Introduction and Introduction and Research MethodsResearch Methods

What is Psychology?What is Psychology?

DefinitionDefinition- scientific study of behavior and - scientific study of behavior and mental processesmental processes BehaviorBehavior- any action other people can - any action other people can

observe or measureobserve or measure Mental processesMental processes- cognitive activities- - cognitive activities-

dreams, perceptions, thoughts, and memoriesdreams, perceptions, thoughts, and memories Researchers use Researchers use psychological constructspsychological constructs- -

theoretical concepts that enable one to theoretical concepts that enable one to discuss something that cannot be seen, discuss something that cannot be seen, touched, or measuredtouched, or measured

Goals of PsychologyGoals of Psychology

Psychologists want to observe and Psychologists want to observe and describe behaviors and mental processes describe behaviors and mental processes to better understand themto better understand them Try to explain, predict, and control behaviorTry to explain, predict, and control behavior

Psychology as a SciencePsychology as a Science

Psychology is a social science with a Psychology is a social science with a foundation in natural sciencefoundation in natural science Social sciences include- history, anthropology, Social sciences include- history, anthropology,

economics, political science, and sociologyeconomics, political science, and sociology Deals with the structure of human society and Deals with the structure of human society and

the nature and interactions of individuals who the nature and interactions of individuals who make up societymake up society

Focus on individuals and their behavior and Focus on individuals and their behavior and mental processesmental processes

Psy. as a Science cont’dPsy. as a Science cont’d

Natural science- biology, chemistry, and Natural science- biology, chemistry, and physics- nature of the physical worldphysics- nature of the physical world

Some parts of psychology focus on the Some parts of psychology focus on the functioning of the brain functioning of the brain

Use the scientific method when conducting Use the scientific method when conducting researchresearch• form a form a theorytheory- a statement that attempts to explain - a statement that attempts to explain

why things are the way they are and happen the why things are the way they are and happen the way they doway they do

• Develop principles- a rule or law about behavior, Develop principles- a rule or law about behavior, mental, and biological processesmental, and biological processes

Fields of PsychologyFields of Psychology

DevelopmentalDevelopmental- processes and changes - processes and changes involved in mental and physical growth in involved in mental and physical growth in humans from the prenatal period to old agehumans from the prenatal period to old age

PhysiologicalPhysiological- extent to which behavior is - extent to which behavior is caused by physical conditions in the body and caused by physical conditions in the body and focuses on the brain, nervous system, and focuses on the brain, nervous system, and bodily functionsbodily functions

ExperimentalExperimental- basic processes- learning, - basic processes- learning, memory, sensation, perception, cognition, memory, sensation, perception, cognition, motivation, and emotionsmotivation, and emotions

Fields of Psy. Cont’dFields of Psy. Cont’d

PersonalityPersonality- difference’s among people’s - difference’s among people’s traitstraits

ClinicalClinical- diagnosis, causes, and treatment - diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disordersof mental disorders

CounselingCounseling- “normal” problems of - “normal” problems of adjustmentadjustment

SocialSocial- investigate the influence of people - investigate the influence of people on one anotheron one another

Fields of Psy. Cont’dFields of Psy. Cont’d

IndustrialIndustrial- study the effects of automation - study the effects of automation on humanson humans

OrganizationalOrganizational- problems of training - problems of training personnel, improving working conditionspersonnel, improving working conditions

EducationalEducational- processes of learning, - processes of learning, remembering, thinking, train teachers and remembering, thinking, train teachers and curriculum designcurriculum design

SchoolSchool- work with students- work with students

Schools of PsychologySchools of Psychology

StructuralismStructuralism- stresses the basic units of - stresses the basic units of experiences and the combinations in which they experiences and the combinations in which they occuroccur Developed by Wilhelm Wundt- said psychology Developed by Wilhelm Wundt- said psychology

should be studies objectively and scientificallyshould be studies objectively and scientifically Concern- uncovering the natural laws of the human Concern- uncovering the natural laws of the human

mindmind Edward Bradford Titchener- student of WundtEdward Bradford Titchener- student of Wundt

• Leader of American Psychology at Cornell UniversityLeader of American Psychology at Cornell University• Said psychology is the study of experiences- broken into 3 Said psychology is the study of experiences- broken into 3

elements- physical sensations, affections or feelings, and elements- physical sensations, affections or feelings, and imagesimages

Schools cont’dSchools cont’d

FunctionalismFunctionalism- mental life and behavior - mental life and behavior that is concerned with how an organism that is concerned with how an organism uses its perceptual abilities to function in uses its perceptual abilities to function in its environmentits environment Developed by William JamesDeveloped by William James

• Disagreed with Wundt and TitchenerDisagreed with Wundt and Titchener• Said perception cannot be separated from Said perception cannot be separated from

sensationssensations

Schools Cont’dSchools Cont’d

BehaviorismBehaviorism- study of observable and - study of observable and measurable behaviormeasurable behavior John B. Watson- said psychology must be John B. Watson- said psychology must be

studied in a scientific waystudied in a scientific way• Believed in Believed in conditioningconditioning- the acquiring of fairly - the acquiring of fairly

specific patterns of behavior in the presence of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuliwell-defined stimuli

• BF Skinner had the same ideas as Watson but BF Skinner had the same ideas as Watson but added added reinforcementreinforcement- anything that follows a - anything that follows a response and makes that response more likely to response and makes that response more likely to recurrecur

Schools Cont’dSchools Cont’d

GestaltGestalt- studies how people perceive and - studies how people perceive and experience objects as whole patternsexperience objects as whole patterns Leaders- Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Leaders- Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler,

Kurt KoffkaKurt Koffka• All believed in perceptionAll believed in perception

Schools Cont’dSchools Cont’d

PsychoanalyticPsychoanalytic- behavior is governed by - behavior is governed by hidden motives and unconscious desireshidden motives and unconscious desires Leader- Sigmund FreudLeader- Sigmund Freud

• Believed people go through stages during first Believed people go through stages during first years of life and must solve conflicts in stages to years of life and must solve conflicts in stages to avoid psychological problems later in lifeavoid psychological problems later in life

• Unconscious desires are sexualUnconscious desires are sexual

Schools Cont’dSchools Cont’d

ExistentialExistential- concerned with - concerned with meaninglessness and alienation in modern meaninglessness and alienation in modern life, leads to apathy, fear, and other life, leads to apathy, fear, and other psychological problemspsychological problems Try to help people find identity and take Try to help people find identity and take

responsibility for actionsresponsibility for actions

Schools Cont’dSchools Cont’d

HumanisticHumanistic- possibilities of nonverbal - possibilities of nonverbal experience, unity of the mind, altered experience, unity of the mind, altered sense of consciousness, and letting gosense of consciousness, and letting go

Schools Cont’dSchools Cont’d

CognitiveCognitive- interested in the way people - interested in the way people perceive, interpret, store, and retrieve perceive, interpret, store, and retrieve informationinformation Mental processesMental processes More to behavior than responses to stimuliMore to behavior than responses to stimuli

PerspectivesPerspectives

Biological- the influence of biology on our Biological- the influence of biology on our behaviorbehavior

Evolutionary- the evolution of behavior and Evolutionary- the evolution of behavior and mental processesmental processes

Cognitive- role that thoughts play in determining Cognitive- role that thoughts play in determining behaviorbehavior

Humanistic- stresses the human capacity for Humanistic- stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the importance of self-fulfillment and the importance of consciousness, self-awareness, and the consciousness, self-awareness, and the capacity to make choicescapacity to make choices

PerspectivesPerspectives

Psychoanalytic- stresses the influence of Psychoanalytic- stresses the influence of unconscious forces on human behaviorunconscious forces on human behavior

Learning- emphasizes the effects of Learning- emphasizes the effects of experience on behaviorexperience on behavior

Sociocultural- studies the influences of Sociocultural- studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processesmental processes

Research MethodsResearch Methods

Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation- study an - study an animal or person in their natural setting animal or person in their natural setting and not in a laband not in a lab Easy to do in school or factoryEasy to do in school or factory DisadvantagesDisadvantages

• Observer biasObserver bias- can have a distorted view of what - can have a distorted view of what has been observedhas been observed

• Notes taken may or may not be relevant to what is Notes taken may or may not be relevant to what is being observedbeing observed

• Depends on particular time, place, and peopleDepends on particular time, place, and people

Research Cont’dResearch Cont’d

AdvantagesAdvantages• Gives psychology new ideas and suggestions for Gives psychology new ideas and suggestions for

researchresearch

Research Cont’dResearch Cont’d

Case StudiesCase Studies Research observes real life behavior of one Research observes real life behavior of one

person or a very few at a timeperson or a very few at a time• Disadvantage- observer biasDisadvantage- observer bias

Research Cont’dResearch Cont’d

SurveysSurveys Questionnaires or interviews administered to Questionnaires or interviews administered to

a subject or a group of people a subject or a group of people

Research Cont’dResearch Cont’d

Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research Technique based on the naturally occurring Technique based on the naturally occurring

relationship between two or more variablesrelationship between two or more variables Does not permit experimenters to draw Does not permit experimenters to draw

conclusions about cause and effect, to explain conclusions about cause and effect, to explain the relationship between one set of variables the relationship between one set of variables to anotherto another

Research Cont’dResearch Cont’d

Experimental MethodExperimental Method 5 parts5 parts

• Subjects- individuals whose reactions or responses are Subjects- individuals whose reactions or responses are observed in an experimentobserved in an experiment

• Independent variable- the part of the experiment which is Independent variable- the part of the experiment which is changedchanged

• Dependent variable- the part of the experiment that does not Dependent variable- the part of the experiment that does not changechange

• Experimental group- the group subjected to the change in the Experimental group- the group subjected to the change in the independent variableindependent variable

• Control group- the group not subjected to the change in the Control group- the group not subjected to the change in the experimentexperiment

Research Cont’dResearch Cont’d

Can have Can have experimental biasexperimental bias- expectations by - expectations by the experimenter that influence the results of the experimenter that influence the results of the experiment or its interpretationsthe experiment or its interpretations

Research Cont’dResearch Cont’d

Types of experimental methodsTypes of experimental methods Single blindSingle blind- study participants do not know if - study participants do not know if

they are receiving treatmentthey are receiving treatment Double blindDouble blind- participants and the - participants and the

experimenter do not know who is receiving experimenter do not know who is receiving treatmenttreatment

Can use the Can use the placebo effectplacebo effect- a substance or - a substance or treatment which has no effecttreatment which has no effect• The participant believes the substance is workingThe participant believes the substance is working

Research Cont’dResearch Cont’d

Multi-MethodMulti-Method- use more than one method, mostly used - use more than one method, mostly used by womenby women

When doing research, must use samplesWhen doing research, must use samples SampleSample- taken from a larger population- taken from a larger population Random sampleRandom sample- everyone has an equal chance of being - everyone has an equal chance of being

selectedselected RepresentativeRepresentative- must closely represent the characteristics of the - must closely represent the characteristics of the

larger populationlarger population Biased-Biased- only select those the experimenter wants only select those the experimenter wants Target populationTarget population- whole group you want to describe or study- whole group you want to describe or study Stratified sampleStratified sample- subgroups in the population are represented - subgroups in the population are represented

proportionally in the sampleproportionally in the sample

EthicsEthics

Standards for proper and responsible Standards for proper and responsible behaviorbehavior Followed to promote the dignity of the Followed to promote the dignity of the

individual, foster human welfare, and maintain individual, foster human welfare, and maintain scientific integrityscientific integrity

Established by the APA- American Established by the APA- American Psychological AssociationPsychological Association

EthicsEthics

Research with peopleResearch with people• Have two primary focusHave two primary focus

ConfidentialityConfidentiality Informed consentInformed consent

EthicsEthics

ConfidentialityConfidentiality• Records are privateRecords are private• Can only reveal private information when the Can only reveal private information when the

person states they are going to harm themselves person states they are going to harm themselves or someone elseor someone else

EthicsEthics

Informed ConsentInformed Consent• Means that people agree, or consent, to participate Means that people agree, or consent, to participate

in a research study only after they have been given in a research study only after they have been given a general overview of the research and have been a general overview of the research and have been granted the choice of whether or not to participategranted the choice of whether or not to participate

EthicsEthics

DeceptionDeception• In some experiments, a person must be deceivedIn some experiments, a person must be deceived• Deception can only be used in the following Deception can only be used in the following

situations:situations: Experimenter believes that the benefits of the research Experimenter believes that the benefits of the research

outweigh its potential harmoutweigh its potential harm Experimenter believed that the individuals would have Experimenter believed that the individuals would have

been willing to participate if they had understood the been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the researchbenefits of the research

Participants receive an explanation of the study after it Participants receive an explanation of the study after it has occurredhas occurred

EthicsEthics

Research with animalsResearch with animals Can conduct research on animals but must Can conduct research on animals but must

follow rules and standardsfollow rules and standards• No alternative No alternative • Benefits outweigh the harm Benefits outweigh the harm