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1 INTERPRETING FOR POSTSECONDARY DEAF STUDENTS Gary Sanderson, Linda Siple, and Bea Lyons 1 This report consists of four parts, all of which pertain to interpreting for deaf students in the post- secondary educational environment. Part I. Introduction sketches interpreting services for students who are deaf 2 in postsecondary educa- tional settings. The origins and importance of inter- preting services are discussed, followed by reference to several “types” of interpreting that are used to accommodate various communication needs across a spectrum of students, their peers, and faculty/staff. Part II. Administering interpreting services is written primarily for college and university personnel who are responsible for coordinating interpreting services. It focuses on practical considerations in hiring an interpreter and using the interpreter effectively, addressing questions such as: • What do you look for in an interpreter? • How do you recruit and keep an interpreter? • How do you schedule the interpreter’s workload? • What about interpreting outside the classroom? • Is there a need for special policies and agreements? Part III. To the instructor focuses on the effective use of an interpreter in the classroom and addresses the instructor. Many of the suggestions also apply to communicating with deaf students outside the classroom with an interpreter’s assistance. Part III deals with questions such as: • What is the interpreter expected to do in the classroom? • Do the deaf student’s hearing classmates need to know and do anything special? • What should the instructor be aware of in using an interpreter? • What should the instructor do differently? The actual users of interpreting services, particularly teaching faculty, may wish to proceed directly to Part III, returning to Part II for background information if they wish. Part IV. Postscript pertaining to laws and regulations provides us with a legal perspective on the utilization of interpreting services at the postsecondary level. PART I. INTRODUCTION Origins of interpreting in college. Prior to the 1960’s, interpreting for deaf students in regular college environments was unknown, explaining in part why so few students who were deaf attended college. Those who qualified could attend Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C., which at the time was the only college in which instructors were proficient in sign language, or they could attend a “regular” college with virtually no prospect of interpreting services. Often the quality of the education received by deaf students who chose the second option was based on their ability to lipread their instructors, the charity of their peers to share notes, and their own level of tenacity. Until the 1960’s, almost all interpreting for deaf people was offered on a voluntary basis by hearing individuals who were related to, or worked with deaf people, such as family members, teachers of deaf students, or members of the clergy. In 1964, with the establishment of the national Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, Inc. (RID) , interpreting began to emerge as a profession, with its national certifying body, its Code of Ethics, and its own conventions and periodicals. Augmented by the development of college-based interpreter education programs nationally, interpreting came into its own, and began to provide a professional pool for potential college employment. Without the availability of well-qualified interpreters, the dramatic increase in numbers of deaf students in regular colleges could not have occurred. Today, more than 20,000 deaf and severely hard of hearing students attend approximately 2,000 two and four- colleges and universities in the United States (Lewis, Farris & Greene, 1994 3 ; Stuckless, Ashmore, 1 In the order listed above, the authors are associated with California State University, Northridge (California), National Technical Institute for the Deaf (Rochester, New York), and Chattanooga State Technical Community College (Chattanooga, Tennessee). 2 Many severely hard of hearing students also seek and benefit from interpreting services. 3 Lewis, L., Farris, E., & Greene, B. National Center for Educational Statistics. (1994). Deaf and hard of hearing students in postsecondary education. (NCES 94-394). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

INTERPRETING FOR POSTSECONDARY DEAF STUDENTSINTERPRETING FOR POSTSECONDARY DEAF STUDENTS Gary Sanderson, Linda Siple, and Bea Lyons1 This report consists of four parts, all of which

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    INTERPRETING FOR POSTSECONDARY DEAF STUDENTSGary Sanderson, Linda Siple, and Bea Lyons1

    This report consists of four parts, all of whichpertain to interpreting for deaf students in the post-secondary educational environment.

    Part I. Introduction sketches interpreting servicesfor students who are deaf2 in postsecondary educa-tional settings. The origins and importance of inter-preting services are discussed, followed by referenceto several “types” of interpreting that are used toaccommodate various communication needs across aspectrum of students, their peers, and faculty/staff.

    Part II. Administering interpreting services iswritten primarily for college and university personnelwho are responsible for coordinating interpretingservices. It focuses on practical considerations inhiring an interpreter and using the interpretereffectively, addressing questions such as:

    • What do you look for in an interpreter?• How do you recruit and keep an interpreter?• How do you schedule the interpreter’s workload?• What about interpreting outside the classroom?• Is there a need for special policies and agreements?

    Part III. To the instructor focuses on the effectiveuse of an interpreter in the classroom and addressesthe instructor. Many of the suggestions also apply tocommunicating with deaf students outside theclassroom with an interpreter’s assistance. Part IIIdeals with questions such as:

    • What is the interpreter expected to do in theclassroom?

    • Do the deaf student’s hearing classmates need toknow and do anything special?

    • What should the instructor be aware of in usingan interpreter?

    • What should the instructor do differently?

    The actual users of interpreting services, particularlyteaching faculty, may wish to proceed directly to PartIII, returning to Part II for background informationif they wish.

    Part IV. Postscript pertaining to laws andregulations provides us with a legal perspective onthe utilization of interpreting services at thepostsecondary level.

    PART I. INTRODUCTION

    Origins of interpreting in college. Prior to the1960’s, interpreting for deaf students in regularcollege environments was unknown, explaining inpart why so few students who were deaf attendedcollege. Those who qualified could attend GallaudetUniversity in Washington, D.C., which at the timewas the only college in which instructors wereproficient in sign language, or they could attend a“regular” college with virtually no prospect ofinterpreting services. Often the quality of theeducation received by deaf students who chose thesecond option was based on their ability to lipreadtheir instructors, the charity of their peers to sharenotes, and their own level of tenacity.

    Until the 1960’s, almost all interpreting for deafpeople was offered on a voluntary basis by hearingindividuals who were related to, or worked withdeaf people, such as family members, teachers ofdeaf students, or members of the clergy. In 1964,with the establishment of the national Registry ofInterpreters for the Deaf, Inc. (RID) , interpretingbegan to emerge as a profession, with its nationalcertifying body, its Code of Ethics, and its ownconventions and periodicals. Augmented by thedevelopment of college-based interpreter educationprograms nationally, interpreting came into itsown, and began to provide a professional pool forpotential college employment.

    Without the availability of well-qualified interpreters,the dramatic increase in numbers of deaf students inregular colleges could not have occurred. Today,more than 20,000 deaf and severely hard of hearingstudents attend approximately 2,000 two and four-colleges and universities in the United States (Lewis,Farris & Greene, 19943; Stuckless, Ashmore,

    1 In the order listed above, the authors are associated withCalifornia State University, Northridge (California), NationalTechnical Institute for the Deaf (Rochester, New York), andChattanooga State Technical Community College(Chattanooga, Tennessee).

    2 Many severely hard of hearing students also seek and benefitfrom interpreting services.

    3 Lewis, L., Farris, E., & Greene, B. National Center forEducational Statistics. (1994). Deaf and hard of hearingstudents in postsecondary education. (NCES 94-394).Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

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    Schroedel & Simon, 1997)4. Most of the estimated10,000 deaf students, and many who are severelyhard of hearing, use an interpreter in their classes, inselected campus activities, or both.

    In 1973, the passage of the VocationalRehabilitation Act, Section 504, provided additionalimpetus for the national mainstreaming of deafstudents in postsecondary institutions. This lawstated that:

    No otherwise qualified handicapped individualin the United States — shall, solely by reason ofhis handicap, be excluded from the participationin, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected todiscrimination under any program of activityreceiving federal financial assistance.

    United States Congress Section 504,The Rehabilitation Act of 1973

    P.L. 93-11

    The regulations enacted pursuant to this cite severalauxiliary aids that can ensure program accessibilityfor students who are disabled. For deaf collegestudents, interpreters provide the critical service ofmaking lectures and other orally-delivered materialsaccessible.

    The first report in this series, Introduction(Stuckless, Ashmore, Schroedel & Simon, 1997),includes a closing section titled “ADA and otherlaws” that discusses the 1990 Americans withDisabilities Act, Section 504, and other federalstatutes, and makes reference to interpreting. Also,this report closes with an interpretation of law as itrelates to interpreting for deaf students at thepostsecondary level.

    Interpreting as a critical service. The role of theinterpreter within the postsecondary setting is tofacilitate communication between deaf andhearing individuals throughout the educationalenvironment, both academic and extracurricular.This link plays a major role in the success of mostcollege students who are deaf. Its significance iseloquently expressed in the following letter writtenby one deaf student upon graduation.

    I owe a great deal to my many wonderfulprofessors in Social Work. They have taught meso much and have given me a path to follow therest of my life. However, I owe my greatest debtto the countless numbers of interpreters who satin my classroom and allowed me to learn Social

    Welfare History, Methods of Social Work, andeven Statistics. It was through their hands that Ilearned my most important lessons and it wasthrough their voices that I expressed my ideas andquestions. My interpreters have provided the linkfor me to connect to my education. I do notbelieve that I could have finished my degreewithout them. I will forever be indebted.

    COMMUNICATION STYLES

    Deaf students bring a variety of communicationbackgrounds and experiences to the college setting.Most have first and second languages, such as English/ASL, ASL/English, or even first, second, and thirdlanguages if a third language is spoken in the home,such as Spanish (Stuckless et al, 1997). A smallnumber of deaf students are also severely visuallyimpaired, often depending on tactile communication.

    For face-to-face communication, some deaf students,and most students who are hard of hearing, relymainly on their spoken English for expressivecommunication and on speechreading (includingsound) for reception (Warick, Clark, Dancer, &Sinclair, 1997).5 Though fewer in number, someprefer the use of what is called Cued Speech.

    TYPES OF INTERPRETERS

    Sign language interpreter. The most common typeof interpreter is one who works between English andsign language. The interpreter listens to the spokenEnglish message of the instructor and other students,and then signs the message to the deaf student.

    There are two common forms of interpretingpracticed at the postsecondary level: transliteratingand interpreting. Transliterators listen to the spokenmessage and sign it in a way that closely approxi-mates English. The second type are interpreters wholisten to spoken English, then interpret it intoAmerican Sign Language (ASL) which has its owngrammar and syntax.

    4 Stuckless, R., Ashmore, D., Schroedel, J., & Simon, J. (1997).Introduction. A report of the National Task Force on Qualityof Services in the Postsecondary Education of Deaf and Hardof Hearing Students. Rochester, N.Y.: Northeast TechnicalAssistance Center, Rochester Institute of Technology.

    5 Warick, R., Clark, C., Dancer, J., & Sinclair, S. (1997). AssistiveListening Devices. A report of the National Task Force onQuality of Services in the Postsecondary Education of Deaf andHard of Hearing Students. Rochester, N.Y.: NortheastTechnical Assistance Center, Rochester Institute of Technology.

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    However, there is a second dimension to theinterpreter’s task. Many deaf students do not havespeech that is intelligible to most listeners; othersmay have somewhat intelligible speech but feeluncomfortable using it publicly. Instead, they maychoose to express themselves using sign language,while relying on the interpreter to translate thesigned message into spoken English. Interpreters aretrained to voice interpret for these students, and todo so as accurately as possible.

    Oral interpreter. Not all deaf or severely hard ofhearing students can and/or choose to use signlanguage interpreters in the classroom. Some favorspeechreading and/or the use of assistive listeningdevices (Warick et al., 1997). Oral interpreters areused primarily by deaf and severely hard of hearingstudents who rely mostly on their own speech andspeechreading skills, supported in most instances bypersonal hearing aids, or, increasingly, by cochlearimplants. The student reads the lips of theinterpreter who has been specially trained toarticulate speech silently and clearly.

    An oral interpreter is particularly important insituations where the oral student cannot speechreadhis/her instructor. This can be for a number ofreasons, including the instructor’s speaking rate oraccent, and in situations where there is considerablestudent participation. Parenthetically, it should benoted that deaf students often cannot follow therapid changes in speakers that occur in many classes,because they are not aware of where to look for thespeaker.

    Cued Speech interpreter. The Cued Speechinterpreter resembles the oral interpreter except thathe/she uses a hand code, or cue, to represent eachspeech sound. Some deaf students begin to use thissystem within their families at an early age andbecome very proficient in its use for communication.

    Interpreter for deaf-blind individuals. Thisinterpreter, usually referred to as a deaf-blindinterpreter, assists those who have both limited orno hearing and limited or no sight. There are severaldeaf-blind interpreting techniques, but mostfrequently the deaf-blind individual receives themessage by placing his/her hands on top of theinterpreter’s hands and following the interpreter’shand movements.

    PART II. ADMINISTERINGINTERPRETING SERVICES

    Obviously the administration of interpreting servicesfor a single deaf student on campus (who may or maynot wish the service) will differ from its administrationon a campus where a large number of deaf studentsuse the service. In the first situation, the college islikely to need just one full-time equivalent (FTE)interpreter, or perhaps less. At the other end, acollege with a large number of deaf students enrolledin regular classes may have 50 interpreters or more.

    Let’s talk some more about interpreting services inthese two colleges. The college with the single deafstudent probably contracts with one or twointerpreters on a short-term hourly basis. On theother hand, the college with the large number ofdeaf students probably hires at least a core of itsinterpreters on a more permanent basis.

    The interpreter in the first college probably coversall the classes taken by the deaf student, regardless oftheir content. In the second college, where possible,interpreters are assigned to classes where they havefamiliarity with the course content.

    The staff person responsible for recruiting andperhaps scheduling the interpreter in the first collegeis unlikely to be familiar with the process andmay look off-campus for help. The second collegewill have its own resources for both these functionsand for supervision of the interpreting staff.

    Most of what is said here about administeringinterpreting services is probably commonplaceknowledge and practice within colleges withhistories of providing interpreting services to largenumbers of deaf students. The focus here is onoffering basic suggestions to those colleges withlimited experience in providing interpreting servicesfor deaf students.

    QUALIFICATIONS OF INTERPRETERS

    Hiring a sign language interpreter can be a dauntingtask for a college administrator who has little or noknowledge about sign language or interpreting.Fortunately, most interpreters have interpretingcredentials of some kind. The following informationis an overview of the types of education andcertification interpreters may have, followed by adiscussion of other qualifications that may pertain.

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    Qualifications to consider include graduation froman interpreter preparation program. Most, if not all,of these programs are associate or baccalaureatedegree programs. Sixty-eight (68) of these are listedby state in Appendix A.6

    Interpreters may also hold national certification fromeither the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, Inc.(RID) or the National Association of the Deaf(NAD). Other qualifications include credit for lifeexperience, such as growing up with sign languageas a first language, combined with substantial real-world interpreting experience and training. Somestates provide quality assurance screeningassessments that may be considered when nonationally-certified interpreters are available.

    Certification. On the national level, certification ofsign language and oral interpreters is conducted bytwo organizations: RID and NAD. Eachcertification is an indication that the interpreter hasbeen assessed by professional peers according to anationally-recognized standard of competence. Avalid certificate documents that the interpreter hasmet or exceeded this national standard, has met allrequirements for membership in the organization,and adheres to a Code of Ethics governing ethicaland professional behavior.

    It is suggested that people responsible for hiringinterpreters, and who use certification as the maincriterion for determining qualification, hireinterpreters who hold a certificate shown inparentheses from the following lists.

    RID currently awards the following interpretingcertificates:

    CI (Certificate of Interpretation)CT (Certificate of Transliteration)CDI (Certified Deaf Interpreter)OIC (Oral Interpreting Certificate)SC:L (Specialist Certificate: Legal)

    The NAD awards the following certificates thatindicate proficiency levels:

    Proficiency Level 1 (novice)Proficiency Level 2 (intermediate)Proficiency Level 3 (generalist)Proficiency Level 4 (advanced)Proficiency Level 5 (master)

    State screening or quality assurance programs.State quality assurance screening is available in manystates across the country. These screening processesvary greatly from one state to another and are notapproved by RID or NAD. State assessments serveas a stepping stone for the working interpreter whomay not be ready for the RID or NAD certificates,but who wants verification of some beginning levelof interpreting skill.

    Additionally, many states are beginning toimplement legislation requiring some type oflicensure of interpreters. It is strongly recommendedthat a college considering hiring interpreters withthis type of licensure contact its State Department ofEducation or local RID or NAD chapters to inquireabout the requirements in its particular state.

    Graduates of interpreter preparation programs.Interpreter preparation programs typically involvetwo or four years of undergraduate study, leadingto associate or baccalaureate degrees. Thecurriculum at the two-year level typically includesASL studies, knowledge of Deaf culture7 and deafcommunities, skills for interpreting, transliterating,voicing, knowledge of the RID Code of Ethics, andpracticum experiences. Typically, the curriculum alsoincludes liberal arts, math, and science components.A list of 68 programs appears in Appendix A.

    Baccalaureate degree-level programs are likely toinclude a larger liberal arts component, intensive ASLstudy, interpreter skills development, knowledge ofthe RID Code of Ethics, and considerable and variedpracticum experiences over the student’s four yearsof preparation. As of 1998, there were 17 baccalau-reate programs in the United States. Graduate studyin this field is new, with only one university presentlyoffering a master’s degree-level program.

    It should be noted here that graduates of interpreterpreparation programs have varying degrees of skilllevel, and the possession of a degree in interpretingdoes not guarantee the ability to interpret effectivelyat the postsecondary level. Further assessment ofskills remains necessary.

    6 This list of interpreter training programs is taken from theAmerican Annals of the Deaf, Reference Issue (1998), 143, 172-176, with the permission of its managing editor.

    7 The capitalization of “Deaf” generally denotes deaf individualswho consider ASL to be their primary language and whoidentify with Deaf culture.

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    Non-traditional interpreters. Credit for lifeexperience and extensive informal interpreting mayconstitute another type of qualification. Interpreterswho grow up with deaf parents, siblings, or otherfamily members, often develop ASL skills naturallyand serve as interpreters beginning at a young age.They develop valuable interpreting skills throughan informal process of learning to sign andcommunicate for one or more family members.

    Other interpreters have developed interpreting skillsthrough association with members of the Deafcommunity and serving as interpreters in churchworship services or other informal settings over aperiod of time. The number of years and the qualityof performance of informal interpreting experienceshould be an integral part of the qualificationsconsidered. Having participated in college-levelexperiences as a student are an asset and, arguably, aprerequisite for interpreting college-level courses.

    These interpreters probably have little “formal”education in interpretation, but may have manyhours of workshops and seminars. As withinterpreter preparation program graduates, thisgroup does require an additional level of evaluationprior to hiring.

    CHOOSING INTERPRETERS

    So, how does a college choose an interpreter? Onthe surface it would seem that the easiest way is tohire only nationally or state-certified interpreters.The problem with this is that most certifiedinterpreters live in metropolitan areas. This problemis compounded by the fact that there are too fewcertified interpreters to begin with.

    Many institutions have implemented their own in-house assessment to assist them in hiringinterpreters, particularly when there is an interpretershortage. This can consist of either a “liveinterpreting” demonstration or a videotapedassessment. These assessments use special assessmentteams, usually composed of working interpretersfrom the geographic area. Assessments of this kindvary in quality and scope from college to college.Other institutions rely on a local referral agency tohelp them locate qualified interpreters. Referralagencies for sign language interpreters are generallylisted among foreign languages in the telephoneyellow pages under “Translators and interpreters.”

    Colleges with considerable numbers of deaf studentsare more likely to rely on their interpretercoordinator or their deaf services specialist foradvice. In any event, it is paramount that interpretersbe screened and hired on the basis of the level andkind of interpreting services needed by deaf studentsat the postsecondary level.

    SCHEDULING INTERPRETERS

    Number of interpreting hours. When schedulinginterpreters, several considerations should be takeninto account. The first of these pertains to thenumber of hours of interpreting an interpreter canphysically handle (See “Working Conditions” formore discussion about potential physical injury,i.e., Repetitive Motion Injuries [RMI]). As apreventative measure, many institutions scheduletwo interpreters for any class that extends over onehour of continuous lecturing.

    Understanding of the subject. Under theAmericans with Disabilities Act (ADA), institutionsare required to provide effective communication fordeaf students in the college classroom. Interpreterscan be much more effective when they’re placed inclasses in which they have a basic understanding ofthe subject. Interpreters will also need access tocourse materials such as the textbook, handouts,and/or media resources.

    When feasible, and prior to scheduling interpreters,it is recommended that the interpreters be asked toprovide a list of preferred types of courses forinterpreting. In colleges that employ a considerablenumber of interpreters, a team of interpreters can bedeveloped to concentrate their work in specializedareas, such as in the arts, sciences, or humanities.Colleges that have few deaf students and perhapsonly one or two interpreters are unlikely to have thisflexibility.

    Early collection of students’ class schedules. Aspecific office should be responsible for assuring thatdeaf students requesting interpreters have aninterpreter available to them on the first day ofclasses. To ensure this, deaf students must providetheir class schedules sufficiently in advance to enablethe person(s) responsible for scheduling interpretersto make the necessary arrangements, including thetime needed to locate off-campus sources ofinterpreting services if necessary. This is especially

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    important in rural and other non-metropolitan areassince an intensive search may be required to locate aqualified interpreter.

    Student access to priority registration. Deafstudents should be counseled to understand theimportance of planning ahead. Those seekingservices should be responsible for planning theirnext term’s courses at least three months prior to thestart of that term. To do this, they must have accessto priority (early) registration. It is suggested thatthe office responsible for coordinating deaf students’schedules meet with the department responsible forcourse registration to stress the fact and the reasons.8

    Parenthetically, if a college utilizes interpreters whoare also students in that college, priority registrationcan also be used as a recruiting tool for interpreters.However, it is not advisable for interpreters to takeand interpret a course simultaneously.

    A college with a small number of deaf students mayfind it necessary to use interpreters from interpreterreferral agencies in the community. To conserveresources, a college can encourage deaf students totake their classes back-to-back whenever possible(especially freshmen and sophomores). This canavoid a “two hour minimum” charge for a singlehour of interpreting service as often stipulated byreferral agencies. But again, this requires that thestudent’s classroom interpreting needs for each termbe known well in advance.

    Other scheduling concerns. Lab classes may givethe appearance of being too easy for interpreters;outwardly they may not seem to warrant interpreterssince students work alone much of the time.However, they do serve a twofold purpose. One, ifthe deaf student has an interpreter, he/she canparticipate fully. Two, it can give the interpreter abreak during the day, and for this reason can be avery effective tool for the prevention of RMI.Needless to say, two interpreters are not required inthis case.

    A second general concern is that lecture or seminarclasses are often fast-paced and require stamina fromthe interpreter. Where possible, these fast-pacedcourses should be preceded or followed by a “lighterduty” class.

    Third, relatively few interpreters are specialists in aspecific content area. Depending on their familiarity

    with a course and experience in interpreting for theinstructor, they may require “prep” time in order tobe able to interpret effectively. Interpreters oftenhave to research a topic to determine the best way totranslate its concepts into sign language.

    Fourth, while the assignment of interpreters to coverclasses takes priority, scheduling will often be neces-sary to cover interpreting requests for out-of-classcourse-related activities. Many instructors requirestudents to attend seminars, colloquia, plays, fieldtrips, observations, and so on, as part of their classrequirements.

    The scheduling office should establish a realisticdeadline for the student or faculty member to notifythe interpreter coordinator of any interpreting needsoutside the classroom. Depending on the size of theinterpreting pool, this time might be anywhere from48 to 72 hours. For recordkeeping purposes, a formshould be developed for use in dispatchinginterpreters. This also provides a record of how theinterpreter’s time is being used.

    As a matter of policy, only the office that coordinatesinterpreter services should assign interpreters. Also,any work done by the interpreter must be approvedin advance. Without these understandings, theremay be no way of tracing the charges, and the costsfor interpreting services are likely to get out of hand.

    EXTRACURRICULAR INTERPRETING

    There is general agreement that college studentsshould be encouraged to participate in bothacademic and extracurricular activities. Yet, while itis clear that interpreting services are invaluable tomost deaf students (and their instructors) in theircourse-work, many institutions are reluctant toprovide interpreting services for extracurricularevents. The law requires support for interpreting insome instances, but not others.

    Course-connected support. Under the law, extra-classroom activities for which interpreting servicesare mandated hinge on whether these activitiesare required for course completion. These mightinclude student/faculty meetings, field work,observations, plays, volunteer work, studentteaching assignments, and off-campus classes.

    8 Early registration may also be essential for the provision ofother services such as notetaking, tutoring, and the provision ofassistive listening devices.

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    Students and interpreters should be asked to informthe office responsible for interpreter assignments assoon as they learn about these course requirementsso that staff and funds can be allocated.

    Non course-connected support. Every effortshould be made to meet with the ADA and 504Compliance Officer on-campus, if in fact there isone, to establish a dialogue on how extracurricularinterpreting needs can be covered. It is clearly thedeaf student’s responsibility to make known the factthat he/she plans to attend an extracurricularactivity if seeking interpreting services.

    The major issue is usually not whether interpretingservices should be provided for extracurricularactivities, but who is responsible for paying forthe service. Many situations will require thecooperation of several campus organizations anddepartments. A campus-wide policy on interpretingservices should be developed and disseminated thatincludes how to request an interpreter for an event,who pays, how to advertise interpreting services,and time frames necessary for advance scheduling.

    The following are some of the programs andactivities for which policies and procedures fordelivery of interpreting services, as well as payment,should be developed, preferably in advance:

    The Student Health Center. A close relationshipneeds to be cultivated between the departmentresponsible for providing support services and theStudent Health Center. Scheduling payment ofinterpreters in a medical setting can be difficult. It isdifficult to predict how long a deaf student andhis/her interpreter may have to wait for a 1 p.m.appointment if the physician has an emergency andhis/her appointments are backed up.

    Student Government activities. This includes allchartered clubs and organizations on-campus if theyare supported through student fees.

    The Counseling Center. If all students are eligible toreceive personal counseling, these services are to befree to deaf students like all others.

    Fraternities and sororities. These organizationssponsor activities “around the clock.” A clearunderstanding needs to be reached with the localchapter and/or the national office of the fraternityor sorority.

    Campus theater productions. Students andcommunity members may attend, in which caseinterpreting costs may need to be included in theproductions’ budgets.

    Visiting speakers or productions. The planners shouldbe made aware during the negotiations thatinterpreters may be required.

    Commencement. For graduating students, theCommencement budget may absorb the interpretingcosts, or the funds may come from the generalinterpreting fund. There may also be times whendeaf parents of hearing students attend collegeactivities such as Commencement. In that event,funding will need to be determined.

    Campus-wide events. Many times a college will wantto provide interpreting as a goodwill gesture in casea deaf student participates.

    WORKING CONDITIONS

    Supervisors of interpreters should be familiar withthe contents of this section so they can fullyunderstand the complexities of providinginterpreting services. It helps if the supervisor is aninterpreter him/herself, as is the case in mostcolleges serving large numbers of deaf students.

    Repetitive motion injury (RMI). Because of thehigh RMI-caused injury rate among sign languageinterpreters in educational settings (some estimatesrange as high as 30 percent), care must be taken inthe assignment of interpreters to classes. RMI, forthe most part, is preventable with reasonablescheduling, team interpreting, and frequent breaks.9

    For more information on RMI, its preventionamong interpreters, and rehabilitation measures forbringing interpreters “back on line,” contact theDepartment of Interpreting Services at the NationalTechnical Institute for the Deaf, Rochester, NY,(585) 475-6455 (V/TTY).

    Team interpreting. For the purposes of this report,“team interpreting” means two interpreters workingand “spelling”/assisting each other at brief intervalsfor the full time assigned. It does not mean “reliefinterpreting” where one interpreter interprets whilethe other leaves the room and returns 20 - 30

    9 Sanderson, G. (1987). Overuse Syndrome among signlanguage interpreters. Journal of Interpretation, 4. 73-78.

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    minutes later. By teaming as many classes as possible,the danger of RMI can be greatly reduced whileproviding better interpretation throughout theassignment.

    Colleges serving numerous deaf students shouldinclude a clear policy statement on team interpretingwithin their overall policies pertaining tointerpreters. It should include the number ofconsecutive interpreting hours before teamingapplies. For example, many interpreters are willingto work three 50-minute hours back-to-backbecause of the built-in break factor. However, doingtwo 90-minute classes back-to-back without teamingis too stressful for most. Two intensive back-to-back90-minute lectures should require a team. Anycontinuous class of two hours or more should beteamed as a matter of course.

    Team interpreting raises many concerns about itsnecessity among administrators. Initially, it seemsprohibitive in its cost. But in the long run, thequality of the service is maintained at a high level,eliminating mental and physical fatigue.10 Byteaming, one can avoid the necessity for a singleinterpreter to interpret for prolonged periods. Thisshould reduce costly worker compensation cases dueto RMI.

    If team interpreting is not possible due to a lack ofpersonnel, then every care must be taken to ensurethat interpreters do not interpret non-stopthroughout the day. Their schedules should be suchthat heavy non-stop lectures should not be givenback-to-back; light duty classes should beinterspersed throughout the day. Examples of lightduty classes might include PE activity classes, labs,shops, certain math classes in which all the informa-tion is put on the board, and art studies classes.

    POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

    Policies and procedures for interpreters working incolleges vary in accordance with who employs them.If they are considered employees of the college,they can be expected to follow the policiesestablished by the institution. However, if thecollege uses freelance interpreters, the establishedpolicies surrounding employees may not pertainequally to them. This section will examine policiesfor interpreters who are hired as bona fideemployees. Freelance interpreters will be mentionedonly briefly.

    Policies and procedures relative to interpretingshould be established so that the interpreters, thecollege, and all those who use their services, mostparticularly deaf students and their instructors, havea clear understanding of who is responsible for what.All such policies and procedures should be reviewedby the Human Resources Department of the college.Many campuses find a handbook for interpreters anddeaf students to be a useful tool for disseminatinginformation on policy.

    RID has established a Code of Ethics for interpretersthat is accepted across the country as the standardfor interpreter behavior. Colleges are encouragedto adopt this code as a way of protecting the rightsof students who are deaf.

    Policies should also cover areas such as:• Role of the interpreter in class.• What to do when a deaf student who uses the

    service does not show up for class, i.e., a “noshow” policy.

    • Notification that a substitute interpreter will beneeded.

    • How often and under what conditionsinterpreters can apply preparation time to theirreported working hours.

    • Guidelines for team interpreting.• Conditions and procedures for requesting an

    interpreter for a non-class event.• Time reporting.• Institutional policies that affect interpreters.• Wages, raises, and benefits; guaranteed hours.• Provisions and requirements for professional

    development.

    RECRUITMENT OF INTERPRETERS

    Numerous organizations, agencies, and educationalinstitutions can be used to provide leads for therecruitment of interpreters, including educationalinstitutions, deaf services agencies, RID (local, state,and national), Alexander Graham Bell Associationfor the Deaf, and the national Cued Speech Center.The annual (April) reference issue of the AmericanAnnals of the Deaf provides a directory of these andmost other organizations and agencies of and forpeople who are deaf or hard of hearing nationally.This issue of the Annals also includes a listing ofcertificate and degree-granting interpreter education

    10 Interpreting requires the performance of thousands of mental calculations per class hour.

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    programs nationally. This is an excellent resource forrecruiting interpreters, since interpreter educatorscan often provide leads on interpreters who areseeking jobs in various areas of the country.Appendix A of the present report contains a listingof these programs as reported in the 1998 Annals(Micheaux, 1998).11

    The Annals also lists most of the colleges anduniversities that have an established program for deafstudents. Each of these programs is likely to have astaff person who is knowledgeable about interpret-ing services and the recruitment of interpreters.

    Still another resource for recruiting interpreters isthe deaf services agencies available in most cities.Also, RID publishes a membership directory whichlists its members by state. Two specialized recruit-ment resources for interpreters are the AlexanderGraham Bell Association for the Deaf and the CuedSpeech Center. The A.G. Bell Association maintainsa list of certified and qualified oral interpreters bystate, and the Cued Speech Center maintains alisting of Cued Speech interpreters throughout theUnited States. Addresses of these are listed inAppendix B.

    ATTRACTING AND RETAINING INTERPRETERS

    The market to attract and retain interpreters is highlycompetitive. A college that wants to compete withthe high hourly wages offered through many commu-nity service agencies may have to provide additionalinducements for making work in the collegeenvironment attractive. Several are discussed below.

    The reader is also referred to the section on workingconditions. For colleges requiring the services of justone or two freelance interpreters, some of thefollowing suggestions may apply, and some may not.

    Professional development. Both the RID and theNAD require their certified interpreters to obtaincontinuing education units in order to maintaintheir certification. The college can help upgradeinterpreters’ skills and enhance their loyalty to theircollege by encouraging interpreters to participate inthese programs. This can include providing time offto attend professional development activities, payingfor registration to these activities, maintaining abulletin board to announce activities, andestablishing differential pay scales that encouragecertification and professional development.

    Incremental pay scales. By using an incrementalpay scale for interpreters, the college can addmotivation for continuing professional developmentand/or advanced certification. Its steps can becontingent on factors that include hours interpreted,professional development hours, and/or certification.

    Faculty/staff parking. This may sound trivial tothose who do not work in an urban area, but not tothose who do and for whom parking is a majoraggravation. Presumably, interpreters who areemployed full-time by the college have the sameparking privileges as other faculty/staff members.However, this is not always true of interpreters whospend scattered hours at the college. By providingfreelance and part-time interpreters with regularparking privileges, they will feel more a part of thecollege.

    For programs employing larger numbers ofinterpreters, the following may be attractive andcost-effective.

    Mentoring. Mentoring differs from supervisinginterpreting interns. Mentoring is the pairing of twointerpreters to work together toward agreed-upongoals. This provides incentive for more seasonedinterpreters to improve their skills while givingnovice interpreters goals to strive toward. Also, donein a non-supervisory manner, senior interpreters canobserve other interpreters and provide constructivefeedback on their interpreting.

    Student feedback. Each term, deaf students shouldbe given the opportunity to provide feedback totheir interpreters. Most interpreters place majorvalue on feedback from their deaf clients/students.Interpreters, deaf students, and supervisors shouldcollaborate on the creation of an evaluation form.

    DEAF STUDENTS’ ORIENTATION TOINTERPRETING

    About three-quarters of all deaf and severely hard ofhearing students entering college today are likely tohave received their earlier education in mainstreamenvironments augmented by special services, whileabout one-quarter will have graduated from schoolsfor the deaf. Seal (1998)12 has stated, “In fact, the

    11 Micheaux, P. (Editor) (1998). American Annals of the Deaf:Reference Issue. 143, 172-176.

    12 Seal, B.F. (1998). Best practices in educational interpreting.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

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    current generation of deaf and [severely] hard ofhearing students is potentially the first generation ofcollege students who may have experienced allformal education with an educational interpreter(p.172).”

    However, this is not to say that all these studentshave used interpreters in the past or are sophisticatedusers of interpreting services. Hard of hearingstudents are least likely to have used sign language,and many of these students will choose not toinclude interpreters among their services.

    The college’s orientation of deaf and hard of hearingstudents should include information about the roleand availability of interpreters in the classroom,and how to access this service if needed. Thisinformation should be provided both as part of anorientation program and included in a studenthandbook on available services.

    For students seeking the use of interpreters, theirorientation to interpreting services should includeminimally:

    • appropriate procedures for requesting aninterpreter

    • no-show policies for both students andinterpreters

    • a clearly-stated process for replacing an interpreter• a process for satisfactory resolution of conflicts

    Requesting an interpreter is the student’s respon-sibility. When asking for an interpreter, the studentshould bring his/her official registration andschedule of classes to the interpreter coordinator. Ifchanging classes, the student should bring theofficial drop/add form to the interpreter coordinatorfor use in making needed changes in interpreters. Inthe event that the class is canceled, the studentshould inform the appropriate office immediately.

    Interpreters may be available for extracurricularactivities. The student is responsible for givingsufficient advance notice of special activities bycompleting a Request for Interpreter Form for eachactivity and submitting this form to the interpretercoordinator.

    The interpreter no-show policy should be spelledout very clearly for the student in writing. Ifpossible, the no-show policy should be printed in astudent handbook of comprehensive services

    available for deaf and hard of hearing studentsattending the college. For example, the followingprovisions could be established.

    • If a student is late by more than 15 minutes for aone-hour class, the interpreter will leave theclassroom.

    • If the student is late by more than 30 minutes fora two or three-hour class, the interpreter willleave the classroom.

    • If the student does not notify the appropriateoffice of his/her planned absences for threecontinuous days of class, the student will not havean interpreter again for that class. The interpreterwill be assigned to another class.

    • If the interpreter fails to show up or is late forclass, the student should report this promptly tothe interpreter coordinator.

    Replacing an interpreter. Clearly defined steps forreplacing an interpreter should be available for thestudent to follow. Procedures for replacing aninterpreter should include the student talking withthe interpreter first in an effort to resolve theproblem. If this doesn’t result in a solution, thestudent should then report to the interpretercoordinator for assistance with the problem. In theevent that conflicts continue between the studentand the classroom interpreter, a meeting with theinterpreter coordinator and the program coordinatormay be necessary to resolve conflicts.

    Student handbook. A student handbook should beavailable and provided to every deaf and hard ofhearing student attending the college. This hand-book should include information about programstaff, registration procedures, and office locations. Itshould also contain information about the use ofinterpreters, tutors, notetakers, counseling services,telecommunications and signaling systems, assistivelistening systems, vocational rehabilitation services,as well as availability and use of captioned films andinstructional videotapes. General college policies andprocedures, organizations serving deaf and hard ofhearing people, and campus student organizationsshould also be included. In short, the handbookshould include everything the student needs toknow about the college and its services.

    Faculty workshops. Faculty can also benefit froma workshop in which they will have the opportunityto interact with interpreters and deaf students.

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    order for effective communication to occur, he orshe must have the trust of you and yourstudents that he or she will do the following:

    Interpret accurately. The interpreter is responsiblefor interpreting all information as accurately as he orshe can, without embellishment or deletion.

    Remain impartial. The interpreter will avoid theexpression of personal opinions.

    Interpret all the communication that occurs inthe presence of the deaf student. In essence, theinterpreter becomes the ears of the deaf student.This means relevant and irrelevant messages, off-color jokes, two students arguing in the hall, thediscriminatory comment about the “deaf anddumb kid” in the class – anything that hearingpeople would be able to hear. Likewise, when thedeaf student uses the interpreter to translate/“voiceinterpret” his or her signs into speech, theinterpreter vocalizes every aspect of the deafstudent’s message, including its emotional tone.

    Maintain confidentiality. Maintainingconfidentiality is another way of ensuring trust.Interpreters are often involved in many aspects ofthe student’s life, particularly in a college setting. Ifyour college employs only one or a small number ofinterpreters, chances are that the interpreter knowsthe deaf student quite well. The same interpretermay interpret for the student at the student healthservice, in a religious support group, at thefinancial aid office, or in connection with any of theservices on-campus, all in addition to the student’sclasses. Because interpreters have access to a

    The collective experience of deaf students and inter-preters suggests that the most effective presentationformat is to have three different panels discuss theirviews on the effective use of interpreters: deafstudents, interpreters, and college instructors whohave had previous experiences working withinterpreters and deaf students.

    PART II. TO THE INSTRUCTOR13

    So there you are. It is the first day of classes. You arestanding in front of a class of 40 students (who,according to the department head, were supposedto number 25 at most). To make matters worse, oneof them is deaf, and there’s an interpreter! If you’relike most college teachers, you will probablysmile weakly at the two and proceed as if nothinghad changed, assuming that the interpreter will takecare of the deaf student.

    Then, 16 weeks later, you may realize that the deafstudent never really participated in class discussion,and the other students never benefited from thatstudent’s unique presence in your classroom.Everyone, including the deaf student, will havemissed an opportunity. Simply having an interpreterdoes not automatically mean that the deaf studentwill become fully integrated into the class.

    But, it need not end this way. Several studiesindicate that students report an improvededucational experience when their instructorsunderstand the role and function of the interpreterand take steps to manage the dynamics of theclassroom communication (Mertens, 199014; Foster& Brown, 198915; Quinsland & Long, 198916).

    LET’S TALK FIRST ABOUT THE INTERPRETER

    The interpreter’s role in your classroom. Youshould understand that the interpreter has a singleresponsibility in your class, that being to facilitatecommunication between you and your deafstudent(s), and between the deaf student(s) andhearing classmates.

    Most interpreters have a college degree ininterpreting, or a degree in a related area withadditional education in interpreting. The interpreterassigned to your class is unlikely to be an expert inyour particular area, but he or she is an expert incommunication between deaf and hearingindividuals. Among other things, this means that in

    13 This section is adapted from an article titled, “Working withthe sign language interpreter in your classroom”, first publishedin College Teaching, 1993, 412, 139-142. Its author was LindaSiple, also co-author of this report. We thank the HelenDwight Reid Educational Foundation and HeldrefPublications, 1319 18th St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036-1802, for permission to adapt Dr. Siple’s article for this report.

    14 Mertens, D.M. (1990). Teachers working with interpreters:The deaf student’s educational experience. American Annals ofthe Deaf, 136, 48-52.

    15 Foster, S., & Brown, P. (1989). Factors influencing theacademic and social integration of hearing-impaired collegestudents. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 7,78-96.

    16 Quinsland, L., & Long, G. Comprehension of information inmainstreamed classes. Paper presented at annual meeting ofAmerican Educational Research Association, San Francisco,CA, 1989.

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    great deal of private information, confidentiality isstrictly maintained.

    Avoid counseling or advising deaf students. If adeaf student needs help for a course-related or otherpersonal matter, the interpreter will refer him orher to an appropriate source and may even volunteerto go along to interpret, but will not offer thestudent direct counseling or advice.

    THE FIRST FEW CLASSES

    Interpreters have a unique role in the classroom.They are quite visible and will attract considerableattention during the first few days of classes,especially from uninitiated hearing students. Becauseof this visibility, some instructors and students try toinclude interpreters in discussions or activities.However, in order to be actively involved withinterpreting, interpreters must take a passive role inclassroom participation. They will therefore avoidoffering opinions, even if asked directly.

    Also, the person who provides classroom interpret-ing services is a member of the instructional team.Some instructors inadvertently make comments thatsuggest they consider him or her to be more like amember of the class. This of course is not so, andcomments of this kind should be avoided.

    The first day. If the presence of an interpreter isnew to most students in your class, it is important toallow them an opportunity to learn how best to usean interpreter. On the first day of class, it is a goodidea to ask the interpreter to take 5 or 10 minutes toexplain what interpreting is and how best to use thissupport service. The following points are key.

    • Sign language interpreting is very much likespoken foreign language interpreting, except thatit involves the use of the language of signs (seeexceptions described in “Type of interpreters”).

    • Everything that is said is interpreted; everythingthat is signed (again, see “Type of interpreters”)is interpreted.

    • If you would like to speak to the deaf student,the interpreter will interpret your question orcomment. It is easier to interpret if you speakdirectly to the deaf student: “I’d like to knowhow you feel about …”, not, “Ask him how he

    feels about…” The first few times will feelawkward because the deaf student will be lookingnot at you but at the interpreter.

    • Multiple conversations cannot be interpreted, soit is important that only one person speak at a time.

    • An interpreter can only interpret what can beheard, so please speak clearly.

    • The interpreter is not a participating member ofthe class. If you have a question for theinterpreter, feel free to ask during a “non-interpreting” time.

    • In classes where sensitive information is beingshared, interpreters regard all assignment-relatedinformation as confidential.

    DEAF STUDENTS’ RELIANCE ON VISION

    Line of sight, visual field, and lighting. Deafstudents frequently sit in the front row in order tosee the instructor, the interpreter, and the board.The interpreter generally sits in the front of theclassroom facing the deaf student(s). It is importantto keep this visual line of communication open byavoiding walking between them.

    Sometimes the interpreter may need to reposition.For example, if the class is discussing the circulatorysystem, which is represented on a model, it willbe better if the interpreter is next to the model. Ifthe class is watching an uncaptioned videotape, theinterpreter will move next to the television screen.Be sure to pause to allow the interpreter time to takeup his or her new position.

    Watching an interpreter for any length of time istiring for the deaf student’s eyes. For that reason,interpreters avoid sitting in front of a window orother light source.

    In addition, it is important that you inform theinterpreter in advance when movies, slides, or otherprojections requiring low light are shown. Theinterpreter will then bring a small portable light sothat the deaf student can see the interpreter whilethe room lights are off. When the lights are turnedback on, allow the deaf student’s eyes time to adjustto the new lighting conditions before resuming thelecture.

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    Deaf students’ participation. Deaf students tend toparticipate less actively in class than their hearingclassmates. One reason for this is the fact that, inorder to process information correctly, theinterpreter sometimes must lag several secondsbehind the speaker. This in turn impacts on the deafstudent’s ability to participate spontaneously in theclass discussion. If the instructor waits until theinterpreter catches up and pauses before recognizinga student, this gives the deaf student a betteropportunity to participate actively in discussion.

    Captioned or interpreted movies and videotapes.Deaf students prefer to have captioned media whenavailable. Your college media center can provideinformation on the availability of captionedprograms. If the program selected is not available ina captioned format, it will need to be interpreted.

    Movies and videotapes are often the interpreter’sworst nightmare. They are designed to be fast-pacedand the information is often very dense. Thismeans that there are many important facts orcomplex concepts presented with little time toprocess the material mentally.

    You will therefore need to aid the interpreter aheadof time by providing a summary of the program andthe points you want the deaf student to know.Ideally, the interpreter should have access to theprogram in advance of the class viewing.

    DEALING WITH THE LENGTH AND PACEOF THE CLASS

    Interpreting is very demanding physically. Manyinterpreters suffer from various conditionscategorized as Repetitive Motion Injuries (RMI)(DeCaro, Feuerstein, & Hurwitz (1992).17 18 It istherefore recommended that you:

    • Build in breaks when classes exceed 50 minutes.

    • Ensure that breaks are at least 10 minutes inlength.

    • Remember that using the break to talk to the deafstudent means that the interpreter is still working.

    Team interpreting. Depending on the length andpace of your class, two interpreters may be assignedto your class as a team, switching every 20-30

    minutes, if possible, during a pause in your lectureor discussion.

    Pace of the class. It is also important that youcontrol the pace of the class. An investigation of thespeaking/lecture rate of 10 college instructorsreported an average rate of 150 words per minute(wpm), inclusive of brief pauses between utterances,with a range from 112 to 180. However, oneinstructor whose average speaking rate was 143wpm, peaked at 260 wpm over a brief 35-wordutterance (Stuckless, 1994).19 If you tend to speakrapidly, or have rapid inter-changes between yourselfand your students, you may want to considerpausing more frequently. If you do not knowwhether your pace is too fast, ask your interpreter tolet you know if the speed becomes a problem.

    Also, brief but frequent pauses in your lecture willbe appreciated by the interpreter, and possibly byyour students as well. Incidentally, pauses of thiskind can also be helpful if a notetaker is assigned toyour class.

    Reading is generally much faster than extempora-neous speech. That makes student presentationsparticularly problematic for interpreters. Studentsare usually nervous and tend to read very fast. Ifthey are reading prepared speeches, require that acopy be provided to the interpreter in advance. It isa good idea to discuss strategies that the hearingstudent can use in order to make his/her presenta-tion more clear and easier to interpret. For example,one can insert pauses by writing “Breath” or“Pause” at key locations in the paper. Overheads alsocan make the information more visual for everyone.

    COMPLEX CONCEPTS AND OBSCURE TERMS

    Many instructors who work regularly with inter-preters encourage them to interrupt the class ifsomething becomes too difficult to translate.Interpreters are “professional listeners” having beentrained to decipher all levels of communication. Ifthe interpreter is having difficulty, that is a good

    17DeCaro, J., Feuerstein, M., & Hurwitz, A. (1992). Cumulativetrauma disorders among educational interpreters: Contributingfactors and interventions. American Annals of the Deaf, 137,288-292.

    18 See also “Working conditions.”19 Stuckless, R. (1994). Developments in real-time speech to text

    communication for people with impaired hearing. In M. Ross(Ed.), Communication Access for Persons with ImpairedHearing. Baltimore, MD: York Press.

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    indication that most students are not understandingthe information being presented.

    As stated earlier, most interpreters are not contentexperts. They need access to course materials inorder to provide more accurate information. It ishelpful for the interpreter to have copies of thetextbook, course syllabus, and handouts. You mighteven consider giving the interpreter a copy of yourlecture notes to review before class.20

    The interpreter will do a better job of interpreting if,before the class begins, you can briefly give him orher a sense of what you hope to accomplish duringthe class session. This gives the interpreter an“advance organizer.”

    Interpreters in educational settings often rely onfingerspelling to communicate ideas. Fingerspellingis a way of representing the alphabet on the hand.Many terms, including people’s names anduncommon scientific vocabulary, do not have a signequivalent and therefore must be fingerspelled. Forexample, an anthropology class can discussaustralopithecus afarensis 21 without ever having tospell it, but an interpreter must fingerspell the entireterm and therefore needs to know its correctspelling. Writing new vocabulary of this kind on theboard will greatly aid the interpreter.

    Another common translation problem for signlanguage interpreters is the use of idiomatic orconceptual expressions for which there are noequivalents. When the Botany professor begins his/her lecture on mushrooms with a statement like“You know I’m a real ‘fung-gi’”, the jest will fallboth literally and figuratively on deaf ears. Sound-based humor, such as puns, are extremely difficult totranslate meaningfully into sign.

    Regardless of how well you prepare to work with aninterpreter, there will be times when she or he willinterrupt you for a repetition of information ora clarification of something just said. Theseinterruptions don’t necessarily mean you are doingsomething wrong but that the interpreter needsadditional help in deciphering your message.Sometimes the interpreter becomes engaged in aparticularly difficult translation and may misssubsequent information. Or an environmental noise– a student’s cough, for example – may obscure aparticularly important word, such as not or don’t.

    WRITTEN TESTS

    The deaf student may ask the interpreter to interpretall or part of a test. For many deaf students, Englishis not their first language, so written tests present atype of communication barrier. The deaf studentmay have difficulty not so much with the contentbeing tested as with the wording of the question orinstructions. An interpretation involves thetranslation of the English text into sign, not help inthe content or wording of the student’s answer.

    Consider how a non-native speaker of English mightperceive this question: “After reading the five shortstories by Moore, what conclusion can you drawabout her view of feminism?” The deaf student, likemany second-language learners, might read thequestion as requiring one to draw a picture. Theinstructor may want the interpreter to read over theexam to identify potentially ambiguous test items. Iftime does not permit, then encourage the deafstudent to ask for interpretation when an item isunclear.

    SEMINARS AND OPEN CLASS DISCUSSION

    Seminars and classes that encourage free-flowingdiscussion present a special challenge to interpreters.Such classes (and other student activity meetings)often exclude the deaf student, not by intent, but,because of the quick pace and unstructuredinterchanges.

    To process information correctly, interpreters mustlag behind the speaker(s), sometimes by as much asseveral seconds. Conversationally, this places the deafstudent at a great disadvantage. When the deafstudent perceives an opportunity to jump into theconversation or discussion, the turn usually hasalready been taken by someone else.

    Classes such as these also encourage multipleconversations, creating an impossible situation forthe interpreter. Discussing this issue with the class,with an occasional reminder, is usually enough toheighten sensitivity. Often there is a self-appointed“conversational policeman” who will point outwhen it appears that the deaf student has a questionor comment to make, or remind the class when

    20Similar suggestions are expressed in the companion reports onNotetaking and Tutoring.

    21Skeletal remains of an early human discovered in Australia,popularly known as “Lucy.”

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    individuals are speaking over each other. Whenasking a question in a regular lecture class, wait untilafter the interpreter has completed signing thequestion before you call on students for an answer.This pause allows deaf students an opportunity tosee the full question and then raise their hands ifthey wish to participate.

    IN CONCLUSION

    The presence of a deaf student and the inclusion ofan interpreter in your classroom is an opportunityfor you to reassess and enhance the communicationdynamics of your classes. The best resource foradditional information on your use of interpreters isthe interpreter in your class, who is also an expert onhow to help communication flow better.

    For many deaf students, the presence or absence ofan interpreter in the classroom can spell thedifference between success or failure in college. Butwithout quality instruction, the student has littlechance to succeed. Working in tandem, theinstructor, together with the interpreter, otherneeded support service providers, and mostespecially the deaf student himself or herself, can tiltthe scale in the direction of success.

    PART IV. POSTSCRIPT PERTAINING TO LAWSAND REGULATIONS22

    The subject of interpreters is one that brings upnumerous issues and perspectives which are difficultto articulate because, without a certain level ofpersonal experience, many important elements inusing an interpreter effectively can easily gounrecognized.

    Under the ADA and Section 504, interpreters areconsidered an “auxiliary aid or service.” Post-secondary educational institutions must “furnishappropriate auxiliary aids and services wherenecessary to ensure effective communication withindividuals with disabilities” 28 C.F.R. § 36.304.See also, 28 C.F.R. § 35.160. The ADA regulationsdefine a “qualified interpreter” as “an interpreterwho is able to interpret effectively, accurately, andimpartially both receptively and expressively, usingany necessary specialized vocabulary” 28 C.F.R. §35.107, 28 C.F.R. § 36.104.

    In essence, from these regulations we learn that thecritical criteria which guide us in the use of inter-preters from a legal perspective are “effectivecommunication” and “qualified interpreter.” Thus,this commentary will address points made earlier inthis report in relation to those two concepts.

    This report outlines many areas that serviceproviders and deaf/hard of hearing students need toconsider in the provision of interpreter services inpostsecondary education. Viewed through the prismof equal access, each of the areas discussedcontributes to the achievement of the goal of legalcompliance, in this case, “effective” communication.On the other hand, failing to consider these areaswill inevitably detract from “effective” communi-cation, thus contributing to legal vulnerability.

    For example, the sooner students can be paired withqualified interpreters the better. The timeliness ofrequests for interpreters is important, administra-tively, educationally and legally. One should becautious, however, and recognize that while apreference for early notification regarding interpreterrequests plays an important part in service provision,the law holds institutions responsible for providingaccommodations from the time the request is made,even if it is “late.” Generally, an institution will notbe found in violation because it was ultimatelyunsuccessful in locating an interpreter after a laterequest. Nevertheless, it must make a good faithattempt to comply with the request and may notrefuse to honor the request for interpreting servicessimply because it is difficult to fill or because it maycost more to provide an interpreter at that late date.

    Another area to be addressed which impacts uponfull participation and the availability of interpretersfor extracurricular activities, public events oncampus, and soon, is who picks up the tab? The lawis fairly clear that the responsibility to provide accesslies with the institution, not with the interpretercoordinator or the Disabled Student Services office,for example. The law does not concern itself withwhose budget covers interpreters’ fees, but providesthat in assessing whether a particular serviceconstitutes an “undue burden,” that the courts willlook to the resources of the institution as a whole.In essence, if an institution has money for football

    22Contributed by Jo Anne Simon, consultant/attorneyspecializing in laws and regulations pertaining to students withdisabilities.

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    players, it has money for deaf and hard of hearingstudents. In addition, the law would not supportaccess to traditional lecture courses withoutproviding access to labs also. However, as the lawrequires that the provision of accommodations bemade on a case-by-case basis, it is possible thatcertain students may not need an interpreter for alab section, but that others will. The determinationmust be made on the basis of the student’s needs.

    Another critical issue is the qualifications of theinterpreters an institution uses to provide services.Notice that the ADA does not use the term“certified”, but rather uses the term “qualified”which encompasses the uses of specific terminology,an issue that arises often in the postsecondaryenvironment. This is an important distinction.Certification is some evidence of qualification, butthere are many interpreting situations for which acertified interpreter may not be qualified. Courtinterpreters are highly skilled people, but many ofthem would not feel qualified in a medical orcomputer setting. Still other interpreters may not beas highly certified, but more than adequate for aparticular interpreting assignment. Matching theskill of the interpreter with the needs of the studentand the course being taught is very important to theprovision of effective communication.

    The institution which takes care to mitigate thepossibility of repetitive stress injuries (RMI) throughcreative scheduling helps to ensure that the servicesit provides will be effective and in compliance formany years to come.

    While the issue of parking spaces may seemtangential, an interpreter in the classroom is worthtwo in the parking lot! An interpreter who isconsistently late for interpreting assignments due toparking problems may not be providing the level ofservice that would be considered to be incompliance, thus putting the institution at risk. Theinstitution would be well advised to alleviate thatcircumstance, where possible.

    Given the above, it is therefore extremely importantthat an institution develops policies and proceduresfor dealing with the interpreter needs of thestudent population and the need to educate facultyand staff about the interpreting process and varying

    roles. As more deaf and hard of hearing studentsattend hearing schools, we are seeing the emergenceof certain trends and, thus, areas in need of policydevelopment.

    Some of these issues seem simple in the abstract, yetbecome thorny in the specific. For example, besidespolicies regarding how much advance notice isrequired and who pays for interpreters, policiesabout what constitutes interpreting and whatconstitutes tutoring or “prompting” need to beaddressed. Must a deaf student be responsible forreading examination questions in English, or shouldan interpreter “interpret” the written English intoASL? What happens if what is being tested is astudent’s ability to define terminology specific to afield of study, but the “school” sign invented forinterpreting purposes in the classroom effectivelygives the student the answer? Is this interpreting orgiving the student the answer?

    An institution is responsible for creating access andis legally prohibited from charging students forinterpreting services. For whom does the interpreterwork? The institution or the deaf student?

    These and other questions are arising on campusesacross the country and each institution needs toaddress them in a manner that is consistent with thelaw and the institution’s mission and employmentpolicies.

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    APPENDIX A. LIST OF INTERPRETINGEDUCATION PROGRAMS23

    Interpreter Training ProgramPhoenix Community College1202 West Thomas RoadPhoenix, Arizona 85013Voice: 602 285-7303TTY: 602 285-7477 or 7476Fax: 602 285-7309

    Interpreter Training ProgramPima Community College2202 West Anklam RoadTucson, Arizona 85709-0295Voice: 520 884-6974TTY: 520 884-6974Fax: 520 884-6020

    Interpreter Education ProgramDepartment of RehabilitationUniversity of Arkansas at Little Rock2801 South University AvenueLittle Rock, Arkansas 72204Voice: 501 569-3169TTY: 501 569-3169Fax: 501 569-8129

    Deaf Studies DepartmentCalifornia State University, Northridge18111 Nordhoff StreetNorthridge, California 91330-8265Voice: 818 677-5116TTY: 818 677-4973Fax: 818 677-5717

    Sign Language/Interpreter Training ProgramEl Camino College16007 Crenshaw BoulevardTorrance, California 90506Voice: 310 660-3296TTY: 310 660-3445Fax: 310 660-3932

    Sign Language InterpretingDepartment of American Sign LanguageSan Diego Mesa College7250 Mesa College DriveSan Diego, California 92111Voice: 619 627-2789 (V/T)TTY: 619 627-2923Fax: 619 279-5668

    Interpreting for Deaf PeopleGolden West College15744 Golden West StreetHuntington Beach, California 92647Voice: 714 895-8907TTY: 714 895-8350

    Interpreter Preparation ProgramDeaf CenterOhlone College43600 Mission BoulevardFremont, California 94539Voice: 510 659-6269TTY: 510 659-6269Fax: 510 659-6032

    Sign Language StudiesHumanities DivivisionAmerican River College4700 College Oak DriveSacramento, California 95841Voice: 916 484-8653TTY: 916 484-8270

    Interpreter Preparation ProgramFront Range Community College3645 West 112th AvenueWestminster, Colorado 80030Voice: 303 404-5366TTY: 303 469-0459Fax: 303 466-1623

    Career Education for the DeafNW Connecticut Community CollegePark Place EastWinsted, Connecticut 06098Voice: 860 738-6382TTY: 860 738-6382

    Department of American Sign Language,Linguistics & Interpretation

    Gallaudet University800 Florida Avenue NEWashington, DC 20002-3695Voice: 202 651-5450TTY: 202 651-5200Fax: 202 651-5741

    23Appreciation is expressed to the managing editor of theAmerican Annals of the Deaf for permission to reproduce thislist from its 1998 Reference issue (143, 2, 172-176).

  • 18

    Interpreter Education ProgramNE Florida Educational Consortiumc/o Florida School for the Deaf & Blind207 North San Marco AvenueSt. Augustine, Florida 32084Voice: 904 797-4795TTY: 904 797-4795

    Interpreter Training ProgramGeorgia Perimeter College555 North Indian Creek DriveClarkston, Georgia 30021Voice: 404 299-4322TTY: 404 299-4322Fax: 404 299-4364

    American Sign Language/InterpreterEducation Program

    Office of Continuing Education TrainingKapiolani Community College4303 Diamond Head RoadHonolulu, Hawaii 96816Voice: 808 734-9154TTY: 808 734-9154Fax: 808 734-9893

    Sign Language Studies ProgramCollege of Southern IdahoPost Office Box 1238Twin Falls, Idaho 83303-1238Voice: 208 733-9554 (x2181)TTY: 208 736-4743

    Sign Language Interpreting ProgramAcademic Enrichment & Language StudiesWilliam Rainey Harper College1200 West AlgonquinPalatine, Illinois 60067Voice: 847 925-6415TTY: 847 925-6415Fax: 847 925-6048

    Interpreter Training ProgramWaubonsee Community College5 East Galena BoulevardAurora, Illinois 60506Voice: 708 466-4811 (x225)

    Interpreter Training DepartmentColumbia College600 South Michigan AvenueChicago, Illinois 60605Voice: 312 663-1600 (x7218)TTY: 312 360-9133Fax: 312 663-0046

    Interpreter Training ProgramIowa Western Community College2700 College Road, Box 4-CCouncil Bluffs, Iowa 51502Voice: 712 325-3203TTY: 712 325-3495Toll Free: 800 432-5852Fax: 712 329-4748

    Interpreter Training ProgramJohnson County Community College12345 College BoulevardOverland Park, Kansas 66210-1299Voice: 913 469-8500 (x3903)TTY: 913 469-4478Fax: 913 469-4409

    Interpreter Training ProgramDepartment of Special EducationEastern Kentucky UniversityWallace Building, Room 245Richmond, Kentucky 40475-0959Voice: 606 622-4442TTY: 606 622-4442Fax: 606 622-4398

    Interpreter Training ProgramAmerican Sign Language StudiesDelgado Community College615 City Park AvenueNew Orleans, Louisiana 70119Voice: 504 483-4553TTY: 504 483-4553Fax: 504 483-1953

    Interpreter Preparation ProgramCatonsville Community College800 South Rolling RoadBaltimore, Maryland 21228Voice: 410 455-4474 or 4274TTY: 410 455-4474 or 4274 or 4398Fax: 410 455-5134

    American Sign Language Program405 Meserve HallNortheastern University360 Huntington AvenueBoston, Massachusetts 02115Voice: 617 373-3064TTY: 617 373-3067Fax: 617 373-3065

  • 19

    Sign Language/Interpreter Training ProgramLansing Community CollegePost Office Box 40010Lansing, Michigan 48901-7210Voice: 517 483-1410TTY: 517 483-1310

    Interpreter Training ProgramMott Community College1401 East Court StreetFlint, Michigan 48503-2383Voice: 810 762-0470 (V/T)TTY: 810 762-0272Fax: 810 232-9478

    Sign Language Studies/InterpretingMadonna University36600 Schoolcraft RoadLivonia, Michigan 48150-1173Voice: 734 432-5616TTY: 734 591-9266Toll Free: 800 852-4951Fax: 734 432-5393

    Interpreter/Transliterator Training ProgramSt. Paul Technical College235 Marshall AvenueSt. Paul, Minnesota 55102Voice: 612 221-1343TTY: 612 221-1343Fax: 612 221-1416

    Health Care Interpreter ProgramCollege of St. Catherine, Minneapolis601 25th Avenue SouthMinneapolis, Minnesota 55454Voice: 612 690-8112TTY: 612 690-7862Fax: 612 690-7849

    Deaf Communication Studies/Interpreter TrainingSt. Louis Community College at Florissant Valley3400 Pershall RoadSt. Louis, Missouri 63135Voice: 314 595-2025TTY: 314 595-2120Fax: 314 595-4544

    Interpreting ProgramWilliam Woods University200 West 12th StreetFulton, Missouri 65251-1098Voice: 314 592-1123TTY: 314 592-1123Toll Free: 800 995-3199Fax: 314 592-1164

    Sign Language InterpretationUniversity of New Hampshire, ManchesterUniversity Center220 Hackett Hill RoadManchester, New Hampshire 03102Voice: 603 629-4143TTY: 603 622-4511

    American Sign Language &Deaf Studies and Interpreters Program

    Union County College232 East 2nd StreetPlainfield, New Jersey 07060Voice: 908 709-3578TTY: 908 412-0294Fax: 908 754-2798

    Department of American Sign Language & Interpreting Education

    National Technical Institute for the DeafRochester Institute of Technology52 Lomb Memorial DriveRochester, New York 14623-5604Voice: 585 475-6497TTY: 585 475-6497Fax: 585 475-6500

    American Sign Language/English Interpreter Education Program

    Division of Adult & Continuing EducationLaGuardia Community College31-10 Thomson Avenue - Room C204Long Island City, New York 11101Voice: 718 482-5313/5324TTY: 718 482-5313/5324Fax: 718 482-5119/5136

    Interpreter for the Deaf andAmerican Sign Language Studies

    Suffolk Community College533 College Road, R-125Selden, New York 11784Voice: 516 451-4265TTY: 516 451-4651Fax: 516 451-4671

  • 20

    Deaf Adult Services, Inc.Community Based Education491 Delaware AvenueBuffalo, New York 14202Voice: 716-885-3323TTY: 716-885-4955Fax: 716-885-3384

    Educational InterpretingEducation of Deaf Children300 Ferguson BuildingUniversity of North Carolina at GreensboroGreensboro, North Carolina 27402-6170Voice: 910 334-5843TTY: 910 334-5843Fax: 910 334-3618

    American Sign Language ProgramDepartment of Foreign LanguagesGardner-Webb UniversityBox 7304Boiling Springs, North Carolina 28017Voice: 704 434-4418TTY: 704 434-4418Toll Free: 800 253-6472 (Admissions)Fax: 704 434-4329

    Interpreter Education ProgramCentral Piedmont Community CollegePost Office Box 35009Charlotte, North Carolina 28235Voice: 704 330-6829TTY: 704 330-6852Fax: 704 330-6560

    Interpreting & Transliterating TechnologyColumbus State Community College550 East Spring Street, Box 1609Columbus, Ohio 43216-1609Voice: 614 227-5164TTY: 614 469-0333Toll Free: 800 621-6407

    Manual Communication ProgramSinclair Community College444 West 3rd StreetDayton, Ohio 45402-1460Voice: 513 226-2722TTY: 513 226-2722

    Interpreter Preparatory ProgramTulsa Junior College3727 East ApacheTulsa, Oklahoma 74115-3151Voice: 918 595-7444TTY: 918 595-7444Fax: 918 595-7598

    Interpreter Training ProgramOklahoma State University900 North PortlandOklahoma City, Oklahoma 73107Voice: 405 945-3288TTY: 405 945-3300Fax: 405 945-9131

    Human Resources DepartmentEast Central UniversityAda, Oklahoma 74820Voice: 405 332-8000TTY: 405 332-3497

    Sign Language Studies and InterpretationPortland Community CollegePCC, SY CT 219PO Box 19000Portland, Oregon 97280-0990Voice: 503 977-4672TTY: 503 977-4951Fax: 503 977-4874

    American Sign Language/English InterpretationWestern Oregon UniversityMonmouth AvenueMonmouth, Oregon 97361Voice: 503 838-8444TTY: 503 838-8444Fax: 503 838-8228

    Interpreter Training ProgramCommunity College of Allegheny CountyNorth Campus8701 Perry HighwayPittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15237Voice: 412 369-4172TTY: 412 369-4108 (V/T)Fax: 412 369-3624

  • 21

    Interpreter Training ProgramMount Aloysius College7373 Admiral Peary HighwayCresson, Pennsylvania 16630Voice: 814 886-6310TTY: 814 886-5533Fax: 814 866-2978

    Interpreter Preparatory Program226 Navy HallBloomsburg University400 East Second StreetBloomsburg, Pennsylvania 17815Voice: 717 389-4076TTY: 717 389-4076/4080Fax: 717 389-3980

    Interpreter Training CurriculumDepartment of Behavioral SciencesCommunity College of Philadelphia1700 Spring Garden StreetPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania 19130Voice: 215 751-8291/8443TTY: 215 751-8292

    University of TennesseeRehabilitation, Deafness & Human Services117 Claxton AdditionKnoxville, Tennessee 37996-3400Voice: 423 974-2321TTY: 423 974-2321Fax: 423 974-8674

    American Sign Language Studies ProgramChattanooga State Technical Community College4501 Amnicola HighwayChattanooga, Tennessee 37406-1097Voice: 423 697-4415TTY: 423 697-4415Fax: 423 697-4430

    Sign Language/InterpretingMaryville College502 East Lamar Alexander ParkwayMaryville, Tennessee 37804Voice: 423 981-8148TTY: 423 981-8149Toll Free: 800 597-2687Fax: 423 981-8010

    Interpreter Training DepartmentSan Antonio College1300 San Pedro AvenueSan Antonio, Texas 78212-4299Voice: 210 733-2071TTY: 210 733-2072Fax: 210 733-2074

    Interpreter TrainingEastfield College3737 Motley DriveMesquite, Texas 75150Voice: 972 860-7161TTY: 972 860-7161Fax: 972 860-8342

    Interpreting for the DeafNorthwest CampusTarrant County Junior College4801 Marine Creek ParkwayFort Worth, Texas 76179Voice: 817 515-7762Fax: 817 515-7007

    Interpreter Training ProgramMcLennan Community College1400 College DriveWaco, Texas 76708Voice: 254 299-8733Fax: 254 299-8747 M

    Sign Language/Interpreter Preparatory ProgramEl Paso Community College919 HunterPost Office Box 20500El Paso, Texas 79998Voice: 915 594-2432TTY: 915 594-2432Fax: 915 599-4925

    Interpreter Training ProgramSalt Lake Community College4600 South Redwood RoadPost Office Box 30808Salt Lake City, Utah 84130-0808Voice: 801 957-4929TTY: 801 957-4929Fax: 801 957-4853

  • 22

    Interpreter Training ProgramDrawer 1127New River Community CollegeDublin, Virginia 24084Voice: 703 674-3600 (x290)TTY: 703 674-3619Fax: 703 674-3642

    Interpreter Training Program/DeafnessSpokane Falls Community CollegeWest 3410 Fort George Wright Drive, MS 3190Spokane, Washington 99204-5288Voice: 509 533-3618/3730TTY: 509 533-3618/3730

    Interpreter Training ProgramLanguages & Cultures DivisionSeattle Central Community College1701 Broadway, 2 BE 1142Seattle, Washington 98122Voice: 206 344-4347TTY: 206 344-4347

    Department of Education & the ArtsWest Virginia Division of Rehabilitation ServicesState Capitol BuildingPost Office Box 50890Charleston, West Virginia 25305-0890Voice: 304 766-4965TTY: 304 766-4965Toll Free: 800 642-8207Fax: 304 766-4690

    Interpreter Training ProgramDepartment of Exceptional EducationPost Office Box 413University of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeMilwaukee, Wisconsin 53201Voice: 414 229-6567TTY: 414 229-6567Fax: 414 229-5500

    Education Interpreter Technician ProgramNorthcentral Technical College1000 West Campus DriveWausau, Wisconsin 54401Voice: 715 675 3331 (x 4084)TTY: 715 675-6341Fax: 715 675-9776

    Educational Interpreting ProgramNWCCD/Sheridan College3059 Coffeen AvenuePost Office Box 1500Sheridan, Wyoming 82801-1500Voice: 307 674-6446, ext 6231TTY: 307 674-6446, ext 6231Toll Free: 800 913-9139, ext 6231Fax: 307 674-4293

  • 23

    APPENDIX B. SELECTED RESOURCES FORRECRUITING VARIOUS TYPES OF INTERPRETERS

    Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf3417 Volta Place, NWWashington, D.C. 20007

    American Annals of the DeafKDESGallaudet University800 Florida Avenue, NEWashington, D.C. 20002

    Conference of Interpreter TrainersCIT NewsC/O University of Arkansas, Little RockDepartment of Rehabilitation2801 South University AvenueLittle Rock, AR 72204-1099

    Cued Speech NewsGallaudet UniversityDepartment.of Audiology/

    Speech-Language Pathology800 Florida Avenue, NE.Washington, D.C. 20002

    National Association of the Deaf814 Thayer AvenueSilver Spring, MD 20910

    Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, Inc.8630 Fenton Street, Suite 324Silver Spring, MD 20910-3803

    The Cued Speech CenterPost Office Box 31345Raleigh, NC 27622

  • These materials were developed in the course of agreement between the Research to Practice Division, O�ce of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education and the Northeast Technical Assistance Center at the Rochester Institute of Technology under grant #H078A60004. Additional information about current pepnet 2 project activities and resources can be found at www.pepnet.org. Year of publication: 1998.


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