may be specifically suited to developing business-related competencies (for example, partnering for clients’ success, communication and influencing skills, or innovation skills), while programs with an emphasis on leadership development are likely to yield greater learning gains with regard to personal development, reflection and behavioral change. As mentioned by one program representative, benefits for the company come naturally when there is a strong focus on real community impact (i.e., focus on community development) and on innovative use of core skills pushing the skills frontiers and leading to great learning (i.e., focus on leadership development) – an observation worthy of further investigation.
The programs that we discussed here also provide a variety of differentiating features (e.g., the nature of the assignments – individual or in teams, placement length and learning methods used) that might form the basis for further systematic studies. As we saw, a differentiating feature between programs is whether participants are sent in teams on these assignments or alone (as in the case of Pfizer-GHFP and EY-ACRFP). In all likelihood, a team assignment provides a stronger basis for developing team-work skills and potentially also community building skills as identified by Pless et al. (2011) than individual experience (which, on the other hand, forces the participant to rely on and engage with the locals much more in order to get results).
Regarding placement length, Pfizer-GHFP provides (with up to 6 months) a considerably longer field experience than other programs with short-term assignments (e.g., Intel-IESC). We observe a trend towards shorter assignments, possibly because they are not so costly and time-consuming. In the meantime, Pfizer has started to run a short version of the Pfizer-GHFP to cater to those staff who cannot commit themselves to long-term assignments. The program is called Global Health Teams and enables high-performing employees from across countries and business functions to work on team assignments. There are two program designs available. One is a full-time 3-week long on-location assignment and the other a part-time 3-month assignment where a team spends a certain amount of time per week for a longer duration with a local partner organization. Five team initiatives have been completed so far: four in the 3-week assignment design (in Peru, Colombia, Mexico, Chile) and one following the part-time design (in Groton, CT). Also HSBC has a program in place called the Next Generation Development Program (NGDP). Based on the original PwC-Ulysses idea, the program uses one-week field assignments, sophisticated learning methodology and 6-month-long follow-up business projects with a sustainability component that bring measurable
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outcomes for HSBC. Using a new mode of cooperation, EY has set up in 2011 the EMEIA Financial Services Intrapreneur Program in which the participants either work full time in Endeavor Entrepreneur offices on a six-week project (as Placement Intrapreneurs) or give their time to deliver shorter pieces of work from their home offices (as Virtual Intrapreneurs who support shorter term projects). IBM also started to explore new type of engagements on local/regional level called IBM Services Grants. Future studies should explore whether short-term assignments (alone or complemented with follow-up business projects) can provide similar powerful learning experiences and lead to intended outcomes for community, organization, and individual. Indications about the optimal duration of field assignments and type of engagement would be of practical relevance and would help learning officers in the cost-benefit analysis and in selling service programs internally.
From a learning perspective, we propose that project design will have a big impact on outcomes. A unique feature of PwC-Ulysses is the integrated service-learning methodology which, we suggest, is a good way of fostering responsible leadership competence. In PwC-Ulysses, 99% of the participants exhibited learning gains in the areas of responsible mind-set and 85% in the area of ethical literacy (Pless et al., 2011, p. 246). While challenging service assignments provide a great learning platform and a potential catalyst for learning (Conger and Benjamin, 1999; McCall, 1998; Van Velsor et al., 1998), the transformation of experience into learning requires a sophisticated distilling process based on storytelling as a debriefing method in individual and guided team sessions with coaches and facilitators (Pless et al., 2012). The integrated approach of different methods (coaching, meditation and yoga, appreciative inquiry and storytelling) is one of the key factors in this distilling process. A systematic comparison of programs with different designs and methods would help to study this proposition.
It would also be interesting to study to what extent seniority and life experience have an effect on the learning. While the Ulysses study is based on a sample of partners (executives) of the firm, EY-ACRFP and Intel-IESC provide a participant sample at the employee level. Moreover, IBM allows comparing the outcomes for participants with leadership potential in the CSC program with the outcomes for executives (with proven leadership experience) in the executive version of the CSC called Executive Service Corps (ESC) launched in 2010.
Another area worthy of further exploration and systematic research is studying the extent to which senior leadership support is involved in the program and in leveraging the business development potential of ISLP. Based on partial evidence, we suggest that in some programs (e.g., Pfizer-GHFP and IBM-CSC),
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former CEOs or chairmen got the ball rolling while in other programs (e.g., PwC-Ulysses and Intel-IESC), senior leaders influenced the nomination of the candidates or approved participation.
Future research should also try to systematically measure and compare the effectiveness of different service programs with regard to the outcomes and the impact they create for all parties involved (including the Return On Investment (ROI) of the programs in terms of payback in tangible or intangible terms). This can help program designers to further improve the design of international service initiatives and enhance their impact. However, not all firms measure ROI systematically, and those that do usually keep this information internally and do not share it easily with the broader public. It should be interesting to explore the results to be obtained by IBM’s quantitative community impact measurement model which the company has launched in the second half of 2013. In addition, there is the question of scaling ISLP: some companies, with IBM at the forefront, have great operational assets about how to scale these programs. We suggest that future research focuses on this.
Evaluating the development of responsible leadership competence and behavior is a challenge. It would be useful from both theoretical and practical standpoints to study the extent to which service experience sparks deeper interest in service work (something mentioned by program representatives of Intel-IESC, IBM-CSC and PwC-Ulysses) and fosters greater responsibility towards stakeholders. The findings in this area are particularly important in light of the call for a new generation of responsible leaders (EFMD, 2005; UN Global Compact, 2011).
5.6. Conclusions In this paper we compared six International Service Learning Programs set up
by multinational corporations from three different industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services). We identified a number of category areas in which they differ and provided a typology for program classification. Our findings showed that, regardless of the stated objectives of the programs (usually stressing shared value for the participants, the company and the communities), most programs had one clear program focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development) while two programs showed closely linked foci (focusing slightly more on organization development than on the other areas).
As this analysis shows, International Service Learning Programs have the potential to achieve several objectives all at the same time. They can help develop
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solution approaches for social issues at the local and global level; they can help organizations develop business innovations and new approaches to customers in new markets; they can help managers and leaders develop mindsets and skills for managing successfully and responsibly in a global stakeholder environment. From this perspective, International Service Learning Programs and innovative ways of scaling them up are sorely needed. Further research should be undertaken to grasp the best design for achieving the various objectives (leadership development, organization development and community development). The most challenging but also the most promising task will be to provide guidance for designing an approach that effectively integrates all three objectives.
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Chapter 6
Closing Chapter: Overview of the Findings and Areas for Future Research
Markéta Borecká
Current status (July 2014): Unsubmitted
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6. Closing Chapter: Overview of the Findings and Areas for FutureResearch
Abstract
The closing chapter discusses the author’s motivation for this research, provides an overview of the major findings drawn from each of the manuscripts, and shows their contribution to theory and practice. It also discusses the challenges and limitations of the presented research, suggests areas for future exploration, and discusses new developments in International Service Learning Programs. The conclusion can be made that responsible leadership and the development of responsible leaders by means of International Service Learning Programs are fields of study offering plenty of opportunities for future research – research in an area that has the potential to contribute to the improvement of today’s stakeholder society.
Keywords
Responsible leadership, new trends in leadership development, International Service Learning Programs
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6.1. Reasons for Writing this Dissertation This cumulative dissertation has come into being due to several reasons. First,
it is a highly relevant topic and worthy of exploration as today’s leadership practice does not always show examples of responsible leadership behaviour from top executives, but rather the contrary (Pless and Maak, 2011). Second, current leadership theories (such as transformational, authentic, charismatic, servant, ethical, spiritual and others) miss the responsibility element, which is actually one of the most important ones for leadership effectivity (Waldman and Galvin, 2008). Third, this dissertation offers a viewpoint on responsible leadership theory which, when applied in practice by corporations and their leaders who possess the power to make a change, may help deal with pertinent social and environmental challenges. Fourth, it seemed valuable to explore corporate initiatives (International Service Learning Programs) that help develop responsible leaders, or increase the level of responsibility they already possess, and provide empirical insights for corporations and program designers. Last but not least, the reason for writing this dissertation is the author’s interest in taking responsibility in all her endeavours and activities on a daily basis.
The following lines provide an overview of the major findings drawn from each of the presented manuscripts, showing their contribution to theory and practice. They also discuss the challenges and limitations of the presented research, suggest areas for future exploration, and discuss new developments in International Service Learning Programs.
6.2. Major Findings and their Contribution to Theory and Practice The four manuscripts this dissertation consists of represent a solid piece of
work around the topic of responsible leadership and responsible leadership development. They have aimed at contributing both to leadership theory and practice and coming up with insights worth being shared with leadership practitioners, corporate leadership development program designers, as well as with a broader audience.
The first manuscript opened the discussion with the question: “What is responsible leadership and how it can address today’s challenges in a stakeholder society”. It dealt with the questions of the construct of responsible leadership and started by defining the concept and then comparing and contrasting it with other related leadership theories (e.g., transformational leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, etc.). This comparison has shown that responsible leadership is a relevant and justifiable values-based leadership theory,
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very practical in its approach of including various stakeholder groups when addressing this world’s problems and finding solutions that are acceptable to and beneficial for everyone. Next, the topic was examined profoundly based on a literature survey of 57 articles that have so far been written in academic literature about the topic of responsible leadership. It could be observed that a substantial number of articles use as their basis stakeholder theory and business ethics, which can be perceived as diversification streams of what started out as CSR (Maak, 2008). The common topics addressed by the authors involved: the breadth of responsibility, justification of the responsible leadership theory, connection with performance, discussing constituting features and questioning how to develop responsible leaders. A significant number of the texts referred to one of the definitions of responsible leadership by Maak and Pless touching upon the stakeholder, relational and ethical aspects of the definition. A vast majority of authors considered followers not in the traditional sense as direct reports, but rather as “stakeholders in a broad sense” (inside and outside the organization), pointing to the fact that stakeholders in today’s society gain importance and power. Most authors continued in the traditional focus of leadership on individual persons and their attributes and also on the internal, group level of analysis (Waldman, 2011). The literature survey enabled the author to come up with a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership (presented in Figure 2.1.), which proposed the antecedents, constituting features, and outcomes of responsible leadership. It was possible to see that the construct of responsible leadership has multiple dimensions, yet it also has a certain confusion in the categorization of antecedents and components and, potentially, a high number of overlaps between categories which needs further clarification. The outcomes of responsible leadership are multilevel – the benefit should be for the individuals, organizations and societies.
The second manuscript has built upon the theoretical grounding of the previous one and has addressed the question: “How can organizations develop responsible leadership qualities in their current and future leaders?” It strived to fill in the gap of knowledge about developing responsibility in leaders and preparing them for the challenges of a global and interconnected stakeholder society (Ciulla, 1998; Doh and Stumpf, 2005; Maak and Pless, 2006). From the viewpoint of the theory, it studied leadership development programs, practices, and devices (i.e., what companies are doing to develop responsible leaders). From the viewpoint of the practice, it explored the features that responsible leadership manifests in the participants of International Service Learning Programs designed by corporations. The outcome has been a much more specific knowledge of the qualities global
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leaders need to succeed in a connected world, such as global mindset, intercultural skills, and the ability to deal with dilemmas and relational qualities in order to successfully engage with stakeholders at home and abroad. Three innovative executive development programs that use International Service Learning Assignments as a way to develop responsible leaders were described. These programs were PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps. Looking closely at the programs’ design, methodology and outcomes, a descriptive Figure 3.1. has been presented with Features and Outcomes of International Service Learning Programs. We could observe that the most demanding task was arguably the post-assignment phase, specifically the debriefing of learning and learning transfer, which facilitates application of the knowledge, skills and attitudes gained while on an assignment, back to the work place. The findings broaden the theory presented by Maak and Pless (2009) and Pless, Maak and Stahl (2011) concerning the development or enhancement of global responsible leadership competencies through participation in International Service Learning Programs and reflection upon the field experience.
While the second manuscript has looked more at program design and methodology, as well as at the effect of the learning experience on internal stakeholders (the participants of the program), the focus of the third manuscript has been on the specific outcomes of International Service Learning Programs. This was achieved by means of comparing four different programs – PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses, HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program. The study has shown the beneficial outcomes of International Service Learning Programs for individual participants (developing leadership capabilities and other soft skills, team-work skills, gaining experience from growth markets, etc.), for their organizations (building global leaders and managers, fostering innovation, new business models, improved stakeholder relationships, etc.), and for broader communities (a positive change in the community where the projects took place, building the capacity for the individual beneficiaries, and community contribution-related outcomes). It has been shown that International Service Learning Programs strengthen the ties between employees (participants of these programs), their company, and society.
The fourth manuscript is a qualitative study that compared six International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations from three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services). The programs studied were PricewaterhouseCoopers’ The Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health
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Fellows Program, EY’s Americas Corporate Responsibility Fellows Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, Intel Education Service Corps Program, and The Novartis Entrepreneurial Leadership Program. The study was based on data-gathering through desk research and on interviews with program representatives and a structured questionnaire containing closed and open-ended questions. The analysis has identified a number of category areas in which the International Service Learning Programs differ (e.g., in placement length, or nature of the assignment – individual or in teams, learning methods used) and has provided a typology for program classification (leadership development, organization development or community development). It has been shown that regardless of the stated objectives (usually stressing value for the participants, the company, and the communities), most studied programs had one clear focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development) while two showed closely linked foci (with a slightly greater emphasis on organization development than on the other areas). It has been proven that the type of International Service Learning Program used has an effect on learning outcomes. This manuscript represents an important starting point for quantitative studies as well as for the evaluation of different service learning approaches which, when focused on in future research, will provide important findings for companies testing usefulness and outcomes of International Service Learning Programs or planning to set up or refine their own programs to achieve specific outcomes.
6.3. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research The presented four manuscripts, which will be or have already been published,
encompass the theoretical issues and practical findings around the topic of responsible leadership, by means of reviewing academic literature and studying real International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations. They provide practical insights for corporations and program designers and show the relevance of the topic in today’s world. However, there are certain limitations of this dissertation that have to be considered and which can, at the same time, be regarded as opportunities for future research.
As described earlier, one of the biggest challenges was connected with creating the model of responsible leadership, because of the inconsistencies and overlaps within the categorization of the constituting features of the construct. The Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership presented in this dissertation will, therefore, need to be refined in future research. It will be worth conducting further empirical research (and, if possible, measurement) in the area of the
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multilevel antecedents (contextual influences), components (characteristics), and outcomes (consequences) of the phenomenon of responsible leadership.
Another topic that should be further explored is the level of analysis and the “phenomenon-level” of responsible leadership. In the literature survey, the findings have shown that responsible leadership is seen as a multilevel phenomenon operating mostly at an individual level, yet there has not been a consensus in this area. It was also possible to observe the shift from understanding the phenomenon at the individual level to the collective one, reflecting the trend towards complexity leadership (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007) and shared leadership (Pearce and Conger, 2003). Future research should focus on studying the phenomenon at the team level as well as at the organizational level and should study how responsibility is translated from the individual to the collective, organizational, and broader societal levels.
Due to the limitations regarding the access to the data about International Service Learning Programs (or even the scarcity of programs themselves), the findings presented in this dissertation provide only a limited insight, which needs to be verified and fine-tuned by studying an additional number of corporate programs. For example, the content in the Figure 3.1. outlining the Features and Outcomes of International Service Learning Programs will probably need to be adjusted with the growing number of programs studied in order to represent reality more accurately. Similarly, a higher amount of identified outcomes of the programs may be expected, as some outcomes might appear only later, after participation in the program. Therefore, a more longitudinal research is highly demanded.
As for the design and methodology of the programs, the topic of cross-company teams should be further explored in the future. A combined team of experts on different areas could indeed succeed in delivering a much more tangible positive impact in the community as well as at their workplaces. Definitely, the post-assignment phase, which was shown to be crucial for the successful learning transfer of the knowledge gained while on the assignment to the practice, should also be explored much further than the space restrictions in this dissertation allowed.
Interesting findings will potentially be obtained when including, apart from the data gathering through desk research and interviews with program representatives, also interviews or focus groups with the participants of International Service Learning Programs, and possibly also with a few recipients of the service from the host organizations. This could not be done in this dissertation due to limitations of research capacity and the demanding time schedule. Similarly, the opinion of the chairperson regarding the programs, their results and impact, could be obtained and future research could focus on studying the critical influence of
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a chairperson on the programs (motivation for running the program, expectations of a return on investment, etc.).
Some new developments or trends within companies designing International Service Learning Programs have been identified and should be focused on more in future research. For instance, some companies (e.g., Intel and IBM) have started sending more (teams of) participants on additional rounds to the same partnering organization in the developing country, which assures continuation of help provided and also assures that there is a real impact resulting from the participants’ effort.
According to the information available, few programs (including IBM) use a competency framework with specific skills to be developed through the assignment – looking further into this topic might greatly improve the effectiveness of the programs and make the competencies gained through the program translate into company practice better, faster and with more durability.
Another topic is connected with the fact that most companies (PwC, IBM, Pfizer, Intel and Novartis) are building global networks from program alumni within the company, who then mentor new participants or provide peer coaching, help share the learnings or put it into practice, and also further engage in volunteering. The topic of the effect of the alumni networks and how they function and help in further corporate volunteering activities, and also whether and how the alumni differ from employees who have not participated in the programs, is definitely worth exploring and measuring.
The analysis has shown the tendency towards a shorter-term team approach (shorter 2-3 week projects), e.g., in Pfizer. Also, the tendency towards in-country assignments (predicted by Hills and Mahmud, 2007) has been identified, e.g., in the Novo Nordisk’s Take Action program – a community-based program encouraging employees to engage in voluntary activities in local communities, in social or environmental actions that can support sustainable solutions to specific needs in their own community or other areas and align the service more to their core business.
International Service Learning Programs at Novartis and Pfizer are thought of as being a strategic initiative creating and delivering shared value (leadership development, social value and business value). It would be worth investigating, on a longer-term basis, to what extent the shared value is created and delivered.
6.4. Closing Words All in all, Hills and Mahmud (2007) proposed that the future of international
corporate volunteering efforts might be in the exponential increase of the scale of
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impact of these programs. This could be achieved through local service aligned to core business and designed properly to involve volunteering with impact, which is financially less demanding than cross-border programs and also more accessible to employees. An important aspect is collaboration with other corporations (leveraging expertise across different businesses and units, addressing local issues more effectively, sharing risks and costs). An example of a first joint project is IBM-CSC, which took FedEx employees to assignments. All these topics represent areas for future research which will provide valuable insights into the field of responsible leadership and responsible leadership development.
In sum, the research presented in this dissertation is one of the first attempts at diving into the deep – and not yet systematically explored – waters of individual and corporate responsibility. It has proposed that the theory of responsible leadership responds better than any other existing leadership theory to the challenges today’s leaders are facing (e.g., globalization, exclusion of minorities, environmental degradation, poverty, wars, etc.). It has shown, through the study of several International Service Learning Programs, that these smart leadership development programs do possess the potential to develop responsible leadership qualities in their participants. Also, they benefit all parties involved, that is, the employees who participate in the programs, the organizations sending the participants, and the host communities in developing countries. International Service Learning Programs possess the potential to help leaders and top executives develop mindsets and skills for successfully and responsibly managing businesses in a global stakeholder environment; they help organizations develop business innovations and novel approaches to customers in new markets; and provide solutions for social issues at the local and global level.
This dissertation has hopefully made a vital contribution to research and practice by clarifying the construct of responsible leadership and by showing that when International Service Learning Programs are equipped with a smart, learning-transfer-oriented design and clear learning objectives, they are not only highly effective in developing the next generation of responsible global leaders but are also a means to advance business goals and to address burning global issues. Therefore, further research and attempts by practitioners in this area have the potential to contribute to the improvement of today’s stakeholder society.
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6.5. References
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Hills, G., & Mahmud, A. (2007). Volunteering for Impact: Best Practices in International Corporate Volunteering, FSG Social Impact Advisors, available at: http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2007/9/volunteering/volunteering_for_impact (accessed June 2012).
Maak, T. (2008). Undivided Corporate Responsibility: Towards a Theory of Corporate Integrity, Journal of Business Ethics, 82(2), 353–368.
Maak T., & Pless, N. M. (2006). Responsible leadership: a relational approach. In Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. (Eds.), Responsible Leadership (pp. 33–53). London, New York: Routledge.
Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. (2009). Business Leaders as Citizens of the World. Advancing Humanism on a Global Scale, Journal of Business Ethics, 88(3), 537–550.
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Uhl-Bien, M. (2006). Relational Leadership Theory: Exploring the social processes of leadership and organizing, The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 654–676.
Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., & McKelvery, B. (2007). Complexity leadership theory: Shifting leadership form the industrial age to the knowledge era, The Leadership Quarterly, 18(4), 298–318.
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Waldman, D. A. (2011). Moving Forward with the Concept of Responsible Leadership: Three Caveats to Guide Theory and Research, Journal of Business Ethics, 98, 75–83.
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Curriculum Vitae of Markéta Borecká
1982 Born in Prague (Czech Republic)
Education
2010 – 2014 University of St. Gallen, Switzerland Ph.D. studies, Strategy and Management, Responsible Leadership
2003 – 2008 Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic Master’s degree, Adult Education and Personnel Management
2002 – 2007 Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic Master’s degree, English and American Studies
2005 – 2005 Université de Nantes, France ERASMUS study stay in France
Work Experience
Since 2013 ETON Business Consulting, Czech Republic Consultant and Recruiter
Since 2013 FOREWEAR, Czech Republic Founder and Project Leader, Social Impact Award Winner
2008 – 2010 M.C.TRITON, Czech Republic Junior Consultant and Business Development Specialist, Project Leader of the competition for The European Corporate Responsibility Award