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Introducing the CEFR for English
Version 1.1August 2011
English ProfileIntroducing the CEFR for English
This booklet is aimed at ELT professionals, including curriculum planners, materials writers and teachers. It willhelp you make decisions about which English language points are suitable for learning, teaching or assessing ateach level of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR; Council of Europe 2001).
Section 1 explains what English Profile is whilst sections 2, 3 and 4 describe how Grammar, Functions andVocabulary are being researched in English Profile, together with a summary of the latest findings in all threeresearch strands. Section 5 suggests how you can use these resources and section 6 describes where theinformation in English Profile comes from and how reliable it is. Section 7 explains where you can access moreinformation and resources and how you can get involved with the ongoing development of English Profile,followed by the key references for English Profile research to date and a list of current English Profile Networkmembers.
ContentsPage
Section 1 What is English Profile? 2
Section 2 The English Grammar Profile 9
Section 3 The English Functions Profile 36
Section 4 The English Vocabulary Profile 53
Section 5 How to use the English Profile 57
Section 6 What is English Profile based on? 58
Section 7 How to get involved with English Profile 59
Section 8 References 60
Section 9 The English Profile Network 63
Acknowledgements: This publication has been compiled from existing resources by English Profile team membersat Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, aided by contributions from academic consultants at otherinstitutions. The production of this booklet was supported by a grant from The British Council.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 1
1 What is English Profile?
The aims of English Profile are:
To set up and manage a collaborative programme of interdisciplinary research to produce Reference LevelDescriptions for English linked to the general principles and approaches of CEFR.
To provide a core set of reference tools for practitioners working in English language education.
English Profile is a long term, collaborative programme of interdisciplinary research whose goal is to transpose theCommon European Framework of Reference for the English language (CEFR; Council of Europe 2001) and forteaching and assessment purposes where English is the language being learned. The intended output is a ‘profile’of English language learners in terms of the six proficiency bands of the CEFR A1 to C2 (see Saville & Hawkey2010). The English Profile Programme will do this by providing Reference Level Descriptions for English toaccompany the CEFR. These descriptions cover what learners know and can do in English at each of the six CEFRlevels. English Profile is registered with the Council of Europe and is managed by a core group of collaborators atthe University of Cambridge.
The research being carried out at the heart of the English Profile Programme is innovative, providing measurable,evidence based answers to important questions about how people acquire English and how they can improve theirskills. As well as adding to our understanding of language learning, the English Profile Programme is producingpractical outcomes that can be used in the development of curricula, course materials, teaching guides andassessment systems. This publication traces progress and outcomes in three main current areas of research forEnglish Profile: the grammatical, functional and lexical features of learner English. But English Profile will alsodescribe learner English at each CEFR level in other linguistic areas, including aspects of spoken language such aspronunciation.
An innovative feature of English Profile, distinguishing it from previous work in this field, is that research is basedon electronic corpora of learner data, including the largest annotated corpus of English language learner testoutput in the world: the Cambridge Learner Corpus. This approach is producing results which can be empiricallymeasured and which are not predictable from current language learning theories alone. Researchers are alsostarting to focus on the impact of different first languages, learning contexts and the effects of language transferon learning at the different CEFR levels (A1 to C2).
A steadily growing number of academics, government advisors and educationalists make up the English ProfileNetwork. Network Partners contribute directly to the development of English Profile by providing access to data orcontributing to work in progress through participation in workshops and seminars.
In summary, English Profile provides essential information for curriculum planners, teachers, materials writers, testdevelopers and researchers. The English Profile Programme aims to provide these ELT professionals withresources, information and events, including:
English Vocabulary Profile (EVP) – a rich online vocabulary database by CEFR level
English Grammar Profile – a database of grammatical structures by CEFR level (under development)
English Functions Profile – a database of real English examples for various functions in different contexts byCEFR level (under development)
English Profile Glossary – an online glossary including concise definitions of key EP terminology
English Profile Journal – on online peer reviewed journal for EP related research
The English Profile Studies series – launched in 2011 this series is dedicated to reporting different aspects ofresearch and development related to the EP Programme
Word of the Week email updates based on the EVP
English Profile Network community website, www.englishprofile.org
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Presentations at international education, applied linguistics and language testing conferences, e.g. IATEFL,AILA, LTRC
Regular EP Research Seminars (annually in Cambridge), EP Network Seminars (twice a year outside the UK) andother workshops.
For the latest information about English Profile and news of future events, workshops and publications, seewww.englishprofile.org
Who has developed English Profile?
The founding partners are:
Research is led by Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, with contributions from the Research Centrefor English and Applied Linguistics and the Cambridge Computer Laboratory.1
Cambridge University Press and Cambridge ESOL are the main funding partners in English Profile. In addition,English Profile has a growing number of Network Partners, including universities, schools, language trainingcentres and government departments, as well as individual researchers and specialists (see Section 9).
The development of the CEFR
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is a common framework of language ability dividedinto six main levels ranging from beginner to advanced. It appeared in its published form in 2001, ten years afterthe Rüschlikon Conference of 1991 which concluded that a "common framework of reference" of this kind wouldbe useful as a planning tool to promote "transparency and coherence" in language education. In the decade sinceits publication this ambition has been achieved to a large extent and the document itself has been translated into37 languages, widely disseminated in Europe and in parts of Asia and Latin America (see Little 2007 for anoverview). It is important to remember, however, that the CEFR in that format was intended to be "a work inprogress" rather than the finished article.
The CEFR was therefore envisaged as a planning tool which could provide a “common language” for describingobjectives, methods and assessment in language teaching, as put into practice in diverse contexts for manydifferent languages. It was to facilitate the development of syllabuses, examinations, textbooks and teachertraining programmes, and in particular, to stimulate reflection and discussion. As the CEFR authors themselvesemphasise in their Notes for the user:
We have NOT set out to tell practitioners what to do or how to do it. We are raising questions not answeringthem. It is not the function of the CEF to lay down the objectives that users should pursue or the methods theyshould employ. (Council of Europe 2001: xi)
1 Part of the Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics from August 2011.
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The six reference levels have been particularly influential and have generated a great deal of discussion in thefields of curriculum development, language teaching, and especially in assessment (see Coste 2007). The levels aredescribed through the six level Global Scale (A1 to C2) and the Illustrative Descriptors that can be applied to thelearning and teaching of any language. Table 1 presents the Global Scale descriptors for the six main CEFR levels,showing how the CEFR is a general document that needs to be further specified and contextualised for each areaof use.
Table 1: Global Scale descriptors for CEFR levels (Council of Europe 2001: 24)
C2 Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summariseinformation from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing argumentsand accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously,very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in morecomplex situations.
Proficien
tUser C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit
meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvioussearching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social,academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well structured, detailed texton complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectorsand cohesive devices.
B2 Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics,including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with adegree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with nativespeakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailedtext on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving theadvantages and disadvantages of various options.
Indepen
dentUser
B1 Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularlyencountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arisewhilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simpleconnected text on topics, which are familiar, or of personal interest. Can describeexperiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons andexplanations for opinions and plans.
A2 Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of mostimmediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, localgeography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring asimple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Candescribe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment andmatters in areas of immediate need.
BasicUser
A1 Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimedat the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and othersand can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives,people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way providedthe other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.
The CEFR reference levels and illustrative descriptors (exemplified in Table 1) were intended to be used for theorganisation of learning and teaching within educational systems. These levels and descriptors were to provide acommunication tool to assist ELT practitioners in practical ways, having been selected and synthesised fromexisting scales which had been developed and operationalised in many diverse contexts. The CEFR itself,representing forty or more years of work by the Council of Europe Modern Languages Division, builds on earlierstudies of levels of language competences such as Threshold Level (van Ek 1975; van Ek & Trim 1998b), Waystageand Vantage Levels (van Ek & Trim 1998a; 2001).
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However, although the CEFR is an intuitively helpful descriptive scheme for researchers, curriculum designers,teachers, teacher trainers, and language testers, in many cases the existing scales and related descriptors have notproved to be operationally adequate as they stand. The details are not specific enough to help these professionalsmake decisions about language teaching and testing. So, while the CEFR can act as a focal point for referencepurposes, it must remain open to further development. In other words, the CEFR is not the finished article butneeds to be adapted or developed further for each specific context in which it is to be used. John Trim, one of the“fathers” of the CEFR, and now Council of Europe observer to the English Profile Programme and an activemember of the growing EP team, summarises this situation succinctly:
Overall, the apparatus of level description in the CEFR is rich and well differentiated for different purposes andusers. Even so, experience over the past decade has shown that for high stakes purposes, particularly the validand reliable calibration of qualifications and the tests and examinations leading to their award, the CEFRcannot be used as a ‘stand alone’ document. Indeed, it is probably impossible for any such document to be soused. (preface to Green 2011: xi)
Importantly the CEFR is neutral with respect to the language being learned. This means that the users have todecide what actually gets taught or assessed in terms of the linguistic features of a specific language at each of thecommon reference levels. To ensure that the framework is used appropriately and can be adapted to localcontexts and purposes, the Council of Europe has encouraged the production of instruments and supportmaterials to complement the CEFR. These instruments (sometimes known as the CEFR toolkit) include ReferenceLevel Descriptions (RLDs) for national and regional languages. RLDs seek to provide language specific guidance forusers of the Framework; the aim is to “transpose” the Framework descriptors that characterise the competencesof users or learners at a given level into the linguistic material which is specific to a given language (i.e. grammar,lexical items etc.) and considered necessary for the implementation of those competences. In providing adescription of the language across all six levels, the grammatical and lexical progression which is central to thelearning of that language can be addressed more precisely within the Framework concept. The RLDs represent anew generation of descriptions which identify the specific forms of any given language (words, grammar, etc.) ateach of the six reference levels which can be set as objectives for learning or used to establish whether a user hasattained the level of proficiency in question.
To assist the teams in developing RLDs for their own languages, the Language Policy Division of the Council ofEurope produced a general Guide for the production of RLDs which was discussed at a seminar held in Strasbourgin December 2005 (see Council of Europe website for details). Projects representing seventeen languages werepresented, including a proposal for English put forward by the University of Cambridge (represented at themeeting by Cambridge ESOL). This proposal subsequently became known as the English Profile Project, which, inturn, became the English Profile Programme in 2008.
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The English Profile Programme – the CEFR for English
A major objective of the EP Programme is to analyse language produced by learners of English in order to throwlight on what they can and can't do with the language at each of the Common European Framework of Referencelevels, for example, in using the grammar and lexis at their disposal. The founder members of the EPP first met inCambridge in mid 2005 to discuss the possibility of setting up an RLD project for English. Participating in thosediscussions were several departments of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge ESOL, Cambridge UniversityPress, the Research Centre for English and Applied Linguistics and the Computer Laboratory), together withrepresentatives from the British Council, English UK, and the University of Bedfordshire (Centre for Research inEnglish Language Learning and Assessment).
As a result of those meetings, the English Profile Project was established by a core group of partner organisationsin 2005 to with the aim of making the CEFR more specifically explicit with regards to English language learning,teaching and assessment. The core group was extended to create an English Profile Network from 2008 onwards(see pages 63 64 for a list of EP Network Partners). Coordination of the Programme is based at the University ofCambridge and involves interdisciplinary collaboration between different departments.
From an early stage the English RLDs were intended to be innovative with an emphasis on empirical researchrooted in data (such as learner corpora), and the collection of representative samples of learner language whichcould be used to explore language development across the reference levels. This has involved collaborators fromthe EP Network in different parts of the world who can supply samples of speaking and writing produced bylearners. It is an aspect of the project which has received external funding by the European Commission and is nowwell underway (see the EU funded English Profile Network project members on page 64).2 It has also requiredtechnical resources in developing new electronic corpora and analytical techniques so that the samples of learnerlanguage can be stored, accessed and analysed effectively.
Given the interdisciplinary nature of the research being undertaken, research teams are engaged in parallel andsimultaneous investigations on a set of related research questions, observing them from different angles. ThisEnglish Profile publication brings together findings from three areas of investigation – grammar, languagefunctions and vocabulary (see Sections 2 4).
“Profile” is a suitable name for the intended outputs of thisprogramme of research. A profile is dictionary defined as ‘a vividoutline of the most outstanding characteristics of the subject’(Webster’s). English Profile does indeed seek to specify the“outstanding characteristics” or, in our terms, the criterial featuresvalidated by empirical research that distinguish each proficiencylevel of learner English, from A1 to C2. Criterial features arelinguistic properties that are distinctive and characteristic of eachof the levels. They are not meant to capture all language featuresthat a learner uses at a certain level but to distinguish a level fromadjacent higher and lower levels. Criterial features describechanges from one level to the next, and hence are important forboth practitioners and theoreticians to know about. This approachis dealt with comprehensively in Hawkins and Filipovi (2011) andalso in Hawkins and Buttery (2009, 2010) and Salamoura andSaville (2009, 2010).
2 The EP Programme is endorsed by the Council of Europe, and has been funded by the European Commission.
Defining criteriality:
“Criteriality” means that the languagefeatures concerned serve as a basis fordistinguishing one proficiency level fromanother.
'The units of currency for English Profiledescriptions of the language levels will begrammatical, lexical and functionalexponents derived empirically as criterialfor the levels concerned'.(Saville & Hawkey 2010: 4)
English Profile Glossary
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The empirical approach makes use of learner data, especially samples of writing and speech produced by learnersat different levels of proficiency. The analysis of these data has produced informative results about the language oflearners and has added to our understanding of how the grammar and lexis of English is learned by differentgroups of learners. In addition to a focus on traditional grammatical and lexical features, psycholinguistic factorshave also been taken into account, including the effects of language transfer (i.e. the impact of different firstlanguages and learning contexts) on language learning. It is worth noting that some of the results would notalways be predicted from language acquisition theories or anticipated by researchers using experience andintuition alone, proving the validity and usefulness of an empirical approach that has real data at its core.
The Cambridge Learner Corpus (CLC) has been central to this work to date. The CLC consists of learners' writtenEnglish from the Cambridge ESOL examinations covering the ability range from A2 to C2, together with meta data(including gender, age and first language) and evidence of overall proficiency based on their scores for the otherskills components (typically reading, listening and speaking) which currently contains around 45 million words. Thetable below shows the six CEFR levels A1 C2 and their link to the Cambridge English suite of exams testing GeneralEnglish which have been at the heart of EP research to date.3
The demographic information about the learners within the CLC allows researchers to compare different L1learners with respect to the English that they produce. While lexical analysis has been carried out for many yearsby researchers in Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, error coding and parsing of the corpus haveextended the kinds of analysis which can be carried out and have allowed the research teams to investigate awider range of English language features (see Nicholls 2003 on the error coding system which has informed EPresearch). A computational strand of research was introduced into the EPP at the outset and the CLC has beentagged and parsed using the Robust Accurate Statistical Parser (RASP) by researchers in the Computer Laboratoryunder the supervision of Professor Ted Briscoe (Briscoe, Carrol & Watson, 2006). The error coding and the parsingmeans that sophisticated kinds of grammatical analysis are also possible and are an exciting current focus ofresearch. See the English Grammar Profile section for a fuller description of the CLC.
In addition to describing the "real language" used by learners, English Profile has sought to investigate the learningdimension and to connect the empirical work with relevant SLA and linguistic research. In particular EP researchersare interested in "how learners learn English" and how different learning factors interact under various contextualconditions. They have begun to address questions such as:
How do the different kinds of criterial features (lexical semantic, morpho syntactic, syntactic, discourse,notional, functional, etc.) interrelate and cluster together to define learner profiles in English? Which linguisticfeatures realise which language functions across the CEFR levels?
3 See www.CambridgeESOL.org/exams for a range of exams to meet different needs, including professional andacademic purposes.
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How does the profile of the learner vary depending on their L1? What are the pedagogical implications of suchL1 effects for the learning, teaching and assessment of English?
Which criterial features can be used as diagnostics of proficiency at the individual learner level? What are the similarities and differences between adult and young learners of English developmentally and at
each stage of learning? How does learning to speak differ from learning to write/type? What determines communicative success and
comprehensibility in these two language modes? What is the role of learner and learning strategies? How do all the previous factors interact during language learning? How do they predict likely versus less likely
patterns of learner output? What type of learning model can accommodate these multi factor interactionsthat underpin language learning?
The emerging performance patterns are informative for our understanding of second language acquisition (SLA),e.g. the order of acquisition of linguistic features and the interaction of factors such as frequency and transferfrom the first language. Just as EP findings can contribute to new aspects of theory and provide useful insights fordeveloping a model of L2 acquisition, SLA and other linguistic theories inform EP research in this and other areas.
In summary, English Profile has begun ‘a systematic and empirically based approach to specifying more precisely howthe CEFR can be operationalised for English, and this in turn will lead to better and more comprehensive illustrativedescriptors … . In this way the CEFR will become the really useful tool that it was intended to be’ (Milanovic 2009: 5). Description or Prescription?
Can English Profile provide a definitive set of RLDs that should be learnt, taught or assessed at each level? Theanswer is ‘no’ as this is not the intention of the Programme, which seeks to describe rather than prescribe. Theexact choice of language points that suit a particular course of study or other purpose will depend on a range offactors, such as:
the level and range of levels of learners on the programme
the age and educational background of the learners
their reasons for learning English
their areas of interest
their first language
their experience of learning English so far
other sources of input and opportunities to practise English.
The ELT professional will need to weigh these factors up in making decisions about what to include in a course.English Profile aims to provide resources to help those decisions, including examples of curricula that have beendrawn up using EP resources.
How can teachers and learners benefit from English Profile?
There is likely to be a widespread impact on English language teaching and learning in general through the supportEnglish Profile will give to those people who plan curricula, produce learning materials and design English languagetests. English Profile aims to help them to judge better what language to include at each level of learning. Theseimprovements should increase the relevance and efficiency of language learning. Individual teachers can accessEnglish Profile resources directly if they want to get more information about what is suitable for their learners ateach CEFR level, see Section 5 for some ideas and examples.
We present below the main findings from research to date in the areas of Grammar, Functions and Vocabulary.
8 © UCLES/CUP 2011
2 The English Grammar Profile
As mentioned above in the section on the development of the CEFR, the CEFR distinguishes six levels of proficiencyin terms of functions, that is the different uses to which language can be put and how learners learn to uselanguage in different ways as they master a second (or subsequent) language. The CEFR does this by providingillustrative descriptors in the form of Can Do statements (given in Table 1 above), for example, A2 level learners‘Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance’whereas at the next level up, B1, learners ‘Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiarmatters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc’.
These illustrative descriptors do not provide any language specific details about the grammar and lexis that arecharacteristic of each proficiency level as the CEFR’s authors intended it to be neutral with respect to the L2 beingacquired so as to be widely compatible across European languages, for example allowing a given level ofproficiency in L2 German to be comparable with a corresponding level in L2 French or English. The CEFR istherefore deliberately “underspecified” with respect to key linguistic features that teachers or assessors look for ina learner’s L2 production when they seek to assign a particular proficiency level (see Milanovic 2009). Learners canperform any of the functions in the CEFR’s illustrative descriptors by using a wide variety of grammaticalconstructions and words, and the ability to "do" the task does not indicate precisely how a learner does it or withwhat grammatical and lexical properties of English (or of another target language).
With respect to grammar the EP Programme aims to provide reference level descriptions (RLDs) that includegrammatical and lexical details of English to extend the CEFR’s functional characterisation of the different levels,primarily using the Cambridge Learner Corpus (CLC). This is done via criterial features, defined on page 6 andfurther exemplified below, which is central to the approach taken within the EP Programme to specify thereference levels for English.
The basic idea behind the criterial features concept is that there are certain linguistic properties that arecharacteristic and indicative of L2 proficiency at each level, on the basis of which teachers and examiners maketheir practical assessments (alongside the extent to which a learner fulfils the communicative functions requiredby the activity undertaken). In the area of grammar, English Profile aims to establish which grammatical featuresdistinguish learners at each level of the CEFR, in other words what structures are used, for example, by students atB1 level but are not fully acquired by learners at A2 level and, similarly, what structures do B1 learners not appearto master until they have progressed to B2 level. The explicit identification of these distinguishing properties forgrammar and lexis will add the necessary specification of linguistic features to the CEFR's functional descriptors foreach of the levels. For grammar this will have considerable practical benefits for the learning, teaching andassessment of English, together with associated materials development and curriculum planning activities.
In what follows, we provide a description about what learners know in terms of grammar at A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2levels on the basis of a list of linguistic features we have identified as being “criterial”, i.e. indicative of these levels.We should note that criterial features are linguistic properties that are not meant to capture all language featuresthat a learner uses at a certain level but distinguish a level from adjacent higher and lower levels. In the area ofgrammar, we focus on two types of criterial features (Hawkins & Buttery 2009, 2010; Hawkins & Filipovi 2011):
(i) correct linguistic properties of English that have been acquired at a certain level and that generally persist athigher levels (see Tables 2 7)
(ii) incorrect properties or errors, that occur at a certain level or levels and with a characteristic frequency (seeTables 8 11).
Both the presence or absence of the errors, and especially their characteristic frequency, can be criterial for alevel. It should also be emphasized, though, that no single feature can be criterial or distinctive for a whole level;only clusters of features have the potential to be criterial for a level.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 9
The details of the relationships between structures and CEFR level have been identified by careful analysis of theCambridge Learner Corpus (CLC),which has, so far, been the most important data source for English ProfileGrammar researchers. The CLC is a large collection of exam scripts written by students taking Cambridge ESOLEnglish exams around the world and has been collected since the early 1990s in a collaborative project byCambridge University Press and Cambridge ESOL. It grows each year by around 3 million words, and currentlycontains:
over 45 million words from more than 200,000 learners
over 333,000 exam responses
all CEFR levels
138 first languages
English from learners in 203 countries.
The CLC has some important features which are not found in other L2 learner corpora, including the nature of itsraw data, its size and structure, and how the material has been error coded, tagged and parsed. The exam scriptshave been systematically categorised by their CEFR level according to reliable information captured during theexamination process together with a large amount of demographic information about the learners, including theirL1, age and language learning motivation. This background information about the learners captured alongsidetheir responses (and the questions they responded to) allows researchers to compare different L1 learners withrespect to the English that they produce.
Half of the corpus has been painstakingly coded for errors by an expert team at Cambridge University Press andthe corpus has been tagged and parsed by computational linguists at the University of Cambridge ComputerLaboratory. Uniquely, over 21 million words of the CLC have been coded for errors using a coding system devisedby Cambridge University Press (see Nicholls 2003). These error codes are added to the corpus manually by a teamof language specialists who have been working with and refining the system for over 15 years. The CLC errorcoding system is therefore one of the most comprehensive and precise systems available, which means thatresearchers can quickly and accurately answer questions like:
How often do students make a particular type of mistake? Frequency information tells us whether aparticular type of mistake is common so that we can tell which are the most problematic areas for students.
Which students make which mistakes? We have a lot of information about the learners’ backgrounds inEnglish language learning, including information about their first language. This allows researchers to work outwhich areas of English are particularly problematic, for example, for speakers of Spanish, as opposed toChinese or Russian speakers, so that our profile of English can accurately reflect the particular needs oflearners everywhere.
In addition to being searchable lexically and by error type, the CLC is, to the best of our knowledge, the onlylearner corpus of English that can also be searched syntactically, i.e. for specific grammatical relations andpatterns. This is possible because the CLC has been syntactically analysed using RASP (Robust Accurate StatisticalParser), a state of the art automatic text parsing system developed at the University of Cambridge Computer Lab(Briscoe, Carroll & Watson 2006) and further advanced within the context of English Profile Programme (seeHawkins & Buttery 2009). Combining grammatical information and statistical patterns, the RASP system assignspart of speech tags to individual words, groups words into phrases by creating parse trees and extracts thegrammatical relations between these phrases. The application of RASP to the CLC by a team of computationallinguists enables detailed and highly accurate syntactic analyses of learner English, allowing a mapping of learnersyntax and error patterns across the CEFR levels.
The findings reported here are mostly from Hawkins & Filipovi (2011) but also from O’Keeffe & Mark (inpreparation), defined in pedagogic terms and enriched with CLC learner examples by the Cambridge English Profile
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team. These findings reflect the CLC as it currently stands. Since English Profile is a long term programme ofresearch, the list of criterial features presented here will be enhanced and amended as more examination andnon examination learner corpus data become available to the Programme (see Section 6 for further details).
Grammatical criterial features This section provides a comprehensive inventory of all grammatical criterial features identified thus far and givesfour types of information:
a) a summary of grammatical criterial features that distinguish each level, with example utterances from learnerEnglish (Table 2), followed by a more comprehensive description at each level
b) examples of more detailed grammatical Reference Level Descriptors (Tables 3 7)
c) examples of error types that significantly improve between adjacent levels (Tables 8 11)
d) an example of how a grammatical feature develops in learner language across the CEFR levels (O’Keeffe &Mark in preparation) (Table 12).
a. Grammatical criterial features that distinguish each level
Table 2: Key distinguishing features of learner English by CEFR level Level Some key features Examples from the CLC at the appropriate level
A2 Simple sentences
Sentences with clauses joined by that
Descriptive phrases introduced by a pastparticiple
Simple direct wh questions
Simple sentences using infinitives
Other infinitives
Some modals
We came back and went to bed
I know that you have a new house too
There are beautiful paintings painted by famousIranian painters
What are you going to wear?
I want to buy a coat
… something to eat
We must be there at 7 o’clock in the morning.
B1 ing clauses
Whose relative clauses
Indirect questions
Clauses with what as subject/object
Verb+object+infinitive
easy + infinitive
Some complex auxiliaries
Additional modal uses
Maria saw him taking a taxi
… this famous painter whose pictures I like somuch
Guess where it is?
This is what I think
I ordered him to gather my men.
The train station is easy to find.
would rather, had better
I have invited all his friends, so we should be 28people.
B2 ing clause before the main clause
It + verb + infinitive phrase
Wh clause as subject of main clause
Reported speech
Lexically specific verbs/adjectives + infinitive
Talking about spare time, I think we could go tothe Art Museum
It would be helpful to work in your group as well.
What came after was what really changed mysummer!
I told him I loved his songs.
… proved to be wrong, turned out to be …,expected to …
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C1 Lexically specific verbs + object + infinitive
Might for permission
Fewer grammatical errors with agreement,countability or word formation
I believe her to be this country’s bestrepresentative.
Might I tell you what we [should/will] discuss?
C2 Some new lexically specific verbs + object +infinitive
Longer utterances with greater accuracy
They declare some products to be the hits of theseason
So what language features could be said to criterial, i.e. distinguish a learner at each level? The features listedbelow are most – but not all – of the structural features that the corpus informed research has shown to besignificant for each level, from A2 C2 level (for a fuller inventory of grammatical criterial features identified thusfar see Tables 3 7 below). The focus is on grammar rather than vocabulary although the use of specific lexical itemsis also mentioned. We do not provide criterial features for A1 level, as investigation of this level is underway; ourinitial research suggests that some basic structures are already attested at this level. Currently, the most completedescription of the A1 level for English is provided by Breakthrough (Trim 2009), available on the EP website.
Structural features that are significant for each level (from A2 C2 levels)
A2
By the time the learner reaches A2, certain language features are emerging as being criterial, distinctcharacteristics. The average length of utterance is 7.9 words (based on learner data from the CambridgeLearner Corpus). These consist usually of simple sentences such as We came back and went to bed (seeexamples in A2.1 in the table below), I met a lot of interesting people (A2.2), or I can give you my guitar(A2.3). More complex sentences produced by A2 learners are of the type I knew that you have a new houseor I think the zoo is an interesting place. As these examples show, the that which may be used to joinclauses in sentences of this type may be included or omitted by learners at this level (A2.4). Users at thislevel are also able to write sentences such as There are beautiful paintings painted by famous Iranianpainters where there is a descriptive phrase introduced by a past participle (A2.8). However, similardescriptive phrases introduced by a present participle are a characteristic of a B1 rather than an A2 user(B1.3).
A2 learners are able to produce simple direct wh questions as well as statements (A2.6). For example,What are you going to wear? How did you know I liked skateboards? They are also able to produce simplesentences using infinitives – I want to buy a coat or I would like to sell a book, for example (A2.5). Infinitivesare also found to be used correctly by A2 users in phrases like something to eat (A2.7).
A2 users also have gained the ability to use some modals in some of their basic senses. They can forinstance use may, can and might for possibility (A2.10), must for obligation (A2.11) and should for advice(A2.12).
In other words an A2 level of English is characterised by the use of basic and relatively simple structures.
12 © UCLES/CUP 2011
B1
As far as B1 is concerned, it can first of all be noted that learners typically continue to write steadily longersentences as they go up the levels. The mean length of a B1 utterance is 10.8 words in comparison with 7.9at A2 level and 14.2 at B2 level. One reason for the increasing length is that learners are able to cope withmore complex sentences. For example, they produce sentences containing ing clauses, which follow andcomplement the direct object of a main clause: Maria saw him taking a taxi (B1.2) or which function asadverbs and follow the main clause they modify: He was sitting there, drinking a coffee and writingsomething (B1.11). Interestingly, placing the –ing clause before the main clause as in Talking about sparetime, I think we could go to the Art Museum, is a feature that characterises B2 users of the language (B2.1).
There are a number of other types of complex sentence that appear to be criterial at B1 level. Whilelearners may cope well with simple relative clauses using who and which at lower levels, the use of whoseas a relative pronoun is typical of this level e.g. I met a very nice boy whose name’s John (B1.6). Indirectquestions similarly appear to be a marker of B1 language e.g. Guess where it is, I don’t know what to do(B1.8 9). Simple clauses beginning with what (…what I think, What I saw…) acting as either the object orsubject of a main sentence are also successfully used by learners at this level, for example, This is what Ithink, What I saw was so amazing (B1.7).
B1 learners are getting more confident in using the infinitive in more complex structures. While A2 levelstudents cope well with verb + infinitive (e.g. I would like to buy… or I want to sell… A2.5), at B1 levelstudents make use of structures consisting of verb + object + infinitive, with or without to e.g. I would likeyou to come, I want you to do it, I helped him bake the cake (B1.1). In addition, there are a number of otheruses of infinitives linked with specific vocabulary items that seem to feature as typical features of a learnerhaving reached B1 (B1.12 14). The level significant word in each case is bolded in the following examples:Monica seems to be good. I was supposed to go to the English class (B1.12). Your friends expect you tospend an amazing holiday with them. I would like you to spend a weekend at my house. I want you to say hi[to] everybody (B1.13). The train station is easy to find (B1.14).
Different auxiliary and modal uses help to map a learner’s progress from one level to another. As far as B1 isconcerned, the complex auxiliaries would rather and had better are typical features of a B1 learner (B1.10).So also are certain modal uses such as may for permission (May I borrow ….), must for logical necessity (Heis having a great time and must be really happy there) and should for probability (I have invited all hisfriends, so we should be 28 people) (B1.16 18). The number of error types that significantly improve fromA2 to B1 is fairly modest, and improvements focus on the use of quantifiers (e.g. some, a lot of, any, several,other, every etc.).
To sum up, the B1 language user has mastered the basic structures of the language and is beginning toattempt to produce more complex language.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 13
B2
The mean length of a B2 user's utterance is 14.2 words, an increase of 3.4 words on B1. This can beexplained in part by the fact that increasingly complex sentences are used as the learner progressesthrough the levels.
B2 language use typically, for example, may include sentences beginning with an adverbial clauseintroduced by an ing word (B2.1) e.g. Talking about spare time, I could go to the Art Museum.
Another example of a more complex structure which characterises a B2 user is a sentence introduced by Itand followed by an infinitive phrase e.g. It would be helpful to work in your group as well (B2.2). Yet anotherB2 structure is a sentence beginning with a Wh word introducing a clause acting as the subject of the mainclause of the sentence (B2.3) e.g. What attracted me the most was the possibility of meeting people of thesame interests. A third example of a structure characterising a B2 level user is a main sentence with a directobject followed by a subordinate complement clause with or without that (B2.4), for example, I told him(that) I loved his songs.
As at B1 level, there are certain verbs and adjectives which, when associated with infinitive structures, canbe seen as characteristic of the level (B2.6 9); examples of some of these are given below with thesignificant words highlighted in bold:
My worries proved to be wrong.
Unfortunately for me the situation turned out to be opposite to what I thought it was.
And whenever money is involved, some problems are likely to happen.
You are sure to arrive at work on time.
I would prefermy accommodation to be in log cabins.
How many hours a day should I be expected to work?
Your theatre is known to present excellent spectacles.
So zoos could be the only place where people could spend their time avoiding the pollution we are obliged tolive with every day.
Woods is thought to stand for all of white people and this book could have an influence on them.
The grammar and vocabulary are a bit hard to learn.
There are no instances of modal use which can be seen as being criterial for a B2 level of language. Like inB1, the number of error types that appear to improve substantially at this level remains small.
14 © UCLES/CUP 2011
To sum up, as learners progress from level A1 through to B2, they gradually acquire new structures which can beidentified as characteristic of each level. Once they reach C levels, learners’ progress is characterised by increasedstructural accuracy and by greater lexical accuracy and range rather than by the addition of new structures to theirrepertoire.
C1
At C1 level the average length of utterance continues to increase, rising from B2’s 14.2 to 17.3 words.
It is noticeable once learners move into C levels that the criterial, distinguishing features of their languageare a combination of lexis and structure. Learners use structures mastered at earlier levels but with a muchwider range of vocabulary and in more accurate ways. Verbs such as chance, believe, find, suppose, take,assume, discover, feel and prove used in complex structures which include an infinitival clause arecharacteristic of the language of a C1 level learner (C1.1 3). Here are some examples (see Table 6 for more): I chanced to know about your competition from an international magazine. Being born and raised in Mexico, I believe her to be the country’s best representative in the world. I can assure you that the strike isn’t as worrying as you suppose it to be. Secondly, the low cost of membership and entry was assumed to be an advantage as well. The internet is a valuable tool, which can be proved to be the most important aspect in the learning
process.
The only strictly grammatical features which might be seen as criterial, new features of language as thelearner moves from B2 to C1, are the use of a double ‘s genitive structure (e.g. the bride’s family’s house)(C1.4) and the use of might to convey the idea of permission (Might I tell you what we discussed?) (C1.5).
In general, however, it is not mainly the case that the C1 learner is mastering new grammatical features, itis more that he or she is using those that were already available at B2 level in a much more accurate way.Far fewer grammatical errors with, say, agreement, countability or word form occur at C1 than at B2 level.
C2
The trends noted at C1 continue into C2 in that what marks out C2 users of the language is the fact thatthey have a greater grammatical accuracy and a wider lexical range than C1 users; in other words there areno specific new structures appearing at this level. C2 users also continue the trend of producing a longeraverage utterance than at lower levels; the mean length of utterance for C2 is 19 words as opposed to 17.3at C1.
Lexical range in relation to specific structures continues to expand. For example declare, presume,remember and the adjective tough are used with the following complex infinitive complements at C2 level(C1.1 3):They declare some products to be the hits of the season, thus creating fashion and few of us want to beunfashionable. He presumed work to be the way to live. Not only meetings with new people are presumed to give new experiences.She remembered her father to be a lively, tall and broad shouldered man with a beard that tickled when hebent down to kiss her goodnight. What she knew would be really tough to live with was the reason of his death.
At the same time, the C2 level sees the highest number of significant grammatical error improvements of allCEFR levels. Like in C1, there are significant reductions of error rates for most of the error types identified inthe Cambridge Learner Corpus. Overall, it can be said that it is at the C levels where learners appear to bemastering and accurately using the majority of grammatical features in English.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 15
b.G
rammaticalReference
LevelD
escriptorsforEn
glish
Table3:G
rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforA2level
Structure/feature
Exam
plesfrom
theCLC
(A2level)
A2.1
Simpleclau
seswithoutobject
[Intran
sitive
clau
ses,NPV]
Thes
ear
esi
mp
lecl
ause
sco
nsi
stin
go
fa
No
un
Ph
rase
and
anin
tran
siti
veV
erb
,i.e
.ave
rbth
atta
kes
no
ob
ject
(e.g
.go,
arrive)
.Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
seis
the
sub
ject
of
the
intr
ansi
tive
Ver
b.T
he
intr
ansi
tive
Ver
bca
nb
efo
llow
edb
ya
par
ticl
e(e
.g.
Wecameback
),an
adve
rb(e
.g.Youcanget
there)
or
ap
rep
osi
tio
nal
ph
rase
(e.g
.Youcangoto
YiltePark
).
Canyoucometo
myhouse
at2pmon
Saturday?
Youcanget
therebytrain.
A2.2
Clauseswithadirectobject
[Transitive
clau
ses,NPVNP]
Thes
ear
ecl
ause
sco
nta
inin
ga
No
un
Ph
rase
follo
wed
by
aV
erb
and
ano
ther
No
un
Ph
rase
(e.g
.helovedher
).Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
sep
rece
din
gth
eV
erb
isth
esu
bje
ctan
dth
eN
ou
nP
hra
sefo
llow
ing
the
Ver
bis
the
dir
ect
ob
ject
(i.e
.he
isth
esu
bje
ctan
dher
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
eve
rbloved
).Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
sese
rvin
gas
the
ob
ject
of
the
Ver
bca
nb
efo
llow
edb
ya
pre
po
siti
on
alp
hra
se(e
.g.N
owIw
rite
apostcard
foryou).
Im
etalotofinterestingpeople.
NowIw
rite
apostcard
foryou…
A2.3
Clauseswithadirectan
dindirectobject
[Ditransitive
clau
ses(i)NPVNPNP&(ii)NPVNPPP(P=to)]
(i)
Thes
ecl
ause
sco
mp
rise
aN
ou
nP
hra
se,a
Ver
ban
dtw
oN
ou
nP
hra
ses
afte
rth
eV
erb
(e.g
.Icangiveyoumyguitar)
.Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
sep
rece
din
gth
eve
rbis
its
sub
ject
(e.g
.I).
The
firs
tN
ou
nP
hra
sefo
llow
ing
the
Ver
bis
the
ind
irec
to
bje
ct(e
.g.
you
)an
dth
ese
con
dN
ou
nP
hra
seth
ed
irec
to
bje
ct(e
.g.m
yguitar)
.(i
i)In
thes
ecl
ause
s(I’llgiveitto
you
)th
eV
erb
isfo
llow
edb
ya
No
un
Ph
rase
wh
ich
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
ct(e
.g.it)
and
ap
rep
osi
tio
nal
ph
rase
wit
hto
wh
ich
istheindirectobject(e.g.toyou).
Icangiveyoumyguitar.
I’llgiveitto
you…
A2.4
Verb
+subordinateclau
sewithorwithoutthat
[Verb
withafinitecomplemen
tclau
seNPVS]
Thes
est
ruct
ure
sco
mp
rise
on
em
ain
clau
seco
nta
inin
ga
No
un
Ph
rase
and
aV
erb
and
asu
bo
rdin
ate
com
ple
men
tcl
ause
wit
ha
fin
ite
Ver
b(i
.e.a
verb
infl
ecte
dfo
rp
erso
nan
dte
nse
)(e
.g.they
thoughtthathewasalways
late
).that
atth
eb
egin
nin
go
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
seca
nb
eo
vert
or
can
be
om
itte
d(e
.g.Ihope(that)youare
well)
.
Iknew
thatyouhave
anew
house
too.
Ithinkthezooisaninterestingplace.
A2.5
Verb
+infinitive
[Verb
withsubject
controlledinfinitivalcomplements,N
PVVPinfin]
Thes
ear
ecl
ause
sco
mp
risi
ng
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
da
mai
nV
erb
,wh
ich
isfo
llow
edb
yan
oth
erV
erb
inth
ein
fin
itiv
e(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Iwantedto
come)
.Th
ein
fin
itiv
alV
erb
isth
eco
mp
lem
ent
of
the
mai
nV
erb
.Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
seis
the
sub
ject
of
bo
thth
em
ain
Ver
ban
do
fth
ein
fin
itiv
alV
erb
.
Iw
antto
buyacoat.
Iw
ouldliketo
sellabook.
A2.6
DirectWHquestions
Thes
ear
eq
ues
tio
ns
beg
inn
ing
wit
ha
WH
wo
rd(e
.g.w
hat,who,w
here)
follo
wed
by
anau
xilia
ry(e
.g.have,do
)o
ra
cop
ula
(e.g
.be)
,aN
ou
nP
hra
se(e
.g.you,thepark
),an
da
Ver
b(e
.g.W
hatdoyoulike?
). Whatare
yougoingto
wear?
So
when
are
youcelebratingyour
birthday?
A2.7
Pronoun+infinitive
Thes
ear
ep
hra
ses
beg
inn
ing
wit
ha
Pro
no
un
(e.g
.something
)fo
llow
edb
ya
Ver
bin
the
infi
nit
ive
(to
+Ver
b)
(e.g
.something
Youcanbringsomethingto
eatifyou
16 © UCLES/CUP 2011
todrink)
.wantto.
…I’mgoingto
afarm
thisweekendand
there’snothingto
do.
A2.8
Noun+descriptive
phrase
introducedbypastparticiple
[Postnominalmodificationwith–ed]
Thes
ear
ep
hra
ses
com
pri
sin
ga
No
un
Ph
rase
follo
wed
by
aP
ast
Par
tici
ple
end
ing
in–ed
(e.g
.theboydeprivedofhisice
cream
).
Thereare
beautifulpaintingspainted
byfamousIranianpainters
A2.9
Doubleembed
dedgenitivewith(of…
(of…
))[An[of[of]]doubleem
bed
dingofpostnominalgenitives]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
ph
rase
sco
nta
inin
ga
No
un
Ph
rase
(e.g
.thebeginning
)fo
llow
edb
yan
–of
gen
itiv
ep
hra
se(e
.g.ofthe
end
),w
hic
hco
nta
ins
ano
ther
–of
gen
itiv
ep
hra
se(e
.g.thebeginning
oftheen
dofcivilization
).
Ilikethecoloursoftheback
ofthe
mobile
phone…
A2.10
ModalsMAY,CANan
dMIGHTinthePossibility
(epistemic)sense
The
mo
dal
verb
smay,can
andmight
are
use
dto
den
ote
Po
ssib
ility
(e.g
.Itmayrainthisafternoon
). Then
wemaygosightseeing.
…thepaintmightmake
ourtshirts
dirty.
A2.11
ModalMUST
intheObligation(deontic)sense
The
mo
dal
verb
must
isu
sed
tod
eno
teO
blig
atio
n(e
.g.Youmustnotdrive
sofast
). Wemustbethereat7o’clock
inthe
morning.
A2.12
ModalSH
OULD
intheAdvice
(deo
ntic)sense
The
mo
dal
verb
should
isu
sed
tod
eno
teA
dvi
ce(e
.g.Youshouldseeadoctor)
. Youshouldwearoldclothes
because
we
willget
dirty.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 17
Table4:G
rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforB1level
Structure/feature
Exam
plesfrom
theCLC
(B1level)
B1.1
Verb
+object+infinitive
[Verbswithobject
controlledinfinitivalcomplementsNPVNPVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
com
pri
sin
ga
mai
ncl
ause
wit
ha
Ver
bfo
llow
edb
ya
No
un
Ph
rase
and
aco
mp
lem
ent
clau
sew
ith
anin
fin
itiv
alV
erb
(to
+Ver
b)
wit
ho
rw
ith
ou
tto
(e.g
.Ihelped
her
(to)bake
thecake
).Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
seher
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
verb
and
the
logi
cals
ub
ject
of
the
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b.
Icalledmyassistantandordered
him
togather
mymen
tothehall.
B1.2
Verb
+object+Verb
endingin–ing
[Verbswithobject
controlled–ingcomplemen
tsNPVNPVPing]
Thes
ear
ecl
ause
sb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
da
Ver
bfo
llow
edb
yan
oth
erN
ou
nP
hra
sean
da
Ver
ben
din
gin
–ing
(e.g
.Icaughthim
stea
ling
).Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
sehim
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
Ver
ban
dth
elo
gica
lsu
bje
cto
fth
eV
erb
end
ing
in–ing
.
Mariasawhim
takingataxi.
B1.3
Noun+descriptive
phrase
introducedbypresentparticiple
[Postnominalmodificationwith–ing]
Thes
ear
ep
hra
ses
con
sist
ing
of
aN
ou
nP
hra
sefo
llow
edb
ya
Pre
sen
tP
arti
cip
leen
din
gin
ing
(e.g
.theboywalkingdown
theroad
).
AsIw
asdesperate
Iputan
advertisem
entinthenew
spaper
asking
ifsomeonehadit,butnooneansw
ered
me.
B1.4
It+Verb
+subordinateclau
sewithorwithoutthat
[ItExtrap
ositionwithfiniteclau
ses]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
on
em
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ithIt
and
aV
erb
Ph
rase
,fo
llow
edb
ya
sub
ord
inat
eco
mp
lem
ent
clau
sest
arti
ng
wit
hthat
and
con
tain
ing
afi
nit
eV
erb
(i.e
.ave
rbth
atis
infl
ecte
dfo
rp
erso
no
rte
nse
)(e
.g.It
doesn’tmatter
thatsheisnothere)
.Th
eu
seo
fthat
iso
pti
on
al(e
.g.Itisapity(that)they
cannotcome).
It’struethatId
on’tneedaringto
make
meremem
ber
you.
B1.5
Verb
+PrepositionalPhrase
+subordinateclau
sewithorwithoutthat
[VerbswithaPPplusfinitecomplemen
tclau
se,N
PVPPS]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
beg
inn
ing
wit
ha
No
un
Ph
rase
follo
wed
by
am
ain
Ver
bth
atta
kes
asco
mp
lem
ents
aP
rep
osi
tio
nal
Ph
rase
and
asu
bo
rdin
ate
com
ple
men
tcl
ause
star
tin
gw
iththat
and
con
tain
ing
afi
nit
eV
erb
(i.e
.ave
rbth
atis
infl
ecte
dfo
rp
erso
no
rte
nse
)(e
.g.They
admittedto
theauthorities
thatthey
hadenteredilleg
ally
).Th
eP
rep
osi
tio
nal
Ph
rase
tome
isth
ein
dir
ect
ob
ject
of
the
mai
nV
erbadmitted
and
the
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
eV
erb
.that
atth
eb
egin
nin
go
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
seca
nb
eo
vert
or
can
be
om
itte
d(e
.g.They
admittedto
theauthorities
(that)they
haden
teredillegally
).
Hesaidto
mehewouldliketo
come
back
soon.
B1.6
Relative
clau
seswithwhose
[Relative
clau
sesform
edonagenitiveposition]
Thes
ear
ere
lati
vecl
ause
sb
egin
nin
gw
ithwhose
(i.e
.WH
wo
rdin
the
gen
itiv
e)an
dar
efo
llow
edb
yan
oth
erN
ou
nP
hra
se(e
.g.w
hose
pictures)
.
…abiographyofthisfamouspainter
whose
picturesIlikeso
much
B1.7
WHword
+NounPhrase
+Verbclau
sesusedas
subjectorobject
[Pseudocleftstype(i)
WH
NP
VP
]Th
ese
are
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
sb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aW
Hw
ord
(e.g
.what)
follo
wed
by
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
da
Ver
b(e
.g.w
hatI
like)
.Th
eW
Hw
ord
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
eV
erb
inth
iscl
ause
(i.e
.what
isth
eo
bje
cto
flike)
.Th
eP
seu
do
clef
tty
pe
(i)
stru
ctu
rety
pic
ally
app
ears
wit
hin
ano
ther
sen
ten
ceas
asu
bje
ct(W
hatIlikeiswatchingfootball)
or
asan
ob
ject
(co
mp
lem
ent)
afte
rth
eV
erbbe
(ThisiswhatIlike)
WhatIa
bsolutelydislikeisgo
shopping,althoughIreally
likenew
clothes.
Iopened
thedoorandwhatIsawwas
soamazing.
18 © UCLES/CUP 2011
B1.8
IndirectWHquestions
Thes
ear
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
ses
beg
inn
ing
wit
ha
WH
wo
rd(e
.g.w
hat)
follo
wed
by
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
da
fin
ite
Ver
b,i
.e.a
verb
infl
ecte
dfo
rp
erso
nan
dte
nse
(e.g
.heasked
whatheshoulddo
). Guesswhereitis.
Idon’tknowhowIcouldhave
doneit.
B1.9
IndirectWHquestionswithinfinitive
Thes
ear
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
ses
beg
inn
ing
wit
ha
WH
wo
rd(e
.g.w
hat)
follo
wed
by
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dan
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.heexplained
howto
doit
). Ididnotknowwhereto
lookforit
anym
ore.
Idon’tknowwhatto
do.
B1.10
Complexau
xiliariesWOULD
RATH
ERan
dHADBETTER
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
auxi
liari
esth
atco
nsi
sto
fa
Sim
ple
Au
xilia
ryan
dan
Ad
verb
(e.g
.wouldrather,hadbetter)
and
are
follo
wed
by
aV
erb
(e.g
.Ihadbetterim
prove
mygame)
. They
won'tbevery
happyifyougoon
holidaywiththem
andthen
youare
bad
tempered
allthetimebecause
you
wouldrather
bewithyourfriends.
Ifyoudon'tliketo
gowiththem
you
hadbettertellthem
whyyoudon't
wantto
come.
B1.11
Adverbialsubordinateclau
seswith–ingthat
follo
wtheclau
seto
whichtheyareattached
Thes
ear
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
ses
wit
hve
rbs
end
ing
in–ing
(e.g
.walkingdowntheroad
).Th
ese
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
sh
ave
anad
verb
ialf
un
ctio
nan
dca
nfo
llow
the
mai
ncl
ause
(e.g
.hepumped
into
alamppostwalkingdowntheroad).
Hewassittingthere,drinkingacoffee
andwritingsomething.
B1.12
seem
,supposed(adjective)+infinitive
[Subject
toSubjectRaising,NPVVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dfo
llow
edb
yth
eV
erbseem
(e.g.
Johnseem
s)o
rth
eV
erbbe
and
the
Ad
ject
ivesupposed
(e.g.Johnissupposed
)an
da
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
wit
han
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Johnseem
s/issupposedto
begood
).In
the
Sub
ject
toSu
bje
ctR
aisi
ng
con
stru
ctio
ns,
the
sub
ject
of
the
mai
nV
erb
isal
soth
elo
gica
lsu
bje
cto
fth
ein
fin
itiv
alV
erb
and
ith
asm
ove
do
ut
of
its
sub
ject
po
siti
on
wit
hin
the
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
tob
eco
me
the
sub
ject
of
the
mai
ncl
ause
(hen
ce‘S
ub
ject
toSu
bje
ctR
aisi
ng’
).
Monikaseem
sto
begood,intelligent
teacher,butIhave
abadfeelingabout
Paula.
Itlooks
likeIhave
arehearsalforthe
“YamahaConcert”atthesametimeI
wassupposedto
goto
theEnglishclass.
B1.13
expect,like,want+object+infinitive
[Subject
toObjectRaising,NPVNPVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dth
eV
erb
sexpect,like
orwant
(e.g
.Johnexpects
),fo
llow
edb
ya
No
un
Ph
rase
and
asu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
sew
ith
anin
fin
itiv
alV
erb
(to
+Ver
b)
(e.g
.Johnexpects
her
tocometo
theparty)
.Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
seher
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
Ver
ban
dth
elo
gica
lsu
bje
cto
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
infi
nit
ival
clau
se,a
nd
ith
asm
ove
do
ut
of
its
po
siti
on
asth
esu
bje
ctto
bec
om
eth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
clau
se(h
ence
‘Su
bje
ctto
Ob
ject
Rai
sin
g’).
Sara
toldmeshewouldcome,butI
didn'texpecther
tocomeso
early.
Iam
doingfine,Iexpecteditto
bemore
difficult,butitisnotso
hard.
Finally
Iwantyouto
sayhi[to]
everybodyandIam
lookingforw
ard
toseeingyou.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 19
B1.14
easy
+infinitive
[Tough
Movementwiththead
jectiveeasy]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
com
pri
sin
ga
mai
ncl
ause
beg
inn
ing
wit
ha
No
un
Ph
rase
,th
eV
erbbe
and
the
adje
ctiv
eeasy
(e.g
.thebookiseasy
)fo
llow
edb
ya
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
wit
han
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Thebookiseasy
toread
).In
Tou
ghM
ove
men
tst
ruct
ure
sth
esu
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
clau
seis
the
logi
calo
bje
cto
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
infi
nit
ival
clau
se,w
hic
hh
asm
ove
dfr
om
the
ob
ject
po
siti
on
(e.g
.toreadthebook)
toth
ep
osi
tio
no
fth
esu
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
clau
se.T
he
bo
ok
isth
elo
gica
lob
ject
of
read
ing
and
this
wh
ole
even
t(r
ead
ing
the
bo
ok)
iscl
aim
edto
be
easy
,no
tn
eces
sari
lyth
eb
oo
kit
self
(e.g
.thebookcouldbeeasy
toreadbuthard
tocarry)
.Th
era
ised
No
un
Ph
rase
inTo
ugh
Mo
vem
ent
con
stru
ctio
ns
can
occ
up
yo
ther
no
nsu
bje
ctp
osi
tio
ns
inth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
see.
g.Thestudentiseasy
tostudywith
Thetrainstationiseasy
tofind.
Theproblemyouhave
isnotvery
easy
tosolve.
B1.15
Doubleembed
dedgenitivewith(of…
(–’s))
(An[of[s]]doubleembeddingofan
–sgenitivewithinan
ofgenitive)
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
ph
rase
sco
nta
inin
ga
No
un
Ph
rase
(e.g
.thebeginning
)fo
llow
edb
yan
–of
gen
itiv
ep
hra
sew
hic
hco
nta
ins
ans
gen
itiv
e(p
oss
essi
ve)
ph
rase
(e.g
.thebeginning
oftheprofessor’sbook)
.
Iam
abigfanoftheworld’smost
famousBritish
secret
serviceagent.
B1.16
ModalMAYinthePerm
ission(deontic)sense
The
mo
dal
verb
MA
Yis
use
dto
den
ote
Per
mis
sio
n.
MayIborrowyourbicycleforthis
weekend?
B1.17
ModalMUST
intheNecessity(epistemic)sense
The
mo
dal
verb
mu
stis
use
dto
den
ote
logi
calo
rp
hys
ical
Nec
essi
ty.
Thismoviemustbegreat.Mysister
told
methatshewasamazed[w
hen]she
[saw]thefilm
soIthinkit'sreally
good.
Heishavingagreattimeandmustbe
really
happythere.
B1.18
ModalSH
OULD
intheProbab
ility
(epistemic)sense
The
mo
dal
verb
sho
uld
isu
sed
tod
eno
teP
rob
abili
ty.
Ihave
invite[d]allhisfriends,[so]we
shouldbe28people.
20 © UCLES/CUP 2011
Table5:G
rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforB2level
Structure/feature
Exam
plesfrom
theCLC
(B2level)
B2.1
Adverbialsubordinateclau
seswith–ingthat
precedetheclau
seto
whichthey
areattached
Thes
ear
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
ses
wit
hve
rbs
end
ing
in–ing
(e.g
.walkingdowntheroad
).Th
ese
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
sp
rece
de
the
mai
ncl
ause
and
act
like
adve
rbs
mo
dif
yin
gth
em
ain
clau
se(e
.g.W
alkingdowntheroad,hepumped
into
alamppost
).
Ta
lkingaboutspare
time,Ithinkwe
couldgoto
theArtMuseum
B2.2
It+Verb
+infinitive
[ItExtrap
ositionwithinfinitivalphrases]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
on
em
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ithIt
and
aV
erb
,fo
llow
edb
ya
sub
ord
inat
eco
mp
lem
ent
clau
sew
ith
aV
erb
inth
ein
fin
itiv
e(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Itislikelyto
raintomorrow).
…itwouldbehelpfultowork
inyour
groupaswell.
B2.3
WHword
+VerbPhrase
clau
sesusedas
subjectorobject
[Pseudoclefttype(ii)
WH
VP
]Th
ese
are
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
sb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aW
Hw
ord
(e.g
.what)
follo
wed
by
aV
erb
and
oft
ena
No
un
Ph
rase
(e.g
.whatinterestsme)
.Th
eW
Hw
ord
isth
esu
bje
cto
fth
eV
erb
inth
iscl
ause
(i.e
.what
isth
esu
bje
cto
finterest
).Th
eP
seu
do
clef
tty
pe
(ii)
stru
ctu
rety
pic
ally
app
ears
wit
hin
ano
ther
sen
ten
ceas
asu
bje
ct(W
hatinterestsmeispolitics)
or
asan
ob
ject
(co
mp
lem
ent)
(Iknowwhatinterestsme)
.
Whatattracted
methemostwasthe
possibilityofmeetingpeopleofthe
sameinterests.
Butwhatcameafter
waswhatreally
changed
mysummer!
B2.4
Verb
+object+subordinateclau
sewithorwithoutthat
[Verbswithan
NPplusfinitecomplemen
tclau
se,N
PVNPS]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
com
pri
sin
go
ne
mai
ncl
ause
beg
inn
ing
wit
ha
No
un
Ph
rase
and
aV
erb
follo
wed
by
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
da
sub
ord
inat
eco
mp
lem
ent
clau
se(e
.g.hetoldmethattheaudience
wasleaving).
The
sub
ord
inat
eco
mp
lem
ent
clau
seca
nb
eo
pti
on
ally
intr
od
uce
db
ythat.
Itoldhim
Ilovedhissongs
Shetoldmethatshehadworked
for
summer
campforchildren
B2.5
Verb
+object+ad
jective
[Secondarypredications,NPVNPAdjP]
Thes
ear
ecl
ause
sco
mp
risi
ng
aN
ou
nan
da
Ver
b,w
hic
his
follo
wed
by
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dan
Ad
ject
ive
(e.g
.hepainted
thecarred).
The
No
un
Ph
rase
follo
win
gth
eV
erb
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
ct(thecar)
and
the
adje
ctiv
e(red
)co
mp
lem
ents
that
ob
ject
.In
Seco
nd
ary
Pre
dic
atio
nco
nst
ruct
ion
s,th
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
eve
rb(thecar)
also
con
trac
tsa
seco
nd
ary
rela
tio
nw
ith
the
follo
win
gp
red
icat
e(is
orbecomes
red
).
Butifyoudon’twantto
take
anyrisks,
justgoandpaintthehousesyello
wandblue
B2.6
theverbsappea
r,cease,fail,happen
,prove,turn
out,an
dthead
jectivescertain,likely,sure,unlikely+infinitive
[Subject
toSubjectRaising,NPVVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dfo
llow
edb
yth
eV
erb
sappear,
cease
,fail,happen
,prove
,turn
out
(e.g.Thenoiseceased
)o
rth
eV
erbbe
and
the
Ad
ject
ives
certain
,likely,sure
,unlikely
(e.g.Johnislikely)
and
asu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
sew
ith
anin
fin
itiv
alve
rb(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Thenoiseceasedto
get
on
hisnerves)
.In
the
Sub
ject
toSu
bje
ctR
aisi
ng
con
stru
ctio
ns,
the
sub
ject
of
the
mai
nV
erb
isal
soth
elo
gica
lsu
bje
cto
fth
ein
fin
itiv
alV
erb
and
ith
asm
ove
do
ut
of
its
sub
ject
po
siti
on
wit
hin
the
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
tob
eco
me
the
sub
ject
of
the
mai
ncl
ause
(‘Su
bje
ctto
Sub
ject
Rai
sin
g’).
To
myregret,theeven
ingtotally
failedto
liveupto
myexpectations.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 21
B2.7
imagine,prefer+object+infinitive
[Subject
toObjectRaising,NPVNPVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dth
eV
erb
sim
agineorprefer
(e.g
.Iwouldprefer)
,fo
llow
edb
ya
No
un
Ph
rase
and
asu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
sew
ith
anin
fin
itiv
alV
erb
(to
+Ver
b)
(e.g
.Iwouldprefermyaccommodationto
beinlogcabins)
.Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
semyaccommodation
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
Ver
ban
dth
elo
gica
lsu
bje
cto
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
infi
nit
ival
clau
se,a
nd
ith
asm
ove
do
ut
of
its
po
siti
on
asth
esu
bje
cto
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
seto
bec
om
eth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
clau
se(‘
Sub
ject
toO
bje
ctR
aisi
ng’
).
Youwereso
kindandfriendlythatI
hadnever
imagined
myselfto
have
visitedfarforeigncountry,Alaska.
Iw
ouldprefermyaccommodationto
beinlogcabins,because
Iam
allergic
tosomeinsectsthatmightgointhe
tent.
B2.8
theverbsexpected,known,oblig
ed,thought(inPassive
voice)+infinitive
[Subject
toObjectRaisingplusPassive,N
PVVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dth
eV
erb
sexpect,know
,oblige
orthink
inth
ep
assi
vefo
rm(e
.g.Smokingisknown
),fo
llow
edb
ya
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
wit
han
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Smokingisknownto
cause
cancer)
.Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
seSm
oking
isth
esu
bje
cto
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
seth
ath
asb
een
rais
edin
toth
eh
igh
ero
bje
ctp
osi
tio
n(e
.g.smoking
asinWeknowsm
okingto
cause
cancer)
(hen
ce‘S
ub
ject
toSu
bje
ctR
aisi
ng’
).It
isth
enfu
rth
erp
rom
ote
dto
sub
ject
po
siti
on
inth
em
ain
clau
seb
yth
eo
per
atio
no
fth
eP
assi
ve.
Yourthea
treisknownto
presentexcelle
spectacles.
So
zooscouldbetheonlyplace
where
peoplecouldspendtheirtime
avoidingthepollutionweare
oblig
edt o
livewitheveryday.
B2.9
difficult,good,hard
+infinitive
[Tough
Movementconstructionswiththead
jectivesdifficult,good,hard]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
com
pri
sin
ga
mai
ncl
ause
beg
inn
ing
wit
ha
No
un
Ph
rase
,th
eV
erbbe
and
the
adje
ctiv
esdifficult,good
orhard
(e.g
.Applesare
good
)fo
llow
edb
ya
sub
ord
inat
ein
fin
itiv
alcl
ause
(e.g
.Applesare
goodto
eat)
.In
Tou
ghM
ove
men
tst
ruct
ure
sth
esu
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
clau
seis
the
logi
calo
bje
cto
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
infi
nit
ival
clau
se,
wh
ich
has
mo
ved
fro
mth
eo
bje
ctp
osi
tio
n(e
.g.to
eatapples)
toth
ep
osi
tio
no
fth
esu
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
clau
se.Apples
isth
elo
gica
lo
bje
cto
fea
tin
gan
dth
isw
ho
leev
ent
(eatingapples)
iscl
aim
edto
begood
,n
ot
nec
essa
rily
theapples
them
selv
es.
The
rais
edN
ou
nP
hra
sein
Tou
ghM
ove
men
tco
nst
ruct
ion
sca
no
ccu
py
oth
ern
on
sub
ject
po
siti
on
sin
the
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
e.g.Thestudentiseasy
tostudywith.
ThefirstRestaurantis"M
exico",itis
situatednearthemetro
stationandis
notvery
difficultto
find.
Th
egrammarandvocabulary
are
abithard
tolearn.
B2.10
Doubleembed
dedgenitivewith((of…
)–’s)
(An[[of]
s]doubleembeddingofan
ofgenitivewithinan
sgenitive)
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
ph
rase
sco
nta
inin
ga
No
un
Ph
rase
(e.g
.war)
pre
ced
edb
yan
sge
nit
ive
(po
sses
sive
)p
hra
sew
hic
hco
nta
ins
an–of
gen
itiv
ep
hra
se(e
.g.thekingofEngland’swar)
.
After
thatIw
entto
afriendofmine’s
house
whereIspentoneweek.
22 © UCLES/CUP 2011
Table6:G
rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforC1level
Structure/feature
Exam
plesfrom
theCLC
(C1level)
C1.1
theverb
chance
+infinitive
[Subject
toSubjectRaising,NPVVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dth
eV
erbchance
(e.g
.Ichance
),fo
llow
edb
ya
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
wit
han
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Ichancedto
know
aboutyourCompetitionfrom
aninternationalmagazine)
.In
the
Sub
ject
toSu
bje
ctR
aisi
ng
con
stru
ctio
ns,
the
sub
ject
of
the
mai
nV
erb
isal
soth
elo
gica
lsu
bje
cto
fth
ein
fin
itiv
alV
erb
and
ith
asm
ove
do
ut
of
its
po
siti
on
asa
sub
ject
of
the
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
tob
eco
me
the
sub
ject
of
the
mai
ncl
ause
(hen
ce‘S
ub
ject
toSu
bje
ctR
aisi
ng’
).
DearSirs,Ichancedto
knowaboutyour
Competitionfrom
aninternational
magazine.
C1.2
believe,find,suppose,take
+object+infinitive
[Subject
toObjectRaising,NPVNPVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dth
eV
erb
sbelieve,find,suppose
or
take
follo
wed
by
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
da
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
wit
han
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Ifindthisto
bemore
interestingthanthewalkingroute
toLake
Hawksmere)
.Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
sethis
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
Ver
bfind
and
the
logi
cal
sub
ject
of
the
sub
ord
inat
ein
fin
itiv
alcl
ause
,an
dit
has
mo
ved
ou
to
fit
sp
osi
tio
nas
the
sub
ject
of
the
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
tob
eco
me
the
dir
ect
ob
ject
of
the
mai
ncl
ause
(‘Su
bje
ctto
Ob
ject
Rai
sin
g’).
Ifindthisto
bemore
interestingthan
thewalkingroute
toLake
Hawksmere.
OverallIfoundthisto
bepretty
satisfyingasitdoes
fulfillmostofthe
students'w
ishes.
C1.3
assumed
,discovered,felt,found,proved(inPassive
voice)+infinitive
[Subject
toObjectRaisingplusPassive,N
PVVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dth
eV
erb
sassumed,discovered,
felt
orfound
inth
ep
assi
vefo
rm,
(e.g
.Th
echild
renstories
werefelt
),fo
llow
edb
ya
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
wit
han
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Th
echild
renstories
werefeltto
bethebestidea
forkids)
.Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
seThechildrenstories
isth
esu
bje
cto
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
seth
ath
asb
een
rais
edin
toth
eh
igh
ero
bje
ctp
osi
tio
n(e
.g.W
efeltthechildrenstories
werethebestidea
forkids)
(‘Su
bje
ctto
Ob
ject
Rai
sin
g’).
Itis
then
furt
her
pro
mo
ted
tosu
bje
ctp
osi
tio
nin
the
mai
ncl
ause
by
the
op
erat
ion
of
the
Pas
sive
.
Th
echild
renstories
werefeltto
bethe
bestidea
forkids,after
ofcoursethe
ponyrides.
C1.4
Doubleembed
dedgenitivewith((–’s)–’s)
(An[[s]
s]doubleembeddingofan
–sgenitivewithinan
–sgenitive)
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
ph
rase
sco
nsi
stin
go
fa
No
un
Ph
rase
(e.g
.ho
use
)p
rece
ded
by
ans
gen
itiv
e(p
oss
essi
ve)
ph
rase
wh
ich
con
tain
san
oth
ers
gen
itiv
e(p
oss
essi
ve)
ph
rase
(e.g
.thebride’sfamily’shouse).
After
spendingthefirstdayoftheir
marriageinthebride’sfamily’shouse
C1.5
ModalMIGHTinthePerm
ission(deontic)sense
The
mo
dal
verb
might
isu
sed
tod
eno
teP
erm
issi
on
. MightItellyouwhatwediscuss?
© UCLES/CUP 2011 23
Table7:G
rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforC2level
Structure/feature
Exam
plesfrom
theCLC
(C2level)
C2.1
declare,presume,remem
ber
+object+infinitive
[Subject
toObjectRaising,NPVNPVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dth
eV
erb
sdeclare,presume
or
remem
ber
follo
wed
by
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
da
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
wit
han
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Hepresumed
work
tobethewayto
live.
).Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
sework
isth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
Ver
bpresumed
and
the
logi
cals
ub
ject
of
the
sub
ord
inat
ein
fin
itiv
alcl
ause
tobe,
and
ith
asm
ove
do
ut
of
its
po
siti
on
asth
esu
bje
cto
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
seto
bec
om
eth
ed
irec
to
bje
cto
fth
em
ain
clau
se(‘
Sub
ject
toO
bje
ctR
aisi
ng’
).
Th
eydeclare
someproductsto
bethe
hitsoftheseason,thuscreatingfashion,
andfewofuswantto
beunfashionable
Plus,Irem
ember
myclasses
tobevery
participative,anddynamic.
C2.2
theverb
presumed
(inPassive
Voice)+infinitive
[Subject
toObjectRaisingplusPassive,N
PVVPinfin]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
con
tain
ing
am
ain
clau
seb
egin
nin
gw
ith
aN
ou
nP
hra
sean
dth
eV
erbpresumed
inth
ep
assi
vefo
rm,
(e.g
.Notonly
meetingswithpeo
ple
are
presumed
),fo
llow
edb
ya
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
wit
han
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.Notonlymeetingswithpeople
are
presumed
togivenew
experiences)
.Th
eN
ou
nP
hra
semeetings
isth
esu
bje
cto
fth
esu
bo
rdin
ate
clau
seth
ath
asb
een
rais
edin
toth
eh
igh
ero
bje
ctp
osi
tio
n(e
.g.Wepresumemeetingsto
be)
(‘Su
bje
ctto
Ob
ject
Rai
sin
g’).
Itis
then
furt
her
pro
mo
ted
tosu
bje
ctp
osi
tio
nin
the
mai
ncl
ause
by
the
op
erat
ion
of
the
Pas
sive
.
Notonlymeetingswithpeo
pleare
presumed
togivenew
experiences.
C2.3
tough+infinitive
[Tough
Movementconstructionswiththead
jectivetough]
Thes
ear
eco
mp
lex
clau
ses
beg
inn
ing
wit
ha
No
un
Ph
rase
,th
eV
erbbe
and
the
Ad
ject
ivetough
(e.g
.ourteam
wastough
)fo
llow
edb
yan
infi
nit
ival
Ver
b(t
o+V
erb
)(e
.g.o
urteam
wastoughto
beat).I
nTo
ugh
Mo
vem
ent
stru
ctu
res,
the
sub
ject
of
the
mai
ncl
ause
isth
elo
gica
lob
ject
of
the
sub
ord
inat
ein
fin
itiv
alcl
ause
,wh
ich
has
mo
ved
fro
mth
eo
bje
ctp
osi
tio
n(e
.g.to
beatourteam
)to
the
po
siti
on
of
the
sub
ject
of
the
mai
ncl
ause
.Ourteam
isth
elo
gica
lob
ject
ofbeat
and
this
wh
ole
even
t(beatingourteam
)is
clai
med
tob
etough
,n
ot
nec
essa
rilyourteam
itse
lf.
The
rais
edN
ou
nP
hra
sein
Tou
ghM
ove
men
tco
nst
ruct
ion
sca
no
ccu
py
oth
ern
on
sub
ject
po
siti
on
sin
the
sub
ord
inat
ecl
ause
e.g.Whatsheknew
would
bereally
tough
tolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath
Whatsheknew
wouldbereally
tough
tolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath.
24 © UCLES/CUP 2011
c) E
xamplesoferrortypesthat
significan
tlyim
prove
betw
eenad
jacentlevels
Table8:Errortypesthat
improve
significan
tlybetw
eenA2to
B1levels
Key
tofourerrortypes
tables811:bold=error,(w
ord)=correction,[word]=errorhasbeencorrected,[]=unnecessary
word
removed
Errortype
Exam
plesfrom
theCLC
(A2level)
1.
Anap
horAgreement
Wh
enth
ean
aph
or
wo
rdis
corr
ect
and
the
form
of
the
anap
ho
ris
valid
bu
tw
ron
gin
the
con
text
bec
ause
itd
oes
no
tag
ree
gram
mat
ical
lyw
ith
its
coo
rdin
ates
,it
isan
An
aph
or
Agr
eem
ent
erro
r.
It'sthreeyearsoldandheworksvery
well,butIw
ouldlikeanew
computer.(it)
Ihave
alotof[books].Iboughtoneyearsago.(them
)
2.
Form
ofDeterm
iner
Wh
enth
ear
ticl
es‘a
’an
d‘a
n’a
reco
nfu
sed
.…amonth
agoIboughtanhandheld.(a)
Thisisainterestingplace!(an)
3.
MissingAdjective
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esan
adje
ctiv
efo
rco
mp
lete
nes
san
dth
atad
ject
ive
has
bee
no
mit
ted
,it
isa
Mis
sin
gA
dje
ctiv
eer
ror.
Here're
alotofkindsofanim
als.(lotofdifferentkinds)
Theweather
isfantastic,w
e[allhave]really
fun…(really
goodfun)
4.
MissingAdverb
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esan
adve
rbfo
rco
mp
lete
nes
san
dth
atad
verb
has
bee
no
mit
ted
,it
isa
Mis
sin
gA
dve
rber
ror.
Ithinkwewill[]have
agoodtime[.]Hopeto
seeyou(see
yousoon)
Youcanget
bycar.(get
thereby)
5.
MissingConjunction(LinkWord)
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
con
jun
ctio
n/
link
wo
rd(o
rw
ord
s)fo
rco
mp
lete
nes
san
dth
atw
ord
has
bee
no
mit
ted
,it
isa
Mis
sin
gC
on
jun
ctio
ner
ror.
You[w
ant]thisplease
callme.(Ifyou)
IhopeIgobytrainso
Iwillarriveat5o'clock,especially
Iwantto
play[]yournew
videogame…
(especially
because
Iwant)
6.
MissingQuan
tifier
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
qu
anti
fier
for
com
ple
ten
ess
and
that
qu
anti
fier
has
bee
no
mit
ted
,it
isa
Mis
sin
gQ
uan
tifi
erer
ror.
Iwillbuynew
trousersandapairofshoes.(buysomenew
)
7.
InflectionofQuan
tifier
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
eq
uan
tifi
er.
Ithinkthatwecangoforawalk,rideabike,playfootballandotherssports.(other)
Iboughta[pairof]trouser[s]andsomes
[Tshirts].(some)
8.
Replace
Quan
tifier
Wh
ena
valid
qu
anti
fier
wo
rdin
the
lan
guag
eh
asb
een
use
dan
dit
isth
eco
rrec
tp
art
of
spee
chb
ut
no
tth
eco
rrec
tq
uan
tifi
er,i
tis
aR
epla
ceQ
uan
tifi
erer
ror.
Iwantto
sellmanydolls.(alotof)
Iwillmove
toother
cityso
Iwantto
sellit.(another)
© UCLES/CUP 2011 25
9.
UnnecessaryQuan
tifier
Wh
enan
un
nec
essa
ryex
tra
qu
anti
fier
has
bee
nu
sed
ina
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
insu
cha
way
that
itm
akes
the
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
inco
rrec
t,it
isan
Un
nec
essa
ryQ
uan
tifi
erer
ror.
Myhobbiesare
such
assinging,dancinganddrawing.
Iwantto
sellthistablebecause
Ihave
anew
other
table!
Table9:Errortypesthat
improve
significan
tlybetw
eenB1to
B2levels
Errortype
Exam
plesfrom
theCLC
(B1level)
1.
DerivationofConjunction(LinkWord)
Wh
ere
aco
nju
nct
ion
/lin
kw
ord
rese
mb
les,
or
incl
ud
esth
est
emo
f,a
valid
wo
rdb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,
usu
ally
bec
ause
ith
asb
een
give
nan
inco
rrec
taf
fix,
itis
aD
eriv
atio
no
fC
on
jun
ctio
ner
ror.
Ididn'tdoanything,accept[put]anew
bed
inmybedroom.(except)
Now,I'm
more
attentive
inreadingletters...(w
hen)
2.
DerivationofDeterm
iner
Wh
ere
ad
eter
min
erre
sem
ble
s,o
rin
clu
des
the
stem
of,
ava
lidd
eter
min
erb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,
usu
ally
bec
ause
ith
asb
een
give
nan
inco
rrec
taf
fix,
itis
aD
eriv
atio
no
fD
eter
min
erer
ror.
I'mreally
glad,because
youwantto
visitminecountry.
(my)
Youasked
meaboutthebestplace
tospendyoutime...(your)
3.
Form
ofDeterm
iner
Wh
enth
ear
ticl
es‘a
’an
d‘a
n’a
reco
nfu
sed
.Thefilm
hasanhappyend...(a)
Sendmeaemail…
(an)
4.
InflectionofDeterm
iner
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
ed
eter
min
er,
usu
ally
bec
ause
of
am
ista
ken
bel
ief
that
the
det
erm
iner
mu
stag
ree
inn
um
ber
wit
hth
en
ou
nw
hic
hit
pre
ced
es.
Itwas
really
interesting
tohear
aboutall
the
differentpeople
and
theirs
[backgrounds].(their)
5.
InflectionofQuan
tifier
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
eq
uan
tifi
er.
Ifyouhave
othersquestionsplease
contactme!
(other)
IthinkIwill
go[to]thepark,nearthezoo,whereseverals
sportsare
[played].
(several)
6.
InflectionofVerb
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
asm
ade
afa
lse
assu
mp
tio
nab
ou
tw
het
her
ave
rbis
regu
lar
or
irre
gula
ran
din
flec
ted
itac
cord
ingl
y.M
ost
com
mo
nly
,th
eer
ror
isca
use
db
yp
utt
ing
regu
lar
infl
ecti
on
so
nir
regu
lar
verb
s.
…allthewalls
are
whiteandI'vehanged
[a]fewpaintingsonthem
.(hung)
After
thefilm
wehaddinner
andwechatedaboutthefilm
…(chatted)
26 © UCLES/CUP 2011
Table10:Errortypesthat
improve
significan
tlybetw
eenB2to
C1levels
Errortype
Exam
plesfrom
theCLC
(B2level)
1.
Agreement
Wh
enth
ew
ord
isco
rrec
tan
dth
efo
rmo
fth
ew
ord
isva
lidb
ut
wro
ng
inth
eco
nte
xtb
ecau
seit
do
esn
ot
agre
egr
amm
atic
ally
wit
hit
sco
ord
inat
es,i
tis
anA
gree
men
ter
ror.
Iknowthatthiskindofjobsare
wellpaid...(thesekinds)
…youcantrytheclothes
youchoose
onandbesure
thatitfitsyou.(they
fit)
2.
NounAgreement
Wh
enth
en
ou
nis
corr
ect
and
the
form
of
the
no
un
isva
lidb
ut
wro
ng
inth
eco
nte
xtb
ecau
seit
do
esn
ot
agre
egr
amm
atic
ally
wit
hit
sco
ord
inat
es,i
tis
aN
ou
nA
gree
men
ter
ror.
Ifyouworked
withmewewouldspendagoodsummer
holid
ays
together.(holiday)
Thishasbeenthemainreasonto
banthesekindofplacesnowadays.(kinds)
3.
ArgumentStructure
Wh
ere
the
stru
ctu
reo
fa
sen
ten
ceo
rp
hra
seco
ntr
aven
esru
les
of
bo
thgr
amm
aran
dw
ord
ord
erit
isan
argu
men
tst
ruct
ure
erro
r.Butplease
tellmehowisthewea
ther
inScotlandatthistime.(w
hatistheweather
like)
Therefore,Ithinkyoushouldpaysomemoney
back
forme.(paymesomemoney
back)
4.
Countability
ofDeterm
iner
Wh
ena
det
erm
iner
form
isu
sed
wh
ich
isin
corr
ect
bec
ause
of
the
cou
nta
bili
tyo
fth
en
ou
nto
wh
ich
itre
fers
,it
isa
Co
un
tab
ility
of
Det
erm
iner
erro
r.Whydoyougivethose
inform
ationinanadvertis[e]m
ent?
(this)
…justto
findthatperfecttinofbeansoratoothpaste.(some)
5.
DerivationofAnap
hor
Wh
ere
anan
aph
or
rese
mb
les,
or
incl
ud
esth
est
emo
f,a
valid
wo
rdb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
An
aph
or
erro
r.
Itwasvery
kindofyoursto
invite
usto
yourhome.(you)
6.
DerivationofConjunction
Wh
ere
aco
nju
gati
on
/lin
kw
ord
rese
mb
les,
or
incl
ud
esth
est
emo
f,a
valid
wo
rdb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
Co
nju
nct
ion
erro
r.
…youare
ableto
take
books
anyw
hereyouwantto
[,]even
thebookistooheavy.
(unless)
Idon'tthinktelevisioncanreplace
books,aswellasIdon'tbel[ie]ve
books
can
replace
television.(and)
7.
DerivationofDeterm
iner
Wh
ere
ad
eter
min
erre
sem
ble
s,o
rin
clu
des
the
stem
of,
ava
lidd
eter
min
erb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
Det
erm
iner
erro
r.
PeoplerelyonmeasIalways
keep
mepromises.(my)
Clara
lookedathewatch.(her)
8.
InflectionofDeterm
iner
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
ed
eter
min
er,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seo
fa
mis
take
nb
elie
fth
atth
ed
eter
min
erm
ust
agre
ein
nu
mb
erw
ith
the
no
un
wh
ich
itp
rece
des
.
…Ithinkthisexperience
wouldbeuseful[on]yourscampsites.(your)
Ithinkanim
alshelpuswithunderstandingnotonlytheirsbutalsoourown
[behaviour].(their)
© UCLES/CUP 2011 27
9.
Form
ofAdjective
Wh
ena
valid
form
of
the
adje
ctiv
e(p
osi
tive
,co
mp
arat
ive,
or
sup
erla
tive
)h
asb
een
use
db
ut
isth
ew
ron
gfo
rmin
the
con
text
.
Well,inmyopinionmythirdchoiceisthebetter.(best)
…Ihadtheworsetime[of]mylife.(w
orst)
10.
Form
ofAdverb
Wh
ena
valid
form
of
the
adve
rb(p
osi
tive
,co
mp
arat
ive,
or
sup
erla
tive
form
)h
asb
een
use
db
ut
isth
ew
ron
gfo
rmin
the
con
text
.…[the]solution[that]better[satisfies]ourneeds.(best)
ButIw
ouldliketo
livenea
rest,andto
gotherebybicycle.(nearer)
11.
Form
ofNoun
Wh
enth
esi
ngu
lar
form
of
an
ou
nis
use
dw
her
eth
eco
nte
xtd
eman
ds
ap
lura
l,o
rvi
ceve
rsa.
She'sonholidays
next15th
ofJuly.(holiday)
…mostofuswouldnever
have
hadthechance
toseesomekindofanimals.(kinds)
12.
Form
ofQuan
tifier
Wh
ena
valid
form
of
the
qu
anti
fier
(sin
gula
ro
rp
lura
lfo
rm)
has
bee
nu
sed
bu
tis
the
wro
ng
form
inth
eco
nte
xt.
…inmore
ofthecases…(inmostcases)
The[I]nternet
makesusableto
followsportsevents,concertsandpoliticalspeeches
whichare
thousandofmilesawayfrom
us.(thousands)
13.
Form
ofVerb
Wh
enei
ther
of
the
bas
e,in
gan
dto
+in
fin
itiv
efo
rms
of
the
verb
hav
eb
een
use
dw
her
ean
oth
erfo
rmis
req
uir
ed.
Ifyouhave
anymore
questionsdon'thesitate
askingme!
(toask)
Youridea
aboutfindajobbefore
startingcollegeisgreat.(finding)
14.
InflectionofAdjective
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
ead
ject
ive.
This
cod
eal
soco
vers
inst
ance
sw
her
ele
arn
ers
mis
take
nly
mak
ead
ject
ives
agre
ew
ith
the
no
un
sth
eym
od
ify.
…Ialsoknowthatyouorganiseconferencesanddifferentsactivities.(different)
Themostea
siestway...(easiest)
15.
InflectionofAnap
hor
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
ep
ron
ou
n.
This[choice]doesn'tgivemanyartiststhe[opportunity]to
[express]them
self.
(them
selves)
…each
friendofmines
…(m
ine)
16.
InflectionofQuan
tifier
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
eq
uan
tifi
er.
…we[can]findfews[in]thenew
spaper.(afew)
…Im
adeseveralsphonecalls…
(several)
17.
MissingAdjective
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esan
adje
ctiv
efo
rco
mp
lete
nes
san
dth
atad
ject
ive
has
bee
no
mit
ted
,it
isa
Mis
sin
gA
dje
ctiv
eer
ror.
Are
they
atadiscount,too?(they
availableata)
Ifthereare
manycarsinacity,youwasteyourtime[]standing.(standingstill)
18.
MissingConjunction(LinkWord)
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
con
jun
ctio
n/
link
wo
rd(o
rw
ord
s)fo
rco
mp
lete
nes
san
dth
atw
ord
has
bee
no
mit
ted
,it
isa
Mis
sin
gC
on
jun
ctio
ner
ror.
SoitwouldbebetterI[wrote]aletter
(betterifI)
Thatwasmybestdayever,theoneIsharedamealw
ithPaulM
cPartney.(onewhen
Ishared)
19.
MissingDeterm
iner
Her
neighboursweremakingnoiseagain.(makinganoise)
28 © UCLES/CUP 2011
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
det
erm
iner
for
com
ple
ten
ess
and
that
det
erm
iner
has
bee
no
mit
ted
.Playingfootballisgoodforhealth.(foryourhealth)
20.
MissingPreposition
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
pre
po
siti
on
for
com
ple
ten
ess
and
that
pre
po
siti
on
has
bee
no
mit
ted
.Ilookforw
ard
hea
ringfromyou.(forw
ard
tohearing)
OnethingIdon'tknowisthepay.(knowaboutis)
21.
MissingQuan
tifier
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
qu
anti
fier
for
com
ple
ten
ess
and
that
qu
anti
fier
has
bee
no
mit
ted
,it
isa
Mis
sin
gQ
uan
tifi
erer
ror.
Theorganiser
gave
mearadioandIhadto
advise
theother
staffmem
bersincase
of
disorder.(case
ofanydisorder)
Inthelastyears,therehasbeenagreatim
provement...(lastfewyears)
22.
MissingVerb
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
verb
for
com
ple
ten
ess
and
that
verb
has
bee
no
mit
ted
.After
thatwewillback
home.(w
illcomeback)
While
before
itwoulden
oughto
know…(w
ouldhave
beenenough)
23.
UnnecessaryConjunction(LinkWord)
Wh
enan
un
nec
essa
ryex
tra
con
jun
ctio
n/
link
wo
rdh
asb
een
use
din
ase
nte
nce
or
con
stru
ctio
nin
such
aw
ayth
atit
mak
esth
ese
nte
nce
or
con
stru
ctio
nin
corr
ect.
…Iw
asalsoworkingwithchildreninmytown,because
inorder
toget
more
money
.Shethoughtonlymagicthatcouldhelpher
butitwasim
possible.
24.
UnnecessaryPreposition
Wh
enan
un
nec
essa
ryex
tra
pre
po
siti
on
has
bee
nu
sed
ina
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
insu
cha
way
that
itm
akes
the
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
inco
rrec
t.Iam
lookingforw
ard
tohearingaboutyouransw
er.
Goingforshoppingisagoodthing…
25.
UnnecessaryQuan
tifier
Wh
enan
un
nec
essa
ryex
tra
qu
anti
fier
has
bee
nu
sed
ina
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
insu
cha
way
that
itm
akes
the
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
inco
rrec
t,it
isan
Un
nec
essa
ryQ
uan
tifi
erer
ror.
That'swhyIdon'tagreewithsomepeoplewhothinkthatkeepinganimalsiscruel
andunnecessary.
Yourfriendswillwithoutnodoubt[]tryto
helpyou,anddon'tforget
itisnottoo
late
yet.
26.
UnnecessaryVerb
Wh
enan
un
nec
essa
ryex
tra
verb
has
bee
nu
sed
ina
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
insu
cha
way
that
itm
akes
the
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
inco
rrec
t.Couldyoutellmeabouthowmuch
doyouwantto
get
per
hour...
Wealldecided
togoto
have
adaybytheseaside...
27.
Negative
Form
ation
Wh
enan
atte
mp
tto
con
stru
cta
neg
ativ
ere
sult
sin
anin
valid
con
stru
ctio
n.
Ihadn'tagoodtime!
(didn’thave)
Icouldnothardlybelieve
it.(hardly)
28.
ComplexError
Wh
ere
anu
ngr
amm
atic
alan
din
com
pre
hen
sib
lest
rin
go
fw
ord
sar
ew
ritt
enan
dit
isim
po
ssib
leto
corr
ect
them
,it
isa
Co
mp
lex
Erro
r.Iw
ishyouto
spen
dyourstayasmore
excitingasyoucan.
Withoutstatesofminds,shesucceeded
inmakingmefeelthatlifewasgoingon.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 29
Table11:Errortypesthat
improve
significan
tlybetw
eenC1to
C2levels
Errortype
Exam
plesfrom
theCLC
(C1level)
1.
Anap
horAgreement
Wh
enth
ean
aph
or
wo
rdis
corr
ect
and
the
form
of
the
anap
ho
ris
valid
bu
tw
ron
gin
the
con
text
bec
ause
itd
oes
no
tag
ree
gram
mat
ical
lyw
ith
its
coo
rdin
ates
,it
isan
An
aph
or
Agr
eem
ent
erro
r.
Iwasexpectingto
meetafriendofminewhichlives
inSt.A
ndrews…(who)
Thesetw
ocomputergames
are
currentlyoneofthebestfootballgame[s][]madein
thisdecade.(two)
2.
Determ
inerAgreement
Wh
enth
ed
eter
min
eris
corr
ect
and
the
form
of
the
det
erm
iner
isva
lidb
ut
wro
ng
inth
eco
nte
xtb
ecau
seit
do
esn
ot
agre
egr
amm
atic
ally
wit
hit
sco
ord
inat
es,i
tis
aD
eter
min
erA
gree
men
ter
ror.
Despitethelength
ofthejourney
therewasnotanytoiletavailable[on]thecoach.
(a)
Fashionwasa[general]word,m
eaningthetw
otypes
ofclothes
whichwereworn
inthatdays:...those)
3.
Verb
Agreemen
tW
hen
the
verb
isco
rrec
tan
dth
efo
rmo
fth
eve
rbis
valid
bu
tw
ron
gin
the
con
text
bec
ause
itd
oes
no
tag
ree
gram
mat
ical
lyw
ith
its
coo
rdin
ates
,it
isa
Ver
bA
gree
men
ter
ror.
Somethingwhichgrowsinpopularity
are
thesolarcells.(is)
Theworldhave
changed.(has)
4.
ArgumentStructure
Wh
ere
the
stru
ctu
reo
fa
sen
ten
ceo
rp
hra
seco
ntr
aven
esru
les
of
bo
thgr
amm
aran
dw
ord
ord
erit
isan
argu
men
tst
ruct
ure
erro
r.Th
ese
erro
rsar
eo
ften
calq
ues
or
dir
ect
tran
slat
ion
so
fL1
stru
ctu
res.
Idem
andanapologyto
bepublished
inyournew
spaper...(dem
andthatanapology
be)
Then
intheadvertisem
entitiswritten
somethingaboutasocialprogrammewhich
istotally
absent.(somethingiswritten)
5.
Countability
ofDeterm
iner
Wh
ena
det
erm
iner
form
isu
sed
wh
ich
isin
corr
ect
bec
ause
of
the
cou
nta
bili
tyo
fth
en
ou
nto
wh
ich
itre
fers
,it
isa
Co
un
tab
ility
of
Det
erm
iner
erro
r.Ihopeyouwillbeableto
improve
theprogrammewiththese[inform
ation]...(this)
…weare
quitesure
thatyouwillfindasuitableaccommodation()
6.
Countability
ofNoun
Wh
ena
no
un
can
take
on
lyo
ne
form
bec
ause
itis
un
cou
nta
ble
,bu
tan
inva
lidp
lura
lized
form
has
bee
nu
sed
,it
isa
Co
un
tab
ility
of
No
un
erro
r.[However]wehave
anicegarden,w
hereinsummer
ourstudentsoften
spendtheir
breakordotheirhomew
orks.(homew
ork)
Itisknownthatradiationscomingfrom
amobile
phonecanbe[heartdamaging].
(radiation)
7.
Countability
ofQuan
tifier
Wh
ena
qu
anti
fier
isin
corr
ect
bec
ause
of
the
cou
nta
bili
tyo
fth
en
ou
nto
wh
ich
itre
fers
,it
isa
Co
un
tab
ility
of
Qu
anti
fier
erro
r.…thegroupsshouldhave
included
less
people.(fewer)
Notonlyhaditsm
alllegroom
butalsothesafetybeltswereoutoforder.(little)
8.
DerivationofAdjective
Wh
ere
anad
ject
ive
rese
mb
les,
or
incl
ud
esth
est
emo
f,a
valid
adje
ctiv
eb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
Ad
ject
ive
erro
r.
Tosumup,thetourwasacompletelydisaster.(complete)
30 © UCLES/CUP 2011
9.
DerivationofAdverb
Wh
ere
anad
verb
rese
mb
les,
or
incl
ud
esth
est
emo
f,a
valid
adve
rbb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
Ad
verb
erro
r.
…inoneword,everythingisso
simple.(inaword)
Asrecentastenyearsago,...(recently)
10.
DerivationofAnap
hor
Wh
ere
anan
aph
or
rese
mb
les,
or
incl
ud
esth
est
emo
f,a
valid
anap
ho
rb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
An
aph
or
erro
r.
It'sapleasure
towork
withyourforanother
year.(you)
Alltogether
Iwouldliketo
stressthattheconference
wasvery
usefultomyand
helped
meinmycareer.(me)
11.
DerivationofConjunction(LinkWord)
Wh
ere
aco
nju
nct
ion
/lin
kw
ord
rese
mb
les,
or
incl
ud
esth
est
emo
f,a
valid
wo
rdb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
Co
nju
nct
ion
erro
r.
Bythetimemygrandparentswereyoung,therewereso
manynorm
sandrulesand
restrictionsabouthowyoushouldlook:…
(When)
…peopleseem
notto
have
enoughtimeto
have
somerest,noteven
tocook!(or)
12.
DerivationofDeterm
iner
Wh
ere
ad
eter
min
erre
sem
ble
s,o
rin
clu
des
the
stem
of,
ava
lidd
eter
min
erb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
Det
erm
iner
erro
r.
Youreportintentionally
hurtourfeelings…
(Your)
Itnameis"Superstar".(Its)
13.
DerivationofPreposition
Wh
ere
ap
rep
osi
tio
nre
sem
ble
s,o
rin
clu
des
the
stem
of,
ava
lidp
rep
osi
tio
nb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
Pre
po
siti
on
erro
r.
Notlikealotofother
banks
whichhurried[into]lau[n]chingtheirownproduct...
(Unlike)
Relatedto
thegym
,it[cannot]beclosed.(Regarding)
14.
DerivationofQuan
tifier
Wh
ere
aq
uan
tifi
erre
sem
ble
s,o
rin
clu
des
the
stem
of,
ava
lidq
uan
tifi
erb
ut
has
bee
nin
corr
ectl
yd
eriv
ed,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seit
has
bee
ngi
ven
anin
corr
ect
affi
x,it
isa
Der
ivat
ion
of
Qu
anti
fier
erro
r.
AlthoughIlikecomputersthecompanywhichIusedto
work
fordidn'tgiveaspecial
[training]…
(any)
…apparentlythesedays
therewasnoneshowprepared.(no)
15.
Form
ofAdjective
Wh
ena
valid
form
of
the
adje
ctiv
e(p
osi
tive
,co
mp
arat
ive,
or
sup
erla
tive
)h
asb
een
use
db
ut
isth
ew
ron
gfo
rmin
the
con
text
.They
saidthatitwastheworsestrike
ever
andthatitwouldlastalongtime.(worst)
Thisisthemostsimplewayforourcompanyto
reach
thetop.(simplest)
16.
Form
ofAnap
hor
Wh
ena
valid
form
of
the
pro
no
un
(un
infl
ecte
do
rin
flec
ted
form
)h
asb
een
use
db
ut
itis
the
wro
ng
form
inth
eco
nte
xt.
Everyonewantsto
achieve
higher
marksthanother.(others)
…a[cheque]fromyourself…
(you)
17.
Form
ofDeterm
iner
Wh
enth
ear
ticl
es‘a
’an
d‘a
n’a
reco
nfu
sed
.Thesethreethingsare
theones
thatweconsider
tobeofmore
importance.(most)
Weare
fortunate
enoughto
have
agovernmentwhichregardseducationasa
importantthing…(an)
© UCLES/CUP 2011 31
18.
Form
ofNoun
Wh
enth
esi
ngu
lar
form
of
an
ou
nis
use
dw
her
eth
eco
nte
xtd
eman
ds
ap
lura
l,o
rvi
ceve
rsa.
Despitehavingto
paysuch
heftyamountto
drive,…
(amounts)
Thankyouforyourconsiderations.
(consideration)
19.
Form
ofQuan
tifier
Wh
ena
valid
form
of
the
qu
anti
fier
(sin
gula
ro
rp
lura
lfo
rm)
has
bee
nu
sed
bu
tis
the
wro
ng
form
inth
eco
nte
xt.
…movies
andcopiesfrom
another
countries…
(other)
Justtryto
get
outmore
anduse
moderntechnologyasless
aspossible.(little)
20.
InflectionofAdjective
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
ead
ject
ive.
This
cod
eal
soco
vers
inst
ance
sw
her
ele
arn
ers
mis
take
nly
mak
ead
ject
ives
agre
ew
ith
the
no
un
sth
eym
od
ify.
…whichresulted
inhuges
queues.(huge)
…you'llseethattheirlifestylewasmuch
quieter,simplierandslower.(simpler)
21.
InflectionofAdverb
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
ead
verb
.Nobodyfrom
mygroupgotfarerfrom
theHotel's
[lobby]...(further)
…weneedto
dothingsquicklierthanbefore
…(m
ore
quickly)
22.
InflectionofAnap
hor
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
ean
aph
or.
Theseservices
are
onlythefirstpackageofseverals[]whichwillfollowoverthenext
12months[.](several)
Each
timeeverythingschanges.(everything)
23.
InflectionofDeterm
iner
Wh
enth
ele
arn
erh
ascr
eate
da
feas
ible
bu
tn
on
valid
infl
ecte
dfo
rmo
fth
ed
eter
min
er,u
sual
lyb
ecau
seo
fa
mis
take
nb
elie
fth
atth
ed
eter
min
erm
ust
agre
ein
nu
mb
erw
ith
the
no
un
wh
ich
itp
rece
des
.
…because
oursclasses
finishatseveno'clock
p.m
.(our)
…andthen
traveltoyour'sfriend[s']countries.(your)
24.
MissingAdverb
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esan
adve
rbfo
rco
mp
lete
nes
san
dth
atw
ord
has
bee
no
mit
ted
.Thesecasesare
fewandfarbetweento
take
place
inreallife.(are
toofew)
Furthermore,because
ofthisincidentIm
issedachance
toseemyfriend,w
hen
we
hadarranged
ourmeeting.(hadalreadyarranged)
25.
MissingDeterm
iner
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
det
erm
iner
for
com
ple
ten
ess
and
that
wo
rdh
asb
een
om
itte
d.
…itwasreally
very
difficultto
findsomekindofentertainmentexceptwatchingTV
inrooms.
(inourrooms)
Thequalityoflunch
youprovided
wasthenextproblem.(ofthelunch)
26.
MissingNoun
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
no
un
for
com
ple
ten
ess
and
that
wo
rdh
asb
een
om
itte
d.
Bytheway,thetrainwilltake
youaboutthreeandahalfhoursandcostaround40
marks.(trainjourney
will)
…thedepartmenthasaverylim
ited
officeequipment.(lim
ited
amountofoffice)
27.
MissingVerb
32 © UCLES/CUP 2011
Wh
ena
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
req
uir
esa
verb
for
com
ple
ten
ess
and
that
wo
rdh
asb
een
om
itte
d.
…theorganisershadnever
promised
that45stalls
bepresent…(stalls
wouldbe)
Thiswouldnotonlyreduce
thetrafficcon[g]estionprobleminthecity,italsoenable
peopleto
ownacar...(itwillalso)
28.
Replace
Adverb
Wh
ena
valid
adve
rbin
the
lan
guag
eh
asb
een
use
dan
dit
isth
eco
rrec
tp
art
of
spee
chb
ut
no
tth
eco
rrec
tad
verb
.…theoneabouttourism
washighabove
standard.(well)
Ihave
noticedthatbreakfastisnomore
afamily
thing.(longer)
29.
Replace
Quan
tifier
Wh
ena
valid
qu
anti
fier
inth
ela
ngu
age
has
bee
nu
sed
and
itis
the
corr
ect
par
to
fsp
eech
bu
tn
ot
the
corr
ect
wo
rd.
Ihopemysuggestionswillbeofanyuse
toyou.(some)
Moreover,thereare
onlytw
otelephones
forallofthedepartment.(thewholeof
the)
30.
Replace
Verb
Wh
ena
valid
verb
inth
ela
ngu
age
has
bee
nu
sed
and
itis
the
corr
ect
par
to
fsp
eech
bu
tn
ot
the
corr
ect
verb
.Inthiscontext,w
ecannotoversee
thechangingroleofwomen
...(overlook)
Itdep
endsfrom
onepersonto
thenext.(differs)
31.
UnnecessaryConjunction(LinkWord)
Wh
enan
un
nec
essa
ryex
tra
con
jun
ctio
n/
link
wo
rdh
asb
een
use
din
ase
nte
nce
or
con
stru
ctio
nin
such
aw
ayth
atit
mak
esth
ese
nte
nce
or
con
stru
ctio
nin
corr
ect.
Wehave
gotenoughtimeto
dosomethingforentertainment,such
asdoingsports,
watchingmovies,andetc.
AsIknowtw
opeople[in]thegroupwouldliketo
goforlongwalks.
32.
UnnecessaryDeterm
iner
Wh
enan
un
nec
essa
ryex
tra
det
erm
iner
has
bee
nu
sed
ina
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
insu
cha
way
that
itm
akes
the
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
inco
rrec
t.Thehostfamilies
are
verykindandhospitableandthey
willalsogiveyouavery
good
food.
33.
UnnecessaryNoun
Wh
enan
un
nec
essa
ryex
tra
no
un
has
bee
nu
sed
ina
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
insu
cha
way
that
itm
akes
the
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
inco
rrec
t.So,w
esuggestavisitto
anightclubdisco
wherewecanhearsomemodernmusic
anddance.
Both
hotelscanprovidefullboard
mea
lsandnicecomfortablerooms.
34.
UnnecessaryQuan
tifier
Wh
enan
un
nec
essa
ryex
tra
qu
anti
fier
has
bee
nu
sed
ina
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
insu
cha
way
that
itm
akes
the
sen
ten
ceo
rco
nst
ruct
ion
inco
rrec
t.After
allthisterribleexperience
withyourcompany...
Weare
hardly[ever]atalossforwordswhen
meetingsomeclients.
35.
ComplexError
Wh
ere
anu
ngr
amm
atic
alan
din
com
pre
hen
sib
lest
rin
go
fw
ord
sar
ew
ritt
enan
dit
isim
po
ssib
leto
corr
ect
them
,it
isa
Co
mp
lex
Erro
r.Pacino'scareer
experience
seem
sto
beexplodingathismaximum.
Andfinally
Iwouldliketo
make
againnote
wecouldn'ttake
anexam.(mention
againthat)
© UCLES/CUP 2011 33
d) Anexampleofhowagram
maticalfeature
developsinlearnerlanguageacross
theCEFRlevels
Table12:Thedevelopmentofusage
ofuncountablenounsacross
CEFRlevels
Typicaluse
ofstructure/feature
Exam
ples
Mostcommonerrorsan
dCLC
examplesat
thelevel
A1
Can
use
som
eu
nco
un
tab
len
ou
ns
corr
ectl
y:inform
ation,m
oney,tim
e,work
wit
ha
limit
edra
nge
of
det
erm
iner
s:some,alotof,the
Sheusually
does
thehousework
onSunday.
Ihave
alotofwork
incollege.
Ihave
gotalotofinform
ationabouttheshops
nearourarea.
ho
mew
ork
s,b
read
s,h
ou
sew
ork
s
Idon’tlikehomew
orks.
Shelooks
after
thechildreneveryday.Then
shedoes
thehouseworksinher
house.
Youcanbuyalltypes
offruits,sauces,breads.
A2
Can
use
anin
crea
sin
gra
nge
of
com
mo
nu
nco
un
tab
len
ou
ns
corr
ectl
yw
ith
anin
crea
sin
gsm
allr
ange
of
item
sb
efo
rea
no
un
:alotof,some,more,theim
portant
Canyouhelpme?
Ineedmore
inform
ationabout
thiscourse.
info
rmat
ion
s,m
usi
cs,p
aper
s,lo
ves,
ho
mew
ork
s
Ihave
someinform
ationsabouttheartclass.
Youhave
tobringapen
andsomepapers.
B1
Can
use
anin
crea
sin
gre
per
toir
eo
fu
nco
un
tab
len
ou
ns
corr
ectl
yw
ith
agr
eate
rra
nge
of
item
sb
efo
reth
en
ou
n:
the,further,m
ore,some,this,interesting,detailed,
useful
Erro
rsp
ersi
stw
ith
the
mo
stco
mm
on
item
s.
Ourpresentaccommodationistoosm
allforus.
Ifyouneedfurther
inform
ationjustask.
info
rmat
ion
s,eq
uip
men
ts,h
om
ewo
rks,
advi
ces,
furn
itu
res,
cou
ntr
ysid
es,w
ork
s,so
ftw
ares
,tra
inin
gs
I’m
lookingforw
ard
tohearingfromyouifyourequire
further
inform
ations.
250ofthem
are
veryyoungandthey
needalotof
trainings.
B2
Can
use
anin
crea
sin
gre
per
toir
eo
fu
nco
un
tab
len
ou
ns
corr
ectl
yw
ith
agr
eate
rra
nge
of
item
sb
efo
reth
en
ou
n:
the,further,m
ore,some,this,interesting,detailed,
useful,following,no
Erro
rsin
crea
sew
ith
the
mo
stco
mm
on
item
s.
Abetterwayofspendingthemoney
isto
build
anew
fitnessclub.
Iwouldliketo
knowifIneedextramoney.
Tourism
hasaninevitablefactofbringingahuge
sum
ofmoney
tolocalbusinesses.
info
rmat
ion
s,ad
vice
s,eq
uip
men
ts,t
ran
spo
rts,
kno
wle
dge
s,w
ork
s,sp
end
ing,
trai
nin
gs,h
om
ewo
rks,
rese
arch
es,f
urn
itu
res,
beh
avio
urs
,dam
ages
Please
sendmealltheinform
ationsandthe
application.
Ithinkboth
ofthem
have
reasonablepricesfortheir
foods.
C1
Can
use
anin
crea
sin
gre
per
toir
eo
fu
nco
un
tab
len
ou
ns
corr
ectl
yw
ith
agr
eate
rra
nge
of
item
sb
efo
reth
en
ou
n:
the,further,m
ore,some,this,interesting,detailed,
useful,additional,essential,upto
date
Formore
detailedinform
ationyoumaycontact
meon...
They
have
alreadybeenequipped
withthe
necessaryhardware
andsoftware
andhave
access
totheinternet
andourdatabase.
info
rmat
ion
s,tr
ansp
ort
s,tr
ain
ings
,eq
uip
men
ts,a
dvi
ces,
kno
wle
dge
s,so
ftw
ares
,res
earc
hes
,fu
rnit
ure
s,tu
itio
ns,
spen
din
gs,a
cco
mm
od
atio
ns,
feed
bac
ks,c
on
gest
ion
s
Forreadersthatare
lesskeen
onsports,anarticle
containingsomesimpleadvicesonhowto
keep
fitwill
34 © UCLES/CUP 2011
Erro
rsin
crea
sew
ith
the
mo
stco
mm
on
item
san
dw
ith
det
erm
iner
s.Theonlycriticism
wecanmake
istheamountof
equipmen
t.
bemore
pleasantto
read.
Ihadasm
allproblem
withtransports,because
the
nearestbusstopwasabouttw
omilesfaraway.
Thethreecomputerswereacquired
inorder
toreplace
theoutofdate
equipmentsthatwereusedbythe
GeneralM
anager.
C2
Can
use
anin
crea
sin
gre
per
toir
eo
fu
nco
un
tab
len
ou
ns
corr
ectl
yw
ith
agr
eate
rra
nge
of
item
sb
efo
reth
en
ou
n:
the,further,m
ore,some,this,interesting,detailed,
useful,additional,essential,upto
date,enough,
provide
Erro
rsd
ecre
ase
bu
tp
ersi
stw
ith
the
mo
stco
mm
on
item
s.
Researchanddevelopmenthaspreventedmanyof
usfromillnesses...
Itisforthesepeoplethatamagazinesuch
asyours
shouldgiveextensive
advice.
Inaddition,therehasalsobeensignificant
damageto
ourhouses:walls
andceilingscracking,
rooftilescomingloose,andoccasionally
window
panes
beingshattered!
advi
ces,
beh
avio
urs
,in
form
atio
ns,
rese
arch
es
Readingthesebooks
are
veryinteresting,asmany
advicesare
hidden
inside.
Even
thoughsomeofourchildhoodinfluencesmay
leadusto
negative
beh
avioursasadults,such
asbeing
messy,itmightbeagoodidea
tobethankfulforthe
goodinfluences.
Youcaneven
exchangeyourteachingandlearning
experiencesorinform
ationswithother
schools
throughcomputers.
Allinform
ationsinthisstatementare
provided
with
mybestknowledge.
Manyresearches
have
beenmadealreadyinorder
tofindoutifother
planets,likethemoon,M
arsorVenus,
are
suitableforhumanlife.
Thes
efi
nd
ings
on
gram
mar
are
still
ten
tati
vean
dsu
gges
tfu
ture
rese
arch
dir
ect
ion
s,in
clu
din
gex
ten
din
gth
eco
nce
pt
of
"cri
teri
alit
y"to
the
anal
ysis
too
ther
sam
ple
so
fle
arn
erla
ngu
age
and
inp
arti
cula
rto
spee
ch.
Spo
ken
lan
guag
ed
ata
isb
ein
gco
llect
edan
dco
rpo
raar
eb
ein
gb
uilt
wit
hth
en
eces
sary
com
pu
tati
on
alto
ols
toen
able
the
rese
arch
tob
ee
xten
de
din
that
dir
ect
ion
.In
add
itio
n,
afo
cus
on
the
Cle
vels
con
tin
ues
wit
hth
eco
llect
ion
of
acad
emic
Engl
ish
wri
tin
gsa
mp
les.
Wo
rkis
un
der
way
top
rod
uce
anEnglishGrammarProfile
reso
urc
eth
atb
oth
do
cum
en
tsan
dp
rese
nts
thes
efi
nd
ings
ina
use
rfr
ien
dly
way
,in
line
wit
hth
ege
ner
alEn
glis
hP
rofi
leap
pro
ach
.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 35
3 The English Functions Profile
This research strand re examines the use of language functions in defining language constructs across the abilityrange and in setting learning objectives which are sensitive to the proficiency level of learners. This part of the EPProgramme is primarily concerned with the input to the learners: in other words, the functions that provide thelearning objectives as part of a communicative syllabus at each level of the CEFR, and the reading texts which arejudged to be suitable for different levels and which are presented to the learners for pedagogic purposes. Thisresearch work is based on the functional notional approach which underpins the CEFR and which led to the use ofCan Do statements within its Global Scale and bank of Illustrative Scales. English Profile suggests practical ways inwhich the existing Can Do statements in the CEFR can be expanded and refined by providing additional detail withreference to contexts of use which are particularly relevant to learners of English.
Language functions aim to capture not what learners know about a language, or what aspects of the language theyare able to use (i.e. the lexico grammatical aspects of language), but rather they intend to convey how learners usethe language: what they can do with it in social contexts. When investigating functions, in addition to the CEFR,English Profile builds on the Threshold Series or T series (van Ek 1975; van Ek & Trim 1998a, 1998b, 2001; Trim2009). The T series was instrumental in promoting a communicative approach to language teaching from the1970s onwards and covered proficiency levels that are now associated with CEFR A2 (Waystage), B1 (Threshold),and B2 (Vantage). An A1 (Breakthrough) specification by John Trim has also been made available electronically forthe EP Programme and all T series publications are now freely accessible from the English Profile website.
As Green (2011) points out, the CEFR’s approach was clearly influenced by Hymes (1972) and a conceptualizationof communicative competence which comprises both a “linguistic” and a “sociolinguistic” element. Thesociolinguistic dimension includes the dynamic interaction that occurs between the context and the discourseproduced. The interaction between context and the cognitive processes of the learner underpins a socio cognitiveapproach to learning, teaching and assessment on which the CEFR itself is based, and which has been important indeveloping the English Profile Programme of research.
English Profile proposes a new, generative, Can Domodel consisting of five elements which can be linkedto specific contexts and which can lead to a moredetailed and technical definition of the CEFR levels forEnglish (see definition alongside).
These Can Do statements are intended to help andencourage practitioners to develop and validate CanDo statements to fit more appropriately with theirown context and purposes, while at the same time,finding a way to relate them coherently to thecommon framework. This aligns with the CEFR’sfunctions which are ‘widely interpretable … based onthe everyday expressions used by teachers’ (Green2011: 14).
Defining generative Can Do statements:
‘frames setting out how the elements of the CEFRmodel may interact in shaping the difficulty of definedlanguage activities and tasks.’ (Green 2011: 160)
‘Can Do statements … should provide enoughinformation to guide users in carrying out a variety ofpurposes. They should offer sufficient detail to informmaterials writers and test developers (who need tooperationalise the general CEFR framework throughspecific, contextualized tasks); but they should alsosupport briefer summary statements that mightcommunicate suitably general information to others,such as the users of test results … The statementsshould also serve as a link between these differentpurposes: users should be able to trace the waysin which the elements of the framework areinterpreted and represented in the specific demandsmade of learners in using language to carry out a task.’
(Green 2011: 47)
36 © UCLES/CUP 2011
The component elements proposed for the new Can Do statements include the following:
Activity: Can… The social act (function) or related sequence of acts (activity) that the learnermight be expected to accomplish by means of the language, i.e. what the learnercan do
Theme/Topic/Setting: Concerned with… The themes, topics and settings in relation to which the learner might beexpected to perform. In the CEFR, applicable themes are grouped under the fourdomains: educational, public, professional and personal, i.e. what the interactionis concerned with
Input text: Based on… The nature of the text that the learner might be required to process as a basis forhis or her own contribution or to demonstrate his or her comprehension, i.e.what the communication is based on
Output text: Producing… The nature of the text that the learner might be expected to produce orparticipate in producing to demonstrate (a specified degree of) understanding orto accomplish a task
Qualities: How well? The qualities that the learner would be expected to demonstrate in carrying outlanguage activities. For production, these qualities are grouped under the CEFRheadings of Linguistic, Pragmatic, Sociolinguistic and Strategic competences andwould answer the question How well?
Restrictions: Provided that… Physical or social conditions and constraints under which the learner would beexpected to perform, i.e. Provided that …
In terms of language functions, English Profile has focused on getting a better understanding of English used at theC levels because these are the least well defined in the CEFR and were not covered by the T series. In keeping withthe evidence led stance of the English Profile Programme, these Can Do statements have a strong empirical basis.English Profile researchers collected data in the form of language learning materials which are aligned to the CEFRand are in use around the world. The range of sources that have informed the English Profile Can Do statements todate include:
CEFR illustrative scales
bestselling international textbooks and related support materials from different publishers includingCambridge University Press
examination handbooks from Cambridge ESOL
curriculum and syllabus documents sourced by English Profile partners such as the British Council, English UKand others
the Bank of descriptors for self assessment in European Language Portfolios (Lenz & Schneider 2004)
online publications by educational institutions such as test specifications and handbooks, proficiency scalesand textbook support materials
additional non publicly available materials from various educational contexts.
Through the EP Network (see Sections 7 and 9), the research team consulted widely on the development of thenew Can Dos for the C levels. The inventory of these refined and contextualised functions is given in Green 2011 inthe form of sets of English Profile Can Do statements. These Can Do Statements are reproduced here and aredivided by mode (spoken or written) and whether relevant for interaction, production or reception.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 37
EnglishProfileCan
DostatementsfortheClevels
Table13:C
anDostatementsforSp
okenInteractionat
theClevels
Activity
Can
…To
pic/Setting
Concernedwith…
Input
Basedon…
Text
Producing…
Qualities–howwell?
Linguistic/
Pragm
atic/Sociolin
guistic/
(XStrategic)
Restrictions
Provided
that…
1.
acco
un
tfo
ran
dsu
stai
nh
is/h
ero
pin
ion
s
com
ple
xte
chn
ical
/ab
stra
ctto
pic
s[s
po
ken
inte
ract
ion
]d
iscu
ssio
nP
9.p
rovi
din
gre
leva
nt
exp
lan
atio
ns,
argu
men
tsan
dco
mm
ents
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
P1
0.c
on
trib
uti
on
sar
ere
leva
nt
and
are
inte
grat
edin
toth
efl
ow
of
the
dis
cou
rse
usi
ng
linki
ng
wo
rds,
rep
etit
ion
of
wo
rds
use
db
yo
ther
par
tici
pan
ts2
. d
iscu
ssth
en
atu
rean
dre
lati
vem
erit
so
fp
arti
cula
rch
oic
es
goo
ds
or
serv
ices
,p
roce
du
res,
cou
rses
of
acti
on
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
P1
0.c
on
trib
uti
on
sar
ere
leva
nt
and
are
inte
grat
edin
toth
efl
ow
of
the
dis
cou
rse
usi
ng
linki
ng
wo
rds,
rep
etit
ion
of
wo
rds
use
db
yo
ther
par
tici
pan
tsX
2.r
epai
rsin
tera
ctio
nas
nec
essa
ry3
. fo
llow
and
con
trib
ute
toco
mp
lex
inte
ract
ion
sb
etw
een
thir
dp
arti
es
abst
ract
,co
mp
lex
un
fam
iliar
top
ics
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
gro
up
dis
cuss
ion
P1
1.t
urn
taki
ng
isn
atu
ral
P1
0.c
on
trib
uti
on
sar
ere
leva
nt
and
are
inte
grat
edin
toth
efl
ow
of
the
dis
cou
rse
usi
ng
linki
ng
wo
rds,
rep
etit
ion
of
wo
rds
use
db
yo
ther
par
tici
pan
tsP
8.c
on
veys
idea
sw
ith
som
ep
reci
sio
n,d
oes
no
tre
sort
tosi
mp
lific
atio
nL2
.is
read
ilyco
mp
reh
ensi
ble
L3.i
nto
nat
ion
isu
sed
tosu
pp
ort
mea
nin
gL4
.use
sa
ran
geo
fgr
amm
atic
alfo
rms
and
voca
bu
lary
app
rop
riat
eto
the
aud
ien
ce,t
op
ican
dso
cial
con
text
38 © UCLES/CUP 2011
S2.a
dju
sts
leve
lof
form
alit
yan
dst
yle
of
spee
chto
suit
soci
alco
nte
xt:f
orm
al,i
nfo
rmal
,co
lloq
uia
lX
2.r
epai
rsin
tera
ctio
nas
nec
essa
ry4
. ev
alu
ate,
rest
ate
and
chal
len
gem
atte
rsw
ith
inth
eir
acad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alco
mp
eten
ce
con
trib
uti
on
sfr
om
oth
erp
arti
cip
ant
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
P1
0.c
on
trib
uti
on
sar
ere
leva
nt
and
are
inte
grat
edin
toth
efl
ow
of
the
dis
cou
rse
usi
ng
linki
ng
wo
rds,
rep
etit
ion
of
wo
rds
use
db
yo
ther
par
tici
pan
ts.
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
5.
fram
ecr
itic
alre
mar
kso
rex
pre
ssst
ron
gd
isag
reem
ent
insu
cha
way
asto
min
imis
ean
yo
ffen
ce
fam
iliar
top
ics/
mat
ters
wit
hin
thei
rac
adem
ico
rp
rofe
ssio
nal
com
pet
ence
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
P1
2.r
emar
ksar
ere
leva
nt
P1
0.c
on
trib
uti
on
sar
ere
leva
nt
and
are
inte
grat
edin
toth
efl
ow
of
the
dis
cou
rse
usi
ng
linki
ng
wo
rds,
rep
etit
ion
of
wo
rds
use
db
yo
ther
par
tici
pan
ts.
S2.a
dju
sts
leve
lof
form
alit
yan
dst
yle
of
spee
chto
suit
soci
alco
nte
xt:f
orm
al,i
nfo
rmal
,co
lloq
uia
lL2
.is
read
ilyco
mp
reh
ensi
ble
;L3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtX
2.r
epai
rsin
tera
ctio
nas
nec
essa
ry6
. ex
pre
sssy
mp
ath
yo
rco
nd
ole
nce
,en
qu
ire
into
the
cau
ses
of
un
hap
pin
ess
or
sad
nes
san
do
ffer
com
fort
per
son
alre
lati
on
ship
s/co
un
selli
ng
role
s
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
con
vers
atio
nL2
.is
read
ilyco
mp
reh
ensi
ble
L6.u
ses
into
nat
ion
and
wo
rdch
oic
eto
exp
ress
mo
od
,d
isti
ngu
ish
ing
bet
wee
nsh
ades
of
feel
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
7.
dis
cuss
wo
rkw
ith
colle
agu
esm
atte
rsw
ith
inth
eir
acad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alco
mp
eten
ce
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
L5.u
sin
gap
pro
pri
ate
tech
nic
alte
rmin
olo
gyL2
.is
read
ilyco
mp
reh
ensi
ble
L3.i
nto
nat
ion
isu
sed
tosu
pp
ort
mea
nin
gP
8.c
on
veys
idea
sw
ith
som
ep
reci
sio
n,d
oes
no
tre
sort
tosi
mp
lific
atio
nL4
.use
sa
ran
geo
fgr
amm
atic
alfo
rms
and
voca
bu
lary
app
rop
riat
eto
the
aud
ien
ce,t
op
ican
dso
cial
con
text
© UCLES/CUP 2011 39
S2.a
dju
sts
leve
lof
form
alit
yan
dst
yle
of
spee
chto
suit
soci
alco
nte
xt:f
orm
al,i
nfo
rmal
,co
lloq
uia
lP
10
.co
ntr
ibu
tio
ns
are
rele
van
tan
dar
ein
tegr
ated
into
the
flo
wo
fth
ed
isco
urs
eu
sin
glin
kin
gw
ord
s,re
pet
itio
no
fw
ord
su
sed
by
oth
erp
arti
cip
ants
X2
.rep
airs
inte
ract
ion
asn
eces
sary
8.
ind
icat
ele
vels
of
will
ingn
ess
or
relu
ctan
cean
dst
ate
con
dit
ion
sw
hen
agre
ein
gto
req
ues
tso
rgr
anti
ng
per
mis
sio
n
req
ues
ts[s
po
ken
inte
ract
ion
]L2
.is
read
ilyco
mp
reh
ensi
ble
L3.i
nto
nat
ion
isu
sed
tosu
pp
ort
mea
nin
gL4
.use
sa
ran
geo
fgr
amm
atic
alfo
rms
and
voca
bu
lary
app
rop
riat
eto
the
aud
ien
ce,t
op
ican
dso
cial
con
text
S2.a
dju
sts
leve
lof
form
alit
yan
dst
yle
of
spee
chto
suit
soci
alco
nte
xt:f
orm
al,i
nfo
rmal
,co
lloq
uia
l
9.
invi
tep
arti
cip
atio
n,
intr
od
uce
sis
sues
,m
anag
esco
ntr
ibu
tio
ns
mee
tin
gso
nm
atte
rsw
ith
inth
eir
acad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alco
mp
eten
ce
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
P1
2.p
lays
ale
adin
gp
art
ind
iscu
ssio
no
rn
ego
tiat
ion
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
X2
.rep
airs
inte
ract
ion
asn
eces
sary
10
. su
mm
aris
ean
dev
alu
ate
mai
np
oin
tsin
dis
cuss
ion
mee
tin
gso
nm
atte
rsw
ith
inth
eir
acad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alco
mp
eten
ce
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
exte
nd
edd
iscu
ssio
no
rn
ego
tiat
ion
P1
3.a
ble
toga
inan
dh
old
flo
or
P1
4.s
um
mar
yis
accu
rate
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
11
. en
qu
ire
abo
ut
and
neg
oti
ate
spec
ial
trea
tmen
t
pri
ces
and
con
dit
ion
so
fsa
lera
tes,
term
san
dco
nd
itio
ns
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
exte
nd
edn
ego
tiat
ion
L5.u
sin
gap
pro
pri
ate
tech
nic
alte
rmin
olo
gyL2
.is
read
ilyco
mp
reh
ensi
ble
L3.i
nto
nat
ion
isu
sed
tosu
pp
ort
mea
nin
gP
8.c
on
veys
idea
sw
ith
som
ep
reci
sio
n,d
oes
no
tre
sort
tosi
mp
lific
atio
nL4
.use
sa
ran
geo
fgr
amm
atic
alfo
rms
and
voca
bu
lary
app
rop
riat
eto
the
aud
ien
ce,t
op
ican
dso
cial
con
text
S2.a
dju
sts
leve
lof
form
alit
yan
dst
yle
of
spee
chto
suit
soci
alco
nte
xt:f
orm
al,i
nfo
rmal
,co
lloq
uia
lX
2.r
epai
rsin
tera
ctio
nas
nec
essa
ry
40 © UCLES/CUP 2011
12
. co
mp
lain
and
neg
oti
ate
red
ress
po
or
serv
ice
e.g.
retu
rnin
gfa
ult
y,in
app
rop
riat
eo
ru
nw
ante
dgo
od
san
dn
ego
tiat
ing
for
are
pla
cem
ent
or
refu
nd
serv
ice
agre
emen
ts[s
po
ken
inte
ract
ion
]ex
ten
ded
neg
oti
atio
nL5
.usi
ng
app
rop
riat
ete
chn
ical
term
ino
logy
L2.
isre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
P8
.co
nve
ysid
eas
wit
hso
me
pre
cisi
on
,do
esn
ot
reso
rtto
sim
plif
icat
ion
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
X2
.rep
airs
inte
ract
ion
asn
eces
sary
13
. ap
olo
gise
and
ask
for
un
der
stan
din
go
fth
eir
po
siti
on
lega
l,re
gula
tory
mat
ters
:in
case
of
infr
inge
men
tso
fre
gula
tio
ns
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
exch
ange
sw
ith
off
icia
lsL2
.is
read
ilyco
mp
reh
ensi
ble
L3.i
nto
nat
ion
isu
sed
tosu
pp
ort
mea
nin
gL4
.use
sa
ran
geo
fgr
amm
atic
alfo
rms
and
voca
bu
lary
app
rop
riat
eto
the
aud
ien
ce,t
op
ican
dso
cial
con
text
S2.a
dju
sts
leve
lof
form
alit
yan
dst
yle
of
spee
chto
suit
soci
alco
nte
xt:f
orm
al,i
nfo
rmal
,co
lloq
uia
lX
2.r
epai
rsin
tera
ctio
nas
nec
essa
ry
infr
inge
men
tsar
em
ino
r
14
. ex
pre
ssre
gret
san
dn
egat
ive
wis
hes
or
inte
nti
on
s
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
X2
.rep
airs
inte
ract
ion
asn
eces
sary
15
. es
tab
lish
solid
arit
yw
ith
inte
rlo
cuto
rsth
rou
ghsy
mp
ath
etic
qu
esti
on
ing
and
exp
ress
ion
so
fag
reem
ent
com
pla
ints
abo
ut
thir
dp
arti
es/
con
dit
ion
s
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
info
rmal
con
vers
atio
n(w
ith
frie
nd
s)
P1
5.c
on
trib
uti
on
sar
ein
tegr
ated
into
the
flo
wo
fth
ed
isco
urs
eu
sin
glin
kin
gw
ord
s,re
pet
itio
no
fw
ord
su
sed
by
oth
erp
arti
cip
ants
S2.a
dju
sts
leve
lof
form
alit
yan
dst
yle
of
spee
chto
suit
soci
alco
nte
xt:f
orm
al,i
nfo
rmal
,co
lloq
uia
lL2
.is
read
ilyco
mp
reh
ensi
ble
L6.u
ses
into
nat
ion
and
wo
rdch
oic
eto
exp
ress
mo
od
,d
isti
ngu
ish
ing
bet
wee
nsh
ades
of
feel
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtX
2.r
epai
rsin
tera
ctio
nas
nec
essa
ry
© UCLES/CUP 2011 41
16
. as
kfo
rex
pla
nat
ion
or
clar
ific
atio
nan
dn
ego
tiat
eu
nd
erst
and
ing
com
ple
x,ab
stra
ctid
eas
acad
emic
/p
rofe
ssio
nal
mat
ters
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
dis
cuss
ion
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
X2
.rep
airs
inte
ract
ion
asn
eces
sary
17
. n
ego
tiat
ea
cou
rse
of
acti
on
wit
ha
par
tner
or
gro
up
,re
po
rtin
go
nw
hat
oth
ers
hav
esa
id,
sum
mar
izin
g,el
abo
rati
ng
and
wei
ghin
gu
pm
ult
iple
po
ints
of
view
[sp
oke
nin
tera
ctio
n]
dis
cuss
ion
P1
5.c
on
trib
uti
on
sar
ein
tegr
ated
into
the
flo
wo
fth
ed
isco
urs
eu
sin
glin
kin
gw
ord
s,re
pet
itio
no
fw
ord
su
sed
by
oth
erp
arti
cip
ants
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
X2
.rep
airs
inte
ract
ion
asn
eces
sary
Table14:C
anDostatementsforSp
okenProductionat
theClevels
Activity
Can
…To
pic/Setting
Concernedwith…
Inputtext
Basedon…
Outputtext
Producing…
Qualities–howwell?
Linguistic/
Pragm
atic/Sociolin
guistic/
(XStrategic)
Restrictions
Provided
that…
18
. in
terp
ret
spec
ialis
tto
pic
sto
the
layp
erso
n
com
ple
xte
chn
ical
top
ics
[sp
oke
np
rod
uct
ion
]ad
dre
ssin
gau
die
nce
sL1
.ab
leto
spea
kat
len
gth
asre
qu
ired
L2.
isre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4go
od
com
man
do
fn
on
tech
nic
alci
rcu
mlo
cuti
on
,id
iom
atic
exp
ress
ion
san
dco
lloq
uia
lism
sL4
.use
sa
ran
geo
fgr
amm
atic
alfo
rms
and
voca
bu
lary
app
rop
riat
eto
the
aud
ien
ce,t
op
ican
dso
cial
con
text
P2
.man
ipu
late
sth
eo
rder
of
elem
ents
toco
ntr
ol
info
rmat
ion
focu
sS1
.mak
esto
pic
acce
ssib
leto
the
layp
erso
nS2
.ad
just
sle
velo
ffo
rmal
ity
and
styl
eo
fsp
eech
tosu
itso
cial
con
text
:fo
rmal
,in
form
al,c
ollo
qu
ial
S3co
nsi
sten
tre
gist
erX
1ch
ecks
com
pre
hen
sio
n
top
ics
rela
teto
his
/her
fiel
do
fin
tere
stp
rese
nta
tio
np
rep
ared
ind
epen
den
tly
19
. q
ual
ify
asse
rtio
ns
com
ple
xte
chn
ical
/ab
stra
ctto
pic
s[s
po
ken
pro
du
ctio
n]
add
ress
ing
aud
ien
ces
L1.a
ble
tosp
eak
atle
ngt
has
req
uir
edL2
.is
read
ilyco
mp
reh
ensi
ble
L3.i
nto
nat
ion
isu
sed
tosu
pp
ort
mea
nin
g
42 © UCLES/CUP 2011
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtL5
.in
dic
atin
gle
vels
of
con
fid
ence
or
un
cert
ain
tyP
1.c
lear
P3
.dem
on
stra
tes
flex
ibili
tyan
dco
ntr
olo
fn
uan
ces
P7
.wel
lst
ruct
ure
dan
dd
evel
op
ed2
0.
def
ine
or
spec
ify
com
ple
xte
chn
ical
/ab
stra
ctto
pic
s[s
po
ken
pro
du
ctio
n]
add
ress
ing
aud
ien
ces
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
eau
die
nce
,to
pic
and
soci
alco
nte
xtP
1.c
lear
P2
.dem
on
stra
tes
flex
ibili
tyan
dco
ntr
olo
fn
uan
ces
P4
.in
det
ail,
dis
tin
guis
hin
gb
etw
een
ob
ject
so
rco
nce
pts
that
clo
sely
rese
mb
leea
cho
ther
P5
.at
len
gth
P7
.wel
lst
ruct
ure
dan
dd
evel
op
ed
top
ics
rela
teto
his
/her
fiel
do
fin
tere
st
21
. gi
vein
stru
ctio
nse
ries
of
com
ple
xp
rofe
ssio
nal
/ac
adem
icp
roce
du
res
[sp
oke
np
rod
uct
ion
][s
ust
ain
edm
on
olo
gue]
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
ein
terl
ocu
tor(
s),t
op
ican
dso
cial
con
text
L5.u
sin
gap
pro
pri
ate
tech
nic
alte
rmin
olo
gyP
1.c
lear
P5
.at
len
gth
P6
.det
aile
dP
7.w
ell
stru
ctu
red
and
dev
elo
ped
P8
.co
nve
ysid
eas
wit
hso
me
pre
cisi
on
,do
esn
ot
reso
rtto
sim
plif
icat
ion
X1
.ch
ecks
com
pre
hen
sio
nas
nec
essa
ry
inst
ruct
ion
sto
aw
ork
colle
agu
eo
rst
ud
ent
wit
hso
me
tech
nic
alkn
ow
led
ge
22
. sp
ecu
late
or
hyp
oth
esis
e,co
mp
arin
gan
dev
alu
atin
ga
nu
mb
ero
fp
oss
ible
dev
elo
pm
ents
[sp
oke
np
rod
uct
ion
][s
ust
ain
edm
on
olo
gue]
P1
.cle
arP
6.
det
aile
dP
5.a
tle
ngt
hP
7.w
ell
stru
ctu
red
and
dev
elo
ped
L2.i
sre
adily
com
pre
hen
sib
leL3
.in
ton
atio
nis
use
dto
sup
po
rtm
ean
ing
P8
.co
nve
ysid
eas
wit
hso
me
pre
cisi
on
,do
esn
ot
reso
rtto
sim
plif
icat
ion
L4.u
ses
ara
nge
of
gram
mat
ical
form
san
dvo
cab
ula
ryap
pro
pri
ate
toth
ein
terl
ocu
tor(
s),t
op
ican
dso
cial
con
text
© UCLES/CUP 2011 43
Table15:En
glishProfileCan
DostatementsforSpokenReceptionat
theClevels
Activity
Can
…Text
Whenlisteningto…
Text
characteristics
Characterisedby…
Topic/Setting
Concernedwith…
Qualities
Howwell?
Restrictions
Provided
that…
23
. m
ake
no
tes
toex
trac
tan
dre
con
stru
ctth
em
ain
po
ints
and
key
sup
po
rtin
gd
etai
ls
pre
sen
tati
on
s,le
ctu
res
or
do
cum
enta
ryb
road
cast
s
exte
nd
edm
on
olo
gue
com
ple
xp
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
sin
volv
ing
det
aile
dp
rop
osi
tio
nal
info
rmat
ion
that
isn
ewto
the
liste
ner
and
incl
ud
esab
stra
ctco
nce
pts
pro
du
ces
accu
rate
and
det
aile
dsu
mm
ary
or
text
leve
lrep
rese
nta
tio
no
ffa
ctu
alco
nte
nt
sum
mar
ises
the
mai
np
oin
tsac
cura
tely
resp
on
ds
toq
ues
tio
ns
of
det
ail
stan
dar
dac
cen
ts,
fam
iliar
toth
elis
ten
erra
teo
fsp
eech
isn
atu
ral
24
. ex
trac
tth
egi
stan
dd
isti
ngu
ish
bet
wee
no
pin
ion
s
info
rmal
mee
tin
gsan
dd
iscu
ssio
ns
mu
lti
par
tici
pan
td
iscu
ssio
nw
ith
no
nlin
ear
org
anis
atio
n,
freq
uen
tco
lloq
uia
lism
san
do
verl
app
ing
turn
s
per
son
alo
rp
ub
licto
pic
so
fge
ner
alin
tere
stid
enti
fies
the
mai
np
oin
tsb
ein
gm
ade
by
par
tici
pan
tsid
enti
fies
alla
reas
of
agre
emen
tan
dd
isag
reem
ent
bet
wee
np
arti
cip
ants
con
vers
atio
nis
anim
ated
–at
afa
stn
atu
ralr
ate
voic
esar
eea
sily
dif
fere
nti
ated
or
aud
iois
sup
po
rted
by
imag
esla
ngu
age
isst
and
ard
,b
ut
ara
nge
of
acce
nts
are
use
d
25
. id
enti
fyth
eem
oti
on
so
rat
titu
des
of
spea
kers
info
rmal
mee
tin
gsan
dd
iscu
ssio
ns
mu
lti
par
tici
pan
td
iscu
ssio
nm
arke
db
yn
on
linea
ro
rgan
isat
ion
,co
lloq
uia
lism
san
do
verl
app
ing
turn
s
per
son
al,p
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
,p
rofe
ssio
nal
top
ics
accu
rate
lyid
enti
fies
the
atti
tud
eso
rem
oti
on
sco
nve
yed
imp
licit
lyb
yst
ress
,pit
chan
din
ton
atio
n,l
exic
alch
oic
es
con
vers
atio
nis
anim
ated
–at
afa
stn
atu
ralr
ate
voic
esar
eea
sily
dif
fere
nti
ated
or
aud
iois
sup
po
rted
by
imag
esla
ngu
age
isst
and
ard
,b
ut
ara
nge
of
acce
nts
are
use
d
26
. ex
trac
tgi
st,d
etai
l,p
urp
ose
san
dm
ain
po
ints
form
ald
iscu
ssio
ns
on
acad
emic
,pu
blic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
s
dia
logu
es,m
ult
ip
arti
cip
ant
dis
cuss
ion
wit
hfo
rmal
turn
taki
ng
and
org
anis
atio
n–
may
be
med
iate
db
ya
chai
rper
son
com
ple
xp
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
sin
volv
ing
det
aile
dp
rop
osi
tio
nal
info
rmat
ion
that
isn
ewto
the
liste
ner
:fa
cts,
def
init
ion
s
pro
du
ces
accu
rate
and
det
aile
dsu
mm
ary
or
text
leve
lrep
rese
nta
tio
no
ffa
ctu
alco
nte
nt,
sho
win
gre
lati
on
ship
sb
etw
een
idea
sac
cura
tely
resp
on
ds
toq
ues
tio
ns
of
det
ail
con
trib
uti
on
sar
ecl
earl
yp
rese
nte
d–
inte
nd
edfo
ran
aud
ien
ceas
wel
las
fello
wp
arti
cip
ants
stan
dar
dac
cen
t,fa
mili
arto
the
liste
ner
27
. ex
trac
t,se
lect
and
mu
ltip
leso
urc
es:
vari
ety
of
spo
ken
com
ple
x,ab
stra
ctex
trac
tsan
dev
alu
ates
info
rmat
ion
and
op
inio
ns
stan
dar
dac
cen
t,
44 © UCLES/CUP 2011
inte
grat
ed
etai
led
info
rmat
ion
req
uir
edto
carr
yo
ut
rela
ted
task
s
text
typ
es:e
xten
ded
mo
no
logu
es,m
ult
ip
arti
cip
ant
dis
cuss
ion
s
per
son
al,p
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
,p
rofe
ssio
nal
top
ics
fro
md
iffe
ren
tso
urc
esin
tegr
ates
thes
ein
pre
par
atio
nfo
ra
rep
ort
,es
say
or
po
siti
on
pap
eret
c.
fam
iliar
toth
elis
ten
erd
iscu
ssio
ns
are
form
alan
dst
ruct
ure
d
28
. id
enti
fy,a
nal
yse
and
eval
uat
eth
eu
seo
fin
tera
ctiv
esp
oke
nla
ngu
age
for
per
suas
ion
form
ald
ebat
es,
inte
rvie
ws,
bu
sin
ess
inte
ract
ion
s,si
tuat
ion
so
fp
erso
nal
or
pu
blic
con
flic
t
dia
logu
es,m
ult
ip
arti
cip
ant
dis
cuss
ion
s
per
son
al,p
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
,p
rofe
ssio
nal
top
ics
iden
tifi
esh
ow
lingu
isti
cre
sou
rces
(str
ess,
pit
chan
din
ton
atio
n,l
exic
alch
oic
es)
are
use
db
yp
arti
cip
ants
tore
solv
eco
nfl
ict,
bu
ildco
nse
nsu
s,p
rom
ote
view
set
c.an
dev
alu
ates
the
succ
ess
of
thes
est
rate
gies
inan
inte
ract
ion
ind
ialo
gues
/d
iscu
ssio
ns,
voic
esar
eea
sily
dif
fere
nti
ated
or
aud
iois
sup
po
rted
by
imag
esla
ngu
age
isst
and
ard
,b
ut
ara
nge
of
acce
nts
are
use
d
29
. ev
alu
ate
pre
sen
tati
on
sin
rela
tio
nto
thei
rp
urp
ose
and
aud
ien
ce
pre
sen
tati
on
s,sp
eech
es,
exte
nd
edm
on
olo
gue
per
son
al,p
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
,p
rofe
ssio
nal
top
ics
iden
tifi
essp
eake
rp
urp
ose
and
inte
nd
edau
die
nce
eval
uat
esth
eu
seo
fla
ngu
age
inre
lati
on
toth
ese:
sugg
ests
imp
rove
men
ts
lan
guag
eis
stan
dar
d,
bu
ta
ran
geo
fac
cen
tsm
ayb
eu
sed
rate
of
spee
chis
nat
ura
l
30
. in
tegr
ate
info
rmat
ion
and
det
aile
din
stru
ctio
ns
toca
rry
ou
tco
mp
lex
task
sin
volv
ing
mu
ltip
leel
emen
ts
mu
ltip
leso
urc
esex
ten
ded
mo
no
logu
es,
dia
logu
es
per
son
al,p
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
,p
rofe
ssio
nal
top
ics
bri
ngs
toge
ther
info
rmat
ion
fro
md
iffe
ren
tso
urc
esto
des
crib
ea
task
tob
eca
rrie
do
ut
and
step
sto
com
ple
teth
eta
sk
lan
guag
eis
stan
dar
d,
bu
ta
ran
geo
fac
cen
tsm
ayb
eu
sed
rate
of
spee
chis
nat
ura
lu
nfa
mili
arp
roce
sso
rp
roce
du
reth
eco
nte
xtis
fam
iliar
–p
erso
nal
toth
elis
ten
ero
rw
ith
inth
elis
ten
er’s
acad
emic
/p
rofe
ssio
nal
fiel
d
© UCLES/CUP 2011 45
Table16:En
glishProfileCan
DostatementsforWrittenInteractionat
theClevels
Activity
Can
…To
pic/Setting
Concernedwith…
Inputtext
Basedon…
Outputtext
Producing…
Qualities–howwell?
Linguistic/
Pragm
atic/Sociolin
guistic
Restrictions
Provided
that…
31
. W
rite
insu
pp
ort
of
aca
nd
idat
efo
ra
job
or
awar
d
per
son
alo
rp
rofe
ssio
nal
resu
me
[wri
tten
inte
ract
ion
]le
tter
/em
ailo
fre
fere
nce
L1.m
ain
tain
sh
igh
leve
lso
flin
guis
tic
accu
racy
ove
rex
ten
ded
text
L2.m
akes
effe
ctiv
eu
seo
flin
guis
tic
mo
dal
ity
tosi
gnal
the
stre
ngt
ho
fcl
aim
,arg
um
ent,
or
po
siti
on
L5.c
om
ple
xP
1.c
lear
P2
.ap
pro
pri
ate
and
effe
ctiv
elo
gica
lstr
uct
ure
wh
ich
hel
ps
the
read
erto
fin
dsi
gnif
ican
tp
oin
tsP
6.r
each
esa
po
siti
on
or
con
clu
sio
nP
7.w
ell
stru
ctu
red
and
dev
elo
ped
P9
.lo
gica
lP
10
.use
sco
nve
nti
on
alel
emen
tso
fge
nre
stru
ctu
reS1
.sty
leap
pro
pri
ate
toth
ege
nre
ado
pte
dan
dto
the
read
erin
min
d
32
. W
rite
ap
ersu
asiv
eap
plic
atio
nac
adem
ico
rp
rofe
ssio
nal
emp
loym
ent
per
son
alin
form
atio
n[w
ritt
enp
rod
uct
ion
]jo
b/
stu
dy
app
licat
ion
lett
er/
emai
l
L1.m
ain
tain
sh
igh
leve
lso
flin
guis
tic
accu
racy
ove
rex
ten
ded
text
L2.m
akes
effe
ctiv
eu
seo
flin
guis
tic
mo
dal
ity
tosi
gnal
the
stre
ngt
ho
fcl
aim
,arg
um
ent,
or
po
siti
on
L5.c
om
ple
xP
1.c
lear
P2
.ap
pro
pri
ate
and
effe
ctiv
elo
gica
lstr
uct
ure
wh
ich
hel
ps
the
read
erto
fin
dsi
gnif
ican
tp
oin
tsP
6.r
each
esa
po
siti
on
or
con
clu
sio
nP
7.w
ell
stru
ctu
red
and
dev
elo
ped
P9
.lo
gica
lP
10
.use
sco
nve
nti
on
alel
emen
tso
fge
nre
stru
ctu
reS1
.sty
leap
pro
pri
ate
toth
ege
nre
ado
pte
dan
dto
the
read
erin
min
d
emp
loym
ent/
stu
dy
wit
hin
his
/her
fiel
do
fin
tere
st
33
. Ev
alu
ate,
rest
ate
and
chal
len
gean
argu
men
t
pro
fess
ion
alo
rac
adem
ico
nlin
ed
iscu
ssio
n[w
ritt
enin
tera
ctio
n]
on
line
dis
cuss
ion
L1.m
ain
tain
sh
igh
leve
lso
flin
guis
tic
accu
racy
ove
rex
ten
ded
seq
uen
ceo
ftu
rns
P1
.cle
arP
10
.use
sco
nve
nti
on
alel
emen
tso
fge
nre
stru
ctu
reS1
.sty
leap
pro
pri
ate
toth
ege
nre
ado
pte
dan
dto
the
read
erin
min
dX
2.r
epai
rsin
tera
ctio
nas
nec
essa
ry
inre
alti
me
34
. A
skfo
rco
mp
lex,
abst
ract
[wri
tten
inte
ract
ion
]L1
.mai
nta
ins
hig
hle
vels
of
lingu
isti
cac
cura
cyo
ver
inre
alti
me
46 © UCLES/CUP 2011
exp
lan
atio
no
rcl
arif
icat
ion
and
neg
oti
ate
un
der
stan
din
g
idea
sac
adem
ic/
pro
fess
ion
alm
atte
rs
on
line
dis
cuss
ion
exte
nd
edse
qu
ence
of
turn
sP
1.c
lear
P1
0.u
ses
con
ven
tio
nal
elem
ents
of
gen
rest
ruct
ure
S1.s
tyle
app
rop
riat
eto
the
gen
read
op
ted
and
toth
ere
ader
inm
ind
X2
.rep
airs
inte
ract
ion
asn
eces
sary
35
. ex
pre
sssy
mp
ath
yo
rco
nd
ole
nce
and
off
erco
mfo
rt
sen
siti
vep
erso
nal
mat
ters
new
so
fb
erea
vem
ent/
div
orc
e
[wri
tten
inte
ract
ion
]le
tter
of
sym
pat
hy,
con
do
len
ce
L1.m
ain
tain
sh
igh
leve
lso
flin
guis
tic
accu
racy
ove
rex
ten
ded
text
L2.m
akes
effe
ctiv
eu
seo
flin
guis
tic
mo
dal
ity
tosi
gnal
the
stre
ngt
ho
fcl
aim
,arg
um
ent,
or
po
siti
on
L5.c
om
ple
xP
1.c
lear
P7
.wel
lst
ruct
ure
dan
dd
evel
op
edP
9.l
ogi
cal
P1
0.u
ses
con
ven
tio
nal
elem
ents
of
gen
rest
ruct
ure
S1.s
tyle
app
rop
riat
eto
the
gen
read
op
ted
and
toth
ere
ader
inm
ind
© UCLES/CUP 2011 47
Table17:En
glishProfileCan
DostatementsforWrittenProductionat
theClevels
Activity
Can
…To
pic/Setting
Concernedwith…
Inputtext
Basedon…
Outputtext
Producing…
Qualities–howwell?
Linguistic/
Pragm
atic/Sociolin
guistic
Restrictions
Provided
that…
36
. in
corp
ora
tein
form
atio
nd
raw
nfr
om
the
wo
rko
fo
ther
sin
toh
is/h
ero
wn
text
com
ple
xac
adem
ico
rp
rofe
ssio
nal
top
ics
pro
fess
ion
alo
rac
adem
icte
xts
[wri
tten
pro
du
ctio
n]
rep
ort
s,ar
ticl
eso
res
says
P1
.cle
arP
2.
app
rop
riat
ean
def
fect
ive
logi
cal
stru
ctu
rew
hic
hh
elp
sth
ere
ader
tofi
nd
sign
ific
ant
po
ints
P3
.wit
ho
ut
infr
ingi
ng
con
ven
tio
nal
lyac
cep
ted
acad
emic
/pro
fess
ion
alst
and
ard
so
fth
eu
seo
fo
ther
s’w
ork
37
. se
to
ut
mu
ltip
lep
ersp
ecti
ves
on
anin
telle
ctu
alis
sue
com
ple
xac
adem
ico
rp
rofe
ssio
nal
top
ics
pro
fess
ion
alo
rac
adem
icte
xts
[wri
tten
pro
du
ctio
n]
rep
ort
s,ar
ticl
eso
res
says
L1.
mai
nta
ins
hig
hle
vels
of
lingu
isti
cac
cura
cyo
ver
exte
nd
edte
xtL2
.m
akes
effe
ctiv
eu
seo
flin
guis
tic
mo
dal
ity
tosi
gnal
the
stre
ngt
ho
fcl
aim
,arg
um
ent,
or
po
siti
on
P4
.mak
escl
ear
auth
or’
so
wn
stan
ceo
nth
eis
sue
P5
.cl
earl
yd
isti
ngu
ish
eso
wn
idea
san
do
pin
ion
sfr
om
tho
seo
f(m
ult
iple
)so
urc
esS1
.sty
leap
pro
pri
ate
toth
ege
nre
ado
pte
d
top
icw
ith
inh
is/h
erfi
eld
of
inte
rest
38
. d
escr
ibe
and
inte
rpre
tco
mp
lex
acad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
s
emp
iric
ald
ata
fro
mre
sear
ch[w
ritt
enp
rod
uct
ion
]re
po
rts,
arti
cles
or
essa
ysL1
.m
ain
tain
sh
igh
leve
lso
flin
guis
tic
accu
racy
ove
rex
ten
ded
text
L3.a
tle
ngt
h(5
00
wo
rds
plu
s)P
1.c
lear
P6
.rea
ches
ap
osi
tio
no
rco
ncl
usi
on
P7
.wel
lst
ruct
ure
dan
dd
evel
op
edS1
.sty
leap
pro
pri
ate
toth
ege
nre
ado
pte
d
39
. p
rese
nt
spec
ialis
tm
ater
ial
com
ple
xac
adem
ico
rp
rofe
ssio
nal
top
ics
rese
arch
or
pro
fess
ion
al/
acad
emic
text
s
[wri
tten
pro
du
ctio
n]
rep
ort
s,ar
ticl
eso
res
says
for
age
ner
alau
die
nce
L1.
mai
nta
ins
hig
hle
vels
of
lingu
isti
cac
cura
cyo
ver
exte
nd
edte
xtL3
.at
len
gth
(50
0w
ord
sp
lus)
L4.u
ses
suit
ably
no
nte
chn
ical
wo
rds
and
ph
rase
sP
1.c
lear
P7
.wel
lst
ruct
ure
dan
dd
evel
op
edS1
.st
yle
app
rop
riat
eto
the
gen
read
op
ted
and
toth
ere
ader
inm
ind
S2.
acce
ssib
leto
anau
die
nce
that
isn
ot
fam
iliar
wit
hth
eto
pic
top
icw
ith
inh
is/h
erfi
eld
of
inte
rest
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
for
red
raft
ing
and
revi
sio
n
40
. d
efin
eo
rsp
ecif
yco
mp
lex
acad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
s
Per
son
alex
per
ien
ces/
text
s
[wri
tten
pro
du
ctio
n]
rep
ort
s,ar
ticl
eso
res
says
L3.a
tle
ngt
h(5
00
wo
rds
plu
s)P
8.
ind
etai
l,d
isti
ngu
ish
ing
bet
wee
no
bje
cts
or
con
cep
tsth
atcl
ose
lyre
sem
ble
each
oth
erL1
.m
ain
tain
sh
igh
leve
lso
flin
guis
tic
accu
racy
ove
r
48 © UCLES/CUP 2011
exte
nd
edte
xtP
1.c
lear
L5.c
om
ple
xP
9.l
ogi
cal
P7
.wel
lst
ruct
ure
dan
dd
evel
op
ed
41
. w
rite
anin
tro
du
ctio
nco
mp
lex
acad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
s
Co
text
[wri
tten
pro
du
ctio
n]
lon
ger
rep
ort
s,ar
ticl
eso
rd
isse
rtat
ion
s
L1.
mai
nta
ins
hig
hle
vels
of
lingu
isti
cac
cura
cyo
ver
exte
nd
edte
xtL3
.at
len
gth
(50
0w
ord
sp
lus)
L5.c
om
ple
xP
1.c
lear
P7
.wel
lst
ruct
ure
dan
dd
evel
op
edP
9.l
ogi
cal
P1
0.u
ses
con
ven
tio
nal
elem
ents
of
gen
rest
ruct
ure
P1
1.
pre
sen
tin
gke
yel
emen
tsto
be
dev
elo
ped
insu
ccee
din
gte
xt
top
icw
ith
inh
is/h
erfi
eld
of
inte
rest
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
for
red
raft
ing
and
revi
sio
n
42
. w
rite
aco
ncl
usi
on
com
ple
xac
adem
ico
rp
rofe
ssio
nal
top
ics
Co
text
[wri
tten
pro
du
ctio
n]
lon
ger
rep
ort
s,ar
ticl
eso
rd
isse
rtat
ion
s
L1.
mai
nta
ins
hig
hle
vels
of
lingu
isti
cac
cura
cyo
ver
exte
nd
edte
xtL3
.at
len
gth
(50
0w
ord
sp
lus)
L5.c
om
ple
xP
1.c
lear
P7
.wel
lst
ruct
ure
dan
dd
evel
op
edP
9.l
ogi
cal
P1
0.u
ses
con
ven
tio
nal
elem
ents
of
gen
rest
ruct
ure
P1
2.
revi
ews
and
sum
mar
ises
anex
ten
ded
exp
osi
tio
no
rar
gum
ent
top
icw
ith
inh
is/h
erfi
eld
of
inte
rest
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
for
red
raft
ing
and
revi
sio
n
© UCLES/CUP 2011 49
Table18:En
glishProfileCan
DostatementsforWrittenReceptionat
theClevels
Activity
Can
…Text
Whenread
ing…
Text
characteristics
Characterisedby…
Topic/Setting
Concernedwith…
Qualities–howwell?
Restrictions
Provided
that…
43
. d
emo
nst
rate
com
pre
hen
sive
un
der
stan
din
g
arti
cles
inse
rio
us
new
spap
ers
or
mag
azin
es;
refe
ren
ceb
oo
ks;
spec
ialis
edac
adem
ic/
pro
fess
ion
alp
ub
licat
ion
s
len
gth
y,co
mp
lex
sen
ten
ces
infr
equ
ent,
som
etim
este
chn
ical
voca
bu
lary
form
alre
gist
er
com
ple
xp
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
sco
nve
yin
gd
etai
led
pro
po
siti
on
alin
form
atio
nth
atis
new
toth
ere
ader
:fa
cts,
def
init
ion
s
pro
du
ces
accu
rate
and
det
aile
dsu
mm
ary
or
text
leve
lrep
rese
nta
tio
no
ffa
ctu
alco
nte
nt,
sho
win
gre
lati
on
ship
sb
etw
een
idea
sac
cura
tely
resp
on
ds
toq
ues
tio
ns
of
det
ail
acce
ssto
refe
ren
ceto
ols
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
for
rere
adin
gte
xts
add
ress
edto
gen
eral
edu
cate
dre
ader
ship
OR
text
sad
dre
ssed
top
rofe
ssio
nal
/ac
adem
icco
mm
un
ity
tow
hic
hle
arn
erb
elo
ngs
44
. in
tegr
ate
idea
sac
ross
text
s:co
mp
are,
con
tras
t,sy
nth
esiz
e
arti
cles
inse
rio
us
new
spap
ers
or
mag
azin
es;
refe
ren
ceb
oo
ks;
spec
ialis
edac
adem
ic/
pro
fess
ion
alp
ub
licat
ion
s
len
gth
y,co
mp
lex
sen
ten
ces
infr
equ
ent,
som
etim
este
chn
ical
voca
bu
lary
form
alre
gist
er
com
ple
x,p
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
sin
clu
din
gab
stra
ctid
eas
iden
tifi
esal
lmai
nar
eas
of
agre
emen
tan
dd
isag
reem
ent
acro
sste
xts
sele
cts
elem
ents
fro
mtw
oo
rm
ore
text
sto
con
stru
cta
bal
ance
dre
spo
nse
toa
qu
esti
on
acce
ssto
refe
ren
ceto
ols
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
for
rere
adin
gte
xts
add
ress
edto
gen
eral
edu
cate
dre
ader
ship
OR
text
sad
dre
ssed
top
rofe
ssio
nal
/ac
adem
icco
mm
un
ity
tow
hic
hle
arn
erb
elo
ngs
45
. d
emo
nst
rate
un
der
stan
din
go
fim
plic
itat
titu
des
and
op
inio
ns
arti
cles
inse
rio
us
new
spap
ers
or
mag
azin
es;
refe
ren
ceb
oo
ks;
spec
ialis
edac
adem
ic/
pro
fess
ion
alp
ub
licat
ion
s
lingu
isti
cm
ean
sfo
rco
nve
yin
gat
titu
de
incl
ud
eu
seo
fm
etap
ho
r/m
arke
dsy
nta
x/le
xica
lco
nn
ota
tio
nTe
xts
char
acte
rise
db
y:le
ngt
hy,
com
ple
xse
nte
nce
sin
freq
uen
t,so
met
imes
com
ple
xp
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
s;co
nve
yin
gat
titu
des
and
op
inio
ns
accu
rate
lysu
mm
aris
esth
evi
ews
of
the
wri
ter
acce
ssto
refe
ren
ceto
ols
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
for
rere
adin
gte
xts
add
ress
edto
gen
eral
edu
cate
dre
ader
ship
OR
text
sad
dre
ssed
top
rofe
ssio
nal
/
50 © UCLES/CUP 2011
tech
nic
alvo
cab
ula
ryfo
rmal
regi
ster
acad
emic
com
mu
nit
yto
wh
ich
lear
ner
bel
on
gs
46
. d
emo
nst
rate
com
pre
hen
sive
un
der
stan
din
g
per
son
alm
essa
ges
inin
form
alle
tter
s,em
ails
etc.
info
rmal
arti
cles
,w
eblo
gset
c.
info
rmal
regi
ster
collo
qu
iale
xpre
ssio
ns
ellip
tica
lco
hes
ion
cult
ura
lref
eren
ces
com
ple
xp
ub
lic,a
cad
emic
or
pro
fess
ion
alto
pic
sco
nve
yin
gd
etai
led
pro
po
siti
on
alin
form
atio
nth
atis
new
toth
ere
ader
:fa
cts,
def
init
ion
s
pro
du
ces
accu
rate
and
det
aile
dsu
mm
ary
or
text
leve
lrep
rese
nta
tio
no
ffa
ctu
alco
nte
nt,
sho
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49
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52 © UCLES/CUP 2011
4 English Vocabulary Profile
The main thrust of the EP Programme’s research on vocabulary has resulted in the English Vocabulary Profile(Capel 2011), an interactive online resource which describes the vocabulary which learners of English know at eachlevel of the CEFR. It provides a large searchable database of detailed information on the words and phrases thatare appropriate for learners at each level of the CEFR and is already being used to inform teaching, publishing andassessment activities, with further uses and upgrades planned.
Compiling the English Vocabulary Profile
The English Vocabulary Profile research has been substantially but not exclusively corpus informed. We have usedboth the Cambridge English Corpus, a 1.2 billion word collection of written and spoken English, and the CambridgeLearner Corpus, a unique corpus of written learner English, currently standing at 45 million words and whichincludes student writing at all six CEFR levels, and from over 200 countries. Work is now underway to construct aspoken learner corpus of 2 million words, which will further inform future iterations of the English VocabularyProfile by providing evidence of vocabulary in L2 speech, in both testing and other contexts.
In combination with this corpus evidence, we have monitored a range of classroom based sources, includingwordlists from leading coursebooks, readers’ wordlists and the content of vocabulary skills books. We have alsoreferred to the Vocabulary Lists for Cambridge ESOL’s Key English Test (KET) and Preliminary English Test (PET)examinations, which have been in use since 1994 and have been regularly updated to reflect language change andpatterns of use. Finally, even though it was published thirty years ago, the Cambridge English Lexicon by RolandHindmarsh (1980) has proved invaluable as a checking source, where the language has not evolved over time; ittoo was organised at meaning level.
Many people will already be familiar with the working title of the project, which was English Profile Wordlists.However, the resource is much more than a list of words for each CEFR level. The current English VocabularyProfile:
contains words, phrases, phrasal verbs and idioms
presents the level of each meaning of a word in CEFR order, to suggest learning priorities
provides detailed dictionary style entries with clear definitions, grammatical information and guidewords tomeanings
includes audio and written pronunciations
contains many real examples, from dictionaries and from actual learners at an appropriate level
can be searched according to different filters, including parts of speech, grammar, usage, topic and affixes
contains both British English and American English versions which users can easily switch between.
What does it mean to “know” a word?
The core objective of the English Vocabulary Profile project has been to establish which words and phrases arecommonly known by learners around the world. What is meant by “know” in this context? We have not attemptedto separate receptive competence from productive as, in reality, so much will depend on learning styles andpriorities. In general, communicative classrooms in the 21st century provide more consistent opportunities forusing new language than a generation ago. Added to that is the unlimited access that most students have to theInternet, where they will be browsing but also actively participating through English. For us, ‘knowing’ a word is acumulative process, which implies lifelong learning, as further meanings and uses are acquired.
Take for example the word know. The English Vocabulary Profile entry for this word stretches from A1 to C2 level,with figurative and idiomatic uses coming in at the higher CEFR levels, suggesting that there are additional
© UCLES/CUP 2011 53
meanings and phrases containing know that are not acquired until the C levels, see the core results for know inBritish English below:
Key features of the English Vocabulary Profile
There are several key features of the English Vocabulary Profile, starting with its presentation of differentmeanings for the same word. The English Vocabulary Profile operates at the level of individual meanings, unlikemost vocabulary resources as some meanings are quite distinct from the core meaning of a word, and will beencountered by learners at different CEFR levels. The English Vocabulary Profile team have evaluated each senseof a word, starting from its frequency for first language users and comparing that with learner data through CUP’scorpus informed dictionary database, which is the only monolingual English dictionary resource to flag frequencyat sense level.
The EVP also includes extensive information about phrases based on state of the art research on phrasalexpressions, for example make your way, which has a B2 sense of literally get to a place versus the C2 figurativesense of make your way in a career:
54 © UCLES/CUP 2011
Similarly, learner knowledge of phrasal verbs is being investigated by an EP Network partner in Japan who isconducting a large scale test to evaluate the relative difficulty of 100 of the 442 phrasal verbs that are currentlyincluded in the A1 to B2 levels. This test, which is being replicated in other regions, will enable us to compareknowledge of phrasal verbs across different first language backgrounds.
Here is an extract from the entry for the word cool (showing A1 to B2 level) that illustrates some of meaningsavailable and key phrasal verbs including cool:
The English Vocabulary Profile also provides information on groups of words with a common root (word families).The different parts of speech in a word family will often be at different CEFR levels according to their frequency.
Guide words in capitalletters for each meaninghelp the user navigatethrough long entries
Phrasal verbs are listed atthe end of an entry
© UCLES/CUP 2011 55
Another key area of research within the vocabulary strand is the investigation of affixation. Here too, nativespeaker frequency has played a part in the decision making process as to CEFR level, along with a consideration ofthe transparency of the different parts of speech in relation to the base word. When an affix is attached to a word,it may be transparent in meaning – for example, it is not difficult to understand downloadable from the verbdownload but it is less easy to work out the meaning of changeable, as in changeable weather, formed fromchange.
We are currently developing the English Vocabulary Profile for levels C1 and C2. This entails looking again at theless frequent meanings of words that are already included in the A1 to B2 levels, and adding new words andphrases.
Accessing the English Vocabulary Profile
You can see a three letter Preview version for the complete English Vocabulary Profile on the EP website. Thecurrent online resource covers A1 B2 levels; click on the thumbnail on the homepage to access the EVP atwww.englishprofile.org
You can use the English Vocabulary Profile to:
check the level of words, phrases and meanings
produce lists of words at certain levels for a particular topic, or with certain grammatical features, etc.
see how the different meanings of words fit across CEFR levels
get real examples of how words and phrases are used – by native speakers and by learners at different levels
compare American English and British English
get more information on collocations
get an overview of word families.
For further information about how to use the EVP, visit the EP website and explore the Information Booklet underResources. To find out more about the compilation of the EVP see Capel (2010a, 2010b).
56 © UCLES/CUP 2011
5 How to use the English Profile
This section suggests ways in which ELT professionals such as teachers, curriculum planners and materials or testwriters can use the English Profile resources contained in this booklet, specifically to enable them to makedecisions about which English language points are suitable for teaching, learning and assessing at each CEFR level.There are four areas listed below which can benefit from the English Profile, with exemplification of how differentgroups of ELT professionals might use English Profile resources within these areas.
A Deciding whether particular English language points are relevant for a specific purpose, learner groupand CEFR level A teacher checking whether some key vocabulary for a lesson is suitable for their class. A test developer checking whether a particular grammatical point is suitable for an A2 test. An author checking what aspects of a grammatical area (e.g. past tense) are suitable for a B1 course.
B Identifying suitable English language points for a specific purpose, learner group and CEFR level A curriculum planner is drawing up the vocabulary list for an A1 course. An author wants to identify language points that are particularly difficult for Spanish speakers at B1
level. A test developer has to decide which structures to include in the assessment syllabus for a C1 exam. An author is producing an exercise of prefixes/suffixes for a particular set of words. A teacher is looking for a range of examples of ‘refusing a request’ suitable for B2 learners.
C Obtaining authentic learner language to illustrate language points at a specific CEFR level A teacher is putting together an exercise on a particular language point, using examples produced by
learners at the same level as their class. A test writer is looking for a suitable sentence for a particular test item. A curriculum planner wants to add to the syllabus examples of particular structures that are suitable
for the level. An author is writing a unit on health at B1 level and wants a list of suitable words and phrases to
include. A teacher is looking for examples of ‘asking for permission’ in a formal work context suitable for a B2
class.
D Gaining a deeper understanding of English language points within and across CEFR levels An author wants to know how an understanding of countable/uncountable nouns progresses from A1
to B1 CEFR levels to work out what should be included in an A1 or B1 level course. A teacher wants to see how the different meanings of keep are normally acquired across the CEFR
levels. It is in the top 500 words for English, but which meanings should students learn first? A test writer needs to know what verbs are most suitable for an item on the passive voice at B2 level. A curriculum planner wants to make sure the C2 curriculum covers the language of ‘presenting a
counter example’ in both formal and informal contexts.
The English Profile describes what learners know and can do at each CEFR level. ELT professionals will make use ofthat information in different ways according to their situation and requirements as there is no single English Profilecurriculum that is right for all learners in all contexts. To help ELT professionals, the English Profile will share somesample curricula based on English Profile tools, but ELT professionals will always need to make decisions abouthow these examples apply to their own context. We welcome your feedback on whether the resources presentedhere are of potential or actual use in your specific context, together with any examples of how you have alreadyused, or plan to use them.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 57
6 What is English Profile based on?
The English Profile Programme has set out to provide the definitive guide to what learners of English know at eachCEFR level. It has done this by combining:
Leading educational organisations Cambridge ESOL
Cambridge University Press
The British Council
English UK
World leading research institutions University of Cambridge
University of Bedfordshire
University of Nottingham
and other EP Network Partners
Extensive data about real English language use Cambridge English Corpus
Cambridge Learner Corpus
A range of other corpora from around the world
A wide range of coursebooks
Exam specifications and wordlists
English Profile researchers use an innovative methodology for describing English which is both empirical in that itis based on real language as produced by speakers of English worldwide; and international in that it will not solelybe concerned with English as it is spoken in the UK, or in other English speaking countries. They can achieve thislargely because they have access to unique and valuable databases of English language in use.
Previous attempts to describe English at different CEFR levels have been produced bylanguage specialists largely using their insight as expert users and teachers of the language.However, English Profile's results are based on observed data, providing concrete evidence ofwhat learners throughout the world can do at each CEFR level. Two of the main corpora usedto date are the Cambridge English Corpus (formerly known as the Cambridge InternationalCorpus) and the Cambridge Learner Corpus. The Cambridge English Corpus contains over 1.2billion words and comprises materials from a huge variety of sources from the UK the USA, Australia and Singaporeamong others that include real and up to date examples of native speaker language. Researchers use this corpus(and others like it) to discover how native speakers use English. For English Profile we also want to look at hownon native speakers use English.
The Cambridge Learner Corpus has been at the centre of EP research work to date (see Section 2 for anintroduction), although as it consists entirely of exam data it required complementary non examination learnerdata. Sometimes learners may try to avoid language they find difficult and stick to “safe” vocabulary, grammar orfunctions in exams, rather than risk trying out language they’re unsure of. This, among other reasons, is why weare currently collecting non exam data from learners all over the world for the Cambridge English Profile Corpus(CEPC). We are working to build the Cambridge English Profile Corpus with the collaboration of a network ofeducational establishments across the world, including state schools, universities, private language schools,research centres, government bodies (including ministries of education) and other ELT professionals. Togetherwe’re collecting a wide variety of data types from a number of contexts, such as classroom work, conversations,homework, and so on. The corpus will be balanced across a number of variables, including the first language oflearners, the country where data are collected, the age of learners and their CEFR level.
For current information on our corpus related activities, visit the EP website and click on the Corpus page.
58 © UCLES/CUP 2011
7 How to get involved with English Profile
Getting involved with English Profile is your opportunity to shape the CEFR for English. You can submit data forour research, get involved in research itself, or you can simply join the network community and keep in touch withdevelopments. As this publication goes to press we are preparing for the publication of the inaugural volumes ofthe English Profile Studies series (Green 2011; Hawkins & Filipovi 2011) and following that, we will be writing anEnglish Profile Handbook full of practical applications, anticipated publication date early 2012. On the events side,EP team members will be presenting at major events in China, Australia and the Czech republic in the comingmonths (amongst others), do check out our Events webpage for more details and we hope to see you there.
Join the EP Network
Joining the EP Network as a data contributor or researcher is straightforward; to submit data please contact usthrough our website by filling in the form ‘Get involved in data collection’ under Community. Learners submit theirdata via an online data collection portal which has been developed especially for English Profile.
The benefits of joining the EP Network:
1. Online access to the CEPC (which would include the contributor's own data) in a searchable format. Teacherscan use this to help them understand their students' needs better, and to develop teaching materials whichcater to those needs.
2. Free access to the English Vocabulary Profile, a fantastic online interactive vocabulary resource developed aspart of English Profile.
3. Free tickets to English Profile workshops, which will include training relevant to teachers, such as how to rate astudent's work by CEFR level.
4. Advance notice of English Profile related publications and automatic subscription to English Profile Journal.5. A 'certificate of participation' (on request) for your school, and listing of your school's name, with thanks, on
our data contributors webpage.6. Invitations to English Profile research seminars and other English Profile events.
Give feedback on this booklet
We welcome your feedback on this publication:
Does it provide the information you need?
Does the presentation of the information work for you?
How do you think you could make use of English Profile?
What else would you like to see from English Profile?
Please go to www.englishprofile.org to send us your feedback, mentioning English Profile Version 1.1 .
© UCLES/CUP 2011 59
8 References
Here you will find key references mentioned in this publication. A fuller bibliography can be found on the EnglishProfile website under Researchers: www.englishprofile.org English Grammar Profile Hawkins, J A & Buttery, P (2010) Criterial Features in Learner Corpora: Theory and Illustrations. English ProfileJournal 1, e5 doi:10.1017/S2041536210000103
Hawkins, J A & Buttery, P (2009) Using learner language from corpora to profile levels of proficiency: Insights fromthe English Profile Programme. In L Taylor & C J Weir (Eds) Language Testing Matters: Investigating the widersocial and educational impact of assessment, Studies in Language Testing, vol. 31, (pp. 158 175). Cambridge:UCLES/Cambridge University Press.
Hawkins, J A & Filipovi , L (2011) Criterial features in L2 English: Specifying the Reference Levels of the CommonEuropean Framework. English Profile Studies, vol. 1, Cambridge: UCLES/Cambridge University Press. O'Keeffe, A & Mark, G (in preparation) The English Grammar Profile. To be available online at:www.englishprofile.org
Salamoura, A & Saville, N (2010) Exemplifying the CEFR: Criterial features of written learner English from theEnglish Profile Programme. In I Bartning, M Maisa & I Vedder (Eds) Communicative proficiency and linguisticdevelopment: Intersections between SLA and language testing research, Eurosla Monographs Series, vol. 1, (pp.101 132). Available online at: http://eurosla.org/monographs/EM01/101 132Salamoura_Saville.pdf
Salamoura, A & Saville, N (2009) Criterial features across the CEFR levels: Evidence from the English ProfileProgramme. Research Notes 37, 34 40, Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL. Available online at:www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/rs_nts37.pdf
Saville, N & Milanovic, M (2011) Series Editors’ Note in Hawkins, J A & Filipovi , L Criterial features in L2 English:Specifying the Reference Levels of the Common European Framework. English Profile Studies, vol. 1, Cambridge:UCLES/Cambridge University Press.
English Functions Profile
Online survey: www.beds.ac.uk/research/bmri/crella/cando
Green, A (2011) Language functions revisited: Theoretical and empirical bases for language construct definitionacross the ability range. English Profile Studies, vol. 2, Cambridge: UCLES/Cambridge University Press.
Green, A (2010) Requirements for Reference Level Descriptions for English. English Profile Journal 1, e6doi:10.1017/S204153621000005X
Lenz, P & Schneider, G (2004) Introduction to the bank of descriptors for self assessment in European LanguagePortfolios. Available online at:www.coe.int/T/DG4/Portfolio/?L=E&M=/documents_intro/Data_bank_descriptors.html
Saville, N & Milanovic, M (2011) Series Editors’ Note in Green, A Language functions revisited: Theoretical and
60 © UCLES/CUP 2011
empirical bases for language construct definition across the ability range. English Profile Studies, vol. 2, Cambridge:UCLES/Cambridge University Press.
Trim, J L M (2009) Breakthrough. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available online at:www.englishprofile.org
van Ek, J A (1975) The Threshold Level in a European Unit/Credit System for Modern Language Learning by Adults.Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
van Ek, J A & Trim, J L M (2001) Vantage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
van Ek, J A & Trim, J L M (1998a) Waystage 1990 (revised and corrected edition). Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.
van Ek, J A & Trim, J L M (1998b) Threshold 1990 (revised and corrected edition). Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.
Wilkins, D (1976) Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
English Vocabulary Profile
Cambridge ESOL examination vocabulary lists (KET and PET):www.teachers.CambridgeESOL.org/ts/digitalAssets/113295_ket_vocablist09.pdfwww.teachers.CambridgeESOL.org/ts/digitalAssets/113298_pet_vocablist09.pdf
Capel, A (2011) The English Vocabulary Profile. Available online at: www.englishprofile.org Capel, A (2010a) Insights and issues arising from English Profile Wordlists project. Research Notes 41, 2 7,Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL. Available online at: www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN41p27.pdf
Capel, A (2010b) A1–B2 vocabulary: insights and issues arising from the English Profile Wordlists project. EnglishProfile Journal, 1, e3 doi:10.1017/S2041536210000048
Hindmarsh, R (1980) Cambridge English Lexicon: a graded word list for materials writers and course designers.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Corpus Development
Alexopoulou, T (2008) Building new corpora for English Profile. Research Notes 33, 15 19, Cambridge: CambridgeESOL. Available online at: www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN33p15 19.pdf
Briscoe, E, Carroll, J, & Watson, R (2006) The Second Release of the RASP System. In Proceedings of theCOLING/ACL 2006 Interactive Presentation Sessions, Sydney, Australia.
Nicholls, D (2003) The Cambridge Learner Corpus error coding and analysis for lexicography and ELT. In Archer, D,Rayson, P, Wilson, A & McEnery, T (Eds), Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics 2003 Conference, UCREL technicalpaper number 16, UCREL, Lancaster University.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 61
General English Profile references
Coste, D (2007) Contextualising uses of the common European framework of reference for languages. Paperpresented at Council of Europe Policy Forum on use of the CEFR, Strasbourg 2007. Available onlinewww.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/SourceForum07/D Coste_Contextualise_EN.doc
Council of Europe (2005) Reference Level Descriptions for National and Regional Languages. Guide for theproduction of RLD. Version 2. Strasbourg: Language Policy Division. Available online at:ww.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/DNR_Guide_EN.pdf
Council of Europe (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching,Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
English Profile Bibliography www.englishprofile.org
English Profile Glossary www.englishprofile.org
Little, D (2007) The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Perspectives on the Making ofSupranational Language Education Policy. The Modern Language Journal 91 (4): 645 55.
McCarthy, M (2010) Spoken fluency revisited. English Profile Journal 1, e4 doi:10.1017/S2041536210000012
Milanovic, M (2009) Cambridge ESOL and the CEFR, Research Notes 37, 2 5, Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL. Availableonline at: www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN37p2 5.pdf
Saville, N & Hawkey, R (2010) The English Profile Programme – the first three years. English Profile Journal 1, e7doi:10.1017/S2041536210000061
Trim, J L M (2010) The Modern Languages Programme of the Council of Europe as a background to the EnglishProfile Programme. English Profile Journal 1, e2 doi:10.1017/S2041536210000097
62 © UCLES/CUP 2011
9 The English Profile Network
Founding Partners
EP Network Partners
The following institutions are involved in data collection or research activities for English Profile:
ATL Coop Lombardia, Cantù
Babe Bolyai University www.ubbcluj.ro
Banat University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine www.usab tm.ro
Colegio Newlands, Buenos Aires www.colegionewlands.com
Cologne University of Applied Sciences www.fh koeln.de
El Colegio Leonardo Da Vinci, Madrid www.colegio leonardodavinci.es
Escuela Oficial de Idiomas de Burgos www.eoiburgos.es
Escuela Oficial de Idiomas de Madrid Moratalaz (Extensión Puente de Vallecas)
www.educa.madrid.org/web/eoi.moratalaz.madrid/vallecask.html
FON University www.fon.edu.mk
Hogeschool Universiteit Brussel www.hubrussel.be
International Programmes Center “EF Penza” www.efpenza.ru
International University of Novi Pazar www.uninp.edu.rs
Kaplan International Colleges www.kic.org.uk
Kragujevac University www.ekfak.kg.ac.yu and www.filum.kg.ac.rs
Mary Immaculate College www.mic.ul.ie
Masaryk University www.muni.cz
Megatrend University www.megatrend.edu.rs
Metropolitan University Belgrade www.fit.edu.yu
Moscow Institute of Foreign Languages www.gaudeamus.ru
Novi Sad University www.uns.ac.rs
© UCLES/CUP 2011 63
Parhamergymnasium www.parhamer.at
Palacký University www.upol.cz
Prešov University www.unipo.sk
The Romanian Ministry of Education Research and Innovation www.edu.ro
Shannon College of Hotel Management www.shannoncollege.com
Singidunum University www.singidunum.ac.yu
Talk Tefl Support Centre, Gorgan, Iran
Technical College a ak www.vstss.com
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies www.tufs.ac.jp
Universidad Chileno Británica de Cultura www.ubritanica.cl
Universidad Complutense de Madrid www.ucm.es
Universidad Politècnica de València (Campus de Alcoy) www.upv.es
Universitatea Babe Bolyai www.ubbcluj.ro
University of Kragujevac www.kg.ac.rs
University of Niš www.ni.ac.rs
Vilnius Pedagogical University www.vpu.lt
Wy sza Szko a Lingwistyczna www.wsl.edu.pl
EU funded EP Network Project Members Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org/uk
Cambridge ESOL www.CambridgeESOL.org
CRELLA, University of Bedfordshire www.beds.ac.uk/research/bmri/crella
Banat University www.usab tm.ro
Cologne University of Applied Sciences www.international office.fh koeln.de
Complutense University, Madrid www.ucm.es
Masaryk University www.muni.cz
Presov University www.unipo.sk
The Dublin Institute of Technology www.dit.ie
64 © UCLES/CUP 2011
EnglishProfile
Introducing the CEFR for English
The English Profi le Programme is an elaboration of the reference level descriptions of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) that is concerned specifi cally with the English language.
Since its publication, the CEFR has become infl uential in building a shared understanding of performance levels for foreign language learners. However, there is a considerable gap between the broad descriptions of levels provided in the CEFR, which cover a range of languages and learning contexts, and the level of detail required for applications such as syllabus or test design, which English Profi le addresses.
English Profi le has applications in English language pedagogy and assessment, curriculum design, materials development and test construction.
This booklet introduces the theoretical and empirical bases of English Profi le, setting out the ambitions of the Programme and presenting emerging fi ndings. It is for teachers, curriculum planners, writers, test developers and other ELT professionals. It will help them make decisions about which English language points are suitable for learning at each level of the CEFR.
EnglishProfile
Introducing the CEFR for English
Version 1.1
www.englishprofi le.org
EMC/7624/1Y08