Introduction c i

8/18/2019 Introduction c i

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CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCHINTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH


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TOPICS DISCUSSEDTOPICS DISCUSSED

Defnition o ResearchDefnition o Research

Hierarchy o inormation-Based DecisionHierarchy o inormation-Based Decisionmaers!maers!

"hy #ana$ers Sho%&d 'no( A)o%t"hy #ana$ers Sho%&d 'no( A)o%tResearchResearch

*actors stim%&atin$ interest in research*actors stim%&atin$ interest in research

*eat%res o Research*eat%res o Research


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Research

The word ‘Research’ can be bifurcated in to two

words: Research = Re + Search. The word ‘Re’

means again and again and ‘Search’ means to findout something.

Research is a process by which one observes a fact

or situation repeatedly from different aspect andcollects the data and on the basis of data derives

some conclusions.


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! "eep si# honest serving men$ %they

taught me all ! "new&$ their names are

what, and why$ and when$ and how$

and where and who'.(Rudyard )ipling

The use of the words what, why, when, howwhere and who essentially summari*es what

research is?


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Research is the process of finding

solutions to a problem after a thoroughstudy and analysis of the situational

factors.

hat is Research,


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Base Tier

Middle Tier

Top Tier

-ierarchy of !nformation/ased 0ecision 1a"ers


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The managers encounter big and small

problems on a daily basis$ which they have to

solve by ma"ing the right decisions.

!n business$ research is usually conducted toresolve problematic issues in the areas of

management.

hy 1anagers should "now

Research,


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hy 1anagers should "now

Research,

1anagers in organi*ations constantly engage

themselves in studying and analy*ing issuesand hence are involved in some form of

research activity as they ma"e decisions at the

wor"place.


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2ood decision ma"ing fetches a yes' answer tothe following 3uestions:

4s a manager are you in a position to identifywhere e#actly the problem lies,

hat are the relevant factors in the situationneeding investigation,

0o you "now what types of information are to be

gathered and how,


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0o you "now how to ma"e use of the

information so collected and draw appropriateconclusions to ma"e the right decisions,

0o you "now how to implement the results ofthis process to solve the problem,


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This is the essence of research and to be

successful manager it is important for you to"now how to go about ma"ing the right

decisions by being "nowledgeable about the

various steps involved in finding solutions to

problematic issues.


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Factors stimulating interest in

research 5roblems in 4ccounting

5roblems in 6inance

5roblems in 1anagement

5roblems in 1ar"eting

5roblems in -ealth 7are


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6eatures of Research

!t means the discovery of new "nowledge.

!t is essentially an investigation.

!t is related with the solution of a problem.

!t is based on observation or e#perimental

evidences.


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!t demands accurate observation or

e#perimentation.

!n research$ the researchers try to find out

answers for unsolved 3uestions.

!t should be carefully recorded and reported.


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4ssume for the moment that you are the -ealth

4dministrator of a hospital. 8ou are e#periencing

significant turnover in your doctors pool and some long

time patients have committed that the friendlyatmosphere$ which has historically drawn them to your

door$ is changing. here will you begin to try to solve

this problem, !s this a problem for which research

should be used,

!s Research always problemsolving based,


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INTERNET EXERCISES

Use the Web search enines

+oo$&e and ,ahoo! Search "sinthe #e$ %ords “b"sinessresearch”! &repare a brie' report

tellin %hat $o" 'o"nd and ho% itdi(ered on the di(erent searchenines!


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Topics for self study

5urpose. 4ims or 9bectives of Research

;imitations of Research


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Research methods include all those

techni3ues


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vidence based research

hat is important in -ealthcare Service

delivery,

-ow healthcare practitioners ustify the care

they provide to the patient,


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6actors to be considered for evidence

based research

Ade)"ate research *"st ha+e beenp"blished in the area bein researched!

The researcher *"st ha+e the s#ill o'accessin and anal$sin the p"blishedliterat"re in his,her area o' research!

The researcher *"st be able toi*ple*ent the chanes based on EBN inhis area o' practice!


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#ample of /R

>urse wor"related inury

hat are the evidence to be considered,

The integration of the best research evidence with

clinical e#pertise and patient values?


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hat is ethnography,

thnography is the study of social interactions$

behaviours$ and perceptions that occur within

groups$ teams$ organisations$ and communities.


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7ostello’s e#amination of death and dying in elderly

care wards@

9sterlund’s wor" on doctors’ and nurses’ use of

traditional and digital information systems in their

clinical communications.

/ec"er and colleagues’ /oys in hite$ an

ethnographic study of medical education

#amples of ethnographic research within the

health services literature


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Airtual thnography

Airtual ethnography is a 3ualitative and interpretive

methodology approach that is carried out in the online

setting %the !nternet& to study the online communities

and culture. !t is a research conducted on the orld

ide eb.

Example: 0esigning and implementing mobilevirtual communities for cancer patients

https://sites.google.com/site/virtualethnography/glossaryhttps://sites.google.com/site/virtualethnography/glossary


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Triangulation

Triangulation is an approach to research that uses a

combination of more than one research strategy in a

single investigation.

4 phenomenon under study in a 3ualitative research

proect is much li"e a ship at sea. The e#act

description of the phenomenon is unclear !


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Why o we conuct Triangulation!

Types of Triangulation


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hy choose triangulation as a research

strategy,

Bualitative investigators may choose triangulation as a

research strategy to assure completeness of findings

or to con"irm "inings#


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Ass"re co*pleteness

The most accurate description of the elephant

comes from where,

4 combination of all three individualsC descriptions


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7onfirm findings

Researchers might also choose triangulation to confirmfindings and conclusions. 4ny single 3ualitative researchstrategy has its limitations.

/y combining different strategies$ researchers confirm findings by overcoming the limitations of a single strategy.

Dncovering the same information from more than one vantage

point helps researchers describe how the findings occurredunder different circumstances and assists them to confirm thevalidity of the findings.


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hy do we conduct Triangulation,

Types o" Triangulation


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$% &ata TriangulationTime, space, person

E& 1ethod Triangulation0esign0ata collection

F& !nvestigator Triangulation

G& Theory Triangulation

6ifth type$ multiple triangulation$ which uses acombination of two or more triangulation techni3ues in onestudy.


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04T4 TR!4>2D!4T!9>

0en*in %HIJI& described three types of data

triangulation: %H& time$ %E& space$ and %F& person.


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Time triangulation

Time triangulation$ researchers collect data about

a phenomenon at different points in time.

Studies based on longitudinal designs are not

considered e#amples of data triangulation for time

because they are intended to document changesover time.


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Space triangulation

Space triangulation consists of collecting data at more

than one site.

4t the outset$ the researcher must identify how time or

space relate to the study and ma"e an argument

supporting the use of different time or space collection points in the study.


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/y collecting data at different points in time and in

different spaces$ the researcher gains a clearer and

more complete description of decision ma"ing and

is able to i""erentiate characteristics that span

time perios an spaces "rom characteristics

speci"ic to certain times an spaces


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5erson triangulation

Dsing person triangulation$ researchers collect data

from more than one level of person$ that is$ a set of

individuals$ groups$ or collectives.


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'% (etho Triangulation&esign&ata collection




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1T-90S TR!4>2D;4T!9>

1ethods triangulation can occur at the level of design

or data collection.

1ethods triangulation at the design level has also been called )etween*metho triangulation and

methods triangulation at the data collection level has

been called within*metho triangulation#


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0esign ;evel

0esign methods triangulation most often uses+uantitatie methods combined with 3ualitative

methods in the study design.simultaneous implementationse3uential implementation

Theory should emerge from the 3ualitative findings

and should not be forced by researchers into thetheory they are using for the 3uantitative portion ofthe study.


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The blending of 3ualitative and 3uantitative

approaches does not occur during either data

generation or analysis.

Rather$ researchers blend these approaches at the

leel o" interpretation, merging findings from each

techni3ue to derive a consistent outcome.


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The process of merging findings ?is an informed

thought process$ involving -ugment, wisom,

creatiity, an insight and includes the privilege ofcreating or modifying theory.


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Sometimes triangulation design method might usetwo different 3ualitative research methods.

hen researchers combine methods at the designlevel$ they should consider the purpose of theresearch and ma"e a logical argument for using

each method.


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1ethods triangulation at the level of data

collection

Dsing methods triangulation at the level of data collection$researchers use two different techni3ues of data collection$

but each techni3ue is within the same research tradition.

The purpose of combining the data collection methods isto provide a more holistic an )etter unerstaning o"the phenomenon uner stuy#

!t is not an easy tas" to use method triangulation@ it is oftenmore time consuming an expensie to complete astuy using methos triangulation.


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.% Inestigator Triangulation




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!>AST!24T9R TR!4>2D;4T!9>

!nvestigator triangulation occurs when two or moreresearchers with iergent )ac/grouns and e#pertise wor"together on the same study. To achieve investigatortriangulation$ multiple investigators each must have

prominent roles in the stuy and their areas of e#pertisemust be complementary.

4ll the investigators discuss their individual findings andreach a conclusion$ which includes all findings.

-aving a second research e#pert e#amine a data set is notconsidered investigator triangulation.

Dse of methos triangulation usually re3uires investigatortriangulation because few investigators are e#pert in morethan one research method.


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0% Theory Triangulation



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T-9R8 TR!4>2D;4T!9>

Theory triangulation incorporates the use of morethan one lens or theory in the analysis of the same

data set.

!n 3ualitative research$ more than one theoreticale#planation emerges from the data.

Researchers investigate the utility and power ofthese emerging theories by cycling between datageneration and data analysis until they reach a

conclusion.


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Ded"ction and Ind"ction

&euction: reasoning from general premises$ whichare "nown or presumed to be "nown$ to morespecific$ certain conclusions.

Inuction: reasoning from specific cases to moregeneral$ but uncertain$ conclusions.

/oth deductive and inductive arguments occurfre3uently and naturallyKboth forms of reasoningcan be e3ually compelling and persuasive$ andneither form is preferred over the other %-ollihan L

/as"e$ HIIG&.


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!nductive Reasoning

O)ser.ation

Pattern

Tentati.e Hyothesis

Theory

1sing inuctie reasoning, one

starts with a speci"ic o)seration

as the )asis "or which we

eelop a general pattern antentatie hypothesis as the

"ounation o" a theory


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Sample 0eductive and !nductive 4rguments

Example o" &euction

ma-or premise: 4ll

tortoises are vegetarians

minor premise: /essie

is a tortoise

conclusion: Therefore$

/essie is a vegetarian

Example o" Inuction

/oss to employee: /iff

has a tattoo of

an anchor on his arm.

-e probably

served in the >avy!-


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&euction theory and hypothesis are developed and

tested

Inuction M data are collected and a theory developed

from the data analysis


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#ample of !nductive Reasoning

;incoln is on a penny %;incoln is a specific instanceof a 5resident&.

Nefferson is on a nic"el %4 nic"el is a specific

instance of a coin&.

Roosevelt is on a dime.

ashington is on a 3uarter.


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In each o' the 'ollo%in e.plain i' ind"cti+e or ded"cti+e reasonin isbein "sed!

a!An e*plo$ee has %orn a bl"e shirt e+er$ /rida$ the$ ha+e %or#edat a co*pan$! A person concl"des the$ %ill %ear a bl"e shirt this

/rida$ to %or#!

b!An e*plo$ee at a co*pan$ *"st %ear a "ni'or* that has a bl"eshirt! A person concl"des the$ %ill %ear a bl"e shirt this /rida$ to%or#!

c!I a* eatin at a +eetarian resta"rant! I concl"de all the dishes onthe *en" are *eatless!

d!A'ter readin the entire *en" I concl"de all o' the dishes on the


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&heno*enolo$

5henomenological Research is a strategy of in3uiry inwhich the researcher identifies the essence of human

e#periences about a phenomenon as described by participants. Dnderstanding the lived e#periencesmar"s phenomenology as a philosophy as well as amethod$ and the procedure involves studying a smallnumber of subects through e#tensive and prolongedengagement to develop patterns and relationships ofmeaning %1ousta"as$ HIIG&.


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5henomenology %con’t&

5henomenologists attempt to understand those whom

they observe from the subects’ perspective.

This outloo" is especially pertinent in social wor" and

research where empathy and perspective become the

"eys to success.


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The 5rocedures of 5henomenological !n3uiry

0!Deter*ine i' pheno*enoloical approach is best0!Do se+eral people share a co**on e.perience?1!Can $o" de+elop policies2 practices or de+elop deeper"nderstandin o' the 'eat"res o' the pheno*enon?

1! De3ne the pheno*enon o' interest to be st"died

4! Reconi5e and "nderstand the philosoph$ behindpheno*enolo$ incl"din brac#etin2 ob6ecti+e realit$ andindi+id"al e.perience

7! Collect data thro"h *"ltiple in8depth inter+ie%s or other 'or*so' collection

9! Bein %ith the broad :What- and :Ho%- )"estions! &roceed

%ith broader open8ended )"estions to ather te.t"ral andstr"ct"ral data


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5henomenological 0ata 7ollection

!nterview!n depth interview5articipation observation7onversation

4ction research6ocus 1eeting4nalysis of 5ersonal Te#ts % 0iary riting&!nterpretive %-ermeneutic& 5henomenology

To interpret the phenomena beingobserved


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RS4R7- 5-!;9S95-8


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Research is about the search "or /nowlege$ but the

3uestion is$ what is "nowledge and can that

"nowledge be in any sense true or "alse!

!t is a branch of philosophy that deals with "nowledge

and tries to answer the 3uestion as to whether a given

body of "nowledge is ade3uate or inade3uate

Epistemology


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Epistemology cont3

pistemology as a branch of philosophy deals with

the sources of "nowledge. Specifically$ epistemology

is concerned with possibilities$ nature$ sources and

limitations of "nowledge.

!ntuitive "nowledge

4uthoritarian "nowledge

;ogical "nowledge

mpirical "nowledge


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Research process may integrate all of these sources

of "nowledge within a single study.

8ou want to select a specific problem to be e#plored

within a selected research area. hich "nowledge is

used,

hen you gain authoritative "nowledge,

logical "nowledge is generated as a result of

analysing primary data findings$ and conclusions of

the research can be perceived as empirical

"nowledge.


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4 Simple #ample

O Suppose ! as" the 3uestion: are your friends

trustworthy,O 1ost of us would answer 8es

O !s it that the "nowledge ‘8S’ is true or false$

accepted or unaccepted$ or even valid,


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The 9bectivism vs Subectivism

pistemological Stance

O)/ecti.ism

&ositi+ist;s belie+e thatonl$pheno*ena %hich areobser+able and*eas"rablecan be rearded as +alid


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4#iological 4ssumption

4ositiist5s‐ believe that science and the process is

alue "ree i.e. the researcher is etache from

what they are researching and regard the

phenomena as an obect.

O 4henomenologist6s‐ considers that researchers

hae alues. These values help to determine whatare recogni*ed as facts and the interpretation. The

researcher is inole with that which is being

researched


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:9>T9;928 is concerned with the nature ofrealityKK and assumptions researchers have about

the way the world operates and the commitment held

to a particular view'.

!n this conte#t we are thin"ing of ‘"nowledge’ or

perhaps more correctly the particular body of"nowledge that is embedded in your research proect

What is 7ntology!


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!s that description of Reality is e#ternal to or

within the mind of the individual,

hat 0o you thin" ,

The body of "nowledge on the phenomena%reality& isexternal to social actors# 9bjectivism or

whether the phenomena can and should be considered

social constructions )uilt up "rom perceptions andactions of social actors. Constructivism


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5ositivism

9bectivism

5henomenology

Subectivism<

7onstructivism

f h i di


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6eatures of the two main 5aradigms

Positi.istic

Tends to prod"ce )"antitati+edata!

Uses lare sa*ples

Concerned %ith h$pothesis Testin

Data is hihl$ speci3c and

&recise

Reliabilit$ is hih

>alidit$ is lo%

enerali5es 'ro* sa*ple

Phenomeno&o$ica&

Tends to be )"alitati+e data

Uses s*all sa*ples!

Concerned %ith eneratin Theories!

Data is rich and s"b6ecti+e!

Reliabilit$ is lo%

>alidit$ is hih!

enerali5es 'ro* one settin

to another!


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hat is a concept,

7oncepts are:

/uilding bloc"s of theory

Concept 4 generali*ed idea about a class of obects$attributes$ occurrences$ or processes.Examples: 9ener, 8ge, Eucation, )ran loyalty,

satis"action, attitue, mar/et orientation

;


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Synta#

Aocabulary

Spelling

1anuscript

errors

Typing

speed

6ormat

4ccuracy

anguage S/ill Construct

2Components un/nown )y analyst%

; 4resentation >uality

Construct =

a)stract

(ost

concrete

: e , e l o " a ) s t r a c t i o n

ConstructsCompose o"

Concepts in a


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7oncepts are useful for:

5roviding an e#planation of a certain aspect of

the social world

Standing for things we want to e#plain

2iving a basis for measuring variation


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Construct 4 concept that is measured with multiplevariables.

Examples: ?ran loyalty, satis"action,

attitue, mar/et orientation, socio*economicstatus#

@aria)le 4nything that varies or changes fromone instance to another@ can e#hibit differences

in value$ usually in magnitude or strength$ or indirection.


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9perational 0efinition


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Rules of 1easurement

2uidelines established by the researcher for assigning numbers or scores to

different levels of the concept %or attribute& that different individuals %or

obects& possess

The process is facilitated by the operational definition.6or e#ample$ if you operationali*ed brand loyalty as purchase se3uences'

%conceptual definition H&$ then you may establish the following rules for

assigning scores:

!f consumer purchased brand 4: IU or more MV loyalty for brand 4 = H %#tremely loyal&

J JIU MV loyalty for brand 4 = E %Aery loyal&

Q QIU MV loyalty for brand 4 = F %;oyal&

tc.

4utting Relia)ility an @aliity Together4utting Relia)ility an @aliity Together


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very instrument can be evaluated on two

dimensions:

Relia)ility-ow consistent it is given the same

conditions

@aliity

!f it measures what it is supposed to and

how accurate it is


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Re&ia)i&ity and 0a&idityRe&ia)i&ity and 0a&idity


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"hat is Re&ia)i&ity"hat is Re&ia)i&ity??

Reliability isReliability is::

the consistency of your measurementthe consistency of your measurement

instrumentinstrument

the degree to which an instrument measures thethe degree to which an instrument measures the

same way each time it is used under the samesame way each time it is used under the same

condition with the same subectscondition with the same subects

i iWh t i th l i t


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What in the worl is a measurementWhat in the worl is a measurement

instrumentinstrument!!

4ny tool that you use to measure with

What :instr"*ent- *iht $o" "se to *eas"re the 'ollo%in ite*s?

Ho% hea+$ the apples are

Ho% tall the %all is


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(ore on Instruments(ore on Instruments

hat would the following instruments measurehat would the following instruments measure,,

The size of

someone’s foot

Eyesight



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O'ten there are *an$ di(erent instr"*ents thatO'ten there are *an$ di(erent instr"*ents that

co"ld be "sed to *eas"re the sa*e thinco"ld be "sed to *eas"re the sa*e thin..

Ta#e Ta#e distancedistance 'or e.a*ple'or e.a*ple……

Or an odo*eter

@o" co"ld "se a *eas"rin tape

Measure it out on a map

Or (a& it(ith aedometer

Use a distance

h t i t t h d d


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hat instrument you choose depends on

several factors

ase of Dse

4ccess

4ppropriateness

4ccuracy

7ost

Reliability


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Reliability

!magine that you are using a ruler measure a boo".

hat do you thin" would happen if you waited H

minutes and measured the boo" again$ how long would

it be then,

34ro)a)ly still inches

hat if you spun the ruler aroundP

4nd shoo" it up really good,P

R li bilit


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Reliability

8our rulerK

was consistent

measured the same way each time it was used underthe same condition with the same obect

The boo" did not change and therefore the ruler

reported bac" the same measurement

8our ruler is R;!4/;

Reliability


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y

very time the water begins to

boil the "ettle whistles

very time it is :F my alarm

cloc" goes off

4ll of these tools of measurement are reliablereliable given the same

temperature$ time and volume$ they measure the same

consistentlyconsistently


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Relia)ilityRelia)ility

Reliability alone does not mean that you have a good instrumentReliability alone does not mean that you have a good instrument

however however ..

!magine the following reliable instrument!magine the following reliable instrument::

09Every morning I get on the

scale and every morning it

reads 165 lbs.

It seems pretty reliable

since I haven’t gained or

lost any weight.

One day an elephant goton the weighing scale and

it still read 165 lbs.!

ow is this scale reliable?

It does measre the same

way nder the sameconditions !mine" # bt a

lot o$ other conditions too

!the elephant".


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A! Ta$lor A! Ta$lor

Do not d"plicate %itho"tDo not d"plicate %itho"ta"thor;s per*issiona"thor;s per*ission

Relia)le )ut not @aliRelia)le )ut not @ali

Remember our reliable ruler Remember our reliable ruler ,,

%an it measre howlod the radio is&

how $ll the

glass is&

how smart

the girl is&

The ruler may )e relia)le 2an perhaps een

ali% )ut not in these situationsD

It is only ali "or measuring length#


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This brings us to @aliity

5utting Reliability and Aalidity Together


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g y y g

very instrument can be evaluated on two

dimensions:

Relia)ility

-ow consistent it is given the sameconditions

@aliity

!f it measures what it is supposed to and

how accurate it is



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g y y gg y y g

!magine that ! have F fish tan" thermometers$ a blue

one$ a red one$ and a green one.

The )lue one always reas the same temperatureno matter how hot or col the water is#

The re one shows a i""erent temperature eery

time een i" I -ust measure it secons earlier#The green one seems to rea accurately, warm

when the water is warm an col when the water is

cool#

Complete the chart )elowComplete the chart )elow


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pp

s it consistent?

s it meas"ringwhat it is

s"pposed to?

s it reliable?

s it #alid?

$l"e always reads

the sametemperatre nomatter what

%ed di$$erenttemperatre everytime even i$

nothing haschanged

&reen warm whenthe water is warmand cold when thewater is cool

hat can be said of the reliability and validity


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hat can be said of the reliability and validity

of the following,

8 spelling test with the "ollowing item: ' G HHHH

5robably reliable$ if you get it wrong once you will probably get

it wrong again %assuming no new learning& M same with getting it

right.;ac"s validity$ this is more appropriate for a math test$ not a

spelling test.

8n elastic ruler 2eery time you use it is stretches to a

i""erent length%

;ac" reliability

8ou can’t have validity without reliability

Thi "i 1 b t A lidit


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Thin"ing 1ore about Aalidity

Aalidity is whether or not the instrument measures what it is

designed to measure.

/elow are three constructs that you can use to evaluate thevalidity of a measure:

6ace Aalidity

5redictive Aalidity

7oncurrent Aalidity

6 A lidi


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6ace Aalidity

0o the 3uestions loo" li"e they measure what they are supposed

to,

hat does the 3uestion below loo" li"e it would measure ,

Choose the ite* that best describes$o"F I do not 'eel sad!0F I 'eel sad!

1F I a* sad all the ti*e and I canGtsnap o"t o' it!4F I a* so sad or "nhapp$ that IcanGt stand it!

I' $o" said deression $o"%o"ld be correct! It loo#sli#e an ite* 'ro* adepression scale and it is

It has ace .a&idity!

I' so*eone said this %as'ro* a parental attach*entscale2 then $o" co"ld sa$that it lac#s 'ace +alidit$!

5 di i A lidi W


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5redictive AalidityW

0oes the measure predict something that it logically should,

The 74T

4ccording to their website$ the 74T is the one test that shows

colleges what you "now'. 7ollege admissions officers use this

test to determine who will do well in college.

hat future measures do you e#pect that the 74T would be

correlated with,

!f you said grades in college you would be right$ and the 74T

is correlated with thatP M somewhatK

!t has predictive validity

7oncurrent Aalidity


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7oncurrent Aalidity

0oes this measure correlate strongly with something that

it logically should right now,

Dnli"e predictive validity$ concurrent validity compares

measures ta"en at the same time.hat current measures do you imagine that 254 should

correlate with,

!f you said current test scores and teacher ratings you would

be correct.

254 has some concurrent validity

5 iti


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5roposition

Statements concerned with the relationships among concepts.

The logical lin"age among concepts.

4ssert a universal connection between properties.

e define a proposition as a statement about concepts which

may be udged as true or false if it refers to observable

phenomena 7ooper L Schindler.

hen a proposition is formulated for empirical testing$ we call

it a hypothesis.


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Aariable M 4ny factor that

can change in a scientific

investigation or e#periment.

T$pes o' >ariables


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$p

Dichoto*o"sMale,/e*ale

E*plo$ed, Une*plo$ed

DiscreteEthnic bac#ro"ndEd"cational le+el

Reliio"s aJliation

Contin%o%sInco*e

Te*perat"reAe


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!ndependent Aariable

%also called the manipulated variable$

predictor variable&

The condition that is intentionally change

by the investigator in an e#periment.

There can be only one independent variable in

an e#periment.


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0ependent Aariable

%also called the responding variable$ criterion

variable& The factors or conditions that will change as a

result o" the inepenent aria)le#

The factors that you measure or o)sere as

data.

There can be one or more dependent variables

in an e#periment.


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!ndependent and 0ependent Aariable Synonyms

Inepenent

@aria)le 2I@%

4reictor

4resume cause Stimulus

4reicte "rom3

8nteceent

(anipulate

&epenent @aria)le 2&@%

Criterion

4resume e""ect

Response

4reicte to3#

Conse+uence

(easure outcome


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/or e.a*ple2 i' $o" are researchin %hether lac# o' e.ercise leads to%eiht ain2 lac# o' e.ercise is $o"r independent +ariable and %eihtain is $o"r dependent +ariable! Con'o"ndin +ariables are an$ other+ariable that also has an e(ect on $o"r dependent +ariable! The$ areli#e e.tra independent +ariables that are ha+in a hidden e(ect on$o"r dependent +ariables! Con'o"ndin +ariables can ca"se t%o *a6orproble*sIncrease +ariance

Introd"ce bias!

http://www.statisticshowto.com/variance/http://www.statisticshowto.com/what-is-bias/http://www.statisticshowto.com/what-is-bias/http://www.statisticshowto.com/variance/


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The s%itch to co**ission 'ro* a salar$co*pensation s$ste* %ill lead to increased

sales per %or#er2 especiall$ *oree.perienced %or#ers !

The loss o' *inin 6obs leads to acceptance

o' hiher8ris# beha+iors to earn a 'a*il$8s"pportin inco*e partic"larl$ a*on those%ith a li*ited ed"cation!

d i i bl i h i fl h h


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1oderating variable is one that influences the strength

of a relationship between two other variables$ and

a mediator %intervening& variable is one that e#plainsthe relationship between the two other variables

;etCs consider the relation between social class %SS&

and fre3uency of breast selfe#ams %/S&. 4ge might be a moderator variable$ in that the relation between

SS and /S coul )e stronger for older women and

less strong or non e#istent for younger women.

ducation might be a mediator variable in that ite#plains why there is a relation between SS and /S.

hen you remove the effect of education$ the relation

between SS and /S disappears.


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f h i


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Types of -ypothesis

0escriptive hypotheses: 0escribing the characteristics of

a variable %may be an obect$ person$ organisation$ event$

and situation&.

g. mployment opportunity of 1/4 graduates is more

than the arts students.

The current unemployment rate in Ddupi e#ceeds percent of the labor force


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Researchers will often use a research 3uestion rather

than a descriptive hypothesis.

hat is the unemployment rate in Ddupi,

Relational -ypotheses


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Relational -ypotheses

stablishes relationship between two variables. !t may

be positive$ negative or nil relationship.

Example

6oreign cars are perceived by !ndian consumers to beof better 3uality than domestic cars.

Correctional relationships

8oung machinists are less productive than those who

are FX years or older Explanatory, or causal relationships 2Causal

ypothesis%

4n increase in family income leads to an increase in


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>ull -ypothesis M it points out there is no difference

between two populations in respect of same property.

o di2erences )et(een the $ro%s )ein$st%died 3e!$!4 e5erimenta& .s! contro&$ro%6 oro re&ationshi )et(een the .aria)&es)ein$ st%died

E.a*ple :There is no sini3cant di(erence inthe an.iet$ le+el o' children o' Hih IL andthose o' lo% IL!


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4lternative -ypothesis when we reect the null

hypothesis$ we accept another hypothesis "nown as

alternate hypothesis.

4lternate -ypothesis can further be classified as

0irectional -ypothesis and >ondirectional

-ypothesis.


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0irectional -ypothesis

!s a type of alternative hypothesis that specifies thedirection of e#pected findings.

Sometimes directional hypothesis are created to

e#amine the relationship among variables rather than

to compare groups.

0irectional hypothesis may read$'Kis more than..'$

Kwill be lesser..'

E.a*ple : Children %ith hih IL (i&&e5hi)it more an.iet$ than children %ith

lo% IL-


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I i & i h 2ThI ti & ti th 2Th


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Inuctie an &euctie ypotheses2TheoryInuctie an &euctie ypotheses2Theory

?uiling an Theory Testing%?uiling an Theory Testing%7lassified in terms of how7lassified in terms of how they were derived: !nductive hypothesis they were derived: !nductive hypothesis aa

generali*ation based on observationgenerali*ation based on observation

0eductive hypothesis derived from theory0eductive hypothesis derived from theory

ypotheses 8re the Empirical Counterparts o"

4 i i


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4ropositions

7oncept 4%Reinforcement&

7oncept /%-abit&

8)stract

eel

Rupee )onus"or sales

olume oer

+uota

8lwaysma/es "our

sales call a

ay

Empirical

eel

The Role of -ypothesis


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The Role of -ypothesis

!t guides the direction of the study

!t limits what shall be studied and what shall not

!t suggests which form of research design is li"ely to

be most appropriate!t provides a framewor" for organi*ing the conclusions

that result.

E.a*pleH"sbands and %i+es%ho sho"ld be st"diedFaree in their perceptions o' their respecti+eroles%hat shall be st"diedF in p"rchasindecisions%hat conte.t shall be st"diedF

Theory


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4 theory is a set of interrelated constructs %concepts&$

definitions$ and propositions that present a systematic

view of phenomena by specifying relations among

variables$ with the purpose e#plaining and predictingthe phenomena )erlinger

A theory is a statement or set o

statements a)o%t the re&ationshisamon$ .aria)&es

Theory


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The role of theory

9rgani*ing "nowledge and e#plaining laws

5redicting new laws

2uiding research

E5am&e o a Theory< 0o&%ntary ;o)T%rno.er


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M

o b & e r ' o r * a n c

e

7a)o%r maret conditions4 n%m)er oor$ani8ations4 ersona& characteristics4

And other artia& determinantso ease o mo.ement

Percei.ed ease o mo.ement 3e!$!E5ectation o fndin$ a&ternati.es4

%nso&icited oort%nities6

Percei.ed desira)i&ity o mo.ement3e!$! /o) satisaction6

E9%ity o ay4 /o) com&e5ity4 articiationIn decision-main$4 and other artia&

Determinants o desira)i&ity o mo.ement

IntentionTo

:%it

0o&%ntary ;o)

T%rno.er


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1odel


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1odel

4 model is defined here as a representation of a system which is

constructed for the purpose of studying some aspect of that

system or the system as a whole

1odels differ from theories in that a theory‘s role is e#planation

whereas a model’s role is representation

4 model is not an e#planation@ it is only the result of ta"ing the

structure or function of one obect or process and using that as amodel for the second 7ooperLSchindler

Documents

Introduction c i