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UNIT1 WHY STUDY INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS? SCOPE AND APPROACHES

Structure

Objectives Introduction Meaning of International Relations 1.2.1 International Relations and International Politics

Changing Nature of International Relations Why Study International Relations? Scope of International Relations Approaches 1.6.1 Traditional Approaches : Realism, Idealism, Neo-Realism 1.6.2 Scientific Approaches : BehaviouralIScientific approaches of International Politics 1.6.3 System Theory 1.6.4 Game Theory 1.6.5 Integration Theory 1.6.6 Dependence Theory 1.6.7 Feminist Approach

Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Exercises.

1.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, we will be able to :

grasp the meaning and changing nature of International Relations; understand the utility of the study of International Relations; comprehend its scope; identify and explain the traditional approaches to study of International Relations; and explain major scientific approaches such as Systems Theory and the Game Theory.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The study of relations among nations has fascinated scholars for several centuries. However, the term international was first used by Jeremy Banthanl in the latter part of the eighteenth century, although its Latin equivalent intergentes was used a century earlier by Rijchare Zouche. Both of them had used this term in respect of that branch of law which was called law of nations, which later became 'International Law'. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, international relations have grown rapidly. Today nation-states have become far too interdependent; and relations among them whether political or those related to trade and commerce, have developed into an essential area of knowledge. In this unit, we are mainly concerned with the political relations among sovereign societies called nations, or nation-states.

After the Second World War, the interdependence of sovereign States has grown immensely. Meanwhile, in the present jet age travel has become so fast that distances have teen considerably reduced; and with the revolution in the field of

Understahding Internatiollal Relations communication, today's satellite era has brought peoples so close to each other that international relations have assumed unprecedented importance both as a 'condition' and as a 'discipline' (see the section trelow).

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1.2 MEANING OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The term International Relations (IR) may be used both for a ' condition' and a 'discipline'. Qllincy Wright, for example, makes such a distinction. The official relations between sovereign countries are described as international relations, though accotding to him, " ............ the word interstate would have been more accurate because in political science the state came to be the terms applied to such societies.' %ewed thus, international relations as 'condition' refers to the facts of international life, that is to say, the actual conduct of relations among nations through diplomacy based on foreign policy. It also includes actual areas of cooperation, conflict and war. According to Wright, IR should tell the "truth about the subject" i.e., how such relations are conducted and as a discipline IR should treat them in a systematic and scientific manner.

In other words, IR should focus on the study of all relations-political, diplomatic trade, ,academic among sovereign states which constitute the subject matter on international relations. The scope of IR should include study of "varied types of groups-nations, states, governments, peoples, regions, alliances, confederations, international organisations, even industrial organisations, cultural organisations, religious organisation" etc. which are involved in the conduct of these relations.

While Quincy Wright distinguished between international relations as a 'condition' and ayiscipline', there are other scholars like Palmer and Perkins who doubted its status as a discipline. They argued that History and Political Science are the disciplines from which international relations has emerged. Writing abouf 40 years ago. Palmer and Perkins had opined : "Although international relations has emerged from its earlier status as a poor relation of political science, and history, it is still far from being a well-organised discipline. "

One of the earlier scholars of international relations, Professor Alfred Zimmern had written before the Second World War that : "International Relations . . . . . is clearly not a subject in the ordinary sense of the word. It does not provide a single coherent body of teaching material . . .. . It is not a single subject but a bundle of subjects . . . . . of law, economics, political science, geography, and so on . . . . . " International Relations, according to Palmer and Perkins, was too subjective in character and content. In its early stages even E.H. Carr had described it as "markedly and fkal~kly utopian." But the failure of the League of Nations and its collective security system led Carr to remark that it had become possible to embark on serious and critical analytical tholught about international problems." This has been vigorously pursued by a number of scholars after the Second World War. Today, it will not be proper to describe Intbrnational Relations as 'Utopian or deny' it the status of an independent subject of study. National interest is an important concern of every state. Planners and makers of foreign policy - cannot ignore correct perception of their country's national interests which must be protected at all costs. Hartman defines International Relations as a field of study which focuses upon the "processes by which states adjust their national intlerest to those of other states." Since national interests of different states are often in conflict, Morgenthau concludes that international politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power. Therefore, power is the means through which nations promote their national interest.

1.2.1 Intprnational Relations and International Politics

The first Chair in International Relations was established at the university of Wales . (U.K) in 1919. The first two occupants of the chair were eminent historians,

Professors Alfred Zin~mern and C.K. Webster. At that time, International Relations as ~ r . S t l l d r Jnkmatiollal Relations?

a subject was little more than diplomatic history. During the next seven decades this Scope and Approaches

subject has changed in nature and content. Today the analytical study of politics has replaced descriptive diplomatic history. The term International politics is now used for the new discipline that has been emerging since the second world war. It is more scientific, yet narrow, as compared to International Relations.

The two terms are even now sometimes used as synonyms. But, they have two distinct areas, or content, of study. Hans Morgenthau believes that "the core of international relations is international politics", but a clear distinction between the two is to be made. International Relations, according to him, is much wider in scope than International Politics. Whereas politics among nations is, as Morgenthau says, struggle for power, international relations includes political, economic and cultural relations. Harold and Margaret Sprout opine that international relations include all human behaviour on one s ~ d e of a national boundary affecting the human behaviour on the other side of the boundary. ~nte*n&nal politics, on the other hand, deals with conflicts and cooperation among nations essentially at political level. As Padelford and Lincoln define it, international politics is the interaction of state policies within the changing pattern of power relationship. Palmer and Perkins express similar views when they say that international politics is essentially concerned with the state system.

Since international relations includes all types of relationships between sovereign states, it is wider, and international politics is narrower in scope. As students of IR, we shall indeed examine political conflicts and cooperation among states. But, we stiall also study other aspect of relations among nations as well including pconomic inter-action and role of the non-state actor.

1.3 CHANGING NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The context and nature of IR have undergone major changes after the Second World War. Traditionally, world politics was centered around Europe and relations among nations were largely conducted by officials of foreign offices in secrecy. The common man was hardly ever involved, and treaties were often kept secret. Today public opinion has begun to play an important role in the decision-making process in foreign offices, thus, changing completely the nature of international relations. Ambassadors, once briefed by their governments, were largely free to conduct relations according to the ground realities of the countries of their posting. Today, not only have nuclear weapons changed the nature of war and replaced erstwhile the balance of power by the balance of terror, but also the nature of diplomacy chanqed as well. We live in the jet age where the heads of state and government and their foieign ministers travel across the globe and personally establish contacts and conduct international relations. Before the First World War a traveller from India to Britain spent about 20 days In the sea voyage. Today, it takes less than 9 hours for a jet aircraft to fly from Delhi to London, telephones, fax macknes, teleprinters and other electronic devices have brought all government leaders hi direct contact. Hotline communicat~ons between Washington and Moscow, for example, keeps the top world leaders in constant touch. This has reduced the freedom of ambassadors who receive daily instructions from their governments.

Decoloni$ation has resulted in the emergence of a large number of sovereign states. The former colonies of the European Powers, including India, have become important actors on the stage of international relatioh. They were once silent spectators. Today, they participate in the conduct of world politics. The disintegration of the Soviet Union has created 15 members of the United Nations, instead of the previous three. Some of the very small countries like Nauru may have no power but they also have, an

Untlentnndine International Relatiolls equal voice in the General Assembly. Four very small countries viz. Liechtenstein, San Marino, Monaco and Andorra were admitted to the U.N. during 1990-93. The total number of U.N. members has gone up from 51 in 1945 to 185 in 1997. Thus, international rclations are now conducted by such a large number of new nation- states. Besides, many non-state actors such as multinational corporations and transnational bodies like terrorist groups have been influencing international relations in a big way. With the collapse of the Soviet Union as a Super Power, the United States has emerged as the supreme monolithic power and can now dominate the international scene almost without any challenge. The Non-Alignment Movement ((NAM) still exists but with the dismemberment of one of its founders (i.e. : Yugoslavia) and the disappearance of rival power blocs, the role of the 'Third World' has changed along with that of NAM.

Check Your Progress 1

Note : i) Use the space below for your answers.

ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) Distinguish between international relations as a 'condition' and as a 'discipline'.

... ................................................................................................................

2) Explain the meaning of international relations.

3) What is the distinction between international relations and international politics?

...................................................................................................................

4) Describe briefly the changing nature of international relations.

Why St~~cly Intonlatio~lal Relations? 1.4 WHY STUDY INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS? Scope and Approacl~es

International Relations (IR), is closely related with several disciplines. These include History, Political Science, Law, Econonlics, and Geography. What is the utility of the study of IR as a separate subject'? You know that no country in the World can live in isolation. Even when means of transportation and colnmunication were primitive or much less developed than today, sovereign states did interact with each other. They cooperated at times, and had frequent conflicts which often led to wars. Relations among those states were generally studied by Historians and Political Scientists. Diplomatic History was usually studied for understanding relations anlong sovereign states.

During the second half of the twentieth century, revolution in the means of travel and comnlunication has not only changed the nature of international relations, but made . its study essential for every enlightened qerson.

We are today living in an interdependent state - system. It is essential for all of us to have a clear idea of wlht is happening in the world. Political events are important, but even economic developments, trade, commerce and activities of actors like multinational corporations are no less significant. We live in an age of growing international cooperation. Therefore, not only do the activities of the United Nations and its numerous agencies affect all the nations and their peoples, but regional organisations like the European Union, South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the ' Organisation of African Unity (OAU) also play important roles in our lives. International terrorism has been a concern for the humankind and economic institutions like the World Bank and the World Trade Organisation (WTO) affect international relations. The study of International Relations has therefore become highly useful and enlightening for students and others alike.

SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS \

Beginning with the study of law and diplomatic history, the scope of international relations has steadily expanded. With growing complexity of contacts between nations, the study of international organizations and institutions attracted the I

attention of scholars. The outbreak of the Second World War gave a strong stimulus to area studies and strategic aspect of foreign policy. This led to efforts to understand better the dynamics of national liberation struggles and anti-colonial movements. The foundation of the United Nations during the war encouraged thinking about post-war restructuring of the relations among nations. The study of cooperation became important even as the study of conflict remained central. The immediate aftermath was marked by a constructive outlook. This is reflected in titles of books like Swords and Pldughshares written by Inis Claude. New topics like ideology and disarmament assumed unprecedented importance in the era of cold war. So did the system of alliances and regionalism. Contemporary international relations embrace the whole gamut of diplomatic history, international politics, international organisation, international law and area studies. Writing about the contents of international relations, a few decades back, Palmer Perkins had said that the then international relations was a study of "the world community in transition." This conclusion is largely true even today. The transition has not reached a terminal point. While the underlying factors of international relations have not changed, the international environment has changed and is still changing. The state system is undergoing modifications; a technological revolution h s taken place in a very big way; new states of Asia and Africa are playing increasi gly importaqt roles. India, in f particular, is in a position to assert and take a rigid stand, as in 1696 on the question of signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). There is also a "revolution of 1 1

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Understanding Internntional Relations rising expectations." Thus, as Palmer and Perkins wrote, "old and new elements must be interwoven" in the contemporary international relations. "The focus is still the nation - state system and inter-state relations; but the actions and interactions of many organisations and groups have also to be considered."

The scope of international relations at the end of the twentieth century has become very vast indeed. The world has virtually become a "global village", as interdependence of states has increased manifold. Economic relations between states, the role of international institutions like the World Bank, International Monetary Fund ahd the World Trade Organisation today influences econonlic activity all over the worlld. The United Nations and its various agencies are engaged in numerous socio-economic and political activities. International terrorism is a cause of serious concern for the human existence. Multinational Corporations (MNCs), wlzo are giant companies operating the world over, are important non-state actors of international relations. Thus, the scope of international relations has become vast, and, besides international politics, it embraces various other inter - State activities as well. . Check Yonr Progress 2


ii) Check yonr progress with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) Briefly describe the utility of the study of international relations.

2) What is the scope of contemporary international relations?

2 +

1.6 APPROACHES \,

There are many approaches to the study of international relations. The traditional or classical approach treated History as the laboratory from which meaningful conclusions could be drawn. Two of the main schools of the traditional approach are Realism and Idealism. Whereas the Realism School considers the struggle for power as the central point of all international relations, the Idealism School believes in the inherent goodness of man. Realists like Morgenthau do not attach much importance to means, or morality. For them national interest is the aim that must be served with the help of power. The idealists, on the other hand, feel that the ideal of world peace is attainable with the help of reason, education and science. In recent years, Neo- Realism has appeared as another approach to the study of international relations.

1.6.1 Traditional Approaches : Realism, Idealism and Neo-Realism Wh~Sh1d~Internr t io l l lRe ln~o~? Scope nnd Appronches

The two most important variants of the traditional approach of international relations are Realism and Idealism. Taking inspiration from Kautilya and Machiavelli, the leading twentieth century realists George Kennan and Hans Morgenthau argued that the struggle for power is the central point of all international relations. Individuarls believe that others are always trying to attack and destroy them, and therefore, they must be continuously ready to kill others in order to protect themselves. This basic; human instinct guides the States as well. Thus, the realists argue that rivalry and strife among the nations in some form or the other are always present. Just as self:- interest guides the individual's behaviour, similarly national interest also guides tbe foreign policy of nation-states. Continued conflict is the reality of international relations and realists attribute this to the struggle for power. Thus, national interea, as defined in terms of power, is the only reality of international relations. The realists do not attach much significance to means, for them national interest is the end, and it must be promoted at all costs.

Hans 1. Morgenthu's influential book "Politics among Nations" (1972) carried the torch of realism far and wide. For the realists, distribution of powers among states is all thatis there to explain in IR. Given a particular distribution of power, the realists claim that, it is possible to explain both the characteristics of the system and the -

behaviour of the individual states. The idealists firmly believe that the essential goodness of human nature will eventually pre ail and that a new world order would emerge which would be marked by the absen e of war, inequality and tyranny. This d new world order would be brought about by the use of reason, education and science. Idealism presents a picture of future international relations free from power politics, violence and immorality. Idealism argues that an international organisation commanding respect of nation-states would pave the way for a world free of conflicts and war. Thus, the crucial point on which the realists and idealists sharply differ is the problem of power. St. Simon, Aldous Huxley, Mahatma Gandhi and Woodrow Wilson a;e among the prominent idealists. Morality is vital for them as they aim at international peace and cooperation.

An analysis of Realism and Idealism will show that both have their validity provided they give up their extremism. The approach that takes a middle position between "idealistic utopianism" and "cynical realism" is called Eclecticism. It has been described as a sort of synthesis of the 'pessimism of realism' and 'optimism of idealism'. Eclecticism tries to use the best in both realism and idealism. The former has been described by Quincy Wright as a representative of short-run national policies whereas idealism represents long-term policies of intearnationalism. Realists have been called 'Children of darkness' and idealists the 'children of light'. Neibuhr regards the children of darkness as evil and wicked and the children of light as virtuous. But, on the basis of another cirterion, he says, the realists are wise as they understand the power of self-will, and the idealists are foolish because they underestimate the risk ~f anarchy in the international community. Both have something to learn from this.

\ Neo-Realism, also known as 'Structural Realism' is one of the current approaches to the study of international relations. Waltz, Grieco, Keohane and Joseph Nye are among the prominent neo-realists. Neo-Realists believe that might is right in a system which is essentially Hobbesian (full of strife) in nature. The great powers are engaged in permanent rivalry. The structure has, more or less, remained one of anarchy though the prominent actors have been changing. The term 'structure' has been referred to "how the actors in a system stand in relation to each other." The present structure being anarchical (challenges to state domination are rampant), one finds powerful states are most interested in trying to prevent others froin improving relative capabilities. Keohane and Nye add that with the increasing ro lwf non-state actors, I

1s

U~ldemtanding hlternatiollal Relations the structure has become even more complex and unpredictable. In short, neorealism belleves that the nation-states still remain the most important actors in world politics: behaviour of the states can be explained rationally; states seek power and calculate their interests in terms of power. (All these they share with the scholars of realism). Hdwever, the neorealists add, the international system is characterized by anarchy and emerging 'multi-centric' activities emanating from sources other than state. This complexity is further compounded by international terrorism, religious war-fares, increasing incidence of civil wars and emerging competitive multinational corporations.

In the post-cold war years, international arena has assumed a new form. Nation-states are being threatened by divisive and secessionist movements. Many of the conflicts have assumed deadly proportions. According to John Stremlau "prevention has become a buzz word among diplomats seeking to stem anarchy in Africa. the Balkans, the new states of the former Soviet Union, and elsewhere." In 1992, for example, out of 30 conflicts across the world as many as 29 were military actions taking place inside states. One can refer to such examples to show that more military actions are being taken recourse to inside states rather than outside and among them. The ethnic conflict in erstwhile Yugoslavia (conflict between Serbs and Croats, and between Serbs and Bosnians), insurgency within Afghanistan, the conflict in Iraq regardiag Kurds, chaotic conditions inside Somalia, the conflict in Sri Lanka, Mohajir Quami Movement (MQM) related conflict in Palustan and terrorist activities in northern Indian States of Jammu & Kashmir and Punjab, are some of the ongoing military or paramilitary actions within nation-states. In the post-cold war conflicts, 90 per cent of casualties have been of civilians, not of the soldiers. Thus, neo-realism stresses the struggle for power not only between states but also intra-state struggles in an 'anarchic' world.

It will not be out of place here to mention that at a socio-political level, domestic determination of foreign policy options was not an important consideration with the realists who preferred states to remain confined to diplomatic, military and strategic sources of power. (See the box below). The post-cold war realists believe that peace was made possible in the world during the cold war period (1945-89) owing to stable bipolarity, balance of terror and a belief that nuclear war could be suicidal. With the end of the cold war, the realists hope for lasting peace to result out of the rules of conduct (for international relations) to be enforced by the United States which has virtual mondpoly of powers. Realism today recognises the role of the United Nations, Internatiphal Monetary Fund and World Trade Organisation yet they are still considered to be subordinate to the wishes of the powerful states. The realists do net want proliferation of nuclear weapons so that monopoly of the American power is maintained in that sector. Thus, realists (and neo-realists) still believe in promotion of national interest as expressed through State power. Despite international organisations, reg'rqes and non-state actors, power continues to dominate international relations, the realists still maintain.

It may be of interest to students to note that Realism and Neorealistic approaches are mostly confined to,$ studies in USA and Europe. Bbth stress on state power systems and inter-state relations. An important difference between the two is, however, one of degree and focus.

Neorealism (which appeals more widely in USA and Europe) in IR differs from Realism by virtue of its lesser concern with the diplomatic, military and strategic sources which maintain or disturb the balance of power and more pre-occupation with the political and economic concerns which need to be addressed for a sustainable international system. Most of the neo-realists therefore have been students of international political economy. IR studies began focussing on the developing countries after neo-realistic approach came to vogue. They are more

concerned with issues of dependence and development as against the state-centered why study I~~ternational Relations? Scope and Appronclles

approaches espousing the cause of "hegemonic stability" (that is to say, uneven distribution of power with one or a few states holding superior power to ensure stability in the world). As behaviouralists like Prof. James Rosenau often complained, concerned Third World students of IR often tend to be attracted to "dependency theory" (see below). This perspective posits that the Third World has been historically exploited by rich nations of the developed West.

1.6.2 Behavioural/Scientific Approaches of International Politics

Behavioural approaches to study of IR are often claimed by their western adherents to be scientific because they are based on quantitative calculations.

They made us nlore aware of the complex nature of conflicts and provided many valuable insights into decision r making. The ultimate objective of the behaviouralist scholars is to develop a general theory of international relations. The traditional approach was rooted largely in Political Science and drew heavily from Law, History and Philosophy. With the help of the behavioural approach, a discipline of international relations is at last beginning to emerge which is devoted to behavioural studies in IR.

There are several theories which may be lumped together under scientific/behavioural approach. Some like Systems Theory are more comprehensive than others like Bargaining and Game Theories. We will in this section briefly deal with only two of these behavioural scientific theories viz., the System Theory and the Game Theory.

1.6.3 System Theory

A system is defined as a set of elements interacting with each other. Another important feature of the system is that it has a boundary which separates it from the environment, the latter however, influences the system in its operations. Generally speaking, a system may be either natural (e.g. solar system), or mechanical (a car, a clock or a computer), or social (e.g. family). The social system itself may be related either to "society, or economy, or politics, or international systems."

The general concept of an internationat system, and of international systems, formed the basis of work for many 'major scholars, Karl W. Deutsch and Raymond Aron being among the most prominent. As Aron observed, there has never been an international system including the whole of the planet. But in the post-war period, "for the first time, humanitfr is living.(in) one and the same history, and there has emerged some kind of global system". It is greatly heterogeneous but not to an extent that scholars may fail to hold them together in a discipline. As a matter of fact, Stanley Hoffman's working definition of the discipline was sufficient. "An international system", according to Hoffman "is a pattern of relations between the basic units of world politics which is characterized by the scope of the objectives pursued by these units and of the tasks performed among them, as well as by thg means used in order to achieve those goals and perform those tasks". (System and Process in International Politics, 1957).

Among others, Prof. Morton Kaplan is considered the most influential in the systems theorizing of IR. He presented a number of real and hypothetical models of global political organisation. His six well known models were (i) balance of power system, (ii) loose bipolar system, (iii) tight bipolar system, (iv) universal actor system, (v) hierarchical system, and (vi) Unit Veto system. The first two are historical realities; the rqmaining four are hypothetical models. Although Kaplan did not say that his six systems were likely to emerge in that order, yet it was expected that the Super Power being very powerful, non-aligned countries were Likely to lose their status and become partsxf one or the other power blocs, leading to a tight bipolar world. With the collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1991, the erstwhile

Understanding Illterllntionnl Rel;~tiola bipolarity phenomenon ended. Wh~lc the Uniled States emerged Inore powerful than other countries, many countries like Germany and Japan a l m e r g e d as major economic powers. Thus, depending upon how one analyses the emerging global order, it may be characterized as a unipolar or a multipolar world. The present situation does not however fall strictly within any one of the six-models of Morton

I Kaplan which are described briefly below :

1. The Balance of Power System : This system prevailed in Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In this system some powerful states seek to maintain equilibrium of power individually or in alliance. Usually there is a 'balancer' - a state which assists anyone who is likely to become weaker than others so that balance is not disturbed.

2. The Loose Bipolar System : This was the situation during the days of cold war politics. Despite bipolar division of the global power scene, some countries refused to align with either block. They hang loose in an otherwisc stratified global order. Examples : Non-aligned countries (NAM).

3 . The Tight Bipolar System : Think of a situation where the international actors like NAM countries are forced to align with either block, the result is - one of the tight bipolar system.

4. Thk Universal Actor System : In this system, an international organisation or 1 actor commanding universal allegiance becomes the centre of power. Whether big or small, all states will accept the superiority of a universal actor like the United Nations. Thus, without giving up their sovereignty, nation-states will strengthen the United Nations and generally abide by its decisions. This may eventually pave the way for a world government.

5 . The Hierarchical International System : In this system one country will become so powerful that all other states will be virtually dictated to by that one Supreme Power. This situation may be described as a 'Unipolar World Model'. The U.N. may still exist, but there will be no true non-aligned country and even the U.N. will not have enough power.

6. The Unit Veto System : Morton Kaplan's Unit Veto System in international context resembles the 'state of nature' as defined by Thomas Hobbes. Each state will be the enemy of every other state, because almost all the countries will possess nuclear weapons. Thus, all the international actors will be capable of using nuclear weapons against their enemies.

These six models were later supplemented by Kaplan himself by some other models. Meanwhile, other scholars have also suggested some other models. Thus, Couloumbis and Wolfe endorse Kaplan's six models, but add three more. These three are a) multibloc (or interregional) model, b)hhe national-fragmentation (or multipolar) model, and c) the post-nuclear war mddel.

The multi-bloc model portrays a world divided into five to seven mutually exclusive spheresof influence. Each of these spheres would be controlled by one major power, thus giving rise to a multipolar world.

The National Fragmentation Model will be the outcome of political and territorial disintegration. Ethnic, tribal or racial separatist movements may cause many of the large states to disinteg;ate into small fragmented units. Examples : the former Soviet Union, former Yugoslavia and former Czechoslovakia which have split into several :

sovereign states.

The Post-Nuclear War Model : is the world after a catastrophic nuclear war. If suchh a war takes place, its aftermath would be ghastly. In such a situation, only the most tyrannical regimes would be able to maintain orderly distribution of food, shelter and medicink. A new order will have to be found out to overcome such chaotic conditions. - r

1.6.4 Game Theory

Game theory attempts to provide models for studying world politics, especially in highly competitive situations when outcomes of the actions are difficult to anticipate. This has led scholars to create the game theory for a more scientific study of the calculation of probabilities in an uncertain situation. Game theory was created almost in one shot with the publication of Theory of Gamcs and Economic Behaviour (Princeton, 1994) by the mathematician John von Neumann and the economist Oskar Morgenstern. Karl Deutsch and Martin Shubik are among influential theorists who followed them. Though the economists were the first to adapt it to their purpose in recent years it has been applied to many other fields with suitable n~od~fications.

In its slmplest version, the game theory is the model of a zero sum game which describes the situation of conflict/competition i n which one party's total loss is exactly equal to the other adversary's total gain. This explains the name - the sum total of gain and loss is zero. For the study of IR, game theory model however is a multiparty non-zero-sum game. This is because as J.K. Zawodny reminds us, "we must recognize that some types of international conflicts today can be resolved only by s~tuatloils in which neither side loses and in which sometimes both sides may win."

As you must have already understood, isolated, coinpletely independent states, are not affected by what other states do. They however are affected and interact through mutual dependence for some benefits. States play games to have maximum gains out of such a situation of inter-dependence.

The two most important kinds of game that have been suggested are the "Chicken Game" and the game of "Prisoner's Dilemma". In the chicken game situation two car drivers are going in the middle of the road towards each other from the opposite sides. Unless one of them stops on the side and gives way to the other, there is a possibility of serious accident which may even result in the death of one or both the drivers Any one who gives, way to the other will suffer a loss of reputation but accident will be avoided. Nations often face such a situation. Generally, none wants to suffer loss of reputation. The underlying idea of chicken game is that inspite of not being able to know the intention of its opponent, a country's foreign policy - makers can adopt such a course as would ensure its own interest only if it does not mind the other country also benefiting from that course of action. A country standing on its prestige may suffer heavy losses.

The situation in prisoners dilemma is different. A nation, like a prisoner, often faces dilemma without having the slightest idea of its opponent's intentions. In this model two persons, charged with murder, are kept in two cells and they can neither see nor talk to each other. The prison-in-charge tells both of them separately that if one of them confesses to murder, and the other does not, the one who confesses will not only be set free but rewarded, and the other prisoner will be hanged. If none of them confesses, both will be freed but without reward. But if both of them confess, they both would be given serious punishment. The game suggests that everyone wants reward or advantage, but may land in serious situation as it does not know the mind of the other.

1.6.5 Integration Theory \

The theory is associated with the names of Charles Kegley and Wittkopf. In an essay published in 1993, they rejected the realist view of human nature. They argue that human beings have diverse make-ups, and that human action is based on voluntary choice influenced by environment. The liberals reject the view that international relations are anarchic. They argue that the international system today is based on transnational interactions which create areas of interdependence. Societies

Why Study hternational Relations? Scope and Approaches

- . - , I : z i : Z . : : I and gox~ernnlefits are being knit together by growillg cultural holllogeneity alld

economic and social interdependence. Various international agencies and regimes like the World Trade Organisation promote integration: The Liberals emphasise the grovhg role of non-Site actors like NGOs, regional organisations etc, in proGoting regional and global interdependence.

The liberals do not accept the view that the world has,become unipolar. They feel 1113t in the post-cold war years the world is movibg in the direction of multi-polarity. A: thi: same time there is increasing inter-state cooperation to reduce mistrust and tension in order to promote peace. Global interdependence has led to a growing coilcern anlong all governiilents about nuclear proliferation, global recession, ozone depletion, climatic changes and AIDS. These common concerns indicati: interdependence and need for the scholars to examine these problems in the context of integration. The liberals, therefore, insist on the study of these and other orgzlnisations. They believe that expanding the U.N. System promotes iutdrdependence. To sum up : the liberal concern for interdependence is related to inultipolarity in the post-cold war period. increasing role of U N. and other non- governmental and regi2qal organisations, and consequent integration under the nnfluence of western industrialised countries.

1.6.6 Dependency Approach

Where,- the realists argued for 'hegemonic stability' and the liberals for interdeper~~,,~ie among the states, concerned scholars of the Third World however always argued that the main basis for the contemporary, international relationships should be found in their 'under-development'. It has not been a big formal theory but the 'dependency approach' which originated from Latin America challengcd the dominant myth that the solutions for the ills of the underdevelopment in the Third Vvi~rld lay in following the modern, realist prescriptions from the West. In the field of international relations, scholars from the Dependency School argued that (i) the present conditions of dependence in the periphery largely are due to the past exlaloitation by developed countries that from in the 'core' now, (ii) relations among nations therefore are essentially asymmetrical and (iii) such an ssylnmetry is not merely confined to State-to-State relationships (because international relations/ trflnsactions involve a host of ties among groups and classes between, within and across the nations). Arguments centred around'structures of dependence-both of the past and the prcscnt and emphasis was laid on factors and forces which were not of prin1al-y concern for either the realists or the neo-realists or even the liberals. Inspired largely by Marxian influences, politics among nations has been considered largely as an expression of global forces and currents of development in all their uhevenness throughout history that continues through the present also. Profs. F.H. Cardoso (later the President of Brazil), Raul Prebisch and his colleague, Andre Gunder Fr nk are some of the well-known names associated with this approach 9: which is enjoying widespread appeal even among the W~stern scholars.

1.6.7 The Feminist Approach

As the name suggests, this 1s a-recent but influential approach whiek&elieves that international relations are competitive, power-oriented and exploitative mainly because of male domination in politics. The argument is that international relations would be mQre balanced and effective if women were given their due share in politics through several ways. Liberal feminists believe that education, political mobilisation and pressure.to change will bring about the desire tegults. But radical feminists feel that capitalism is the main cause of gender inequality and therefore, adoption of socialism will hasten the process of gender equality, which in turn will ensure peace in the world. It is argued that it is man's gender bias imposed by western philosophy also which needs to be overcome. Thus, the feminist theory traces all problcms of

international relations to gender inequality and domination by men. Critics however point out that gender diffirertces are natural, rooted in biology, and it is not men but the society in which we grow which is to be addressed for remedies. Cynthia Enloe and Spike Peterson are among some important names associated with the Feminist Approach.




1) Describe briefly the theories of Realism and Idealism.

2) What is Neo-Realism?

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3) Explain briefly Kaplan's six models of systems theory.

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4) What is the LiberalIInterdependence Theory?

W h y Study Intemntlonal RelaUona7 Scope an&Appr~~ehos

U~~clerstanrlirg h~ternationnl Relations 1.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have introduced the learners to international relations. The discipline began to develop when the first Chair in International Relations was established in 19 19 at the University of Wales. From diplomatic history to the present, the scientific study of international relations makes a fascinating story. International Relations as a 'condition' rekrs to official relations between sovereign states; as a 'discipline' it is systen~atic knowledge of such inter-state relations. As a subject of study, International relations is focused upon the "process by which states adjust their national interest to those of other states."

A distinction between International Relations and International Politics is both desirable and essential. While international politics deals only with official and diplomatic relations between nations, international relations is wider in scope as it includes political, economic, geographic, legal and cultural relations. In a way, international politics is a part of international relations. The nature and content of international relations has undergone a big change particularly after the Second World War, thanks mpinly to revolutionary technologies of communication. Secret diplomacy has become a thing of the past. Summit and conference diplon~acy has changed the nature of international relations. Its scope has widened and includes not only official political relations, but also such diverse activities of like cultural, scientific'and economics. The roles of universal actors like the United Nations, IMF World Bank, WTO the inter-state actors such as the SAARC, ASEAN and the non- state actc:.- like nlultinational corporations, NGOs etc. also constitute the scope of international relations.

Several approaches have been adopted by scholars (from time to time) to study international relations. The traditional approach depended heavily on Law, Hlstory

a u m and Political Science. Two of these approaches are Realism and Idealism. Re 1' ~nsists on the importance of national interest and power and considers all international relations as struggles for power. Idealism believes that power is a passing phase, and world peace can be made possible with the help of education, . science and reason. The Behavioural approach which became prominent after the Second World War is interdisciplinary in nature. There are theories like systems and Game Theories which offer new behavioural models of international politics. In this unit, we have briefly dealt with the Systems Theory and the Game Theory. The Unit ends with brief discussions on two other approaches in International Politics, viz., Dependency and Feminist Approaches.

KEY WORDS

Discipline A systematically developed branch of k n o ~ l t d ~ e .

Condition Actual state of affairs

Behavioural : Pertaiding to obsefvable behaviour.

Classical : Long-skanding and rooted in history.

Game : A situation of do~fipetition where the outcome is uncertain but the probability of behaviour can be rationally calculated for gains.

Idealist One who believes in ideal aims and moral principles in,the conduct of international relations.

One who believes in reality of selfish interest, inevitability of cohic ts and disputes and role of power. Moral princvles are less important.

Scientific

System

: Based on objective, empirical method of understading.

A set of elements in functional interaction with each other. It exists in an environment and is composed of parts which through interaction are related to each other.

1.9 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Morgenthau, Hans : Politics Among Nations : The Struggle for Power and Peace.

Knorr, K. & Rosenau, J.N. : Contending Approaches to International Politics.

Claude, Inis Power and International Relations

Mc Cllenland, Charles A. : Theory and International Systems

Kaplan, Morton : systems and Process in International Politics.

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES


1) As a 'condition', the actual official relations between sovereign states - their disputes and conflicts and cooperation between them. As a 'discipline' it is systematic study of such inter-state relations which need not always be confined to state-to-state reIations.

2 1 Study of all inter-state relations. Primarily, political relations constitute. international relations, but it also includes economic relations, trade and cominerce and even inter-state matters pertaining to industrial, cultural and religious spheres.

3) International Relations is wider in scope; International Politics is concerned with interaction of state policies within changing pattern of power relationship. It deals with factors and forces influencing relations among nations.

4) It is no more limited to European states; has become actually international after decolonisation; techriological revolution in travel comnlunication and nature of weapons and war all have changed the na& of International Relations:

Check Your Progress 2 I

1) Living in an interdependent state - system where distances have been reduced and contacts, conflicts and cooperation among states affect o w lives, study of International Relations is very useful.

2 1 It includes the study of inter-state political and economic relations. Role of organisations like UN, World Bank, IMF, WTO and numerous multinational corporations is also yithin the scope of International Relations.


1 1 Realis111 takes into account the dominant role of power in international relations. National interest is vital and nations protect it through the

Why Study h~ten~atiollal Relatiola? Scope n~ld Approaches

UnderstanJlng Inter~~at lo~~al Relatiolls medium of power. Politics is struggle for power. Idealism insists on application of moral principles, regards power as a passing phase, seeks world peace through education, reason etc.

2) Neo-realism, also known as structural realism, believes that international relations are marked by international anarchy. Anarchy results since non- state actors have come up. Examples : international terrorism, religion and competitive multinational corporations - MNCs, NGOs, multilateral agencies like World Bank, IMF, WTO and above all, the UN system.

3) Kaplan's scientific study of international systems suggests : balance of power system, loose bipolar system, tight bipolar system, universal actor system, hierarchical system, and Unit Veto System.

4) It rejects the view that international relations are anarchical. For them, the international system is based on transnational iilteractions which create interdependence. This approach believes in relations based on mutual dependence of nation - states and consequent integration of the world.

UNIT 2 SOME CONCEPTS : IMPERIALISM, NATIONALISM, FASCISM, REVOLUTION

Structure

Objectives Introduction Imperialism 2.2.1 Meaning of Imper'ialism 2.2.2 Developlnent of Imperialism 2.2.3 What is Colonialism? .2.4 Neo-Colonialism Nationalisln 2.3.1 The Concept of Nationalism 2.3.2 Stogzs of Nationalism

Fascism 2.4.1 Esselltial Features of Fascism 2.4.2 Fascism in Italy, Germany and Spain 2.4.3 Mussolini - From Socialist to Fascist 2.4.4 Causes of the rise of Fascism in Italy 2.4.5 Neo-fascism in Europe Revolutions 2.5.1 What is a Revolution? 2.5.2 Some nlajor Revolutions

Let Us Sum Up Seine Useft11 Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, which discusses four important concepts, we will be able to :

analpse the concept of impprialisin;

relate colonialisn~ with international relations;

explain neo-colonialism which is the contemporary form of imperialism;

describe the significance and meaning of nationalism:

recall various kinds and stages of nationalism:

explain the nleaning of Fascism;

recall the causes that were responsible for the rise of fascism after World War I.

analyse the meaning and significance of revolutions; and

describe some of the major revolutions like Industrial revolution, French Revolution and the Bolshevik Revolution.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

4

The term imperialism denotes domination of one political system over another. Inlperialisln is a phenomenon which grew out of capitalism and decisively influenced the course of international relations. Essentially, imperialism is a consequence of the econonlic and political processes of our times that at least twice led to world wars in the 20th centurq..

IJlltlersk1lldb~ Illtenl:ttio~l~lR~latiolls Nationalism is one of the most important concepts. Nationalism is a feeling which binds a people together. It enables people to fight for their freedom and for protection of the national interest of their state. Modern nation-state is the result of vigorous nationalism. Today, every state talks of national aspirations, national hopes, national fear and national conflict Nationalism has been described as the master key for the understanding of international relations.

Fascism, as political theory is associated with Mussolini, the Italian dictator of the inter war period. Unlike most other political doctrines such as Marxism and Individualisn~, Fascism was more a prograinme of action than an ideology. It emerged mainly as a reaction against injustice alleged to have been done to Italy and Germany. While Germany felt humiliated by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles signed at the Peace'Conference at Paris, Italy was disappointed that it was not sufficiently rewarded for all the contribution it had made to the war on the Allied side. As a result, people in these two countries wanted their governments to follow a inore aggressive policy which was pursued by the fascists. Fascism is totalitarian in approach. It is against the principles of democracy, socialism and even ~ndividualism.

Revolution is a sudden break from the existing system. It is a concept of social change indicating over-all change of the system. The Illdustrial revolutioil in Britain, brought about significant changes in that country's socio-economic structure and gave birth to capitalism. It also had far-reaching impact on countries of Europe who begail a race for colonialism. It was, indirectly, responsible for rapid growth of imperialism. The French and the American revolutions brought into focus democracy, liberty and equality. The Bolshevik Revolutioll of 1917 changed the face of Russia and brought into existence the socialist system.

In this unit we will briefly read about the concepts of iillperialism, nationalism. fascisin and revolution.

IMPERIALISM

Palmer and Perkins write that it is almost impossible to give a generally acceptable definition of imperialism. They say : "Imperialism can be discussed. denounced, defended, and died for, but it cannot be defined in any generally acceptable way." Imperialism was regarded by the Western countries as essential in terms of the "White Man's Burden". But, it was universally condemned in the countries of Asia and Africa who were victims of inlperialism. Political domination and econon~ic exploitation of one county by another clearly explains the meaning of imperialism. Despite Palmer and Perkins' views about definition of imperialism, we find different scholars giving different, often divergent, definitions of impcrialism.

2.2.1 Meaning of Imperialism

According to Moritz Julius Bonn, "Imperialism is a policy which aims at creating, organising and maintaining an empire; that is, a state of vast size con~posed of various more or less distinct national units and subject to a single centralized will." Charles A Beard wrote : "Imperialism is ..... employnlent of the engines of government and diplomacy to acquire territories, protectorates, and/or spheres of influence occupied usually by other races or peoples, and to promote industrial, trade, and investment opportunities . . . . " A clear yet crisp definition was given by P.T. Moon. He wrote, "Imperialism .... means domination of non-European native races by totally dissimilar European nations." Thus, Moon clearly indicates domination of coloured peoples of Asia and Africa by the Europeans who considered themselves superior and their colonial administration as burden on the white man. Though Beard excludes all economic motivations, the history of imperialism definitely points to economic exploitation as a primary drive in expansion of the empire by the 'western countries.

Morgenthau, the eminent realist scholar who considers all politics as struggle for Some Concepb : Impertalismn, Nationalism, Fasdsm, Revolution power, scraps the condition of,economic motivation. He defines imperialism in terms

of expansion of a State's power beyond its borders. Schumpeter regards imperialism as a force "ancient in inception, decadent and self-conscious in an age of rationalism, yet still powerful enough to lord it over its rival, the upstart capitalism." The Marxist writers do not agree with the view that in~perialism is a rival of capitalism. For them, as Lenin said, imperialism is not only entirely economic, but also a rather precise stage (the highest) in the development of capitalism.

Motivation for imperialism has generally been economic in nature : to gain economic advantage from exploitation of a colony. It invariably resulted in empire building, though some western writers prefer to separate economic motivation from desire for a vast empire. Palmer and Perkins attempt to explain, what they call good and bad in~perialisms; though from the point of view of the Third World countries, there could never be a good imperialism because exploitation cannot be good to anybody.

The apparent victory of capitalism and eclipse of socialism in Eastern Europe do not suggest that imperialism has become less exploitative and more beneficial to these new den~ocracies which were born in these circumstance. Further, many studies carried out by international organizations like ILO, FAO, WHO (of the UN) and even by World Bank, IMF etc. present data which clearly show that there has been capital transfcrs and decline in standards of living among the people in the Third World countries indicating that "the imperialist exploitation and domination of these countries is more through than ever". All these have however been possible owing to an adverse international political economy in which the Third World countries were subjected to unequal terms of trade, ever-expanding transnational corporations and the external debt trap.

In an influential study (Imperialism - A Historical Survey) Harry Magdoff has concluded that the phenomenon of imperialisin as represented by the hegemony of inoi~opoly capital and the aggressive capitalist nation-state (Lenin) continues unabated: the structures and forms of exploitation only have changed. Magdoff observed three major changes which have recently come up in the imperialist exploitation :

1. the integration of military production with the dominant industrial sectors.

2. the rising importance of the multi-national corporations which drive towards world-wide control of the most profitable and newest industries in both the peripllery and the advanced countrics; and

3 . the priority of the interests of the military multi-national industry in the affairs of the state

These new changes in imperialist exploitation are noteworthy since if anything, the exploitation of the countries in the periphery (the Third World) has only intensified. It is definitely not the other way. The end of the Western colonialism gave such forn~ulations which may be summed up as "end of imperialism".

John Strachey, Michael Barratt Brown, Hamza Alavi, among others, argued in favour of inlperialism diluting its thrusts of exploitation. In point of fact, all these arguments are more ideological than real as was demonstrated by Paul Sweezy in his famous article on "Imperialism in the 1990s". Responding to Alavi's opinion of a "new imperialism" which does not export capital (considered an essential feature of Imperialism) but remains confined to the control of the world market, Sweezy demonstrated that, beginning in the 1960s, "multi-national corporations moved their man~~facturing facilities to lower-wage countries". In other words, the MNC control of the Third World economy is not confined to the latter's markets only; it is there in all areas of production and financing as well.

-

The recent wave of globalization and other economic reform me;) Ires with focus on further liberalization, bear out this new form of imperialism whi f :. has emerged in the wake of eclipse of socialism, its main challenger. Imperialism has not ended, it has only taken a new form, a new route bui for the same goal : exploitation of the poor and dependent countries of the Third World.




1) Define imperialism.

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2) Identify new changes in inlpcrialist exploitation.

2.2.2 Development of Imperialism

History reveals that the world has gone through many stages of development. We know that the history of humankind is related to the development of society and social structures. Capitalism generally developed out of feudalism, and was responsible for cqlonialisation and imperialism.

Feudalism prevailed before the 16th-17th Century. In Europe, feudalism was generally associated with medieval states based on aristocracies (run by Kings and nobles) who controlled the ecoilomic and political power of the State. The Church too had an important role in the functioning of the feudal state. Feudalism as a system began to decay in different parts of Europe, beginning from England in the thirteenth century. The industrial revolution, the growth of towns, inter-feudal wars etc. led to this decline. Social life in Europe thus began to change. This also involved a change from the feudal type economic organisation to a different one where the control was no longer with the land owning aristocra 'es. Independent groups of merchants and 7 traders began dominating the economy. This meant, thus, the growth of new classes which formed the basis for mercantile capitalism. The latter was a transition from feudalism to capitalism, which was prevalent between the 16th and 19th centuries. The kind of transformation made by each nation out of feudalism differed. For example in England capitalism grew faster than in any other European nations. France followed this transition and later Germany, Russia and others did the same. Thus each transition was a unique experience. Industrialization in Europe led the capitalists to look for raw materials and markets outside Europe. This search fueled imperial penetrations into Asia and Africa.

Capitalism can be defined as a system in which goods and services are produced for Sonle Concepts : Imperialism,

exchange in the market so that profit is made. The form of capital in the capitalist Natio~~allsnl, Fnschn, Revolution

system is different from that of the feudal system where merchant capital was dominant. Under capitalism productive capital dominates, that is capital invested in labour power. Labour power is what the worker has to sell in exchange for money in order to survive. This labour power is then organised in the production process to produce new commodities for making more profit. Thus the capital of the merchants

' and financiers (banks, money-lenders, etc.) circulated and is invested for commodity production. The function of this merchantlfinance capital is determined and based on the need of productive capital. Labour power thus becomes like a commodity which can be bought and sold according to market prices.

The growth of capitalism had an important effect on the social and political life of people and social systems just as it had on their economic life. Capitalism brought about the formation of two large c l h s -the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class. In addition to these there also grew a number of smaller classes. It also gave rise to new political systems wherein besides landed aristocracies, other classes al& shared State power as in England. Similarly it led to the overthrow of the French landed aristocracy and brought into being the French Republic. Thus with capitalism began an era of private enterprise in the economic sphere and popular participation in the exercise of State power in the political sphere.

2.2.3 What is Colonialism?

An important element in the developn~ent of capitalism was the need for its continuous expansion. So, even as feudalism began to decline and the transition to capitalism began to take place, the emerging states were constantly looking for new sources of revenue. This search for revenue and profit led to the search for and the seizure of wealth from other societies. This necessitated state sponsored discoveries of new lands parts of the world unknown to the European empires. Thus for instance Marco Polo's and Christopher Columbus's search for India, the discovery of the Pacific Islands, the Americas, the entry into the Indian Ocean and China seas. New sea routes took the explorers to re-xh New Zealand and Australia. The discovery of sea routes around the world led to a remarkable circle of exchange of goods. Unimagined wealth from these new lands such as precious metals, spices, silk, etc. entered the European markets. This flow of wealth had many results : Europe could live in a style of great luxury. Capitalism got a push or impetus of growth from 'outside' (new regions); the rush for plunder, conquest and colonisation of the precapitalist or agrarian societies of Asia, Africa, and America reached a climax. The need to find, capture and control settlements which were later declared as colonies was an important task of individual entrepreneurs. companies and states. Thus the 16th century saw the expansion of European states, led by explorers and merchants. Also active in this field were wayward entrepreneurs who were active in plundering goods from the East for sale in the European markets. Many merchants built armouries and raised battalions for their own protection and f?r exploiting the new colonies. For instance the Portuguese traders even sold "protection services" to others, for sailing in the sea undisturbed. All these led ultimately to the establishment of colonial rule over many lands In Latin America, Caribbean Islands, Africa, Asia.

Colonialism is an important characteristic~of the new capitalism which was developing at a fast pace. The wealth arising out of colonial exploitation was different from the wealth which came from feudal imperial gains. Whereas in the latter case, living was wasteful for few and unproductive for many, the former was engaged in promoting productive relations of capitalism which generated more wealth for enjoyment of many. Colonialism implied a specific relation between the colonised country and the colonising power, whereas conquest which was the basis of feudal imperial gains (e.g. for the Mughals, Ottomans etc.) meant only sheer annexation without any obligations on the conqueror. It meant a relationship of both

U~lile~taltding IntenlntiollalRelatio1ls political and economic control by the colonising country over the colony. The countries which were colonised and those which were colonisers were themselves at different stages of development. For example, when Spain and Portugal colonised Latin America, they were feudal societies. When Britain, France, and Germany were colonising Africa (towards the end of the nineteenth century), they were industrial capitalist countries.

In modern times, most of the empires except for the Chinese and the Japanese were under the European colonial control. How did the Europeans come to dominate Asia and Africa? ,This could largely be possible because of better technology, better firepower and discipline which enabled the Europeans to take on the people in the far-off lands. These colonial empires had a peak period dnring 1880-1940, when the colonial empires were established. The colonisation phenomenon in Asia was fueled by n~otivations for trade in luxury goods of the orient, to begin with. But over the years, expansion of markets to sell their industrial prodccts went hand in hand with, exploitation of natural resources and cheap human labour, thus colonial expansion took place. After World War I, the German colonies were distributed anlong the Victorious Allies as "mandates" whereas World War I1 saw the Italian Colonies in Africa being placed under the British as "trust territories". Similarly, the Pacific' islands held by Japan were annexed by the USA. Only Namibia remained under the white rule as the last colony till it attalned independence on 21st March 1990. Otherwise, Portugal can claim to be the first and about the last among the European powers in this colonial race.

The structure of the world and the nature of international relations underwent a complete change after World War 11. The war had destroyed the European economies and shaken up their very foundations. The break-up of the British, French, Belgian and the Dutch colonial empires had begun an8-theG-complete disintegration became inevitable. These once 'great powers' were shaken to the roots and they lost their earlier importance. Their place was quickly taken over by the United States of America which became the dominant international capitalist power after 1945.

Imperialism began taking on a new form. Before the war, United States capitalism had shown its 'dominant' imperialist character towards the countries of Central America and the Caribbean as also in the Philippines and some Pacific Islands. After the emergence of new ex-colonial states in Asia and Africa, which were politically *

independent but economically weak, American economic, political and military activity started extending to these areas.

The instruments of foreign policy that the US employed were economic aid, political and military support to the regimes allied to US. These regimes were often dictatorial in character and opposed people's movements inside. The USA extended willing and active support to regimes, or movements which suppressed or opposed 'leftist' or pro- communist movements and governments. Economic aid doled out by USA, and the US - dbminated World Bank was to ensure policies that fell in line with US foreign policy. World Bank policies encourage mainly private enterprise and were against nationalisation of enterprises. These policies exerted by the USA confirmed its role as the main power in a new form of imperialism - an imperialism without colonies or direct control'. This came to be known popularly as 'neo-calonialism.

Neo-colonialism was also called 'economic imperalism' which meant that economically powerful states could, through economic leverage, control other less developed countries on the basis of aid, trade, and international economic policies.

Neo-colonialism has acquired new and more threatening dimensions after the cold war. During the cold war period there was some sort of competition between the two super powers in regard to economic and military assistance given to the countries who

were subjected to a new type of imperialism. Two important developments have taken Some Concepts : Imperialism,

place in the last decade of the twentieth century. The cold war had ended, -the former Nationalism, Fascism, Revolutlon

Soviet Union disintegrated, leaving the united States in the unique commanding position. Secondly, a number of countries, including India and China, have embarked upon the policy of economic liberalization, Russia and East European countries have adopted the system of market economy. In this scenario, capitalist and developed countries of the West are more vigorously pursuing the policy of neo-colonialism such as economic and military assistance, and multinational corporations are being openly used to establish domillation over the developing countries.

Economic liberalization has weakened the hold of the state over economies. The Soviet concept of planning is being diluted and market forces encouraged to regulate and control economic development. Multinational corporations have entered the thud world countries in a very big way. Foreign banks in India offer much better service attracting affluent people and adversely affecting the domestic banking institutions. MNCs with large funds at their disposal attract even common man, to buy their products, through massive advertisements. As more and more people get attracted to the products of MSJCs, many local companies are being eliminated. Closure of domestic ~ompanies increases foreign strangle hold over local economy.

Third world countries who take frequent loans from the World Bank and countries like USA, Germany and Japan have to accept the conditionalities imposed by them. As the temptation to develop on borrowed money increases, developing countries get into debt-trap subjecting them to a new ty$e of imperalism or neo-colonialism.

The state controlled economic development process has failed in most of the countries. After-the eclipse of socialism in Russia, people are rushing for western goods and western style of living causing unprecedented inflation. If the former Soviet Union and erstwhile socialist countries of eastern Europe were forced to allow the operation of market forces, the developing countries of the South could not avoid economic liberalization. But liberalisation has encouraged domination by western countries and MNCs which is an important cause for concern. This is because the developing countries have to compromise with their, sovereign right of decision- making and accept the conditions imposed upon them. The large amount of money which is paid every year as interest on the foreign and World Bank loans further aggravates the situation and neo-colonialism continues to grow even as political leadership keeps on talking of independence and sovereignty.

We may conclude with the classic definition of neo-colonialism given by one of Africa S leading fingures of independence, Kwame Nkrumah, the founder President of Ghana. In Nknunah's own words :

"The essence of neo-colonialism is that the state which is subject to it is, in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality, its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside. The methods and form of this direction, can take various shapes. For example, in an extreme case, the troops of an imperial power may garrison the territory, of the neocolonial state and control its government. More often, however, neo-colonialist control is exercised through economic or monetary means. The neo-colonial state may be obliged to take the manufactured products of the imperialist power to the exclusion of competing products from blsewhere. Control over government policy in the neocolonial state may be secured by payments towards the cost of running the state, by the provision of civil servant in positions where they can dictate policy, and by monetary control over foreign exchange through the imposition of a banking system controlled by the imperial power." (Neo-colonialism : The Last Stage of Imperialism, 1965).

Understanding International Relations Check Your Progress 2


ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of the unit

1) Trace the development of imperialism.

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2) What was the role of capitalism in the process of colonialism?

3) What is Neo-colonialism?

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2.3 NATIONALISM

The terms 'nation'; 'nationality' and 'nationalism' are used most commonly but not always with a clear understanding of their meanings. As Carlton J.H. Hayes said : "So much is nationalism a common place in the modes of thought and action of the civilised populations of the contemporary world that most men take nationalism for granted."People imagine that it is the "most natural thing in the universe." But, the concept of nationalism is far from being clear to most of us who use this term. Every state considers its national interest as paramount; and all the struggle for power is for protection and promotion of national interest. Nationalism usually promotes patriotism. For dependent peoples, as we were before 1947, nationalisnl is the spirit which enables struggle for freedom against foreign rulers. But, sometimes nationalism takes precedence even over moral beliefs as was the case in Hitler's Nazi Germany. Nationalism in Germany was interpreted to mean expansion of the Third Reich and expulsion of Jews; in Israel it meant struggle for survival in the face of Arab opposition; and Pakistani nationalism is essentially confined to anti-India tirades particularly on Kashmir.

2.3.1 The Concept of Nationalism Some col~cepts : hl~perialis~l~, Nntiol~alisa~, Fllscis~n, Revolutiol~

"For students of international politics", wrote Sharp and Kurk, "an understanding of nationalism is as indispensable as the possession of a master key to a person seeking to enter all the various doors in a building." Thus, for Sharp and Kurk, nationalism is the master key for understanding of international politics. The total behaviour of state system today is largely explained "in terms of niltionill hopes, national fears, national ambitions, and national conflicts." Since nlodern state is a 'nation-state', it seeks to promote nationalism as its leaders might interpret. As Palmer and Perkins point out. "In its most virulent form it has commanded virtually the total allegiance of men and some of the most inhuman acts of this age have been wrapped in the .mystical and religious trappings of nationalism". Thus, nationalism may be used as a tool for noble cause to unite a people for common good or it nlay be misused, as by some of the dictators to commit even the most inhuman acts like genocide. Namibian nationalism against South Africa's imperialism prior to 1990 lalls in the first category; whereas Hitler's policy towards Jews can be safely put in the second category.

In the limited space available in this section, the concept of nationalism can be explained very briefly. The term nation may be understood before nationalism can be fully conlprehended. One of the most satisfactory definitions of nation was given by Ernest Barker. He wrote : "A nation is a body of filen, inhabiting a definite territory, who normally are drawn from different races, but possess a common stock of thoughts and feelings acquired and transmitted during the course of a coillmon history . . . . " Barker mentioned common religious belief and common language as generally binding forces, but what is more important is that they "cherish a common will, and accordingly form, or tend to form, a separate State for the expression and realization of that will." Such a State, if formed, is known as a 'nation-state'.

In conlmon usage the terms state and nation are often used interchangeably. That is how we use the term international, rather than inter-state. But, as most of the political units that now exist have become nation-states, the distinction between state and nation has narrowed down. Hans Morgenthau suggests, "the nation needs a state. 'One nation - one state' is thus the political postulate of nationalism, the nation state is its idea." Natioilality is one of the main courses of nationalism. It implies either national character and the spirit of belonging to a nation or a group of people possessed of such a spirit. So, then, how can we explain the concept of nationalism?

Among the most prominent students of nationalism are J.H. Hayes and Hans Kohn. Nationalism, according to Hayes consists of "a modern emotional fusion and exaggeration of two very old phenomena - nationality and patriotisn~." Thus, nationality which is a feeling of being bound together and patriotism constitute nationalism. Kohn says that "nationalism is first and foremost a state of mind, an act of consciousness." Today, this state of mind, a common bond coupled with patriotism, an act of consciousness is the core of the concept of nationalism. Nationalism has become conlnlon form of political life all over the world, and relations among nations is the content of international relations. But, as Kohn wrote "everywhere nationalism differs in character according to the specific historic conditions and the peculiar social structure of each country. As the concept of nationalism has sl.read, the individual has begun to be counted less and nation-state has become all powerful. "

The concept of nationalism implies a feeling of oneness among a large group of section of people. Professor Snyder wrote that it was not easy to define nationalism in simple language, yet he describes the following explanation of nationalism as the least objectionable. He wrote : ". . . . . . . nationalism, a product of political, economic, social and intellectual factors at a certain stage in history, is a condition of mind,

Ullders~nd~lgblten~atio11alRelations feeling, or sentiment of a group of people living in a well-defined geographical area . . . . " Commenting adversely on the concept Snyder wrote that nationalism "is neither wholly logical nor rational. Its roots lie in the illogical, irrational and fantastic world of the unconscious." In simpler language, natioilalism is a conditioned sentiment uniting people in a common bond.

2.3.2 Stages of Nationalism

Nationalism has been variously classified by different western Scholars. It has been described as "good" and "bad"; "constructive" and "destructive"; and "material" and "spiritual". These descriptions are based on quality of nationalism which is very difficult to justifiably explain. However, different stages of nationalism were suggested by many, including Quincy Wright. He discussed successively medieval, monarchical, revolutionary, liberal and totalitarian nationalisms. He did not give much attention to cultural or humanitarian nationalism. But, Hayes has dealt with "economic factors in nationalism" in detail. Four stages of nationalism were described by Professor Snyder. He called them integrative nationalism (1 8 15-187 1); disruptive nationalism (1 87 1 - l890), aggressive nationalism (1 900- 1945). and contemporary nationalism (since 1945). During the first stage, nationalism resulted in integration or reunification of Germany and of Italy. During the secoild stage, subject nationalities as within Austria - Hungary sought their nation-states. Snyder says that the two world wars were the result of aggressive nationalism of the third phase. During the early period of fourth stage Asian and African colonies of European Powers secured their independent nationhood.

Modern nationalism is said to have originated in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Western Europe, and America. It became a general European movement in the nineteenth century particularly after the Napoleonic era. The early nationalism has been described as monarchical. It was the French revolution which introduced the concept of popular democracy resting on the will of the people and of the "rights of man and of the citizen." The nationalism which Napoleon generated among his enemies has been described by Hayes as "traditional nationalism". Similarly, Czar Alexander of Russia who emerged in 18 15 as "the great hope of traditional nationalism" championed a Holy Alliance for a better world for peoples and nations.

The liberal nationalism of nineteenth century achieved the unification of Germany and of Italy. Other European countries such as Belgium and Greece won nationhood after national uprisings. Nationalism was till then regarded as an European phenomenon. It soon spread to Asia and Africa. Palmer and Perkins wrote nationalism during "greater part of nineteenth century" was linked with other movements such as democracy, romanticism, industrialism, imperialism and liberalism. Liberal nationalism declined by the beginning of the twentieth century as great power rivalry became common and eventually resulted in the First World War.

It was argued that nationalism was both cause and product of the First World War. As Sydney B. Fay wrote : "nationalism paved the way of statesmen and prepared the minds of peoples for the World war .... Its immediate cause was the murderous activity of a secret nationalistic society of Jugoslavs . . .. Its most obvious immediate result was the triumph of the principles of national self-determination in central and eastern Europe . . .." After the First World War, "the facade of internationalism" proved ineffective and totalitarian nationalism took over in several countries. It was led by men like Hitler, Mussolini and Franco. In the post-second World War period, national liberation movements, a new form of nationalism shook the foundations of imperialism and resulted in acceleration of the process of decolonization. Most of the Asian, African and Latin American countries threw away imperialism, and nationalism based on democracy, popular will, liberty and justice resulted as over 100 new nation-states came into existence.




1) Describe briefly the concept of nationalism.

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2 ) Mention various kinds and stages of nationalism.

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2.4 FASCISM

Fascism, as mentioned in the introduction to this unit, does not represent an ideology. It was a theory based on certain programmes of action adopted in Italy by the Fascist Party under the leadership of Mussolini. Later, similar programmes were adopted by Hitler's Nazi party in Germany. The term 'Fascism' has its origin in the Latin world 'Fasio' which means a 'bundle of sticks'. In the ancient Rome, 'bundle of sticks and axe' were the symbols of state authority. 'Bundle of sticks' indicated discipline and unity, while 'axe' symbolised power. Thus, the principal objective of Fascism was restoration of lost glory and honour of the nation through military power and potential. Massive rearmament became the most important means of achieving the objective of national honour. Let us briefly mention the major features of Fascist programme.

2.4.1 Essential Features of Fascism

Fascists were strongly nationalist in their outlook. They wanted to make Italy as powerful as she was in the days of ancient Roman Empire. But their nationalism was narrow. They advocated war and imperialistic expansion and a powerful state to realise these objectives. According to Fascism, state and nation are the ultimate moral beings. Thus, aggressive nationalism was the most important creed of Fascism.

Fascism was against parliamentary democracy. It considered democracy as a weak form of government, incapable of handling the complicated economic and political problems. Fascists did not tolerate any opposition. They wanted total obedience to the party and the leader Mussolini was declared their I1 Duce, the leader. Nothing could be done against him or contrary to his wishes. In other words, Fascism, believed in one party totalitarian regime.

Fascists were strongly opposed to socialism of all variety. They hated the communists and wanted to free the world of "Communist menace". They advocated

Snn~e Cnncepts : I~~~perialisni, Natiollalism, Fascism, Revolution

U~~e~talad~lgllltenlntioll*~elatiolls free enterprise. Their programnlc was supported by the capitalists. But Fascists did not support individualism. or laissez faire, either. They did not want individual to be in a !

position to challenge the state. They did not want a powerless state. The Fascist state, therefore, was absolute, omnipotent and all comprehensive.

Fascists were against internationalism or world order. Their nationalism was of extreme type. B~ implication, the League of Nations did not deserve the support of Fascist Italy. However, Mussolini maintained the facade of faith in the League until his Ethiopian adventure in 193 5-36.

Fascists advocated war. They had no faith in disarmament. Wars can be successfully fought only through armaments. War was, thus, glorified. Mussolini wrote : "Only war carries human energies to the highest level and puts the seal of nobility upon peoples who have the courage to undertake it." Thus, both Mussolini and his German a counterpart Hitler expanded territories of their countries by wars.

Thus, Fascism has no clear-cut ideology. As a theory, Fascism advocated 'militant nationalism'. It believed in the use of force, pron~otion of irnpcrialism and 4

colonialism and massive rearmament. It rejected democracy : ~ w d peaceful means of settlement of international disputes. Fascism was a 'conservat~ve reaction' against the rising tide of socialism. Fascism was a creed of totalitarianism, which Mussolini

1 defined as : "All in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state."

2.4.2 Fascism in Italy, Germany and Spain

Fascism first appeared in Italy when Mussolini organised and led the Fascist Party to power. Italians were disgusted with the performance of their post-World War I governments which could not protect the national honour and failed to promote national interest. The country, on the other hand, was torn by labour unrest engineered by the leftists. In this situation, Mussolini prepared a large force of volunteers, gave them military training and aroused the nationalistic sentiments of the people. The Fascist programmes for internal peace and external glory appealed to people. They rallied behind Mussolini, who threatened to seize power. In this situation, king Victor Emmanuel I11 asked Mussolii~i to form a cabinet, which he did on October 31, 1922. He soon destroyed all opposition and assumed dictatorial powers. Fascism remained at the helm of Italian affairs till 1943.

When we discuss rise of Fascism we generally limit ourselves to Fascism takeover of Italy. But in Germany and Spain, groups with similar kind of ideas and programmes of action came to power. National Socialist Party (or, Nazi Party) led by Adolf Hitler came to power in German in the early 1930. Nazism was the product of German

. humiliation by England, France and their allies at the Paris Peace Conference. Like the Italian Fascists, Hitler's Nazi party also advocated rearmament, war and revision of peace treaties. Nazis, like Fascists, were against parliamentary democracy, socialism, League of Nations and peaceful settlement of disputes.

Soon after Hitler's dictatorship was established in Germany, strong signs of similar adventurism were noticed in some other European countries also. In France, in 1935- 36, conditions resembling those in Italy (before the advent of Musssolini) prevailed, and animosity between the leftists and the rightists was so acute that there was a clear possibility of emergence of a dictatorship. The situation was saved by a timely action by all democrats, leftist groups, socialists and even communists who formed the Front Populaire, which won the elections held in April - May, 1936. The Front formed a government under the Prime Ministership of Leon Blum.

In neighbouring Belgium about the same time, a Fascist group led by Degrelle introduced violence and vulgarity in public life. It opposed Belgium's alliance with France, on the ground of the latter's alliance with Communist Soviet Union. Under their influence, Belgium announced that it was reverting to its former status of a

neutral state. This was regarded as a 'defection' by Belgium from the Locarno Alliance. Although Fascism could not seize power in Belgium yet it did make a significant bid.

In Rumania, a fascist party, known as the Iron Guard, was formed under the leadership of Corneliu Codreanu. This party was a reaction to prevailing economic crisis in the country and total mismanagement by the Rumanian Government. Like Italian Blackshirts (Fascists) and German Storm - troopers (Nazis), the Rumanian Iron Guards organised attacks on parliamentary politicians, Jews and the working classes. King Carol of Rumania failed to crush the Fascists and finally established his own dictatorship.

In Poland, also there were clearly visible signs of Fascism. In 1937, the Government of Poland was organised, on the Fascist model, as a Camp of National Unity. An open conflict emerged between the government on the one hand and peaG7nts and workers on the other. A civil war was averted only when the government promised electoral reforms. Due to growing threat from Germany, situation was saved and reconciliation bruught about.

Spain, however, could not save itself. A dictatorship was established by General Primo de Riveira in 1923. But there was such a state of lawlessness in Spain that Riveira resigned in 1930 out of sheer desperation. Next year, King Alfonso XI11 abdicated and a republic was proclaimed. But, even the elected government failed to restore order in the country. Spain like France, voted for a Popular front (leftist) government in 193 5. This precipitated a crisis in the country. A large number of military officers openly threatened the government saying that unless general disorder was stopped by the Government of President Azana, the army would seize power to restore order. Fearing trouble, Azana retired a number of officers and transferred many others to far off places. One such officer was General Franco who was sent to Canary Islands.

A policeman was murdered by Spanish Fascists on July 12, 1936. In retaliation the country's top Fascist leader Calvo Sotelo was killed by the Policemen. This was the signal for the outbreak of a civil war in Spain. General Franco arrived in Spanish Morocco a few days later and proclaimed mutiny in Spain.

Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany provided massive financial and military assistance to rebels led by General Franco, and Soviet Union gave help to the Central government. The civil war which went on for nearly three years ended in March 1939 with decisive victory for the fascists under the leadership of General Franco. Thus Spain joined the Fascist camp of Italy and Germany.

Thus, at least three ~u ropean countries actually adopted Fascism during the inter- '

war period. However, Italy was the pioneer and its leader Mussolini was the first advocateof Fascism. That is why rise of Fascism is generally associated with Italy and Mussolini:

2.4.3 Mussolini - From Socialist to Fascist

Benito Mussolini was born in 1893. He was initially influenced by his father'e i Socialist views. He went to Switzerland and later to Austria. But due to his radical activities he was forced to leave these countries.

After coming back from Austria, Mussolini, for some time, kept on propagating socialism. When war broke out in 1914, Mussolini supported neutrality of his country. By 19 15 he gave up his socialist ideas and started supporting the demand for

*Italian entry in the war.

Mussolini became a strong critic of the Peace Treaties. He called a meeting of his friends and ex-servicemen and all those who had during 1914-15 pleaded for Italian intervention in the war. He now organised them in the Fascist party and gave a call

Some Concepts : hlperiallsm, Nationalis~iq Fascism, Revolution

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n t ~ l l d i n g ~ ~ ~ t ~ n u t i ~ ~ ~ ~ a l R e l n t i ~ * ~ ~ s lor s e ~ ~ r i n g justice for Italy and getting rid of socialists, communists, and the weak government. '

Most of the Fascists caille from rich propertied class. young sons of businessmien. unemployed ex-soldiers and discontented professionals and a large number of student: became ardent supporters and followers of Mussolini. Fascists were totally opposed to communists. They were financed mostly by capitalists. During 1920-2 1 aln~ost civil war coi~ditions prevailed in the countq. The government was a silent spectator as Mussolini led the masses to believe that their future lay secure only with him and his party. Premier Giolitti was lorccd to resign in July 1921. He was replaced by Luigi Facta, who was as weak as his predecessor was.

2.4.4 Causes of the Rise of Fascism in Italy

You have read about the meaning of Fascism. You have also understood the prograinme of action adopted by Fascists in Italy and Germany. We have stated that Fascism lacked ideology. It was reaction to certain circumstances. We have wry b~.icJly discussed 11ow and Fascisnl was adopted by Italians and later by Germans. In this section we will understand the carlse of rise of Fascism in Italy and its doiilestic and foreign policies.

Italy had joii~cd Dual Alliance of Gerniany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, thus converting the Dual A l l i a n ~ into the Triple Alliance. It was a conibination against Russia and France. But, ltd'jr yi not keenepern~anent ly associating itself with Austria-Hungary with whom it r zkcortain border disputes. Italy had the ninbition of bringing Libya, in North Africa intol~er empire. When France assured Italy that it \\.auld not opposc Italy-in i t designs on Libya, Itilly promised Francc in 1902 that it \vould not figlit against France in case of a Franco-German war. But Italy did not l~rmally disassociate itself from the Triple Alliance. When the World War I broke out Italy declared hcr neutrality. Howcver, fair amount of disagreement dc4elopcd ainong the ltalians 011 t l ~ e question of intervention in the War. The socialists, who had 80 ~ncnibcrs in the Italian Parliament, supported the government's decision of neutrality. But, there \\,ere many, capitalists, inanufacturers of armaments and right-wing political groups, who favoured intervention. Finally. Italy entered the war on tlie side of Allies against the Central Powers. The Alli-es promised Italy that certain territories at the cost of Germany and Austria-IIungary would be given to her in the cvcnt of Allied victory. The territories pronlised to Italy included South Tyrol upto the Brciiner pass, Tricsts, Fiunle, Garicia and several ~ a l m a t i a n Islands. Thus with an expectation o l licr territorial cspailsion Italy defected from the Triple Alliance and entered the war on May 23, 191 5.

Italy emerged victorious after the war. Towards the final stages of the war Italians had made a notable contributioi~ to tlie Allied victory. However, Italy discovered soon altcr the war that the cost of war was far more exacting than they had anticipated. It was estimated that about 70,00,000 Italian soldiers were killed in the war and about 1,000.000 \\ere \\70unded. Her econoinic losses \ v c r ~ also disturbing. In these L I I cnrnstanccs thc last hope of Italians was the Paris Peace Conference. They c,\pcctcd to get all the proniised territories. But that did not happen. Wilson's i d c n l ~ s ~ ~ ~ stood in the way of renlisafion of her dreams. Italians blamed England and France for betrayal They \Itere enlotionally disturbed when they found that they were being denied even Fiun~e. Thus ~ v l ~ i l e the Paris Conference was still on, Italian poet G:lbriclc d' Annunzio organised a coup, and led a band of young men (black shirted volunteers) in a chartered boat and captured Fiume. This was strongly resented by the Paris Conference. Prime Minister Orlando who failed to secure justice to Italy at the Pcacc Conlerence, was replaced in 1920 by Giolitti. The new Prime Minister did not approve of the ultra-nationalism of t l ~ e poet Giolitti concluded a treaty at Repallo in 1920 with Yugoslavia. and rcturried Flume to Yugoslavia. This action of the Giolitti goverlllneilt 111ade it v e n unpopular in the country, and became an important cause of the rise of Fascisni

Another issue which made the Giolitti Government unpopular was the Albanian problem. Albania, a small country just across the Adriatic Sea, has two important neighbours-Greece and Yugoslavia. Albania was occupied by the Allied troops during the war. After the war, Italy wanted to rule Alhazia ,s a mandated territory. Paris Conference did not accept this demand. Even the proposal to divide Albania between Greece, Yugoslavia and Italy was rejected. But Italian Army continued to occupy Albania by the middle of 1920 there were so many internal problems in Italy that Prime Minister Giolitti was forced to withdraw his troops from Albania which annoyed the Italians.

Besides, most of the territory in the Near East, promised to Italy in 1915 by England and France, was either given to Greece or was allowed to be retained by Turkey. In Africa, mandates were established over several former German colonies by Britain, France and Belgium. Italy did not get any colony. She merely got some extension of her colonies of Libya and Somaliland. Italian people felt frustrated at this mismanagement of country's foreign claims. The prevailing mood in Italy was best expressed by the phrase, 'mutilated victory'.

Economic situation of Italy was also chaotic. Millions of men were retrenched from the armed forces. Unemployment, budget deficit and prices of essential commodities were increasing rapidly. This situation was conducive to the rise of socialist forces. In the 19 19 parliamentary elections the socialists secured 156 seats. But they often voted against government measures, creating parliamentary staleate. Comn~unists and their sympathisers, on the other hand, frequently organised agitations and demonstrations. During 1919 and 1920 as many as 35,00,000 working days were lost due to strikes, lockouts and agitations.

Government was unable to handle these crisis. If parliamentary democracy failed to solve the problems, communism could not offer an alternative while it provoked general unrest in the Italian society and economy. In these circumstances of transition, Fascist leadership could convince the people that Italy needed a government that would by strong, effective, nationalistic and not committed to Marxism. It was in this background that Benito Mussolini 'seized power' and established the Fascist regime in Italy.

2.4.5 Neo-Fascism in Europe

Some Concepta : hilperfalisnt, Nationalisnl, Fascism, Revolution

Towards the end of the cold war, the Fascist and Nazi forces had began to raise their heads once against. This time they are not rigid in dogma as they were during the inter-war years. Fascism had been an "extreme and desperate attempt of the nation state" and of parasitic connected to it . .. . by imposing totalitarian regime and exalting nationalism." This comment by the 'Federalist' was made in 1994 to highlight the dangers of a neo-fascist movement in Italy and elsewhere. Fascism has been described as a crude and tribal ideology. Neo-Fascists have been trying to organise as a political force of extreme right. For the first time since the Second World War, some members of neo-fascist party called 'Allenanza Nazionale' (National Alliance) were admitted to the Italian Government early in 1994. The Allenanz Nazionale denies being a neo-fascist grouping, yet its essential component is 'Movimento Sociale Italiano' (Italian Social Movement) which was founded in the post Second WorId War years on clear Fascist policies, though it has always been divided into 'hard-line' and 'respectable' wings. After joining the government neo- fascists strongly emphasized their moderate nature. In the post-cold war united Germany has also experienced the rise of neo-nazis though they have not been able to gain entry in the German Government. Fascism was originally founded on the negative values of man's oppression of man, of national hatred and intolerance. It was led by a charismatic leader who had aroused the ultra-nationalist sentiments of the people in the 1920s on the basis of alleged injustice done to Italy by the peace makers at Versailles. In the post-cold war years, neither are there charismatic leaders

Ullderstanding hlternational Relations of extreme right in Italy or in Germany, thus not justifying ultra-nationalism. However, neo-fascism cannot be easily dismissed. It may once again raise its ugly head.

Fascism thus emerged in 1922 as a response to the declining political institutions of Italy and hence represents a set of programmes for action, rather than an ideology. It is useful however to remember that almost every European country developed at least one fascist party or movement, which still continues to be the case. These experiments at fascism, whether old or new, only show that there is hardly any case for a "generic fascism" though one may more accurately speak of 'fascist-style regimes'. The Nazi Germany was definitely modelled on Italian fascism but many would disagree to put them together under fascism'. How little these two fascist regimes had in common can be had from the instance of quick failure of their union during World War 11. The Nazi variation however provicied then and continues to provide now ideological fodder (racism, violence, brutality) to various fascistic experiments old and new. A fascist party or movement is thus experimental in nature and does rigidly follow any given ideology, though sharing some characteristic features in common with such experiments undertaken in Italy, Germany, Spain, Rumania and other countries.


Note : i) . Use the space below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.

1) Mention three essential features of Fascism.

2) What were the causes of rise of fascism in Italy?

REVOLUTIONS

Revolutions have influenced both domestic and international politics on different occasions. A sudden and total change in the social order in a country is called a revolution. Thus peaceful events like the Glorious Revolution of England of 1688 as well as the .violent outburst, as the French Revolution of 1789 have had a reaching impact on politics -both national and international. The revolutions have had political, social as well as economic dimensions. Thus, a revolution may mean a sudden, fundamental and major transformation. As Carl, J. Friedrich says, in its core meaning, revolution "constitutes a challenge to the established political order and the eventual establishment of a new order radically different from the preceding one". But, the real problem ingiving a precise definition of revolution is that the term

revolution is often interchangeably used I o r upheaval, coup 'dl etat, rebellion, revolt, Some Concepts : In~periaUsn~,

etc. Each one of these terms has a specific meaning which is different from the term Nntio~~alisnq Fascism, Revolution

revolution. We cannot go into the meaning of terms other than revolution in'this section.

2.5.1 What is a Revolution?

It is universally believed that 'profound change' in social order constitutes the basic I idea of revolution. But it is not easy to describe what is meant by profound change,

and how widespread the change should be to qualify to be called a revolution. It is suggested that Martin Luther's movement against the Pope was a 'religious revolution', because it introduced Protestantism, which caused profound change in the Christian Society. Similarly the famous 'industrial revolution' changed the basic structure of British economy as the era of feudalism was replaced by the new socio- economic order called capitalism. These revolutions left no segment of society untouched. Writing about widespread change Barbara Salvent says: "Events such as the Chinese Revolution, that introduce changes in everything from the educational system to the land tenure pattekns clearly qualify as revolutions ...." There is a general belief that revolutions involve force and violence. This is ge.nerally true, but not an absolute condition.

Revolution to the French Scholar, Mounier means "a combination of rather far reaching changes intended virtually to erase the r'@,illness of a society that has reached an impasse ..... The result is what counts?hot how romantic or how restrained the language is." Thus, what is important is the end, not the means. Mounier adds : "It is enough to know the operation is a major and vital one, bound to meet violent resistance, which in turn provokes counter - violence." This definition of revolution implies that the real illness of the society must be erased, and the process of curing the illness is often violent. This is what happened during the French Revolution, the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Revolution. It is generally believed that revolutions are caused mainly by socio-economic considerations, yet there are scholars like Bertrand de Jouvenel who insist that revolution is essentially a political event.

Revolution has been variously defined. Samuel P. Huntington says that revolution is "a rapid, fundamental, and violent domestic change in the dominant values and myths of a society." In the words of Hannah Arendt, the concept of revolution is inextricably bound up with the notion that history suddenly begins to adopt a new course. In fact, revolution is a transition from one epoch to another. The above definitions and views en~phasise that values, social structure and institutions undergo a total ~hange. Besides, power is transferred from one group of people to another by legal means or through violence. But, the Marxism view of revolution emphasises change in class domination.

2.5.2 Some Major Revolutions

The above discussion on meaning and definition of revolution brings us to conclude that a revolution is an activity that is aimed at replacing a system which has outlived its utility and the change becomes acceptable by virtue of its necessity. Revolution, we have ;aid, cause profound change. So it is not a limited reform. Besides, revolution brings about sudden, not gradual change. The means applied to achieve such a sudden change vary from purely constitutional or non-violent to those totally violent. The means applied to achieve such a sudden change vary from purely constitutional or non-violent to those totally violent. The world has witnessed many revolutions in different societies. They vary in nature and scope.

Certain revolutions may be classified as liberal or democratic revolutions. Thus, the French Revolution of 1789 brought about widespread change in the relationship between individual and the state. It enlphasised liberty, equality and fraternity and proclaimed the right of man.

Ul lders t~~~1 ingI~ten~t ion~Re la t ions Before 1789 France was an absolute monarchy. The kings were all powe~ful people who did not enjoy any rights. There was no separation of powers. Dlscontentment had reached a climax. The revolution began in Paris where a mob stormed the ,city, overpowered the guards and set the prisoners free. They shouted "liberty", "equality" and "fraternity" as rallylng slogans. Soon the old order was replaced and a new revolutionary government was set up. Several constitutions were drawn up during the next decade, but all Frenchmen were given right to vote. The electors even acquired the power to issue formal instructions to their elected deputies. It inaugurated liberal democratic traditions in France.

Earlier, when the people of 13 colonies in America rose against their British colonial masters and issued the famous Declaration of Independence in July, 1776. a democratic revolution was ushered in. They overthrew the British rule after a bitter struggle, framed their own constitution and created the 1 Tnited States of America in 1776. The American Revolution was thus a liberal revolution which established democratic government in the United States.

The glorious revolution of 1689 in Britain was a bloodless, yet profound change from monarchy to democracy. After the death of Charles I1 in 1685, his younger brother James I1 became the King, but he ruled only for three years. He assumed the power to veto the bills without the consent of Parliament, which displeased the leaders of Parliament. Prince William of Orange was encouraged to wage a war against England. When he invaded England with a huge army, James I1 fled to France after realising that he had been isolated. Thus a glorious, bloodless, revolution was achieved in that country. William and Mary became the rulers of Britain and they accepted the Bill of Rights as proposed by the Parliament. It was agreed that the King would not impose any taxes without the prior coilsent of the Parliament, that the monarch would summon the Parliament at least once a year, and that no army would be maintained without the prior approval of the Parliament. The three above mentioned revolutions changed the pattern of governance and the people concerned acquired rights and power to rule over themselves.

The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 falls in a different category. It did not merely change the rulers of Russia; it introduced real, widespread and profound changes in the social order of that country. The rule of the Czar was autocratic and totally undemocratic. Economy was in the hands of feudal lords and, to a lesser extent, the ,

capitalists. Economic exploitation of workers and peasants was the common feature of pre-revolutionary Russia. People were underfed and most of them were not even literate. The Russian Duma (legislature) had forced the Czar to abdicate in February, 1917, but did nothing to satisfy the aspirations of the people. The Provisional Government set up by the Duma decided to continue with the war even as the soldiers were not in a position to fight In this background, Lenin led the Red Guards on October 25, 19 17, and seized power. His Government ended the war with Germany, and introduced massive changes in the socio-economic structure. Power was acquired by the Bolsheviks on behalf of the working people, and a dictatorship of the proletariat led to the creation of first socialist state. Unlike liberal revolutions, the Bolshevik Revolution completely changed the Russian social, economic and political systems.

The Chinese Revolution of 1949 was another example of the socialist revolution. But, unlike the Russian Revolution, the Chinese Revolution came after a bitter and prolonged civil war against the corrupt regime of Chiang Kai-shek. The Chinese Revolution was brought about as a result of active participation of peasants, workers, soldiers and intellectuals. Mao Tse-tung led the revolution which paved the way for 'profound change' in Chinese economy as well as politics.

Some people describe even Hitler's seizure of power in Germany as a revolution of sorts. The so called Nazi revolution was actually a negative democracy and led to the establishment of Hitler's dictatorship. brought abaut had negative outcomes.

To conclude, a revolution may be described as a process in which the power is transferred from a discredited regime to an authority that enjoys support of the people. It means change of socio-economic and political order in such a widespread manner that an entirely new order emerges in place of the old order. A revolution i~ not an isolated event; it is a series of events. It is not merely concerned with the overthrow of an established order; it is equally concerned with the establishment of a new order. The process is often violent, but profound change can be brought about even without the use of force.

I Check Your Progress 4


ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. w

1) Explain the concept of revolution. 1

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2.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have read briefly about four important concepts. The term In~perialism refers to domination of one country over another. In the early stages imperialism was known as colonialism. In practice, imperialism meant, as Moon said, domination of nowEuropean people by totally dissimilar European nations. Colonialism meant economic exploitation of colonies by the capitalist countries of the West. Colonialism has been described as international expression of Capitalism, or as Lenin said, imperialism is the (highest) stage in the development of capitalism. After the Second World War, process of decolonisation began in a big way, and almost all the erstwhile colonies gained independence. But, even now capitalist countries are maintaining their exploitative hold over newly independent countries. This new form of Colonialism is known as neo-colonialism.

Nationalism has been described as the master key of international politics. Nationalism is a feeling created by oneness of those who feel bound by the link of common religion, race, language, culture or tradition. In a country that is not independent, nationalism unites the people in their struggle for freedom. But, in independent societies, a common bond coupled with patriotism, is the core of nationalism. Modern nationalism is said to have originated in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe and America. Nationalism has been misused at times by rulers like Hitler to arouse people's sentiments against certain other countries.

Fascism was a theory based on certain programmes of action. It does not have a defined ideology. Its approach is generally negative. It originated in post - First World War Italy; and was later adopted by Germany in the name of Nazism. It subscribes to ultra-nationalism. It is against socialism, democracy, disarmament and even individualism. It does not reject religion. It praises war and projects one person as supreme leader. Fascism was largely responsible for the Second World War.

Some Concepts : Imperialisn~, Nationalism, Fascism, Revolution

IJllderstaalfil~ Illtenl~tioalalRelati0~ls Revolutions have influenced both domestic and international politics on different occasions. A revolution implies profound change in social order. Revolution can be defined as a rapid, fundamental, and violent change in the dominant values and myths of a society. Revolution is a transition from one epoch to another. Revolutions have been both peaceful and violent. Some of the revolutions that have brought about 'profound change' include the Glorious Revolution, industrial revolution, the French Revolution, American Revolution and the Bolshevik Revolution of Russia.

2.7 KEY WORDS

White Man's Burden : European countries which had established their colonial empires said that the colonies of Asia and Africa through burdens on the (white) imperial Powers, still they actually enjoyed governing them.

Domination

Rationalism

: Total control of some states over the other less developed countries.

: Based on reason and science, free from tradition and superstition.

Capitalism : A system in which goods and services are produced for sale in the market so that maximum profit is earned.

Multi-National Corporations : Giant sized companies usually incorporated in one or the other Western capitalist country. They ;

operate in several developing countries; motive is maximum profit; in the process economies of developing countries are adversely affected.

Cou d' etat : Sudden military take over of power.

Impasse : Situation of unresolved disagreement; no decision is possible due to hard attitudes of persons or groups.


Lenin, V.I., : Imperialism,the Highest State of Capitalism (in Selected Works)

Owen, Roger and Bob Sutcliff : Studies in the Theory of Imperialism.

Carr, E.H. : Bolshevik Revolution.

Moon, Parker, T., : Imperialism and World Politics.

Hobson J.A. : Imperialism, A Study.

Bqes , Carlton, J. : "Nationalism" in Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences.

Palmer and Perkins : International Relations.



1) Imperialism is a system of domination by one country over the others; domination of non-European people by European states; expansion of state Power beyond its borders. For Lenin, it was a precise stage of capitalism.

Harry Magdoff s identification of three major changes.


1) Feudalism began to decline with industrial revolution in England, growth of towns and inter-feudal conflicts. Capitalism that replaced feudalism spread out its wings in search of raw materials and markets outside Europe. T h s was responsible for development of imperialism as colonialists acquired political power.

2) Colonialism was a direct outcome of capitalism. Wealth arising out of colonial exploiption was further turned into capital and coloniz+g countries established both political and economic control over the colonies. Capitalism had a direct link with colonialisn~.

3) Imperialism in a new form that emerged after Second World War is called neo-colonialism. It is economic exploitation, and consequent political domination, of independent and sovereign Afro-Asian countries by Western capitalist countries.


1) A feeling of oneness among a large section of people; a production of political, economic and social and cultural factors leading to condition of mind, or feeling, for unity. It is a conditioned sentiment uniting people in a common bond.

2) Snyder suggests four stages : integrative nationalism, disruptive nationalism, aggressive nationalism, and contemporary nationalism. Its kinds are : good (Indian freedom struggle) or bad (Hitler's) constructive and destructive, material and spiritual.


1) Any three features : Ultra - nationalistic; totalitarian; against socialism, anti- democratic; against disarmament; supports war as an institution; against individualism; believes in one nation, one party, one leader.

Some Colacepts : hnperialisln, Natio~talism, Fascism, Revoltttion

2) The Italians believed that injustice was done to them at Paris Peace Conference; post - First World War governments were weak, and sacrificed national interest; communist activitics brought economic progress to a halt; lawlessness could not be checked by government.


1) Revolution is sudden change in social, economic and political order. It is often violent, but force is not always used. It brings ab~&'~rofound change' in values and myths of a society.

UNIT 3 SOME CONCEPTS: STATE SYSTEM, POWER, NATIONAL INTEREST, SECURITY

Structure

3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction

3.2 State System 3.2.1 Features of State System 3.2.2 Evolution of the State System

3.3 Power 3.3.1 What is Power? 3.3.2 Elements of Power 3.3.3 Measurement of Power 3.3.4 Methods of Exercising Power 3.3.5 Management of Power

3.4 National Interest 3.4.1 Definition of National Interest 3.4.2 National Interest - The Core of Foreign Policy

3.5 Security 3.5.1 Security and National Interest 3.5.2 Security and Nuclear Weapons

3.6 Let Us Sum Up 3.7 Key Words 3.8 Some Useful Books 3.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES

In this unit four important concepts of international relations are discussed. After going through this Unit we should be able to:

explain the meaning and importance of the state system;

trace the evolution of the contemporary sovereign nation state system;

define power and explainits dominate role in international relations;

identify and explain various elements of power;

describe various methods used for exercise of power;

analyse balance of power gnd collective security as means of management of power;

explain the importance of national interest for any nation-state;

analyse the relationship between national interest and foreign policy; and

define security and explain the role of security in the protection of national interest and exercise of power.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The 'State' in its modern sense of a territorial nation-state emerged as a result of momentous developments in Europe between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. In today's world, there are around 185 states which constitutes the international

system. International relations and politics are generally understood as a set of Some Concepts : State System, Power,

actions, reactions and interactions between sovereign states, through the medium of Natlonal Internst, Secudty

their foreign policies. As the most authoritative political institution, the state can mobilize all domestic resources needed to carry on international interactions in the form of war, or the pursuit of dipIomacy and peace. In this unit we will discuss the evolution of state system and its relevance in contemporary international relations and the world community.

Power is the capacity that enables a person to exercise control over the minds and actions of others. In respect of the sovereign stlltes, power has been defined as the ability of state 'A' to influence the behaviour of state 'B' and other states. A powerful state can ensure that the powerful countries act in the manner that the former would like them to behave. Depending on the power that a state possesses, it may be described as a Super power, Big power or Small power. It is very difficult to exactly measure the power of a state, but power is often measured in terms of its elements. Some elements of power are tanable like the size of the territory, topography and its location; population of a state; the size of the armed forces; and possession of natural resources. There are a number of intangible elements also that determine power. These include quality of leadership and morale of the people and the armed forces. The state exercises power through methods such as persuasion, rewards, punishment and force. Those who possess power, which is like money, manage it by different means. Most prominent of these means are balance of power and collective security.

International Relations are often identified with foreign policy. This is not wholly correct, yet foreign policy is a vital tool of nation-states. National interest is the key concept in foreign policy. Foreign policy makers have to start with proper understanding of the country's national interest. National interest has been described as indeed the last word in international politics.

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Primary objective of foreign policy makers is to ensure security of the state. In fact security is the most essential component of the national interest. Security is not merely the protection of territorial integrity and sovereignty of the state. It is also vitally concerned with the economic development, which in turn enables a country to increase its power and to use it to secure a place of respect in the world community. Thus, the four concepts that we will discuss in this unit are closely interrelated and their understanding is essential for proper appreciation'of international relations.

3.2 THE STATE SYSTEM

The world community is organized into over 185 sovereign states. The organization of humankind intg sovereign states is now called the state system. Palmer and Perkins define .what is variously described as Western State System, the nation-state system or (sovereign) state system as: "It is the pattern of political life in which people are s'eparately organized into sovereign states that must manage to get along together." Sovereignty and a definite territory are two of the essential attributes of a state. Of course, there should always be, as Garner said, a community of persons, having an organized government. Each state acquires coercive power to ensure compliance. The state system has evolved during the last three and a half centuries. It is the dominant pattern today. International Relations, infact, are relations and interactions among the states who constitute the state-system.

3.2.1 Features of the State System

Certain features of the state system are essential conditions, without which the state . system cannot exist. These features have been described by Palmer and Perkins as

corollaries. They are the concepts of nationalism, sovereignty and power. Nationalism is that psychological or spiritual quality which unites the people of a state and " gives

ullderstancling Illtenlatiolad Relatiolls them the will to champion what they regard as their natlonal interest." sovereignty is the concept of unlimited powers. A group of people who are territorially organized are called sovereign when they possess both internal and external freedom to do what they wish to do. National power is the might of a state which enables the state to get things done as it would like them to be done. Power is a complex of many tangible and intangible elements.

We have studied about the concept of nationalism in unit 2, and the Goncept of power is analysed in detail in the next section of this unit.The concept of sovereignty is briefly dealt with below. You will notice in every modren state, such as India, Britain, Russia, the United States, Pakistan or Egypt, there lives a community of numerous persons who possess a government which is generally obeyed by the people and which does not obey any external authority. Such a state is situated within a definite territory.

Sovereignty, in simple terms, means the supreme power of the state both internally and externally. It is the attribute of sovereignity which distinguishes the state from other associations or organisations.

One of the earliest definitions of sovereignty was given by the French philosopher Jean Bodin (1 530-1596),who defined it as "supreme power over citizens and subjects, unrestrained by law." However, Bodin's main object was to strengthen the position of the French Monarch who was then facing civil war and chaos.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), elaborated on the concept of sovereignty, shifting the emphasis from the person of the king to the abstraction called government or state. Hobbes equated the sovereign with the state and government. -

A useful distinction is made between internal and external sovereignty. Internal sovereignty concerns the supreme and lawful authority of the state over its citizens. External sovereignty, on the other hand, refers to the recognition by all states, of the independence, territorial intergrity and inviolability of each state, as represented by its government. Hugo Grotius, (1583 -1645),the Dutch jurist defined sovereignty as "that power whose acts are not subject to the control of another." For him, sovereignty was manifested when a state, in dealing with its internal affairs, remained free from the control of other states. Thus defined, sovereignty has become the cornerstone of the modern international system. It is this external sovereignty that we are concerned with here.

This concept of sovereignty was for the first time recognised and institutionalized in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. It provided that : (i) only sovereign states could engage in international relations; (ii) for the purpose of recognizing a state as an actor in international relations, it nust have a geographical t e r r i t o j ' w a definite population, land and effective military power to fulfill international obligations; and (iii) all sovereign states are equal in international law and international relations.

3.2.2 Evolution of the State System

The signing of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, after the Thirty years war, is identified as the beginning of the state system in its modern form. States did indeed exist before Westphalia, and they conducted relations among themselveqbut that was quite different from modern state system. In the ancient world there existed small city states in Greece, India, Egypt and Italy. Athens and Sparta in ancient Greece, and Indraprastha and Hastinapur in India were some s u ~ h city-states.Then,there had been a succession of sprawling dynastic empires. The world had also known the vast Roman Empire which enconlpassed the entire civilised Western World. But there had heen no nation state with sovereignty.

The Thirty Years War had resulted out of the Protestant-Catholic conflict The Sol~re Concepts : State Syste~a, Power,

struggle did not establish any dominant religion, yet it ended the undisputed authority National Interest, Security

I of the catholic church. It resulted in a spirit of mutual toleration which has not yet I been threatened. It laid the foundation of the nation state system. Palmer and Perkins

write : "In spite of enormous destruction, the wrecking of the universal Church, and the fragmentation of Eurape into well-defined nation-states, the resulting peace of Westphalia (1648) paved the way for a semblance of European stabihty."

The culnlination of the Thirty Year War in the Peace of Westphalia marked the starting point for new norms governing the behaviour of states in their relations with each other. The medieval conception dominated by the image of a Euro-centric christlan commonwealth gave way to a new concept of an international system based on the co-existence of sovereign states. Territorial states emerged as the sole legitimate players in the new international system. Only sovereign states could either wage wars, or enter into treaties. or alliances with each other.

A corollary to the principle of state sovereignty was naturally the principle of state equality. As Vattel puts it in his celebrated argument ,"a dwarf is as much as man as a giant is. a small republic no less a sovereign state than the most powerful kingdom.

This was at least the juridical position. Reality, however, was quite different. State equality was practically limited to the great powers of Europe namely France, Great Britain, Austria and Russia. The so-called "anti-hegemony norm"embodied in the concept of a "just balance of power" was the exclusive privilege of the Great powers. The non-European states however, did not figure in the actual scheme of t h i n 6 that emerged after the Westphalian peace.

I ! Rather, the international norms of thls period were based on the then extant dynastic

concept of state. The principle of sovereignty meant that the dynasties ruling the territorial states of Europe recognized each other as rightful, independent and sovereign. The post-Westphalian system thus developed its own hierarchies.

International relations between peace of Westphalia and the Treaty of Utrecht (17 13) were marked by the attempts of Louis XIV to establish French hegemony, and rivalry among Britain, Francs, Holland and Spain. Eventually, France suffered heavy losses by the Treaty of Utrecht. France promised that Spain and France would never be united. Unification of Prussia was encouraged leading to a new balance in Europe. Sweden, Russia and Poland could not take any decision without involving west Europea? countries.

The mutations within the Westphalian system and its further elaboration was seen in the system that emerged after the Congress of Vienna (1815). This system was still Eurocentric with 22 of the 23 member states being European and the last being the

B United States. Yet in a sense, it was a global system in that it lald the norms that were to affect every part of the world. The backward countries became the battleground for the resolution of the conflicts of great powers. The system that emerged after the Vienna Congress was a system of great-power hegemony and known as the Concert of Europe. It was somewhat of a prototype of the collective security system that we see today. Five great powers, namely, Britan, France, Prussia, Russia and Austria took upon themselves the responsibility of maintaining international order. The concert of Europe rested on the assumption that world order could not be maintained without the exercise of special rights by these great powers.

The rise of nationalism and thereby the emergence of new norms led to what has been termed, the updating of the Westphalian system, following the Congress of Vienna (1815). The concept of a sovereign state was not challenged, but its basis shifted from royalty to nationality. Thus merged the concept of the state with nationhood which laid the basis for the modern nation state. Subsequently, the Paris Treaty which ended

Understandhlg International Relations the Crimean war recognized the principle of national self-determinatioq. Gradually, therefore, the right of each nationality to become an indepW,ent political actor on an equal footing developed. as a key principle of international r e l a h s .

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1914, the system's membership reached 43. For the first time the hyopean exOlus~veness was affected. There were 17 States from Latin America, 3 Asia, one from Africa and one from the Middle East. Though the prototype of modelq diplomacy was established much earlier at Westphalia, Vienna and Paris, it was ohly in the second half of the nineteenth century that regular international conferences siirted taking place for adopting conventions regarding the behaviour of states. The subjects covered by these conventions included the rules of diplomacy (rank, protocol, procedure and privilege), the principles of maritime law, neutrality, blockade and contraband, free navigation and international water ways, copyrights and patents, and rules of warfare.

In contemporary international re1ations;the principles of sovereign equality of all states and non-interference in the internal affairs of states are paramount in the formal conduct of states towards one another. In the absence of any superior legal authority, the present system functions in which each state is at liberty to act to secure its own interests. Though it is largely true about some of the Great Powers, the above characterization is somewhat of an exaggeration. Rules, conventions, procedures that evolved over hundreds of years do have some sanctity. The United Nations, which succeeded the League of Nations, though it has often failed to restrain powerful states from committing aggression at will, still enjoys a certain degree of legitimacy.

With the process of decolonisation having become complete after World War 11, the focus on Europe changed to include newly independent states in Asia and Africa.

A rapid scan through recent developments in the international system reveals new trends which suggest that the Westphalian system of territorially sovereign nation- states is on decline.

Though formally sovereign yet vast majority of nation-states try to adjust to a highly hierarchical international system that has emerged. The resulting world is characterized by "super-powers" "satellites", and the UN system's various operations, arm-twistings of super power(s), conditionalities of the International Monetary Fund's and activities of multinational corporations with budgets greater than many states GNPs etc. Due to globalization in various spheres, the state seems to be losing its power. The inter-dependence of world economy and the growing importance of supra-state international authorities like IMF, (GATT) WTO, World Bank points to curtailment of autqority. In the post-cold war phase, such curtailment of authority does not however apply to the United States of America whose state has become, if anything, more powerful and domineering.



ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit

1) What is meant by the state system?

t ' 2) Describe three features, or corollaries, of the state system. Some Concepts : State Systenq Power,

,I Nntionnl L~terest, Security

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I 3) Trace the evolution of state system since the Peace of Westphalia.

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I I

3.3 POWER

3.3.1 What is Power?

I Power is a phenomenon of all relationships, and political relationship is no exception to this rule. Power has been defined by Hans Morgenthau as "Man's control over minds and actions of other man." But, as minds cannot be seen, power can be determined by the behaviour of individuals and states. In a very broad sense, power has been defined "as the ability or capacity to control others and get them to do what .one wants them to do and also to see that they do not do what one does not want them to do." In international relations, power is the ability of a state to make its will prevail and to enforce respect and command obedience from other states.

I This is how Professor Mahendra Kumar has explained power of the states. Simply speaking, power is an ability which may not be exercised. But, when exercised, this

P ability enables a state to control the behaviour of other states.

The concept of power was discussed by Kautilya, the master of statecraft in ancient India, in fourth century B.C. He interpreted power as "the possession of strength" v derived from three elements, namely knowledge, military might and valour (Gyan, Sainya bal and Shaurya respectively). Morgenthau has been described as a realist descendant of Kautilya. His entire approach is based on power. As pointed out in Unit 1, he describes all politics as struggle for power. Therefore, international politics is struggle for power among states. Robert Dahl explained power by saying:'A' has power over 'B' to the extent that it can get 'B'to do something that 'B' could not otherwise do. Thus, every state has power in respect to certain other states. Smaller powers like Nauru may not be able to get things done as.they want, but most states possess power of ensuring that their wishes prevail. However, the quantum of power varies. The ability to get things done of US4 is far more than that of India. Thus, USA has more power than India. In turn, Jndia has perhaps more

. power than Nepal or Indonesia. Strength of power may be demonstrated in several ways. For example, in 1996, The Conference on disarmament (CD) at Geneva could

Ul~dcmtanding 11ltcnl;ltiollal Rdatiolls not adopt CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) because India refused to sign it. That proved India's power even as against the U.S.A.

Power can be easily compared to money. Power plays some role in international politics as money plays in economy. Most people get money so that they can get what they require. But, for some people, money becomes an obsession. They seek money to accumulate it. For most people money is a means, for others it is an end. Similarly, power is a vital means of states. However, it is very often an end in itself. For, every state desires to be more and more powerful. That is why, Vernon Van Duke wrote : Power is both "the capstone among the objectives which the states pursue and the cornerstone among the methods which they employ." He meant that power is the highest of objectives and aims of states, and it is also the basic means which they use to serve the& national interests.

Power is the most central concept of international politics. But it is not always easy to define it. Still definitions have been given. Couloumbis and Wolfe define power as "an umbrella concept that denotes anything that establishes and maintains the control of Actor A over Actor B." This definition widens the meaning of the concept of power.

Power has three important ingredients. They are force, influence and authority. According to Couloumbis and Wolfe, authority means voluntary compliance by Actor B of the wishes of Actor A, out of respect, affection, etc. Influence has been defined as use of instruments of persuasion, short of force, by Actor A to get its wishes accepted by Actor B. Finally, force implies coercion by Actor A of Actor B in pursuit of political objectives of Actor A. This, power is a combination of authority (voluntary compliance), Influence (Compliance through persuasion) and force (use of coercive methods).

Power

Authority InCuence Force - 3.3.2 Elements of Power

A country acquires power through serveral elements. There is no absolute condition that makes for power. Different elements, in different situations, can make for power. The same elements in another situation may not provide power. A combination of certain elements in one situation may give more power to a country than the same combination provides to another country. The elements may be broadly divided between tangible and intangible elements. But, from another angle the elements of power may be classified as of quantitative and qualitative value. William Ebenstein stressed upon the importance of qualitative elements. He wrote :

"In the field of intern'ational relations, the central problem of the strength of a nation is essentially a problem of qualitative judgement and measurement, as national power is more than the sum total of population, new material and quantitative factors. The 'alliance potential' of a nation, its civil devotion, the flexibility of its institutions, its technical 'knowhow', its capacity to endure privations - these are but a few qualitative elements that determine the total strength of a nation."

Elements of power are briefly discussed below :

Tangible Elements : Population can be easily couitte8. Therefore, it is a tangible element. It is generally believed th?t states with large population are more powerful. Large population enables a country not only to have strong armed forces, but to have manpower for various economic activities also. But, it is not essential that large population will make for power. China, during nineteenth century, had much less power than Britain which is a less populous state. Contemporary Israel with less than

50 lakh people has proved to be an effective power. She has even acquired nuclear Some Concepts : State Systen~, Power,

capability. Thus, as Couloumbis acd Wolfe say, "A population that is healthy, well- National Interest, Security

fed, unified, evenly spaced, well inforilled .. .. is likely to be much more powerful than a population that is badly nourished, diseased, overcrowded, illiterate, disunited and disloyal."

Territory is the second tangible element of power. Some writers refer to geography as an element, and include territory within 'geography'. Most important among this element are size of a country, its climate, topography and its location. Normally, it is believed that a country large in size would be more powerful than smaller states. A large size not only enables the country to have vast areas under agricultural production and to have industrial growth, but also provide scope for a defensive army to manoeuvre and retreat, allow enemy to enter, then hit it back, encircle it and defeat it. But, a smaller state may at times becomes more powerful. Mere measurement of area is no guarantee of power to a state. Israel is a striking example of a small state that has demonstrated a disproportionately large amount of military power. On the other hand, Canada with its frozen waters and Brazil with its jungles have never been big powers.

Climate of a country also influences its power. Thus, frozen Antartica and the deserts of Sahara are obviously not suitable for power, although with the potential of uranium for nuclear power, even deserts where uranium is found have assumed importance. A lot depends on the location and topography of a country. Foreign policy - makers find Iocation to be a key determinant. Topographic features determine boundaries between nations. Whereas artificially created boundaries, as between India and Pakistan or Germany and France, can weaken the position; the natural frontiers such as high mountains and sea help the power of a state. This again is not an absolute condition.

Natural Resources constitute another element of power. Possession of natural resources such as oil, uranium and various minerals add to the power of a state. Today, importance of oil-rich Gulf has increased. Besides those possessing items like coal and iron can enhance their power. Nations can improve their power, if on account of their natural resources, they can give rewards in the form of minerals, agricultural products or manufactured goods.

The fourth tangible element of power is that of agricultural capacity. Such capacity . is considered crucial in the sense that countries capable of feeding themselves, especially during the course of a long war, will be relatively more powerful. Self- sufficiency in food is considered critical in this regard.

The fifth tangible element of power is that of military strength. This relates to the conventional notion that power is backed by military force. The military strength of a given nation-state can be measured in terms of funds expended for defence and security purposes. A related factor is lbcation outside its territory. Such military mobility hinges on the nation-state's ability to sustain military aperations on land, sea and air. The ultimate success of the nation-states, however, would depend on intangible factors such as preparedness, training, leadership, morale, etc. which affect the performance of armed forces in a given situation.

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The discussion of tangible elements of power brings out clearly that such elements are necessary to generate capability of the nation-states in a sovereign state-system. But this is not sufficient to ensure that capabilities would lead to the overall strength of the nation-states. We need to specify the intangible elements of power that contribute in a most critical way to the overall capability of the sovereign state.

Intangible Elements of Power : The intangible elements (attributes) of power include leadership, bureaucratic-organisational efficiency, type bf government, societal cohesion, etc. Although such elements cannot be measured or concretely specified, they are critical in terms of the overall power of a sovereign state.

Relations Leadership constitutes the most critical intangible element of power. Its significance relates to the ability of the leader of a sovereign state to motivate its citizens to realise foreign policy objectives of the state. Although we cannot accurately measure this variable, the latter is significant in terms of its impact on the sovereign country's conduct in inter-state relations.

The second intangible element of power refers to bureaucratic-organisational efficiency. The underlying reasoning here is that states, having eff~cient bureaukracies, can implement their domestic and foreign policies in an effective manner.

The third intangible element of power refers to the type of government. It is difficult to specify and measure the effect to different types of governance of national power in genkal and specific situations. All we can suggest here is that governmental decisions in foreign policy matters must be quick and adaptable to the changing external environment as well as domestic needs of the nation-state. Further, they must be accountable in terms of the checks and balances characteristic of democratic regimes. It ensures efficiency and credibility to the fordign policy of a given sovereign state.

The fourth intangible element of power is that of societal cohesion. Here the assumption is that internally unified nation-states are stronger. Chronic terrorism, recurring strikes, civil war - these are some of the indicators which point towards internal instability and disruption within the confines of a sovereign state. Such a state will not be capable of sustaining its strength in the sovereign state-system in the longer run.

Lastly, national morale is one the of the most important of intangible elements of power. If the morale of the army is high it is difficult for any enemy to defeat the country. In peace time also, people's morale enables a country to be effective and powerfpl. If morale goes down people do not work with enthusiasm. and army tends to loose the battle. Thus, high national morale can overcome shortcomings of various types.

The above discussion on intangible elements of power shows that despite inability to measure, these elements are equally (if not more) important as the tangible elements are.

3.3.3 Measurement of Power

Mere possession of elements of power does not make a country powerful. Thus, huge deposits of minerals and possession of raw material and having huge manpower does not make for power. The resources must be properly utilised. Secondly, a distinction is sometimes made between Capability and Power. Mere possession of elements of power may be called capability, and mobilisation of this capability for actual use is power. Thus, potential to be powerful is capability and mobilisation of capability is powe?.

An imnortant question that you may ask is how can we measure the power of a country. It is almost impossible to be able to measure the power. It is to be examined in relative context. Thus, country A may be more powerful than C, but less powerful than B. This is because A cannot get things done according to its wishes, as far as B is concerned, but can have its way in regard to C. However, Ray S. Cline has suggested a very useful method of measurement of power. For Cline, power is important in the sense that it is perceived both by its wielders and by those over who it is exercised. He has suggested a formula for measurement of power though it may not give us exact results. If PP is 'perceived power', it can be measured as under :

Here C means critical mass, which includes population and territory; E stands for Soii~e Coilcepts : State Syste~n, Power,

economic capability, M for military capability, S for strategic purpose, and W means, National Interest, Secr~rity

will to pursue national strategy. Whereas C, E and M are tangible, S and W are intangible elements. Thus Ray S. Cline places very important value on strategi; purpose and the will to pursue that purpose.

Robert Dahl offers another suggestion for measurement of power. According to him, "A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do". But, even this formula is far from satisfactory and measurement of power remains a very difficult exercise.

3.3.4 Methods of Exercising Power

If power is the ability to get things done, what are the methods that can be employed, by those who possess power, for securing compliance with their wishes. Four methods are generally employed for the exercise of power. These methods are : Persuasion, reward, punishment and force. These methods may also be called instruments of the exercise of power. Persuasion is the easiest of the four methods. In this country A tries to influence the beha~fiour of country B by persuading the latter to change its decision. In fact, most of the times diplomacy is based on persuasion. This method is free from use of coercion or even threat of use of force. Another method of exercise of power is offer of reward. In this method, attempt is made to influence the behaviour of other state by promise of reward, which may be material, economic or political. The reward may take the shape of offer of a territory, or military aid in the form of weapons, bases or training facilities. The reward may be in the nature of economic aid or loan. It may be political if support, or a favourable vote, is promised in the United Nations or other organisations and agencies. The third method of power is Punishment. It may take various forms. For example, stoppage of economic or military aid, or even a threat of such a withdrawal amounts to punishment. A threat of unfavourable action also implies punishment. Similarly, punishments include unfavourable propaganda, political support to the opponents or enemies, and imposition of unfavourable terms of trade and transit. Thus when the U.S. promises support to Pakistan or seeks to vote in her favour against India's wishes it amounts to US punishment of India. ~ a s t l ~ , ' w h e n the threat of punishment is actually carried out, it is called use of force. In other words, punishment is a threat, and its implementation is force.'

It must be mentioned that only a short or a narrow end view looks at threat and force as ultimate form of power. As Prof. Kenneth E Boulding observes that there has been a remarkable expansion in the area of stable peace among independent nations from the mid-19th century onwards. This always meant abandonment of military threats as a means of changing frontiers. Arguments against 'threat as the sole basis of power' have two interesting developments from India and China coming up during the 20th century. Gandhiji's experiments with organised non-violence leading to achievement of political independence attracted many leaders engaged in nationalist struggles elsewhere (including 1989 happenings in Eastern Europe). Similarly, China syndrome conveys its remarkable capacity to convert its conquerors into Chinese ways of thinking and doing Further, improvements in the means of destruction has often diminished the power of threat. As Prof. Boulding observes, "It was the invention of the effective cannon that made the feudal castle and then city wall obsolete and created the nation-state with its relatively wide-spread areas of internal peace. Similarly, the nuclear weapon and the long-range missile have probaly done for the nation-state what gun-power did for the feudal baron." There hangs a hope for a stable world community of peace-loving people.

3.3.5 Management of Power

Each nation-state tries to mange power for its own advantage in a world of uneven I

powers. Broadly, two strategies are followed.

Underqtanding International Relations Balance of Power : The term balance of power normally implies existence of a rough equilibrium of power among various nations, which means power should be more or less equally shared by different states. However, when we say that balance of power is favourable to such and such country, we mean that there is preponderance of power in favour of that country.

The operation of balance of power requires the existence of five or six big powers who try to maintain equilibrium among them and avoid preponderance of power with any one country. @f course besides the big powers, there may also be several medium and small powers. According to Quincy Wright, there are five main assumptions of balance of power. Firstly, he says, it is assumed that states are committed to protect their vital interests by all possible means. Such vital interests generally include security, territorial integrity, political independence and economic resources. Second assumption is that vital interests of the states are, or may be, threatened. Unless interests are threatened why would any state try to protect them. The third assumption is that balance of power helps the protection of vital interests by threatening other states with committing aggression, or by enabling the victim to achieve victory in case an aggression takes place. In other words, a future aggressor will resort to war only if it is sure of superiority of power The fourth assumption is that relatlve power position of various states can be measured so that it may be managed in one's favour. The last assumption is that leaders formulate foreign policy on the basis of an intelligent understanding of power consideration.

Based on these assumptions, it can be concluded that management of power to protect vital int~rests of a country (which were threatened) is balance of power.

A balance may be brought about through the use of one or more of the following ways. One of the most important means is amassing of armaments. Since war is the ultimate instrument of resolution of disputes, countries try to increase military power to secure advantage. But once one country acquires new weapons, the opponents also begin to compete. Alliances are often concluded to secure a favourable balance of power. Counter alliances are then concluded to upset the preponderance of power of some against the others. Nations always try to make, abandon and remake alliances. Balances of power becomes effective if there are a number of big powers who often exercise choice of making alliances and counter alliances. Thirdly, in order to maintain a favourable balance of power, or to secure preponderance of power, nations often try to seize territory. This increases the power of the nation concerned. This method was very common during the period of imperialism. Even in 1990, Iraq seized the territory of Kuwait though later she had to vacate it. Earlier, several Arab territories were seized by Israel. Fourthly, a nation may acquire and maintain power by setting up buffer state between two large and unfriendly countries. For example, at one time Poland was a buffer between Russia and Germany and Tibet was set up as a buffer between China and British India.

Intervention is another method of ensuring favourable balance of power. It often happens that a big power tries to regain a lost ally or pick up a new ally by intervening in the internal affairs of a smaller country and set up a friendly government there. For example the United States intervened in Vietnam, Dominican Republic, and others, the Soviet Union intervened in 1979 in Afghanistan. Lastly, there is a method of altering the existing balance of power by detaching allies from the opposite side compellimg them to become neutrals or winning them over as allies. All these methods have been used again and again to secure or upset a balance of power.

At times a laughing third party, or balancer, plays vital role. This means a third party, uninterested in rivalry between two nations or two power blocs, may help a weaker nation to secure better balance of power. Britain has traditionally been a balancer, or a laughing third.

Collective Security : Collective security is another device of management of power. Some Concepts : State System, Power,

It is also said to be one of the most promising of all approaches of peace. Power National Interest, Security

should be so managed that an aggression is collectively repulsed by the international community. It is a better device than balance of power as it does not involve alliances and counter alliances, race for armaments and political manipulations. The concept of collective security implies "Security" as the goal and "collective" as the means. It has been defined as "a machinery for joint action in order to prevent or counter any attack against an established order" (Schwarzberger). There are two basic assumptions of collective security. First, that war is unavoidable and it is likely to occur, and second, that it can be defeated (or prevented) by an overwhelming power. As Inis Claude says, it is not the elimination of Power, but the management of power. It is a middle position between balance of power and the world government. Collective security operates through a system of international organisation - The League of Nations and the United Nations. It is different from collective defence because in the collective security system the principle that applies is one for all, and all for one. The rock bottom principle of collective security is that an attack on any one state will be regarded as an attack on all States. An attack on any one Member Nation of the UN is regarded as an aggression against all, and if the Security Council identifies the aggressor and calls upon all other countries to apply economic andlor military sanctions, all the states are expected to stand together and fight the aggression. Thus, the aggressor is not identified in advance. It can be anyone against whom collective action is taken. Collective defence, on the other hand, is an arrangement through alliance system. Here an opponent is identified in advance and others are committed only against that one enemy. It is not one for all, and all for one.

The system of collective security was enshrined in the Covenant of League of Nations and was given a trial by the League. It is also accepted as a device of maintaining international peace and management of power in the present United Nations system.




1) Explain the concept of power.

2) What are the tangible elements of power?

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What is balance of power and what are the devices, of balance of power?

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Explain the concept of collective security.

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Some Concepts : State System, Power, 3.4 NATIONAL INTEREST Nntio~tal Interest, Security

The concept af national interest is of central importance in any attempt to describe and explain the international behaviour. It is almost universally believed that the primary justification of state action is national interest. President Wilson of the U.S. was one of those rare idealists who differed with this belief (see below). National interest is regarded as the 'key concept' in foreign policy. As Hans Morgenthau wrote : "As long as the world is politically orgalised into nations, the national interest is indeed the last word in world politics." It is the only legitimate and fundamental cause of national policy. Lord Palmerston had once said in the nineteenth century: "We have no eternal allies and we have no eternal enemies. Our interests are eternal and those interests it is ou; duty to follow." It is not only difficult to define national interest, but it is also difficult to understand how different world leaders explain away all their actions in the name of national interest.

3.4.1 Definition of National Interest

What exactly is national interest? Nepoleon had said that he was acting in the interest of France when he initiated his campaign against Russia, and later when he launched his desperate battle at Waterloo. Adolf Hitler justified his expansionist policies, including annexation of Austria and breakup of Czechoslovakia, in the name of Germany's national interest. "Friendly socialist" governments were installed in Poland and other East European countries by Stalin in the name of Soviet Union's national interest. President Bush was acting in America's national interest when he led the war against Iraq on the question of Kuwait's annexation by Iraq. Benazir

h hut to thought that it was in Pakistan's national interest to destabilise the Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir. Thus, all actions, howsoever, wsong are taken in the name of national interest. We must now try to find an acceptable definition of national interest.

The idea of national interest is singularly vague. It assumes variety of meanings in different contexts. The concept of national interest has not been objectively or scientifically defined. However, Padleford and Lincoln observe : "Concepts of national interests are centred on the core values of the society, which include the welfare of the nation, the security of its political beliefs, national way of life, territorial integnty and its self-preservation." According to Robert Osgood, national interest is "state of affairs valued solely for its benefit to the nations." Morgenthau maintains that the main requirements of a nation-state is to protect its physical, political and cultural identity against threat from other states. But, Joseph Frankel writes about aspirational and operation&aspects of national interest. Aspirational (what one expects) aspects include the state's vision of good life and an ideal set of goals to be realised. Put into operation, national interest refers to sum total of its interests and policies actually pursued.

3.4.2 National Interest - the Core of Foreign Policy

Foreign policy - makers can never ignore their state's national interest as they perceive it. At times leaders like Hitler, intoxicated of power, led to disaster in the name of national interest. But, normally the good of the state is the sole concern of foreign policy. This good of the state, or national interest, remains the core of the foreign policy. The idealist (US President) Woodrow Wilson, however, felt that national interests can be legitimately subordinated to morality and interests of the \

mankind. He said : "It is perilous thing to determine the foreign policy of a nation in terms of national interests . . . . we dare not turn from the principle that morality and not expediency is the thing that must guide us. We have no selfish ends to serve." But this idealist approach of morality has never succeeded in areas of foreign policy. Wilson's views were totally at variance from what the first U.S. President George Washington had said. According to him, "No nation, no matter how lofty its ideals

Understaldu~g I~~tetenlatio~~al Relatiolls and how genuine its desire to abide by them, can base its foreign policy on consideration other than its own national interest." He had opined that no prudent statesman or politician will venture to depart from it.

What then are the components of national interest of a state? Security, economic development and a peaceful world order are the objective of a modern state. All countries desire and search for national security, political independence and maintenance of territorial integrity. In other words, defence of the state is naturally the primary concern of foreign policy. Secondly, promotion of economic interest, including securing favourable conditions of trade, is a vital objective of foreign policy-makers. Thirdly, most modern states are also concerned with maintenance of international peace, respect for international law, pacific settlement of international disputes and strengthening of the system of international organisation.

When India, under Nehru's leadership, decided to adopt the policy of non-alignment that was in India's national interest as well as being an instrument of world peace. The Non-Aligned Movement initiated by Nehru, Nasser and Tito was also meant to promote the ideal of peace in a world then divided into two hostile power blocs. If India had aligned itself with one of the power blocs our economic development would have glot linked only to one ideology. There are some world leaders who believe that their foreign policy must be committed to a certain ideology, such as propagation of Fasri.srn or communism or the containment of communism. mt, realist statesmen emphasise only the national interest. Consequently, the role of ideology has lately declined.


Note : i) Use the space below for your answep.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) What is the importance of national interest in foreign policy-making?

3.5 SECURITY

3.5.1 Security and National Interest

~ d e concept of security is directly related to national interest. The entire state system is the product of the desire of man to protect himself against threats from various quarters. Security of the state is the objective of every government. We have said in section 3.3 .5 above about two of the methods of security. The idea of management of power is to regulate power in such a way that security of the state is protected and that none should have preponderance of power so as to be able to threaten security of other' states. Whenever security of the States has been seriously threatened, man has begun to think and device new means of security of political independence and territorial integrity of the states. We have seen (3.2) that the state-system was largely an outcome of the Peace of Westphalia which ended the thirty-years war. When

. Napolean was defeated, the suffering states of Europe, after the Congress of Vienna, created the Concert of Europe. The idea was to ensure security of the evolving state systems.

When the Russian ~zar ' took the initiative for the Hague Conferences (1899 and Solnc Co~lcepts : State Systenq Power,

1907), security was again the objective. The Hague Co~lfcrences provided for peaceful Uatics~rrl Interest, Security

settlement of international disputes maiilly through arl>ilration and constituted a Court of Arbitration at the Hague. When international law and morality became victims of unprincipled warfare during the First World War, scholars and statesmen alike initiated the process of setting up a League of Nations to maintain peace and security in the post-war pcriod. The preamble of the League of Nations clearly spelt out the objectives of the new organisation. It said that the High contracting Parties (Member - Nations) had agreed to the Covcnant "ln order to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security, by the acceptance of obligatioils not to resort to war ...." The League made several attempts for international security, but eventually it failed. The Charter of the United Nations also declares : "We the peoples of the United Nations determined .... lo unite our strength to maintain international peace and security .. .. that armed forces shall not be used, save in the common interest . . . . I t Thus, the international concern for security has

t been consisteiltly expressed.

3.5.2 Security and Nuclear Weapons

Nuclear weapons have altcred the security perspective of nation-states. But, even before such deadly weapons were produced, nations-were always coilcerned with their security. For that purpose they often entered into alliances and couater-alliances, and race for armaments was vigorously carried on After the First World War, a victorious France was so inuch scared of defeated Germany that she insisted on her, security in the Paris Conference, in the League of Nations and outside it. French seaith of security dominated many of inter-war years. Having been dissatisfied with the security provisions of the League Covenant, France sought guarantees from various quarters including an abortive joint Anglo-American Guarantee, the Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance (l923), the Geneva protocol 1924 (both failed to take off), the successful Locarno Pact (1925) and the Pact of Paris (1928) for the renunciation of war. Before as well as after the Second World War also search for security has been the principal concern of numerous countries.

Alliances like NATO, SEATO. Baghdad Pact and Warsaw Pact were all aimed at security either against the Soviet Union or against the United States. Besides, military bases and assistance to several countries, including Pakistan, were in order to satisfy their quest for security.

When the United States manufactured and dropped the first two atom bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 1945). to secure surrender 01 Japan, the whole nature of war changed. With that the conceril and nature of security also changed. For four years, till 1949, the United States was the only nuclear power, which placed the security of entire world at her mercy. Nobody was sure of one's security. Even Soviet Union remained in constant fear as it was not known whether the US had another bomb or not, and whethei she had any intention of targeting Moscow in its ongoing ideological conflict. Once Soviet Union tested its first nuclear device in 1949, the race for nuclear weapons began. Britain, France and finally China became nuclear powers. Since then at least three inore countries have-acquired nuclear capability. These are India, Pakistan and Israel. Together they are known as "threshold countries". India insists that she will use nuclear power only for peaceful purposes. There are many other countries that can acquire nuclear capability.

In the nuclear age security of nations requires not merely amassing of traditional weapons and coilclusion of alliances. Seeking nuclear umbrella also became objectiye of many. The cold w8r expressed concern for security and nations sought even '

nuclear missiles and military bases from Big Powers. The disaster that nuclear weapons can bring about is unprer~dented, and as Max Lerner says, we are living in the period of "overkill", for nuclec - weapons that nations now possess can destroy the whole world several times over. T1.s war in nuclear age is no more limited to the armed forces. Civilian targets are aimed at even by non-nuclear, traditional bombs. In such a situation the conhrn for security has assumed alarming concern.

Understanding laternntiu~~d Relatio~ls ' Check Your Progress 4

' Note : i) Use the space below for your answer.


1) Highlight the relation between security and national interest.

2) What the reason for the concern for security in the nuclear age?

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3.6 LET US SUM UP

In tHis unit we have dealt with four concepts : state system, power, national interest and security. In the ancient period there did exist states, but these were mostly city - states in Greece, India, etc. Then there came into existence huge empires such as the Holy Roman Empire. The modern state-system began to evolve after the Peace of Westphalia (1648). It is after the Congress of Vienna that the concept of sovereign nation-states developed. The emergence of several nation-states after First World War was a welcome development in international relations. The state-system today consists of territorial entities which enjoy both internal and external sovereignty. The state system represents a clear advance over the previous international system. It is basad on the key concept of equality of all states. Present international system has its foundation in nation-states.

Power is the ability to control the minds and actions of others. In international relations it means ability of states to control the behaviour of other states. Power is like money in market economy. Like all politics, international politics, is struggle for power. There are various elements of power - some are tangible which can be measured, and others are intangible which cannot be measured or quantified. Yet they are critical in terms of overall capacity of sovereign states. The tangible elements include population, territory (its size, climate, topography and location) natural resources, agricultural capacity, and military strength. None of these elements is absolute as their p~sition is relative Intangible elements are equally important. They include quality of lea\qership, type of government, societal cohesion and national morale.

It is only a very short-ruiq view which looks at threat and force as the ultimate forms of power. Such a view ov$rlooks vast areas of stable peace among independent nations built over years, subcessful strategies of organised non-violence etc. It is not easy to measure the power oqa state. It depends on many factors. There are four recognised methods of exercise of power : Persuasion, reward, punishment and force.

Peace has become a gfeater need today than ever before. It can be made possible Some Concepts : State System, Power,

through proper management of power. Three common methods of management are : National Interest, Security

balance of power, collective security and world government (the last mentioned is still a dream). Balance of power has been practised for a long time to ensure that no state acquires preponderance of power. Balancer often plays important role, and is called "the laughing third". National interest is a concept of central importance in understanding international behaviour. The concept is difficult to define, yet it is the core of every foreign policy. It includes welfare of the nation, security of its political beliefs, security of the state and its territorial integrity. Primary objectives of national interest are security, economic development and a world order that is stable and free of serious disputes.,

Security is the primary concern of every state. It is, as mentioned above, the primary concern of every state and objective of national interest. Power is exercised to promote national interest in general and ensure security in particular. Security in the nuclear age is generally threatened and has acquired greater importance.

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3.7 KEY WORDS

Sovereignty : Supreme Power of the state subject to no internal or external limitations.

National-State : The form of state based on ethnic identity of its peoplk. People feel united by common bond, and are territorially organised under a government that is independent.

International System , : Independent political entities - states, nation, empires are variables of a worldwide system, together called international system.

Power : AMty or capacity to get things done as one would llke others to do. It also ensures that others 90 not do what one does not want them to do.

Tangible Elements : Elements like population and territory that can be measured or quantified.

Intangible elements Elements that are not visible and cannot be measured.

Coll+tive Security : Method of ensuring security of nations through collective economic and military action against the aggressor.


Henz, John H : The Nation-State and the d i s i s of World Politics.

Morgenthau, Hans : Politics Among Nations

Deutsch, Karl W : he Analysis of International Relations

Palmer & Perkins International Relations

Martin Wright : Systems of States,Eeicester, 1977

Kenneth E, Boulding Three Faces of Power, California, 1989

- Understandu~g hlten~ationirl Relations


Answcrs to Check Your Progress 1

1) A system in which sovereign nation-states interact with each other throngh the nlediurn of their foreign policies A state is a cotnmunity of persons. territorially organiscd with an independent government and enjoying sovereignty Nation-states are units of present international system.

2). Three prominent features of state systenl are (i) nationalism - a psychological quality that binds people; (ii) sovereignty; (iii) national power, the capacity to get things done according to its wishes.

3) Territorial states based on nationalisin: Euroceiltric systenl with about 22 states; nation-states after the First World War: and multiplication of states after decolonisation after 1945.

Answers to Check Your Progress 2

1) Power is ability to control the behaviour of others. It is man's control over minds and actions of other men. In international relations capacity of state to get things done. as desired by a powerful state.

2) Elements that can be quantified : population; territory - its size, climate, topography etc. natural resources, raw material. industrial units, armed forces

3) Elements that cannot be measured; quality of leadership; burcaucratic efficiency; type of go~xxnrne~it, societal cohesion and national nlorals.

4) Persuasion, Reward, Punishment and Force

5 ) A system i n which about half a dozen states enjoy more or less equal power, check each other so that none acquires preponderance of power; often a 'balancer' ensures equilibrium Devices . alliances, arinainents, buffer states, intenlention, etc.

6 ) International security is the aim, collective is the means. Aggressor has to face the collective might of world community. 'One for all and all for one' is the principle; operates through international organisation like the U.N.

Answcrs to Check Your Progress 3

1) National interest seeks to protect core values of the society including welfare or tlie nation, economic prosperity, security of political beliefs, sovereignty, territorial integrity and national honour. National intcrest is a key concgpt in foreign policy; it,is the starting point as well as a goal offoreign policy.

Answers to Check Your Progrcss 4

1) Security is the main objective of every government. Foreign policy is the instrument through which national interest is protected. Thus, if security is not ensured, national interest is sacrificed.

2) Nature of weapons. and of war, has changed with the corning of nuclear weapons. It is an age of overkill, aiid nuclear n7eapons can endanger security of entire mankind due to their capacity of total destruction.

UNIT. 4 WORLD WAR I : CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEOUENCES

Objective Introduction Causes 4.2.1 Economic Rivalriw 4.2.2 Colopial Disputes 4.2.3 Conflicting Alliance Systems 4.2.4 Rising Nationalist Aspirations 4.2.5 The Outbrgk'of War Sequence of Events of the War 4.3.1 ~uropean Phase of the War 4.3.2 Global Phase of the War 4.3.3 Endofthewar Consequences of the War 4.4.1 Paris Peace Conference

4.4.1.1 The Treaty of Verdles 4.4.1.2 Minor Treaties

Impact of the War 4.5.1 ImpactonEurope 4.5.2 Impact on the World Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES . This unit deals with the First World W& (1914-18). After studying the unit you will be able to:

trace the causes of the wai

narrate the sequence of events of the war

discuss the consequences of the war, and . analyses the impact of the war.

i 4.1 INTRODUCTION *

The First World War, broke out in the third quarter of 1914. Initially it was confined to Europe. Afterwards the war spread all over the world It continued for more than four y e . . The world experienced an unprecedented holocaust. Established dynasties collapsed, Europe began to decline and America started to dominate. The war generated new ideologies, founded new institutions and gave birth to new leadenhips in the world.

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The world, indeed, was transformed at the termination of the war.

This unit examines the circumstances leading to the breaking out of the First World ' War, proceedings of the war and how it conditioned the developments and future of . idernational relations.

4.2 CAUSES

,The .war broke out in the wake of the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the /heir apparent to the Hapsburg throne. He bas assassinated by a group of Bosnian radical

Inter-War Period nationalists on 28th June 1914. The assassination, however was not the real cause of the war. It was just the pretext. The causes of the war may be found in the politico- economic developments that lud been taking place in the international arena since the Franc-German War (1870). There arose econom!c rivalries, disputes over colonies and the conflicting alliance system in Europe. The growing nationalist aspirations in the subject peoples in Europe added fuel to the fire.

4.2.1 Economic Rivalries

Throughout the last quarter of the 19th century and the early decades of the 20th century most of the European powers had been locked in tariff wars and had been engaged in competition for overseas markets. There had been tariff wars between Italy and France, Russia and Germany, Austria and Serbia and so on. Besides these tariff wars, there arose sti f f competition among the powers in general, and between Germany and Great Britain in particufar for overseas markets. Throughout the 19th century, Britain had been the supreme economic power, backed by a powerful navy and army. Germany suddenly emerged as a competing great economic power in Europe after its principalities unified as a nation state. Gennany's emergence as the economic super power made it a stiff competitor for overseas markets too, where other European powers including Britain had great stakes. This competition had far reaching political repercussions. It created an undending tension in the relations between these states. These relations got further embittered when the competing countries started building up strong navies for safeguarding trade routes and merchant shipping. Germany which already had a big army, devoted its full energies for building a large navy and achieved the goal within a short period. Gennany's emergence as an economic power backed by a strong navy and an army became intolerale for Britain and the other powers hostile to it. Hence rivalries intensified and a flare up became inevitable.

4.2.2 Colonial Disputes

The European powers, in order to ensure protected markets for their surplus capital and industrial products, got involved in conflicts for overseas colonies. Gennany was the youngest in the race for colonies. With its emergence as a super economic power it became very aggressive in the demand for the overseas colonies which could provide markets for its growing economy. It was a general cry in Germany that the country must have a "place in the sun". In its struggle for acquiring colonies, Germany found Britain as the stumbling block. Britain was condemned as a selfish, "dog in the manger". The disputes for a "place in the sun" were not confined to Gennany and Britain alone. All major powers were engaged in the scramble for dependencies in the years preceding the first world war. There were in Africa and in Asia between the European powers for colonies. These made relations between European states.

4.2.3 Conflicting Alliance Systems

The struggle for colonies in different parts of the world between antagonistic powers led to the formation of conflicting alliances. Germany showed the way. It signed the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary (1879). This Aliiance aimed at strengthening Germany against a possible French attack for recovering Alsace-Lonaine. The Alliance was also designed to protect Austria-Hungary against Russia with which the former had prtt€iacted clashes in the Balkan region.'The alliance became the Triple Alliance in 1882, when Italy joined Austria-Huqgary 'and Germany, seeking their support in her struggle for colonies against France.

The parhers of the Triple Al-ce attempted to maintain the status quo in the continent. Others however, saw this as an attempt to dominate Eumpe and to isolate other states from each other. They, therefore, took steps to form counter alliances. France and Russia entered into an entente (1893). This entente was aimed at countering the Triple Alliance and also containing Britain, against whom both France and Russia had outstamkg disputes ovq the colonies. In the course of time, however the disputes , between France, Russia and Britah were resolved peacefully. They now entered into

alliances. First, the ~ n ~ l A - ~ r e n c h entente (1904) was signed and then the Anglo-Russian entente (1907) was formalised. These two ententes were transformed into the Triple Entente. Eumpe was thus divided into two conflicting alliances which added fuel to the already embittered international relations which were aggravated by economic and colonial rivalries.

4.2.5 Rising Nationalist Aspirations

There were subject minorities in different regions of Europe. These subject minorities remained hostile towards their respective imperial rulers. The growing nationalism of these peoples made them restless against foreign rule. They were demanding the right of self-determination. The French people in Alsace-Lorraine were hostile to German rule over their territory. The Hapsburg Empire, ruled by the Austrians and the Hungarians, had been facing growing discontent by the subject peoples. Italians, Romanian, and the Slavic peoples living within the Austro Hungarian empire awakeped and initiated demands for self-determination or unification with their brethren in the neighbowing states. The rulers however tried to suppress the nationalist awakenings. The nationalist movement within empires transformed into militant revolutionary movements. Secret radical and militant organisations sprang up in different places in the Balkan region. One such organisation named Black Hand which was founded by the Bosnian Serbs in Belgrade, the Serbian capital, in 19 1 1, hatched the conspiracy to kill Archduke Francis Ferdinand while he was on an official tour in Serajevo, and assigned the job of assassinating him to Gavrilo Princip and his comrades. Princip carried out the assassination.

4.2.5 The Outbreak of War

At the assassination of the Archduke, Austria issued a stiff ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July 1914. Serbia had little knowledge about the conspiracy to kill the Duke. Serbia, however, politely replied to the ultimatum, agreeing to comply with al l but one of the demands. The ultimatum included, among others, the demands for apologies, suppression of anti-Austrain movements, and participation of Austrian officials in the enquiry for fixing responsibility for the murder. Serbia refused to include Austrain officials for conducting the inquiry. Austria declined to accept the Serbian reply and declarkd war against Serbia of the 28th July, 1914. Russia joined the fiay in favour of Sda on 30th July, Russia's involvement brought Germany into the war, Gennany declared war against Russia and France on 1st and 3rd August respectively. The German strategy to attack France by v-g Belgium annoyed Britain. Britain declared war on 4th August. Thus the war broke out in full scale between the two blocs, consisting of Austria-Hungary and Gerrmmy on one side and Frauce, Britain and Russia on the another. The former bloc came to be known as Central Powers and the latter became famous as the Allies.

Check your progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit.

1) Identify the root causes of the frrst World War.

World War I : Causes, Events and Consequencer

2) Who constituted the opposing. parties in the War7

lar Period 4.3 SEQUENCE OF EVENTS OF THE WAR

of the war it was presumed that the war would be a brietencounter and there At Would Outbr? b a victorious party. These presumptions pmved to be wrong. The war was prolonged for more than four years and caused an unprecedented toll of men and material. Both the winners and the losers suffered almost equally from the war. Though the Allies won, but it cost them faf dearly.

/'

4.3.1 European Phase of the War

The war continued till the beginning of 1917, aad was essentially an European affair. War was being fought over European issues and their control over the colonies. E q e had been the .main theatre of the war. The German strategy was to end the war in a month or so. Gennan forces, accordingly, attacked France by ovemuming Belgium. Gennan soldiers, within a few days, reached the vicinity of Paris. The Germans, however, failed to sustain this victory. The French army forced them to retreat to the Aishe River bank, which was considered the natural defence lime. The warring parties failed to make , much headway in either direction during the next three years. A deadlock resulted. The

.war took heavy causalties at this front. The casualties during the first four months alone were 700,000 Germans, 850,000 French and 90,000 Britishers.

On thk Russian and Balkau foronts, however there had been decisive battles. On the Russian front the Russian soldiers could not invade East Prussia 'and on the Balkan front, Austrai faced humiliating defeats. The Serbians drove away the Austrians. Turkey joined the Cenral Powers in Navember'l914. Turkey closedthe supply line and attempted to stop the Allies from sending supplies to Russia through sea routes.

Conse!quently, the combined Austro-German armies inflicted humiliating defeats 'upon the Russian forces in the middle of 1915. With these defeats the decline of Tsarist Empire began. Meanwhile, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and enhanced their strength and striking capabilities. Now, Serbia fell to the central powers. At, this juncture Italy was persuaded to intervene in favour of the Allies. Italy's intervention however failed to influence the come of the war. The Central Powers won important victories . and the whole area from Hamburg to the Persian'Gulf w e under their cmtml.

In February 1961 the Central Powers launched an all out attack against the Allies. Their startegy was to inflict a decisive defeat on the Allies and to dictate peace tenns for termhating the war. Thismategy failed. G e m y suffered from heavy losses both in men and mat-. Russia defeated the Austrians. Now Romania joined the Allies and soon Greece broke her neutrality and intervened in favour of the Allies. Now the joint offensive in the Balkan front against the Cetrtral Powers hocked Bulgaria out of the . war. The Germans were defeated on several fronts. They opened unrestricted submarine warfare at sea, to block the ships carrying supplies to Britaia Though this strategy paid off handsomely, it forced America to intervene in the war in fixvour of the Allies. The war thus entered into a global phase.

The war now entered the fourth year. Europe incurred heavy fosses both in pms of human life and in terms of wealth. Eueope was on the verge of collapse. Mow peace became a general demand. The German Reichstag passed a peace resolution in July 1917. Many important personalities appealed for peace in order to save European civilization But worse was still to come.

4.3.2 Global Phase of the War I

The intervention of USA in the war and the successful conclusion of the Russian Revolution in 1917 completely changed the complexion of the war: which was now transformed from&eing an hmpean affair into a world affair. The US intervention and the Russian revolution also brought into fore Wering ideologies. While the Russian revolution unleashed revolutionary ideologies, the USA sought to make the world safe for democracy and peace. President Wilson of the USA came out with his famous fourteen Point programme.

The war contributed largely to the downfall of the Tsarist regime in Russia. The World War I : Causer, I Bloshevik government, installed in power after the fall of Tsar, signed the Brest-Litovsk Events and Consequenca Treaty in March 1918 with Germany and opted out of the war. Thus war between Germany and Russia ended. USA had maintained strict neutrality since the be-$ of the war. She broke this neutrality for several reasons which included amo-, Germany's &restricted submarine attack on merchant ships, America's huge economic --- involvement in the war and the military preparedness within USA.

In April 1917 USA intervened in the war in support of the Allies. After joining the war President Wilson declared his famous Fourteen Point Programme which was proclaimed as the war aims of the US. The 14 points included amongst others, open c o v ~ t s of peace istead of secret pacts, freedom of the seas, removal of barriers to international trade, reduction of arrangements, justice to colonial peoples, right to self-determination to the various subject minorities of Europe, and the establishment of an international body to maintain peace in the world.

4.3.3 End of the War

i The partikipation of America sufficiently enhanced the striking power of the Allies. The

I USA sent' both men and materials. By July 1918 the number of American soldiers in the different fronts rose to more than 300,000. The Central Powers had no hope of getting

! fresh supplies. So they failed to bear the Allies' offensive. Consequently they surrendered during the latter half of 1918, one by one. Bulgaria surrendered in September and Turkey in October. The Hapsburg empire disintegrated and Emperor Charles abdicated

1 in November. The Germam had now no way out. Emperor Kaiser William JI abdicated and Germany surrendered in early November. The war thus ended with the victory of

b

the Allies.

'I The war had continued for four years and three months. Thirty states from Ebrope, America, Asia and Africa were entangled in the war which overthrew four dynasties and brought into existence seven new states. The war.ki4led more than 18 million people and the total cost was.nearly $ 333 billion..

i h*"


he: i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers @en at the end of the unit.

1) Spell out some of the more important events and development during the European phase of the war. ............................................................................................................................................................ .......................................................................................... " .................................................................

2) What are the reasons for the intervention of the USA in the War?

3) Why did Russia opt out of the War?

Inter-War Period 4.4 CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR \

The war consumed an unprecedented number of men and materials. Europe's supremacy in the world began to decline and the USA began to emerge as a super power. Japan established its supremacy in the East. The war was terminated through a series of five separate treaties between the Allies and the individual states of the Central Powers. Thesc treaties were the Versailles Treat with Germany, St. Germain Treaty with Austria, NeuiIly Treaty with Bugaria, Trianon Treaty with Hungary and Severs Treaty with Turkey. While the first four were signed in 1919, the last-me was signed in 1920. The salient features of these' treaties included amongst others the foundation of the League of Nations; the application of the right of self-determination in Europe only, and the non- application of the doctrine in the colonies of the European powers in Asia and Africa.

4.4.1 Paris Peace Conference

Wars are normally terminated and peace is restored after the signing of peace treaties bemeen waning states. The First World War was also terminated through peace treaties, mentioned earlier. Win the war entered into the decisive phase, the Allied powers started considering the plans and proposals put forward by different quarters for a lasting peace in the world. At Germany's surrendering and signingaf the instruments of Armistice the Allies took effective steps for holding a peace conference. The conference was ultimately called in Paris in January 19 19. It continued for about six months. Th@ two countries, consisting primarily of the Allies, participated in this conference. The gathering was impressive, because most of the world leaders were present. This was the firstotime, in a conference like this, that non-European powers - the USA, Japan, etc. attended. Russia did not attend because it had earlier withdram from the war. None of the Central Powers was invited to participate in the deliberations. The conference was mainly conducted by the Big Three - the USA, Great Britain and France. But they could not totally ignore the others. However, the conflicting and narrow national interests, petty and unjust claims, and tendencies of scrabbing colonies dominated the proceedings of the conference and overshadowed President Wilson's idealism, enshrined in his Fourteen Points. The conference was called upon to tackle, many c o d e x issues which included among others the growing national aspirations of the erstwhile subject nations in Europe, the secret pacts signed during the war, the demands for compensation for the losses suffered by the European Allied pow& and the redressal of the wrongs comnided by Germany during the war. Germany was held responsible for the declaration of the war and the huge destruction of lives and property.

The peace conference in Paris, after its formal inauguration, appointed committees of experts and diplomats to study the different problems and issues and to make suitable recommendations to deal with them. In the context of the conflicting demands, aims and objectives of the participating countries, it was not easy for the conference to b e at an objective and rational conclusion. President Wilson had to yield to the pressure of the European powers who were bent upon taking revenge on Gennany. After protracted deliberations the conference came out with a peace treaty containing very stiff terms and conditions. It was offered to Germany for acceptance in total. Gennany objected on the ground tlmt the country was given an understanding when it had surrendered, that it would be dealt with as per the principles, contained in Wilson's Fourteen Points. It alleged that the peace ternis had contained little of the 14 points. Germany's objections were brushed aside and she was asked to sign the treaty or face the consequence. Germany.had to swallow the humiliation which later led to a desire for avenging the insult. The treaty, thus, sowed the seeds of another war.

4.4.1.1 The Treaty of Versailles

The Versailles Treaty was signed between the Allies and Germany. It was the most important one in the five treaty series. The treaty contained 440 articles. It dealt comprehensively with the territorial. military and war guild of the Central Powers and the economic, political and other related aspects of the peace settlement. Germany which was accused for initiating the war, was dealt with severely. Emperor Kaiser William II was accused of having committed crimes against humanity and was blamed

The war contributed largely to the downfall of the Tsarist regime in Russia. The Bloshevik government, installed in power after the fall of Tsar, signed the Brest-Litovsk Treaty in March 1918 with Germany and opted out of the war. Thus war between Germany and Russia ended. USA had maintained strict heutrality since the be-$ of the war. She broke this neutrality for several reasons which included amo-,

1 Germany's udrestricted submarine attack on merchant ships, America's huge economic --A

involvement in the war and the military preparedness within USA.

In April 1917 USA intervened in the war in support of the Allies. After joining the war President Wilson declared his famous Fourteen Point Programme which was proclaimed as the war aims of the US. The 14 points included amongst others, open covenants of peace istead of secret pacts, freedom of the seas, removal of barriers to international trade, reduction of amngements, justice to colonial peoples, right to selfdetennination to the various subject minorities of Europe, and the establishment of an international body to maintain peace in the world.

4.3.3 End of the War

The partikipation of America -ciently enhanced the striking power of the Allies. The USA sent! both men and materials. By July 1918 the number of American soldiers in-the different fronts rose to more than 300,000. The Central Powers had no hope of getting fresh supplies. So they failed to bear the Allies' offensive. Consequently they k- dered during the latter half of 1918, one by one. Bulgaria surrendered in September and Turkey in October. The Hapsburg empire disintegrated and Emperor Charles abdicated in November. The G e m s had now no way out. Emperor Kaiser William II abdicated and Germany surrendered in early November. The wai thus ended with the victory of the Allies.

The war had continued for four years and three months. Thirty states from E w e , America, Asia and Africa were entangled in the war which overthrew four dynasties and brought into existence seven new states. The war.kiiled more than 18 million people and the total cost was.nearly $ 333 billion.

C


Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers gven at the end of the unit.

1) Spell out some of the more important events and development during the European phase of the war.

2) What are the reasons for the intervention of the USA in the War?

World War I : Cauns, Events &d Connquencea

3) Why did Russia opt out of the War?

Inter-War Period 4.4 CONSEOUENCES OF THE WAR - \

The ww consumed an unprecedented number of men and materials. Europe's supremacy in the world began to decline and the USA began to emerge as a super power. Japan established its supremacy in the East. The war was terminated through a series of five sepmte treaties between the Allies and the individual states of the Central Powers. Thesr treaties were the Versailles Treat with Germany, St. Germain Treaty with Austria, Neuilly Treaty with Bulgaria, Trianon Treaty with Hungary and Severs Treaty with Turkey. While the first four were signed in 1919, the lastbone was signed in 1920. The salient features of these' treaties included amongst others the foundation of the League of Natiow; the application of the right of self-determination in Europe only, and the non- application of the doctrine in the colonies of the European powers in Asia and Africa.

4.4.1 Paris Peace Conference

Wars are normally terminated and peace is restored after the signing of peace treaties behyeen warring states. The First World War was also terminated through peace treaties, mentioned earlier. Wfrprl the war entered into the decisive phase, the Allied powers started considering the plans and proposals put fonvard by different quarters for a lasting peace in the world. At Germany's surrendering and signingnf the instruments of Armistice the Allies took effective steps for holding a peace conference. The conference was ultimately called in Paris in January 1919. It continued for about six months. Thirt~ two countries, consisting primarily of the Allies, participated in this conference. The gathering was impressive, because most of the world leaders were present. This was the firstotime, in a conference like this, that non-European powers - the USA, Japan, etc. attended. Russia did not attend because it had earlier withdrawn from the war. None of the Central Powers was invited to participate in the deliberations. The conference was mainly conducted by the Big Three - the USA, Great Britain and France. But they could not totally ignore the others. However, the conflicting and narrow national interests, petty and unjust claims, and tendencies of scrabbing colonies dominated the proceedings of the conference and overshadowed President Wilson's idealism, enshrined in his Fourteen Points. The conference was called upon to tackle. many c o d e x issues which included among others the growing national aspirations of the erstwhile subject nations in Europe, the secxet pacts signed during the war, the demands for compensation for the losses suffered by the European Allied powers and the redressal of the wrongs committed by Germany during the war. Germany was held responsible for the declaration of the war and the huge destruction of lives and property.

The peace conference in Paris, after its formal inauguration, appointed committees of experts and diplomats to study the different problems and issues and to make suitable recommendations to deal with them. In the context of the conflicting demands, aims and objectives of the participating countries, it was not easy for the conference to arrive at an objective and rational conclusion. President Wilson had to yield to the pressure of the European powers who were bent upon taking revenge on Germany. After protracted deliberations the conference came out with a peace treaty containing very stiff terms and conditions. It was offered to Gennany for acceptance in total. Germany objected on the ground that the country was given an understanding when it had surrendered, that it would be dealt with as per the principles, contained in Wilson's Fourteen Points. It alleged that the peace terms had contained little of the 14 points. Germany's objections were brushed aside and she was asked to sign the treaty or face the consequence. Germany had to swallow the humiliation which later led to a desire for avenging the insult. The treaty, thus, sowed the seeds of another war.

4.4.1.1 The Treaty of Versailles

The Versailles Treaty was signed between the Allies and Gennany. It was the most important one in the five treaty series. The treaty contained 440 articles. It dealt comprehensively with the territorial, military and war guild of the Central Powers and the economic, political and other related aspects of the peace settlement. Germany which was accused for initiating the war, was dealt with severely. Emperor Kaiser William I1 was accused of having committed crimes against humanity and was blamed

for the holocaust caused by Uic war. Germany was asked to surrender nearly 40,000 0 i square kilometres of territory with more than seven million people. With the loss of Events World and War Consequences I : Causes,

three territories Germany was deprived of the natural resources which were essential for its economic development. In addition, Germany was told to pay huge reparations, which after prolonged negotiations were fixed at $33,000 million. German colonies were taken away and were described as "Mandated territories of the League" which France, Britain, and Japan distributed among themselves. Germany was militarily weakened by cutting the size of its army and navy. It was not allowed to raise an air force or to have a modern merchant navy. The Rhine was dimilitarised for 50 kilometres East of the river and the Allied Commission was appointed to supervise the execution of the disarmament clauses. Germany and Austria were barred from uniting. In sum, the treaty was designed to cripple Germany and to perpetuate its subordination to the Allied powers. Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, etc. were recognised as independent states. The Treaty of Brest-Liwosk, signed between Germany and Russia, was rendered irrelevant. ,

The Treaty of Versailles created for the first time in the world an international organisation, called the League of Nations, with the aim to maintain peace in the world. The treaty also founded for the first time in the world another international body, known as the International Labour Organisation, to look after the welfare of the labouring people. The Treaty evolved a system of government for the mandated territories.

4.4.1.2 Minor Treaties

The Versailles Treaty was followed by four minor treaties. The St. Gennain Treaty was signed between the Allies and Austria. It recognised the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia (now Chezch and Slovak, two independent republics), Poland a d Yugoslavia. Austria had also to cede large tracts of temtories. Her empire had disintegrated. Her population was reduced. She was reduced to a small German speaking state from being a vast multilingual empire.

The Neuilly treaty was signed between the Allies and Bulgaria. Bulgaria had to cede again part of her coast to Greece and some strategically important areas in the West of the country to Yugoslavia. Bulgaria's military was reduced and she was made to pay $ 50 million as war indemnity to the Allies.

The Trianon Treaty was signed between the Allies and Hungary. As per the terms of the treaty, Hungary was reduced in size and population. It had to give up Transylvania to Romania, Croatia to Yugoslavia, the Banat to Romania and the Slovak districts to Czechoslovakia.

The Severs Treaty was signed between the Allies and Turkey in August 1920. The treaty stripped Turkey of her empire. The treaty was revised in 1923 when Turkey declared itself a Republic. The new govenunent signed the revised treaty with the Allies at Lausanne. It had then come to be known as Treaty of Lausanee. Turkey now renounced her claim to the Arab lands. Turkey was not forced to pay war indemnity nor was she debarred from hiiving a military as per her own requirements.


Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit.

) What are the main the terms and conditions of Versailles Treaty?

.............................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................................

Inter-War Period 2) Name the minor treaties concluded at the Paris Peace Conference.

4.5 IMPACT OF THE WAR

4,5.1 Impact on Europe

The war had weakened Europe so much that it could not reemerge as an economic and political force. It lost ground to the United States of America. Europe faced economic decline, suffered from political crises one after another and lost her prestige in the eyes of the colonial peoples. Europe had been the leading economic power in the world. The source of Europe's economic prosperity was her vast colonies. She depended largely upon the huge income which was being earned from her massive overseas investments. The war had cut off this source considerably. Britain lost more than 25 per cent of her pre-war foreign investment, France nearly 34 per cent and Germany lost almost all. Europe yielded much of her ground to the USA, with which her economic relationship reversed from a creditor to debtor. Europe no longer remained the banker and the workshop of the world, which she had been till the beginning of the war.

The political impact of the war on Europe was also far-reaching. President Wilson's 14 points and the successful conclusion of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia unleashed new revolutionary ideas. Consequently, everywhere in the continent the old order came under severe attack. In Europe even the known democratic states had been continuing with restricted franchise. The war changed the scenario. Women who had so far no voting rights in many countries, got the right to vote. The war also initiated the process for the emancipation of women. Despotic kingdoms were wiped out from the map of Europe. m e basic rights of the working people began to be included in the statute books of different countries. Last but not the least, was the loss of prestige of Europe in the colonies. Inlro-European contradictions and cleavages got exposed. The block pitted one against another and damaged their own prestige irreplaceably.

4.5.2 Impact on the World

The impact of the war on the world was all pervading. One of the most significant effects of the war was the emergence of the USA as the super power. The war gutted Europe but made the USA affluent. USA, after the war, almost became the banker and the workshop of the world. Factories and workshops mushroomed spectacularly to meet the almost unending war-time demand for manufacturing goods. The USA, which had been once the debtor country and owed nearly $4 billion to European states, now became the creditor country. By 1919 Europeans owed to the USA more than $ 3.7 billion and the debt increased to $8.8 billion in 1930. The USA became the highest inanufacturing country in the world, the industrial output even surpassed the industrid outputs of all the European nations taken together. USA's contribution to the world's manufacturing goods rose to 42.2 per cent in 1930. Alongwith economic supremacy, the USA had also established its supremacy in other fields.

The impact of the war b8 the other parts of the world was no less. The war destroyed the Tsarist regime in Russia. The repeated setbacks on the war fronts lowered the prestige of the Tsar which expedit'ed the impending Bolshevik Revolution and wiped out the ancient Tsar dynasty from the map of Russia. The impact of the war in the middle east was also all-p&ading. The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the war and the stripping from Turkey of her colonies hastened the revolution in the land. The revolution ended the despotic rule of the Ottoman dynasty, modernized the ancient state and founded democratic Turkey under the inspiring leadership of Mustafa Kemal.

Efforts were also made in Persia (now Iran) to modernise on the lines of Turkey. Progress was made any fields although Persia did not match the modemisation efforts of Turkey. The country was industrialised to a large extent Many factories, including textile mills, cement plants, sugar refineries, etc, were founded. In East Asia, Japan emerged as a super power. Japan joined the war in support of the Allies with the intention of capturing foreign territories as far as possible. Soon Japan took the German islands in the Pacific and the German holdings in the Shantung Peninsular. The Treaty of Versailles almost approved the Japanese demands. The treaty transferred from Germany the leased territory of Kiaochow in Shantung to Japan, who was.also given the mandate to administer Germany's North Pacific islands. This emboldened Japan, which gradually became an imperialist power. China entered the war in 1917 with the hope of regaining her territories. But the peace makers did not pay heed to the Chinese demands. China refused to sign on the treaty and wild demonstration broke out throughout China against Japan in particular and against foreigners in general. The movements reoriented the Chinese national movement with radical thoughts and activities. In India the repercussions of the war were also far-reaching. During the war the British government promised to grant advanced forms of administrative reforms after the war, in exchange for India's support to British war efforts. The British did not honour their promise. Consequently the ongoing national movement in India took a different course which ultimately forced the British to accord freedom to the subcontinent.


Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit.

1) HOW did the war affect world (other than Europe)?

............................... . .....aa. ....... . .............................................................................................................

4.6 LET US SUM UP

The first World War broke out in 191 4 and continued upto the last quarter of 1918. The world reached an explosive situation because of economic rivalry, disputes over colonies, and conflicting alliance systems between the European countries. The growing nationalist aspirations of the subject peoples and the high military preparedness of the big powers added fuel to the fire, which ultimately engulfed the world on the pretext of the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, the heir apparent to the Austrian throne. War was terminated when the warring countries lost everything. Peace Treaties were negotiat- *ed and offered to the vanquished. The tams were humiliating and contained the germs of much bigger flare-ups in the future. Europe got devastated and declined as a great power. The USA emerged as the super power. Japan became a big power. Turkey was modernized and was declared a republic. Despotic rulers made way for democracy in Europe. Colonial peoples including India and the dependencies of the Europeans, though receiving a raw deal in the hands of the peace makers in Paris, got enthused because of the revolutionary ideas unleased by the war, and were encomged to launch more vigorous national hieration movements.

4.7 KEY WORDS

Tariff : Taxes imposed on the goods imported or exported from one country to another.

Franco-German War : It was fought between France and Germany in 1870-71. France was defeated and the unification of Germany was achieved. The war sowed the seeds of the First Worlds War.

World War I : Causes, Events and Consequences

Inter-War Period Russian Revolution : In 1917 Russia experienced a series of revolutions which culminated in t&e es t ab l i i en t of a socialist state named Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) under the leadership of V.I. Lenin.


David Thornson, 1974, Eumpe Since Napoleon, Middlesex, England.

L.S. Stavrianos, 1983, A Global History : The Human Heritage, New Jersey.

H.W. Baldwin, 1962 : World War I : An Outline History, Oxford.

William Woodroff, 1981 : Tlie Struggle for World Power 1500-1980 : London.



1) The root causes of the war were the economic rivalries, disputes over the colonies, conflicting alliance systems and the growing militarism in the big powers, and the developing nationalist aspirations in the subject people. The assassination nf Archduke Ferdinand was the immediate cause.

2) The powers were grouped into two blocks - the Allies and the Central Powers. Germany, Aushia-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey constituted the central powers,

'

and France, Britain, Italy, Russia the USA aad many others were the members of the Allies. The Allies and the central powers were the opposing parties in the war.


1) Initial victories of the central powers, failure of German strategies. Defeats of Russia. U ~ u d c t e d submarine fare. Russia's opting out of the war, the USA's intervention of the War, heavy casualties, etc.

2) Unrestricted submarine welfare of Germany, US investment in Europe, US military preparedness, etc.

3) Russian Revoluticm and the downfall of the Tsar.


1) The Paris Peace Conference had prepared the terms and conditions of the treaties which terminated the F i World War. Only the Allies attended the Conference which continued from January to June 1918. It recommended the foundation of the world bodies - League of Nations and the lntemational Labour Organizations. It offercd an insulting trcaty to Germmy and sowed the seeds of another war.

2) Jt was designed to cripple Germany and to perpetuate its subordination to the Allies. The Gaty also founded the world bodies.

3) There were four minor treaties - St. Germain Treaty, Neuily Treaty, Trianon Treaty and Severs Treaty which terminated the war bctween the Allies and Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey.

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1) Europe was weakened. Despotic rule in Europe ended. Europe progressed towards n more democratic system.

2) The USA e~ncrged as the world super power. Japan extended its influence in the east. Turkey was modernized. Revolution in Russia was hastened. The national liberation movenlent in the colonial countries became more vigorous.

UNIT 5 BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION ITS IMPACT

Structure

Objective Introduction Bolsheviks and a New System of International Relations 5.2.1 Peace Initiatives of the Bolsheviks Government 5.2.2 Bolsheviks renunciation of special privileges in the neighbouring countries Bolsheviks and Anti-colonial Struggles 5.3.1 Spread of Socialist ideas in the East 5.3.2 Unity of nationalist and socialist forces in the East 5.3.3 Intensification of national liberation movements Rise and Growth of Coqununist and Workers' Movements Let u s sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

5.0 OBJECTIVES

The Unit deals with major changes that came about in international relations as a result of the Bolshevik revolution, the first socialist revolution in the world. It also discusses the impact of Bolshevik revolution on anti-colonial struggles and workers and peasants struggles throughout the world. After going through the unit the students would be able to :

explain the nature of the Bolshevik revplution and its impact on international relations,

discuss the various steps taken by the new Soviet state to create a new system of international relations based on peace and non-aggression, free of exploitation and colonization,

comprehend the impact of the Bolshevik revolution on anti-colonial struggles. . . evaluate Bolshevik contribution to international communist and workers movements.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Capitalism and industrialization q i d l y advanced in Russia after the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 and the defeat of Russia in the Crimea war (1856-59). The needs of mti@ng itself as a strong continental power prompted Russia to undertake industrialization on a large scale. This was accomplished by the state playing a major role in economic activities, and with the advancement of capitalism there arose the need for raw materials and markets. In the third quarter of the 19th century, Russian h n p d i s m had already colonised Central Asia and was competing with other imperialist powers for concessions in the Balkans and the far east. Russia, by the end of the century was an imperialist power with semi-feudal system of agriculture and an authoritarian state system. There was no popular govemment, no elected organ with real powers to make laws, and a total lack of civil rights and political freedom. The liberal groups were weak and compromised too frequently with the rulers. Marxism was becoming popular and was entrusted with the historic task of combining both the anti-feudal and anti-capitalist . struggles.

The Marxists, or Social Democrats as they were hown then, were divided into various groups and the ideological heterogeneity was too strong to be overcome. The Russian

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Inter-War Period Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), established in 1898, was split into two major groups : the Bolsheviks (Majority) and the Mensheviks (Minority). Though both the groups wanted a socialist revolution in Russia to be preceded by a democratic anti- feudal revolution, the former (Bolslieviks) wanted the working class to lead this democratic phase of the revolution. The Mensheviks, instead, wanted the bourgeoisie, i.e., the capitalists to lead it. The Bolsheviks under Lenin's leadership finally emerged as leaders of the revolution in October, 1917, with a successful strategy of workers-peasants alliance to head state power after the revolution. The Mensheviks who supported the bourgeois govenunent and participated in it after the overthrow of the Tsar in February 1917, had lost the support of the workers and peasants by October. On 7th November (25 October according to the old Russian Calendar) the Bolsheviks were triumphant after three days of armed uprising which led to the mender of the provisional government set up in February 1917.

It was the First World War which finally sealed the fate of the Tsarist autocracy. The war exacerbated the crisis that had gripped the Russian state. Russian society was an ensemble of contradictions when the war began - contradictions between feudals and peasants, between peasants and capitalist farmers (known also as kulaks), between Maks and the landless labour, between factory owners and workers, between the big bourgeoisie and the petty-bourgeoisie, and so on. Once the war came, all these contradictions sharpened. The enormous cost of the war was too heavy for Russia, which still was relatively backward as compared to other imperialist powers. The state could not sustain such an expensive war and the burden was borne by the working people and the peasants. Workers and even soldiers were up in arms against the State. A socialist revolution materialized for the first time in history and there was no better country than Russia which was the weakest link in the imperialist chain for the revolution to succeed.

The October Revolution heralded a new era by creating a state of the workers and poor peasants whose interest was opposed to economic' exploitation wars, aggessions, colonization and racial discrimination. The revolution brought into existence a socialist state that could work as a bulwark against war and imperialism. It also began a process of creation of an alternative world socialist system based on equality and fiee of exploitation, renounced any form of aggression, colonization and racial prejudice, as opposed to world capitalist system that is based on colonization, economic exploitation, racialism, etc.

5.2 BOLSHEVIKS AND A NEW SYSTEM OF INTER- NATIONAL RELATIONS

The Octobq Revolution spread a new message of hope and liberation for the toiling peoples all 6ver the world and the peoples of the colonies. It was a message of liberation from all forms of exploitation - national, social, economic and political. This was reflected in a series of declarations, legal pronouncements and diplomatic initiatives of the new Bolshevik government.

The Declaration of Rights of the Working and Exploited People adopted in the third All Russian Congress of Soviets in January 1918, reaffirmed an inflexible determination to deliver mankind from wars and to achieve at all costs a democratic peace among nations, without annexation or indemnities, on the principle of self-determjnation of nations. The declaration proclaimed Soviet State's " ...... . . complete break with the bad~arous policy of bourgeois civilization, which has built the prosperity of the exploiters belonging to a few chosen nations on the enslavement of hundreds of millions of . working people in ~ s i & in the colonies in general, and in the small countries."

The new Soviet state took a determined stand against the prevailing system of international relations in which war and colonization were organic components. Instead; the idea of a just and democratic peace and the establishment of a system of international relations based on general democratic principles was advocated. f i e renunciation of secret diplomacy was a necessary corollary of Soviet international diplomacy.

5.2.1 Peace Initiatives of the Bolshevik Government

The Decree on Peace, one of the fmt major acts of the new Soviet State, proclaimed the abolition of secret diplomacy and in accordance with this law, the Soviet foreign ministry published the previous secret treaties signed by the Tsarist state (Russian ernpwrs were called Tsars), including the Anglo-Russian secret treaty and convention of 1907 on "demarcation" of spheres of interests of both the Powers England and Russia in. the Middle East; agreement to carve up Turkey between the above two and Fpnce concluded in 1916 etc.

The refusal of the Entente Powers (the ultimate victorious powers in the First World War) to negotiate a general peace settlement, forced ~bviet Russia to enter into peace talks with Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria (the other camp in the war). The Soviet proposal included six points : no forcible, annexation of territories occupied during the war; restoration of political independence to nations vanquished during the war, fieedom of choice to the national minorities to either remain within a state or become independent through a referandurn; safeguarding of the rights of the national minorities in a state by special legislation protecting their national culture and whenever possible, administrative autonomy; renunciation of war indemnities; and solution of colonial problems in accordance with the frst four principles. Though imperialist Germany rejected the Soviet proposals and imposed humiliating peace terms on the latter, Lenin still agreed to sign the Peace Treaty of Breast-Litovsk on Germany's terms despite strong opposition within the Bolshevik party and government. Lenin f d y believed that war is detrimental to the interests of the toiling people.

5.2.2 Bolshevik Renunciation of Special Privileges in the Neighbouring Countries

'The' idea of national sovereignty and equality ran through the theory and practice of Soviet foreign policy, which aimed at reshaping international relations on democratic principles. The emergence of the first socialist state inspired formally independent small states, colonies and semi-colonies to struggle for and defend their sovereignty against dppression and encroachment by imperialist powers. In the process of evolving a new system of international relations, the Soviets attached special significance to relatidns with the Eastem Countries based on the principles of equality, mutual respect and friendship. The Soviet state was willing to give them frienay assistance in their struggle against 'imperialism. Despite its difficult economic situation, the new socialist state rendered not only politi*kl and moral but also $eat material support to countries such

'I as Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran and others. In June 1919, the Soviet government abolished all special privileges for Russian nationals in Iran, renounced all concessions and control over Iran's state revenue, and handed over to Iran without demanding any compensation, the banks, the railways, highways and port facilities on Iran's Caspian coast and other property which had belonged to Tsarist Russia. A treaty of friendship with Iran was signed in February, 1921 (the first equal treaty between Iran and a European power), guaranteeing Iran's independence and security of her borders with the Soviet state. Similarly, a treaty of friendship and alliance was signed with Turkey, which received

I genwus ec~nomic,~financial and military aid from the Soviet state. A Soviet Afghan

i treaty was signed in Spring 1921 by which interest-free loans were given to the latter and Soviet specialists were assigned to work there.

1 ,Check Your Progyss 1 Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your. answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.

1)' . What kind of an alternative system of international relations was created by the Bolsheviks?

Bolshevik Revolution and its Impact

2) Discuss the peace policy of the Bolsheviks. .............. .............. .............................................................................................................................. : 6:

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5.3 BOLSHEVIKS AND ANTI-COLONIAL STRUGGLES

More lasting, however, was the inspiration provided by the establishment of the first SOW state which till then was regarded by many as a distant dream. The success of revolutionary ideas influenced the thoughts and actions of generations of freedom fight& in the colonised countries. It also provided great impetus for the growth of radical movements of the toiling peoples in the underdeveloped world. The victory of Russian workers over feudal and capitalist forces, convinced many in the%olonies that the European imperialists and their local surrogates were not iwincible against the combined strength of the oppressed. In the new socialist state's Appeal to the Toilers of Russia and the East, a direct call was given to "Persians, Turks, Arabs and Hindus" to lose m time in throwing off the yoke of their oppressors and making themselves the masters of their own lands. The appeal made a pointed reference to the rising tide of nationalism in Mia. Such declarations by the new revolutionary state further convinced the colonised peoples that they had now a pow& ally in the revolutionary government of Russia whose support they could count upon in their struggle against imperialists.

5.3.1 Spread of Socialist Ideas in the East

Under the impact of the October revolution, socialist ideas became widespread. These ideas influenced the view of many leaders of national-liberation struggles. In India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehm was particularly influenced by Bolshevik idea of scientific socialism and wrote in his Discovery of India, Marx's general analysis of social devel-

.... opment seems to have been remarkably correct Lenin successfully adapted the Marxim thesis to some of these subsequent developments...". Acquaintance with scientific socialism provided a better understanding to the national intelligentsia about the political and social forces in their countries and outside that could be relied upon in the strvggle for political independence and social progress. It also helped them tp - det.ermine the ideology best suited to solve the pressing problem of hational revival.

5.3.2 Unity of Nationalist and Socialist Forces in the East

Under the impact of the October revdlution, socialist ideas spread that witnessed the creation of revolutionary groups and communist parties whose activities raised the consciousness of the working people aid organized them against oppression, be it from imperialists or local oppressors. These groups were also active in arousing the masses to political activity and in preparing conditions for combining the struggle of the workers and peasants with that of national liberation and anti-imperalism. The October revolution showed the necessity of an alliance between the worker's movement and the peoples national liberation struggle to defeat imperialism. With the success of socialism in Russia and a setback to world imperialism, the national liberation movements in Asia, Africa and Latin America assumed greater scope and intensity, embmcing more countries and greater masses of people. The national liberation movements became more profound in their content and goals, and more importantly became more and more successful. This was to a large measure due to the revolutionising effect of the new Soviet state's successful handling of the national and social question. In short, the October Revolution blazed the trail of socialism and national liberation all over the world. It stimulated the consciousness of the people in the colonies, widened the basis of the national movements and finally, hastened the process of growth of the left movement in the colonies and semi-colonies.

Inspired by the success of revolutionaries in Russia, the Indian revolutionary natiodists Bolshevik Revolution aperating abroad formed contracts with Lenin and the Bolshevik leadership. Mahendra and its Impact Pratap, Barkatullah, Obaidullah Sidhi, Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, Bhupendranath Datta, Hardayal and M.N. Roy were the prominent names who went to Moscow to seek cooperation and guidance for India's liberation. Two great sons of India, Pandit Wehru and Rabindranath Tagore were greatly influenced by events in Russia and remained till the end of their lives most committed friends of the Soviet Union. Many of the Indian revolutionaries working abroad drew ihspiration from the October revolution and adopted socialism as their programmatic goal. These included the young Muslim Muhajideens trekking through Afghanistan to Soviet Russia and the members of the Ghadar Party founded in USA before the First World War. The nascent working class movement in India led to the emergence of communist groups and to the formal launching of the Communist Party of India in 1925. Shaheed Bhagat Singh was being h c t e d towards socialism during his days in jail and one of his last political acts in prison was celebrating the Lenin Day.

5.3.3 Intensification of National Liberation Movements

The October revolution contributed to the quickening of the pace of national liberation movements by inspiring broader sections of the population in the colonies. In India, the closing months of 198 1 and early 19 19 witnessed a strike movement on a scale never before known in India. The Bombay textile workers strike involved 125,000 workers. The strike movement reached its peak in the f-irst six months of 1920 with about 200 strikes involving one and a half million workers. It was in this situation that Gandhiji and the Congress decided to launch the "non-violent non-cooperation" movement, which marked a big step forward in mass mobilisation.

Some other countries also witnessed intensified struggles against imperialism Irish militants under the leadership of Michael Collins continued to fight the British while the Sinn Fein Party proclaimed the creation of the Irish Republic. In Egypt, the-Nation- alist PaTty of Zaghlul Pasha was seriously challenging British rule and the deportation of

i Zaghlul in 1919 was followed by mass insurrections which the British savagely put down. Independence of Egypt was declared in 1920. In Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Pasha declared war against the allied occupation and set up a provisional government. China, not only refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, but also witnessed a new phase in its struggle against imperialism. The May Fourth movement of 1919, which signalled this transition, resulted in mass participation of intellectuals and students, frontal assault on Conthciansim and boycott of Japanese goods.

The nationalist leaders of the East responded positively to the message of the October revolution. Bal Gangadhar Tilak hailed the victory of Bolsheviks in his newspaper

I Kesari. Bipin Chandra Pal, another prominent leader of Indian national movement, was greatly inspired by the October revolution and its call against all forms of exploitation. Lala Lajpat &xi was all praise for the success of revolution in Russia and its policy

I towards East. The Russian revolution and its socialist achievements had a lasting @act on the political thinking of Jawaharlal Nehru and this led 'to a radical shift in the thinking of Indian National Congress.

Sun Yat Sen was the first of China's public leaders to call for the recognition of Soviet Russia by Asian states. This was also a response to the policies of the new revolutionary state towards China despite the hostility of then Begging government towards the Soviet republic. In 1918, Soviet Russia publicly renounced all treaties, agreements and loans once imposed on China1 by the Tsarist govenunent. The best minds of China saw the

t historical relevance of the October revolution for China's future. Li Dazhao and Lu Xin, the moving spirits behind the May Fourth Movement, that became the nucleus of China's

I I

communist movement, hailed the October revolution as the dawning of a new era.


Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Clicck your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit. '

Inter-War Perlod 1) How did the Bolsheviks contribute to the anti-colonial struggles?

2) Discuss the role of the Bolshevik revolution in uniting the socialist and nationalist foroes in the anti-colonial struggles.

3) Briefly discuss the impact of October revolution in intensifying national liberation struggles in the East.

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5.4 RISE AND GROWTH OF COMMUNIST AND

The October revolution not only had a great impact on the liberation movements in the colonies, it also paved the way for the rise and growth of the communist and workers' movement in the East. To -unite various communist groups, parties and movements, to popularise warxist-Leninist theory and to discuss the debate strategies and tacties of uniting with other nationalist non-communist forces against imperialism, a Communist Internatioqal (also known as the Thiud International of Comintern) was formed in

' Moscow in 1919. The ideal that was.embodied in the formation of the International was the unity of the working class in the developed West and the oppressed peoples of the colonies in their common struggle against imperialism. The Communist International became the co-ordinating centre of revolutionaries the world over. The problem of a united anti-imperialist front occupied a cenlral place in the Comintern's theoretical and practical activities on the national and colonial question. The idea of the unity of all the anti-imperialist forces, in other words the unity between forces of socialism and the national likration movement crystallised at the second congress of the Comintern in 1920.

Given the repressive nature of the colonial regimes, many communist parties of the Easern countries were famed in the Soviet Russia under the auspices of the Comintern. Turkish communists were the fmt to organise a'communist party in Soviet Russia, followed by Iranina, Chinese and the, Koreans. The first group of Indian communisfs, was fonned in October 1920 following the arrival in Tashkent of Indians who had attended the second congress of the Comintern. On the initiative of M.N. Roy and H. Mukheqjee this group of seven people proclaimed itself the Communist party of India. .

Check Your Progress 3 . Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check you answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit.

I ........................................................................................................ 1) Discuss the importance of the Communist I n m o n a l ? ..................... ..............................

2) Briefly discuss the impact of Bolsheviks on the forktion of Communist and workers' parties. .................................................................. ....................... ................... .. ............................................... ......... ........................................................................................................................................ ........... .......................................................................................... " ................! .............................. .. ................ ... .........................................................................................................................................................

5.5 LET US SUM UP

?he Bolshevik victory and its support to the libexation movements created favourable conditions for the intensification of anti-imperialist sauggles in the colonies. It not only inspired nationalists &d communists a l l over the world but also helped to bring them togerher on the common platform of anticolonialism. The ~olshevik policy of peace and renunciation of special privileges and secret diplomacy mated an al-ve - system of international relations.

5.6 KEY WOWS

Imperialism: A system in which highly developed capitalist st* colonise, underdeveloped counhies for cheap raw material, labour and market, but more importantly, for exporting the surplus capital of the developed states to underdeveloped ones for higher profit.

Bourgeois system: Also called the capitalist system, in which land, labour and the products are marketable commodities, and the workers have no -ownemhip or control over the means of production and as a result are exploited by the capitalists who are the owners.

Socialism: A system in which the worker are the ruling class the there is m, private ownership over the means of production.

Bolshevik Revolutbn and Its Impact

Inter-War Perlod 5.7 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Anhraf Ali & G.A. syomin, (Ms.), 1917, October Revolution and India's Indepen- dence, Sterling Publishers. Delhi. E.H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution 1917-1921, Penguin Books. London. Milrokhin, L.V., 1981, Lenin in India, Allied Publishers, Delhi.

Patnaik, Ashok Kumar, 1992, Soviets and The Indian Revolutionary Movement, 1917- 1929, Anamika Publishers, Delhi.

Pethybridge Roger, 1972, The Spread of the Russia Revolution. Essays on 1917, Macmillan, London.

I

1 5.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS I

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1 1. See Section 5.2.1 and Subsection 52.3 2. See Subsection 5.2.2 and 5.2.3.


'1. See Sub-section 52.3 and Section 5.3.1.

2 See sub-section 5.32 and 5.3.3.

3. See subsection 5.3.3 and 5.3.4.

Check Your Pmgre!ss 3 1. See Section 5.4.

2 See subsection 5.3.2, 5.3.3 and section 5.4.

W e v l k Revolution and Its Impact

NOTES

UNIT 6 WORLD WAR I1 : CAUSES AND 1 CONSEQUENCES (EMERGENCE

OF SUPER POWERS)

Structure

Objectives Introduction Causes and Outbreak of World War I1 6.2.1 The War ~ k g i n s 6.2 2 USA and USSR become Allies

Consequences of World War I1 6.3.1 Defeat of Italy and Germany

6.3.2 Defeat of Japan Peace-making after the Second World War 6.4.1 The Potsdam Conference 6.4.2 Treaties of Peace Emergence of Super Powers 6.5.1 The United States became a Nuclear Power

6.5.2 Soviet Union's Challenge to the United States Let Us Sum Up ~ e ; Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit discusses World War-I1 that started in September 1939 and ended only in August 1945 after the drop of two atom bombs by the United States of America on Japan. By studying' through this unit you should be able to :

idendify causes for World War 11;

describe how World War I1 began and how USA and USSR became allies;

discuss the outcome of the peace treaties signed at on the conclusion of the war; and

understand the emergence of USA and USSR as Super Powers.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

World War-I1 began in 1939 with German a~gression on Poland on September 1. Earlier, two erstwhile enemies namely Germany and Soviet Union had signed a non-aggression pact making way for Polish partition between two of them. All efforts to reach an understanding between the Soviet Union on the one hand and Britain and France on the other had proved fruitless. In fact, secret negotiations were being simultaneously carried on between the Soviet Union and Germany and also between Britain and Gennany. Britain and France took Soviet Union for granted and did not bother to conclude a military alliance with the latter. This paved the way for Soviet-German non-aggtession pact and German attack on Poland.

A few months before the outbreak of World War 11, both Britain and France and given guarantees to Poland assuring that in case of an aggression on it, they would provide her all possible assistance. When all attempts to avoid war and protect Poland had failed and Germany invaded Poland, Britain and France declared a war on Germany on September 3, 1939. Soon afterwards, many other countries too declared war on

Cold War Period Germany. Japan had launched aggression against China, but did not declare war either on the Soviet Union or, for some time, on the USA, Italy remained neutral in the war for some time, but finally joined the war on the side.of Germany in June 1940. After Germany had won decisive victories against several countries in Europe, it waged a war against the Soviet Union also on June 22, 1941. This brought USSR into the Allied Camp. With the Japanese bombardment of Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941 the United States finally entered the war. The War was fought between the Allies (Britain, France, Soviet Union, USA and their friends) on the one side and the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) on the other.

The War ended in the unconditional^ surrender of Italy, Germany and Japan in that order

In this unit you will read about the circumstances under which World War I1 broke out and the factors responsible for the war. You will also read about the consequences of this most destructive war in the history of the world. Military activities and details of various battles are not our concern in this Unit. We will conclude the unit with a reference to the attempts made after the war for the conclusion of the peace treaties with the defeated powers. We will also discuss how some of the erstwhile big powers lost their power, and how the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two Super Powers.

6.2 CAUSES AND OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR I1

You have read about World War I1 that broke out in September 1939 after German attack on Poland, and consequent declaration of war by Britain and France against Germany. This gives the impression that the war was caused by the Polish dispute. This is partly true. Polish problem was indeed the immediate cause of the war, but there were many other reasons that created the situation in which war became unavoidable. Let us briefly discuss all the distant as well as immediate causes of the War.

Treaty of Versailles

An attempt was made in Paris Peace Conference, held after the First World War, in 1919 to establish an ideal world order based on justice, peace and disarmament. But, what finally emerged in the shape of treaty of Versailles was a dictated treaty of peace imposed upon Germany. The victor participants lacked sincerity of purpose. France was out to settle an old score-its 1871 defeat and humiliation at the hands of Germany.

Normal courtesies expected by the representatives of a sovereign country were not extended to Germany. The peace conference had begun in January 1919. The treaty of peace was drafted by Allies without any negotiation with the defeated Germany. On May 7, 1919 Germany was given the draft treaty for its suggestions to be given in writing within three weeks. The announcement of terms of the treaty resulted in a fierce outburst of resentment in Germany. Germany denied that it alone was responsible for the war. Germany raised many objections and suggested modifications but, except for one madification, all the objections were brushed aside and finally, Germany was made to sign the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. Germans called it a "diktat", and could not bear this insult and humiliation.

Germaqy was deprived of all her overseas colonies, and even in Europe her size stood substantially reduced. Poland, France, Belgium had others gained at her cost. Her army and navy were severely curtailed. She was told not to have any air force. Germany was declared guilty of war crimes and made to promise to pay a massive amount of reparation to the victors. Treaty of Versailles mutilated and humiliated Germany. Twenty years later, it was the turn of Germany to take revenge. Hitler had came on the centre stage, led his proud people to avenge their humiliation and thus paved the way for the Stcond World War.

Failure of Collective Security System

Collective security system was a noteworthy ideal the world leaders had pledged at the end of the First World War. Providing security collectively to the victim of an international .aggression was its aim. Thus, Covcnant of the League of Nations provided

that in case of an aggression, members of the League, by their collective action, would World War I1 : Causes and

compel the aggressor to withdraw. This collective action could either he in the form of Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)

economic sanctions against the aggressor, or military support to the victim of aggression or both.

During the inter-war years it was, however, proved that the League was an ineffective organisation in respect of a big power if the latter decided to wage of a war against, or annex, a small country. In 1931, Japan committed an aggression against China and by early 1932, managed to conquer Manchuria province of that country. Japan very cleverly kept on telling the League that her action in Manchuria was in self-defence i.e. (protecting life and property of the Japanese in Manchuria, and only a police action not aggression). Japan, a permanent member of the League, forged ahead to establish a puppet Manchukuo regime in Manchuria. When the League asked member nations not to recognise Manchukuo, Japan left the League but retained control on the conquered territory.

Later, in 1935 Italy waged a war against Abyssinia, defeated her, and in May 1936 formally annexed that country into Italian Empire. The League tried to enforce collective security system, declared Italy an aggressor and clamped economic sanctions. All this was of no avail as no military action was taken against Italy who was also a big power and permanent member of the League Council. Similarly, no action was taken by a weak League of Nations against Germany when she repudiated the military clauses of the Versailles Treaty (1935) and the freely negotiated Locarno Pact remilitarised Rhineland (1936), when annexed Austria (1938) and dismembered Czechoslovakia (1938-39). Thus, failure of the collective security system turned out to be a major cause of the World War-11.

Failure of Disarmament

It was agreed at the Paris Peace Conference that world peace could be ensured only if nations reduced their armaments to a point consistent with their domestic safety or defence. That means all weapons of offensive nature were to be destroyed. The task of preparing a plan for reduction of armaments was entrusted to the League of Nations. The League appointed Temporary Mixed Commission in 1920 which however could not do any substantial work because France insisted on, security before disarmament. In 1925 Preparatory Commission was instituted. Due to divergent views of nations that mattered, it could not identify offensive weapons. Finally, without much preparatory work a Disarmament Conference met at Geneva in Februry 1932. Once against mutual distrust and suspicion led to the failure of Conference, after protracted negotiations.

Germany had been disarmed by the Treaty of Versailles. Victor nations were to disarm later. They, however, never really wanted to disarm. Therefore, in October 1933 Germany declared that she was leaving both the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations. Later in 1935 Germany formally declared that she was no more bound by the military or disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. Other countries were already in possession of large quantities of armaments and big armed forces. German decision heralded a massive armament race which led to an armed conflict. The failure of disarmament became yet another major cause of Second World war.

World Economic Crisis

World economic crisis began in1929 with sudden stoppage of loans by the American financial houses to the European countries. Many of them, particularly Germany, were making rapid industrial progress mostly with the borrowed American money. The crisis had its sever impact during 1930-32. It adversely affected economies of most countries either directly or indirectly. Germany proved to be the worst affected coun'try where nearly 700,000 people were rendered jobless. It was forced to declare that it would not make any more payment of reparation. Out of the economic crisis of Germany emerged Nazi dictatorship of Adolf Hitler. He became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, but soon destroyed democracy and established his dictatorship. Meanwhile, even England had to take some harsh measures like abandoning the gold standard. Germarly, Japan and Italy took advantage of this economic crisis and separately embarked upon aggressive designs. They set up their Fascist Bloc which become largely responsible for the Second World War.

Cold War Period Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis

On the eve of the First World War, Europe was divided into two hostile camps. The same process was once again repeated with the formation of an alliance of Germany, Japan and Italy. It was concluded through- the Anti-Comintern pact during 1936-37. This combination of facist powers generally called Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was aimed at imperialist expansion. They glorified war, and openly denounced peaceful settlement of disputes. They bullied western countries and victimised weaker nations like China, Ausuia, Czechoslovakia, Albani and Poland. Their war-like acts and aggressions though noticed, yet went unpunished. Alarmed at the conduct of Axis powers, England and

i France came closer to each other and an unsuccessful attempt was made at the 1 formation of an Anglo-French-Soviet Front. Although France and Soviet Union had an alliance, yet in their desire to appease Hitler, France and England ignored Soviet Union and when Stalin wanted a military pact between three non-Fascist powers they took it easy. Soviet Union became suspicious and suvrised the world by signing the non- aggression pact with Germany. This directly cleared the way for German attack on Poland which led to the outbreak of the Second World War. While Soviet Union also invaded Poland, England and France declared war on Germany.

The Problem of National Minorities

Peaca settlement after the First World War had resulted in the formation of new nation- states in Europe, with large national minorities left behind uncared for. President Wilson of the United States had advocated the principle of self-determination. But on account of various strategic considerations this principle could not be properly implemented. Thus, for example, large German minorities found themselves in the company of non- Germans in Poland and Czechoslovakia.

There were Russian minorities in Poland and Rumania; and even after the Minority Treaties were concluded after the Paris Conference, about 750,000 Germans were under foreigp rule. Hitler exploited the situation and in the name of denial of rights to German minorities in ~zechosl6vakia and Poland, and prepared for aggression. He annexed Austria, destroyed and dismembered Czechoslovakia and finally invaded Poland. Thus, the problem of minorities became an important issue and a major excuse for the war.

Appeasement by Britain and France

Foreign Policy based on appeasement of Nazi-Fascist dictators turned out to be a major cause iof the Second World War. After the First World War there appeared a rift in the policies of Britain and France. Balance of power had always been the cornerstone of the British foreign policy. Britain feared that a very powerful France would disturb the balance of power in Europe. Hence, it helped Germany against France in the inter-war years. Once Hitler came to power in Germany and Italy became an ally of the Nazi dictatar, Britain quickly moved closer to France who badly needed British assistance against a hostile Germany. After 1933, French foreign policy virtually became an extension of British foreign policy. Britain was worried about growing influence of Commbnism. Not only the Soviet Union had to be effectively challenged, but so-called populak Fronts in France and Spain had also to be destroyed. With this objective in view, Britain adopted the policy of appeasement towards Hitler and Mussolini. France soon followed suit. Appeasement was started by Baldwin but vigorously pursued by Neville Chamberlain in 1938. Anglo-French desire to help Mussolini during the Abyssinian War, while maintaining support of League efforts, their virtual surrender to Hitler at the Munich Conference, and their inability to protect weaker nations like Austria and Albania were clear evidence of Anglo-French weakness and this prepared the grdund for the War.

German Attack on Poland

The apparent and immediate cause of the war was German attack on Poland on September 1, 1939. Earlier, when all attempts at Anglo-French alliance with the Soviet Union had faileJ, Hitler entered into a non-aggression pact with Stalin. This was most unexpected, as for several years, only hatred had existed between Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia. Now, keen to partition off Poland between themselves, Germany and Soviet Uniori signed the pact not to wage war against each other. Yet, as events turned

out, the pact was called by its critics as "simple aggression pact against Poland". In a World War I1 : Causes and

secret pact, which emerged only in 1945, the two countries had resolved to divide Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)

Eastern Europe into their spheres on September 1, 1939. As you know, England and France and already assured Poland of their help in case of an invasion. They kept their word and declared war on Germany. While Germany invaded Poland in the west, Soviet troops moved into Poland from the east on September 17-18, 1939. Poland was divided between Germany and Soviet Union by the Soviet-German Frontier and Friendship treaty of 28 September 1939. Meanwhile, many other countries had also declared war

I v on Germany, though these were symbolic declarations as even France and Britain were

i still busy making preparations for war, while Poland was being destroyed.

rl 6.2.1 The War Begins

i Poland, as we have seen above, became the immediate cause of the War. On March 23, I 1939 German troops had quietly occupied Memel (a German city under Lithuanian i sovereignty) after Hitler had asked Lithuania to surrender it. On the same day German

Foreign Minister Ribbentrop called Polish Ambassador and dictated to him terms that Germany would like to impose upon Poland. He demanded !hat Danzig (which had already been Nazified) should be returned to Germany, and an east-west highway and rail-link across the Polish corridor may be allowed so that East Prussia could be directly linked with Germany. This virtually meant a corridor across a corridor. Hitler, however, was calculating repeat of another Munich mistake by Britain which did not take place. Prime Minister Chamberlain announced unequivocally British guarantees to Poland. Later, when Italy invaded and annexed Albania (7 April), Britain gave similar guarantees to Greece and Rumania. France followed Britain in announcing conscription. Hitler retaliated on the next day and repudiated the Polish-German non-aggression pact of 1934 and Anglo-German Naval Treaty of 1935.

The Anti-Comintern Pact was signed by Germany and Japan in November 1936 and, a year later, Italy too joined. Thus, Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis represented three countries

b determination to liquidate world communism. It was, in fact, an alliance against the

I Soviet Union.

By August 1939 Hitler was prepared to settle the Polish issue on his own terms.

r However, he was on the lookout for a plausible pretext. He got the arms of (an otherwise determined) Britain diplomatically twisted when Hitler agreed to have direct negotiations with Poland on Danzign issue. Hitler asked Britain, through its Ambassador in Berlin on August 29, 1939 to arrange a Polish delegation, so as to reach Berlin the next day, fully empowered to negotiate and conclude agreement with the Germans. This was most unusual demand. Normally, international negotiations take a lot of time to begin. In any case, formal proposals are first sent through diplomatic means before inviting of foreign delegation. It is clear that Hitler had no desire for peaceful solution. Since a Polish delegation could not obvioasly arrive on August 30, Germany closed all doors for negotiation. This gave Hitler the much awaited pretext for the planned invasion of Poland. The war broke out early in the morning of September 1, 1939 when German troops invaded Poland. England and France delcared war on Germany on September 3, 1939. On 18 September Soviet Union also invaded Poland, but neither Italy nor the United States entered the war for sometime. Meanwhile England and other allies were already on war, yet attempts were still on for some solution. But Germany was determined for a full-fledged war.

I 6.2.2 USA and USSR become Allies

When the war began, Germany and Italy were political allies, but Soviet-German Non- Aggression Pact disappointed Mussolini. Italy did not enter the war till June 1940. Then, as France was on the verge of defeat and surrender, Italy joined the war on the side of Germany against France and the Allies. Soviet Union did not join the war, but was helping Germany by invading Poland. She later attacked Finland and was expelled from the membership League of Nations. Stalin continued to trust Hitler until the Nazi dictator had defeated most European neighbours and attacked Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Meanwhile, Stalin had coerced three Baltic Nations, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, to join the Soviet Union as its Union Republics. They lost their independence as Stalin told their leaders that if they refused to join USSR, they would be ruined by Germany.

Cold War Period Soviet Union had also dictated terms to Rumania and recovered Bessarabia and '' Bukovina from it. Thus, by mid-1941 Soviet Union was busy collecting war gains

.without being in the war.

Hitler had secured French surrender in June 1940. But Hitler was not so lucky where Spain was concerned. General Franco keeps his country out of war. Since it was being fought by Hitler in association with Stalin, Spain remained neutral throughout the war.

Public opinion in the United States was overwhelmingly opposed to being drawn into the war. In 1937, US Congress had passed the Neutrality Act which also prohibited sale of armaments in a future war. When the war actually broke out and Germany started bombing and destroying western democracies, Americans began weakening their neutrality stance. Cash and Carry Act was passed in November 1939, permitting countries at war to buy American weapons provided they paid cash and carried them in their own ships. When the war reached a crucial stage, Lend-Lease Act was passed in March 1941. It allowed the President to sell, exchange, end lease or otherwise dispose off any defence article. Thus, US began supplying armaments to friendly countries such as Britain and China. Three months later when Soviet Union was attacked by Germany she was also covered by the Lend-Lease Act.

'The Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact signed in 1939 had been designed by Hitler to keep Soviet Union in the dark about his actual intentions. As soon as Germany had defeated her enemies on the European continent, it began preparing for invasion of the Soviet Union itself. But, Stalin remained convinced that Hitler would not attack Soviet Union. Everyone had warned Stalin of Nazi attack-Churchill, American Embassy and Stalin's o:.n men in Tokyo. But Stalin refused to listen till 22 June 1941 when Germany actually launb,.,d the attack on Soviet Union. Stalin was stunned at this and Soviet Union sought allied assistance. Britain accepted Soviet Union into the Allied camp. In July, London and Moscow signed a military pact.

When Soviet Union was facing a devastating war, United States was forced to enter the war in December 1941, when Japan attacked its naval base in Pearl Harbour. American relations with Japan were never cordial. Japanese assets in America were already frozen. In August 1941 the United States had announced that any Japanese action against Thailand would cause her grave concern. Unsuccessful attempts were made for a meeting between us President Roosevelt and Japanese Prime Minister Kono in September. In October Kono resigned and General Tojo became the Prime Minister of Japan. He openly encouraged conflict. In November, Britain had promised to declare war on Japan if United States became involved in a war with that country. Tension was building up rapidly and war appeared imminent. On 6 December 1941 President Roosevelt made a personal request to the Japanese Emperor for help in maintaining peace. Rather than peace, America got Japanese bombardment next day. On December 7, 1941 early in the morning large American navel fleet based at Pearl Harbour (Hawaii Islands) was heavily bombed by the Japanese. A few hours later, Japan declared war "on the United Staes of America and the British Empire". On December 11, both Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. The war thus became global.

I


Note : i) Use the space below for your answer.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers at the end of the unit.

1) Describe any two major causes of the Second World War.

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2) Sum up the out break of World War 11. World War 11 : Causes and Consequences (Emergence of

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6.3 CONSEQUENCES OF WORLD WAR I1

Since we are dealing with World War I1 as one unit, we may very briefly refer here to the collapse and defeat of the Anxis powers-Italy, Germany and Japan. Details of battles and victories and defeats are not our concern in this unit. But we may mention in brief how the three Axis Powers were defeated and the Allies finally emerged Victories.

6.3.1 Defeat of Italy and Germany

The two European Fascist Powers had conquered most of the countries on the Continent. Britain was under constant attack, and large parts of the Soviet Union including the three Baltic Republics had been overrun by the Germans. In 1943 the Allies decided to launch offensive against the Axis by liquidating Italian Empire in Africa. This objective was achieved by May 1943. The Italians were disturbed and Fascist structure gave signs of cracking. The Allies decided on "Operation Hugky" to start Italian invasion through Sicily. It was not an all-out effort because the idea was to use Italy as a base to be able to bomb Germany and the Balkans. In July 1943, following heavy air attacks, large number of Italians surrendered in Sicily. Germans could not defend the island. A few days after first attack on Sicily, Mussolini visited Hitler and asked for more German assistance, but was turned down. Mussolini summoned a meeting of Fascist Grand Council which asked the King to take direct command. Only July 25, 1943, King Victor Emmanuel I11 dismissed Mussolini and appointed Marshal Bodolio to head new government. Mussolini was arrested. Italy finally surrendered unconditionally on September 3, 1943. On the same day, however, Germans entered Rome and kept it under their occupation for several months. Allies could capture Rome only on June 4, 1944.

The Allies decided to defeat Germany by opening two fronts against her. From the east, Soviet Union was pushing her out: in the West England, America and their Allies launched attack at Normandy to liberate France. By March 1944, the Axis forces were expelled from most of Ukraine and other parts of the Soviet Union. Soviet soil was cleared of German armies before the year ended. West Front against Germany was opened on June 6, 1944. It began from English Channel, and for this purpose 150,000 American soldiers were transported every month.

Allied forces liberated France and entered Germany on September 11, 1944-ninety seven days after their invasion. Immediately afterwards Hitler's air force began massive bombardment of London which continued till early 1945. As Germans began to be defeated, conspiracies were hatched to eliminate Hitler. The final assault on Germany was planned at Yalta Conference in February 1945. All round offensive was begun against Germany by the British, Canadian, French and the Americans. Meanwhile, the Soviet Offensive was continuing unabated. The fighting was most fierce at the German Chancellory in whose underground defences Hitler had set up his last headquarters. When everything was lost, the Nazi dictator, who was once dreaming of ruling over the entire world, committed suicide on April 30, 1945. Hitler had nominated Docnitz as his successor, but he could do nothing to save the country. On May 5, 1945 German commanders in North East Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark surrendered unconditionally. Nazi forces in Austria surrendered next day. Finally on May 7, Docnitz Government (of Germany) surrendered unconditionally "all land, sea and air forces of the Reich". The war in Europe was over on May 8, 1945.

cold War Period ' 6.3.2 Defeat of Japan

The Allies were fighting hard for victory against Japan in the Far East. Hence the main responsibility fell on the United States, who was assisted by Britain, China, the Netherlands, Australia and New Zealand. Allied invasion of Japan was organised with China as the base. MacArther directed these operations. Two allied campaigns were launched in the autumn of 1944. The' one under Lord Mountbatten was aimed at reconquest of Burma. The other, under Gen. MacArther involved liberation of Philippine Islands. Both thc mlssions were completed by June 1945. Details of these operations are not our concern here. The Potsdam Conference which was meeting to decide the future of the defeated Germany and other related issues gave a call to Japan in July 1945" to proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces .... the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction". Since the Soviet Union was not yet at war with Japan, she did not sign this declaration. The ultimatum was ignored by the Japanese who continued to fight. At this stage America decided to use the atom bomb and secure Japan's unconditional surrender. On August 6, 1945 American Air force dropped the first ever atom bomb on the important Japanese city Hiroshima and wiped out more than half of the target area. Two days later (August 8), the Soviet Union declared war on JapalL and began offensive in Manchuria and Southern Sakhalin (both were then under Japanese control). Progress of the Soviet troops was swift. On August 9, 1945 a second atom bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, unleashing unprecedent destruction. The next day, Japan sued for peace. Fighting stopped but surrender documents were signed only on September 2, 1945 on board the US battleship Missouri. The Second World War finally ended with Japan'coming under the American occupatib.

The consequences of the war, thus, was the total defeat of the three Axis powers and victory of the Allies. This also meant Victory of democracy and defeat of Fascism and dictatorship.




1) How did the Nazi dictatorship ended in Germany

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2) Trace the events leading to unconditional surrender of Japan.

' 3) Sum up the main consequences of World War 11.

1 World War 11 : Causes and

6.4 PEACE-MAKING AFTER SECOND WORLD WAR Consequences (Emergence of

L Super Powers)

The conclusion of peace treaties after the Second World War proved to be a very difficult task. After two years of the termination of hostilities, treaties were concluded only with five of the defeated powers. They were Italy, Rumania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Finland. The treaty of peace with Austria could be concluded only in 1955 and with Japan in 1952. Germany could not be reunited. It remained divided between pro-west Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and Democratic German Republic under the influence of the Soviet Union. Since Germany was not reunited no treaty with Germany as such was ever concluded. Two Germanys were finally united in 1990 into one Germany. We shall briefly deal with the Potsdam Conference and then the peace treaties concluded with other defeated powers.

6.4.1 The Potsdarn Conference

The Potsdam (Berlin) Conference was held during July-August 1945. Germany had unconditionally surrendered to the allies. Several decisions had been taken at different war-time conferences regarding the future of Germany and of other east European countries. A formal arrangement had now to be made in the light of these decisions. The Potsdam Conference was attended by Stalin, Churchill, Chiang Kai-shek and the US President Harry Truman. They were assisted by high powered delegations. The Conference took important decisions regarding the future set up in Germany pending the conclusion of a formal treaty of peace. Preparations were also begun for the signing of peace treaties to be concluded with other defeated powers. Japan was yet to be defeated.

A number of guiding principles were drawn that were to be the bases of peace treaty with Germany. These included 10 political principles, 9 economics principles, 10 principles to regulate the determination of reparation, 6 principles to govern the division of the German navy, and 5 principles of the distribution of the German merchant naval ships. A committee comprising the representatives of four big powers for military control of German Zones was set up. It was also decided that Germany would be disarmed, Nazi organisation and the Nazi laws would be liquidated. The war criminals were to be tried and severely punished. Finally, a democratic government would be established in Germany and rights and liberties of the people would be restored.

- Pending the final demarcation of the western borders of Poland, South-eastern Prussia and the areas to the e;st Rivers order and Neisse would constitute the western parts of that country. It was also agreed that as soon as possible, free and fair democratic elections would be held in Poland.

Potsdam Conference decided that the Allied forces would be immediately withdrawn from Iran. Tanjier was to be declared an international area. No reparation was to be taken from Austria.

The conference took decisions regarding the bases of surrender by Japan. Imperialistic elements would be eliminated and Japan would be disarmed. The war criminals of Japan would be punished. Immediately after her surrender Allied Military Control would be established in Japan and eventually a democratic government would be set up. The sovereigntyof Japan would be limited to her four major and a few smaller islands. All foreign territories occupied by Japan before or during the Second World War would be liberated and transferred to the countries where they lawfully belonged.

4

The conditions spelt out at the Potsdam Conference for the Japanese surrender were not accepted by that country. The United States of America, without taking the Soviet Union into confidence, dropped atom bombs on two of the Japanese cities early in August 1945 compelling her to surrender unconditionally on August 10, 1945. Thus, the Second World War came to an end. The fact that the United States developed and used the atom bomb without the knowledge of the Soviet Union became one the causes that gave birth to the cold war immediately after the hostilities ended the Second World War.

Cold War Period 6.4.2 Treaties of Peace

Unlike the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, only a Foreign Ministers meeting took place in London from September 11 to October 3, 1945. By that time serious differences had developed between the western powers on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other. Very little progress could be made in the London conference, nor could any progress be achieved the subsequent three meetings. The draft-treaties were prepared in these meetings, to be concluded with five powers-Italy, Rumania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Finland. Thereafter, a 12-nation Paris Conference was held from July 29 to October 15, 1946. This was followed by other meetings of the Foreign Ministers Committee and the treaties were finally approved by the Committee at New York on December 12, 1946. Finally, these treaties were signed by the Allies on the one side and the five above mentioned defeated powers on the other. Separate treaties were concluded with each of them.

The main provisions of these peace treaties may be briefly mentioned here. The Treaty concluded with Italy deprived her of a number of territories. France, Greece and Yugoslavia gained territories at the cost of Italy. Trieste became an independent port under the charge of a over nor appointed by the Security Council of the United Nations. Albania and Ethiopia regained their independence. Once again they became sovereign states. Italy was deprived of the colonies of Lybia, Somaliland and Eritrea. Italian defence forces were considerably reduced and she was required to pay big amount of money as reparation within seven years.

The Rumania Treaty provided for transfer of the provinces of Bessarabia, and Bukovina from Roumania to the Soviet Union and Doubruja to Bulgaria. She was to pay reparation to the Soviet Union and limits were imposed on the strength of its military forces.

Hungary was made to return to Czechoslova~ia some of the villages situated to the south of River Dandube which she had occupied in 1938. The Province of Transylvania was returned by Hungary to Roumania. She was also required to pay reparation and was disarmed.

Bulgaria did not loose any territory. It,actually gained the territory of Doubruja from Roumania. But like others, Bulgaria was also asked to pay reparation and her armed forces were curtailed.

Finland was deprived of several small territories which all went to the Soviet Union. The area of Salla, the province of Petsamo and the Naval Base of Porkkala Udd were given by her to the Soviet Union. Like other defeated powers, reparation was imposed upon Finland also. Its armed forces were considerably curtailed and limited.

These five treaties gave maximum advantage to the Soviet Union. Another country who gained sufficient territory, power and prestige was Yugoslavia who became the most powerful nation in the Balkans and a rival of Italy.

Austria : Austria had been occupied by the German army in 1938 and ever since continued as an occupied part of defeated Germany. Austria was treated as a "liberated territory". This Moscow Conference of 1943 had pledged to create a sovereign state of Austria. But, soon after the war, serious differences developed among the Allies. Soviet Union wanted to impose severe economic restrictions on Austria. This was not acceptable to the western powers. The deadlock remained for nearly 10 years. Finally, Austria agreed to declare itself a "neutral" country and to pay some compensation to the Soviet Union. Thereupon, the Soviet Union agreed to separate the Austrian question from the problem of Germany. A peace treaty was signed by Austria on May 15, 1955 whereby it became a "neutral" country.

Japan : The cold war and differences between the United States and the Soviet Union delayed the conclusion of peace treaty with Japan. But, unlike Germany and Austria, Japan was under occupation of only the American forces. After the Japanese surrender on August 10, 1945 an interim military administration had been set up by the Americans. The entire authority was vested in the hands of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers. General MacArthur was appointed as a Supreme Commander and

I Japanese Administrator. A meeting to draw up a peace treaty was convened by the World War 11 : Causes and

United States at San Francisco in 1951. The meeting was attended by 52 countries, It Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)

was attended by the Soviet Union and other socialist countries, but India and Burma refused to attend it. Some of the proposed terms of peace were not acceptable to India. Even the Soviet Union found it impossible to sign the draft treaty. The treaty drafted under US influence was signed with Japan by 49 countries, on April 28, 1952. A separate peace treaty was signed by India with Japan in June 1952.

The Peace Treaty signed by Japan with the United States and 48 other countries had 27 articles. It recognised the independence of Korea. It may be remembered that Korea had been divlded after the war between North Korea (Communist) and South Korea (Liberal Democracy). Japan surrendered her rights over the Islands of Formossa, Sakhalin and Kurile. The Islands of Bonin and Ryukyu (Okinawa) were placed under the American Trusteeship. The Japanese sovereignty was limited to her four principal and a few small ~slands. Secondly, Japan agreed to give up all her rights to China. Thirdly, Japan accepted responsibility for the war and liability to pay preparation but in view of economic conditions, it was exempted from the payment of reparation. This was done because the Treaty was concluded much after the heat of the war had subsided and because it was now a close ally of the United States. Lastly, it was agreed in.principle that the foreign armed forces would be withdrawn from Japan. Nevertheless, in the event of a bilateral agreement between Japan and the United States the American forces could continue to stay-but under a new and voluntary agreement. No limit was imposed on Japan in regard to her armaments.

Germany : We have said that Germany was divided into four occupation zones immediately after its surrender. The western powers alleged that, in violation of the understanding earlier reached, Soviet Union was converting its zone of Eastern Germany into a communist state. This hampered not only the unification of Germany but also conclusion of a peace treaty. Nevertheless, both Soviet Union and the Western Powers took a number of unilateral decisions regarding Germany. The first such decision was taken by Britain, and the United States who merged their zones into one on January 1, 1947. Later, France also allowed the merger of her zone with the Unified western zone. Subsequently the three powers decided to set up a free, independent and democratic government in West Germany. The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), comprising erstwhile western zones, was formally established on September 21, 1949. The Western Powers formally terminated the 'state of war' with the Federal Republic of Germany in 1951.

Soon after the setting up of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Soviet Union proceeded to create an independent state of East Germany. It was designated as the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and was organised on the Socialist pattern of the USSR. Full sovereignty was granted to the GDR by the Soviet Union by a treaty concluded between them in September 1955-one year after the sovereignty of West Germany was recognised by the western powers. Thus, Germany remained divided into two hostile countries till 1990-one was aligned with the west and had capitalist order and had made very rapid industrial progress, and the other was aligned to the Soviet Union and had her economy based on socialism and her political system patterned on the Soviet Union. The two Germanies-West Germany and East Germany began process of unification in 1989. The United Germany was born only in October 1990.


Note : i) Use the space below for your answers. 4

ii) Check your answer with the model'answers given at the end of the unit.

( j Mention briefly provisions of peace treaty concluded between victors and Italy in 1946.

Cold War Period 2) Evaluate the provisions of peace treaty signed by Japan in 1952.

6.5 EMERGENCE OF SUPER POWERS

Tlic concept of Super Power developed only after the Second World War when some of the cr4twhile big powers were overtaken in respect of power (capacity to influence the minds and actions of other states) by two countries, namely the United States of America and the Soviet Union. On the eve of the Second World War, British Empire, France, Italy and Japan were among the recognised big powers. When the war ended not only Germany but Italy and Japan were also defeated. As we have seen above, Germany was occupied by four powers and Japan was ruined after the atom bombs attacks. The defeated countries became militarily weak, politically insignificant and economically impoverished. Among the victors, Britain had become so weak that by 1947 it was unable to maintain her troops even in Greece and Turkey for their defence against communism. British Empire could not be sustained. Once I..dia became independent in 1947, the process of decolonisation was accelerated. Britain was still recognised as a big power and occupied a permanent seat in the U.N. Security Council, but its strength had considerably diminished. France had been a victim of German occupation until a second front was opened and it was liberated in August, 1944. Although France emerged victorious, and was given a permanent seat in the Security Council, yet for several years after the war, it was far from being a powerful nation. That left only two of the principal victors i.e. the United States and the Soviet Union who gained in military power and political status. Thus, an important consequence of the Second World War was the emergence of these two victors as Super Powers. Even after Britain, France and China became nulcear powers they could not challenge the Super Power status of US and USSR.

6.5.1 The United States became a Nuclear Power

Towards the end of the war there was just one country which possessed the potential that no oither state had. In July 1945, the Americans exploded, experimentally, the first nuclear device in the history of mankind. In August, they dropped two atom bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki which broke the resistance of Japan and brought about her unconditional surrender. The World was shocked, and the Soviet Union was disgusted because w e n when the two were allies in the war, the United States gave no indication of the fact that she was developing an atom bomb. Even when the US decided to use the atom bomb in Japan, the other Allies were kept in the dark till the actual use of it. Japan surrendered unconditionally and the consequent American victory deprived the USSR of "all but a token share in the post-war settlement in the Far East." The Soviet Union was an inferior and weak power for next five years till she developed her own nuclear device in 1949. The Soviet position was quite insecure because the Cold war had began, for which the West was openly blaming the USSR.

In the growing intensity of the Cold War, nobody knew whether America had a third bomb or not. If the US had a third bomb, or if she could produce one in a short period of time, the Americans could drop it on Moscow and ruin the Soviet Union. This created a strange situation, and as Peter Calvocoressi says: "The USSR no less than the most trivial state, was at the merdy of the Americans if they should be willing to do to Moscow and Leningard what they had done to Hiroshima and Nagasaki : The Americans perhaps never intended to do any such thing, but it certainly made her more powerful than anyone else. She was the 'Supreme Power' for at least five years.

Besides its nuclear weapons, what had helped America become a Super Power was the fact that no battle ever took place on her territory throughout the period of war. After

the Pearl Harbour, Americans were engaged in an unpredented war, but the civilian lives World War II : Causes and

and property were left untouched. This gave an added advantage to the Americans Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)

because their other Allies in the war had suffered heavy civilian losses also. Britain was heavily bombarded, France was under occupation for four years and the Soviet Union had been target of German invasion till the sccond front was opened against her.

Until the Soviet Union experimented her nuclear device in 1949, America had the monopoly of nuclear power. Even after 1949, the United States continued to have considerable technological leadership over the USSR both in military and political spheres till 1953. America had world's strongest airforce and a leading navy. The United States and USSR both had about 12 million men each in armed force by the end of the war.

6.5.2 Soviet Union's Challenge to the United States

The power base of the Soviet Union was not comparable to that of the United States. The USSR had succeeded in establishing communist regimes In Poland and several other East European countries, which were liberated by its army from the Nazi control. But it did not posses nuclear weapons until testing of first such device in 1949. The USSR had suffered enormous losses during the war. Not only its troops were killed and wounded in large numbers but it had suffered civilian losses also. The Soviet population was reduced by about 20 million people. While steel production in America had increased by 50 pcr cent during the war, Soviet Steel production had been cut by half. Similar was the situation in agriculture and industry. For example, while the US was producing seven million cars a year, the Soviet production was limited to 65,000 cars a year.

Inspite of differences in economic situation of the US and the USSR, the Soviet Union had become number two world power at the end of Second World War. Soviet influence was firmly established in several strategic areas. As Geir Lundestad says, "the country increased its territory considerably: the Baltic countries, Eastern Karelia, and Petsamo, thc eastern parts of pre-war Poland and the northern part of East Prussia, Carpathian, Ukraine, Bessarabia, and northern Bukovina, Southern Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands".

Thc Soviet Union became a nuclear power in 1949 although until 1953 the US ma~ntained clear superiority in areas like delivery system. But, once the USSR became a nuclear weapon state her status improved and she was recognised as a Super Power. The cornmunlst revolution in China in 1949 and signing of a 30 year treaty between two communist giants gave a shot in the arm to the Soviet Union.

Immediately after the Second World War, Soviet Union had made an all out effort to overtake the United States in science and technology. It subordinated everything including post-war reconstruction to catching up with the Americans in military tcchnology. Once Soviet Union developed its nuclear power, it became a rival of the United States and the two came to be recognised as the Super Powers. Both led a power block each.

After the Second World War, the United States and the Soviet Union faced each other directly in different parts of the world. According to Lundestad, "They were the two niain actors in the international area; the geographic distance separating them was gone, but the political distance would soon be greater than it had ever been".




I) Describe emergence of the United States as most powerful nation after the Second World War.

Cold War Period

2) In what ways did the USSR challenge the US supremacy after 1945?

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3) Analyse briefly the emergence of Super Powers after the Second World War.

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6.6 LET US SLIM UP

World War I1 broke out when Nazi Germany invaded Poland on 1st September, 1939. Two day, later, England and France declared war on Germany. Earlier two arch rivals, Germany and Soviet Union had concluded a Non-Aggression Pact. Critics called it a pact to divide Poland between the two countries. Major causes of the Second World War were the Treaty of Versailles which ended the First World War, humiliated Germany and was regarded by Germans as a 'diktat', and unjust; failure of disarmament which was thought to be sure guarantee of avoiding war; the world economic crisis which encouraged military and aggressive actions in countries like Japan; the creation of Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, an alliance of three fascist powers determined to destroy existing world order; problem of dissatisfaction of minorities; the policy of appeasement pursued by Britain and supported by France to win over the Fascist and Nazi dictators; and finally German attack on Poland that became the immediate cause of the war.

The begin with, a number of countries joined the war on the side of Britain and her allies, but America kept out of it till outstanding disputes led Japan to attack Pearl harbour which forced the United States entry into War as an Ally in December 1941. Soviet Union had invaded Poland and Finland and was expelled from League of Nations. But, ignoring the Non-Aggression Pact, Germany attacked Soviet Union in June 1941. Soviet Union immediately aligned itself with Britain. Meanwhile, Italy had entered the War in June 1940 by declaring War on France and siding with Germany. The Axis suffered their first setback when Italy was attacked in 1943. Mussolini was dismissed by the king and later Italy surrendered unconditionally, although for somtime Rome was occupied by Germans. Soviet Union was fighting against Germany to liberate Eastern Europe. After a second front was opened by UK and USA, Germany not only lost France but was forced to surrender in May 1.945. Japan continued to fight in the Pacific till two atom bombs were dropped by American in August 1945 forcing Japan to surrender. Thus the War ended with the defeat of the three fascist powers; and victory of the Allies.

Peace-making efforts after the war proved to be a very difficult task. The Allies had convened the Potsdam Conference (1945) for drawing up peace treaty with Germany. No peace treaty could be concluded with any of the defeated countries immediately after the war. But after prolonged diplomatic activities, peace treaties were concluded with Italy, Rumania, Hungary and Finland; and later with Austria and Japan. Germany remained occupied for several years and naturally no peace treaty could be concluded for several years.

The most significant outcome of the war was the partiti~n of Germany into four occupation zones. Later three Western Zones became one sovereign country, and in the

east a Soviet-backed government was established. As east European countries were liberated by the Soviet army, they were given communist governments. The cold war began between two power blocs into which the world was divided.

The United States was lucky that no battle was fought on her territory and her civilian losses were negligible. It was the first country to develop and use the atom bomb. Soviet Union acquired this power five years later. As other big Powers had lost much of their capability, the US and USSR emerged as Super Powers and led the two power blocs.

6.7 KEY WORDS

Reparation : The fine imposed on defeated countries to compensate for the damage done to civilian population and property.

Sanctions : Coercive measures taken against an aggressor or a country defying international law; sanctions may be economic or military.

Axis : Term used for three Fascist Powers viz. Germany, Italy and Japan who had come together on the eve of the Second World War.

Non-Aggression Pact : An agreement binding two countries not to wage war against each other for a specific period of time.

Cold War A situation of acute tension between two power blocs; but no weapons were used against each other.


Langsam, W.C. and Mitchell, The World Since 1919, New York, The Macmillan Publishing Co.

Albrecht Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe, since the Congress of Vienna, New York, Marper and Row.

Johnson, Paul, A History of Modern World from 1917 to the 1980s, London, Weidenfield and Nicolson.

Dhar, S.N., International Relations and World Politics, Since 1919, New Delhi, Kalyani Publisher.



1) Dictated, unfair and unjust Treaty of Versailles; failure of collective security; appeasement by Britain; attack on Poland.

2) Failure of Anglo-Soviet negotiations and signing of Soviet German non-aggression Pact paved the way for German attack on Poland in September 1939. Britain and France fulfilled their guarantee given to Poland and declared war on Germany. Soviet Union (June 1941) and U.S.A. (December 1941) were attacked by Axis Powers and they also joined the war.


1) U.S. entry in the war strengthened the Allies. Germany was unable to fight on two fronts; USSR liberated east European countries, and Western Europe freed by

'Britain and U.S.A. Faced with defeat, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945.

World War I1 : Causes and Consequences (Emergence of

Super Powers)

Cold War Period 2 ) Allied Victory in Europe left them free to fight and defeat Japan; America dropped two Atom Bombs in August 1945 forcing Japan for unconditional surrender.

3) Total defeat of the three Axis Powers and Victory of the Allies, which also meant defeat of fascism and dictatorship and victory of democracy.


1) Territorial gains for France, Greece and Yugoslavia; Trieste became independent, Albania and Ethiopia (Abyssina) regained independence, Armed forced reduced.

2) Independence of Korea recognised; Japanese rights in Formosa, Sakhalin and Kulrile Island surrendered; all Chinese territory liberated; Japan accepted her responsibility for the war, but was not required to pay any reparation.


1) The United States was the first country to have manufactured and used atom bomb; it secured Japanese surrender; earlier U.S. role was largely responsible for defeat of Germany and Italy. No battle was fought in US territory. In 1945, USA had the world's strungest airforce and a leading navy.

2) U.S.S.R. even before acquiring nuclear weapons, had become second most powerful country. Its army established communist regimes in Poland and other East European countries. Its ideological thrust was a challenge of U.S.A.

3) The T.S.A. and U.S.S.R. both were much better placed than other victors. US suffered negligible civilian losses, USSR's vast territory and ideological commitment gave it advantage. US led capitalist world, and the USSR became the rallying point of world communism.

UNIT 7 COLD WAR : MEANING, PATTERNS AND DIMENSIONS

Structure

7.0 Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Meaning 7.3 Origin 7.4 Spread of the Cold War 7.5 Cold War in the Far East 7.6 Relaxation of the Cold War 7.7 The Rebirth of the Cold War 7.8 Patterns and Dimensions 7.9 End of the Cold War 7.10 Let Us Sum Up 7.1 1 Key Words 7.12 Some Useful Books 7.13 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.0 'OBJECTIVES

This unit discusses the Cold War, its meaning and dimensions. After going through the Unit you will be able to:

define the concept of the Cold War;

trace the origin of this non-military conflict;

a understand the pattern and dimensions of the Cold War;

a identify the causes for the demise of the Cold War; and

a assess the impact and aftermath of the Cold War.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The First World War (1914-18) ended with the birth of a new system, the socialist system in the world. The war also sowed the seeds of another world war. These two developments have conditioned the subsequent decades in a big way. In 1939 the Second World War broke out. The Second World War was fought between the two blocs-the Allied powers and the Axis powers. The socialist bloc joined the Allies. The Allies won the war. The war ended with the destruction of the old capitalist imperialist dominated world. The world now was divided into two blocs-Western or capitalist bloc, headed by the neo-colonialist power, the United States of America (USA) and the Socialist bloc headed by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The USA and the USSR emerged as the two super powers. n o blocs represented two contradictory systems. Conflict between them was inevitable. The conflict was turned into Cold War because the world meanwhile experienced a qualitative change.

I

At the end of the Second World War, a world body named United Organisation (UN)

I was founded to make the world safe for peace. The~two superpowers acquired highly I sophisticated destructive weapons. Europe became dependent upon the USA.

Decolonialization became the reality. Above all world public opinion disfavoured any world wide holocaust. But these developments failed to stop the local or civil wars in different countries and to refrain the two superpowers from tension ridden competition for establishing supremacy over the world. The hostile competition turned into Cold war

Cold War Period >

7.2 MEANING

The term "Cold War" is of recent origin. It has been in use since the Second World War for denoting the non-military hostility between the United States of America (USA) and the former Soviet Union. In course of time it has been used as a concept in international relations. The term Cold War means a state of hostility between nations without actual fighting (i.e. non-military hostility). The concept stands for struggle for supremacy waged by the nations or states through propaganda, economic measures, political manoeuvres, etc. Nations or states, engaged in Cold War do not go for actual war (military action). It is a state of cut-throat competition, but the competing parties remain far away from armed conflict between them. It was a conflict between two ideologies : Capitalism vs. Socialism.


Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.


1) What do you mean by the term of ColdWar?

7.3 ORIGIN

The origin of the Cold War may be traced back to the 1917 Russian Revolution, which gave birth to a new system. The system came to be known as socialist system, opposed to exploitative capitalist system. Whole of the capitalist world got terror stricken and rallied to crush the new state of the USSR, failing to destroy it they encouraged the emergence of the Nazi power in Germany, so that it might be used against the USSR. The USSR made serious efforts to get the Western powers involved in checking the rapid rise of Nazi Germany. But the Western powers did not respond to the USSR's call. Meanwhile the Second World War broke out in 1939. Germany attacked the USSR violating the non-aggression pact between them. The USSR joined the Allied powers and made great contribution to defeat the Axis powers. Despite its sincere efforts to crush the Axis powers, the West always looked at the USSR with deep suspicion. The West is alleged to have desired the end of the USSR in the process of fighting against the Nazi led Axis powers. That is why perhaps the Allies did not respond to the USSR's repeated appeal for opening second front in the Eastern Europe against Germany. After the war the Allies did not hide their fear and hatred towards the USSR which now emerged as one of the superpowers in the world. The USA emerged as another superpower at the end of the Second World War. the Wartime Allies including the USSR founded the world body the United Nations (UN) to make the planet safe for peace. But they failed to forestall the local wars because the UN does not have the necessary powers to compel1 the super or major powers to keep away from encouraging conflicts. As a result they went on their own ways. They have organised their rival defense organisations, and have gone on reacting to each crisis as per their respective interests. They either have used the world body or have ignored it. The world thus drifted towards the Cold War in the wake of the Second World War.




1) Critically discuss the circumstances leading to the beginning of the Cold War.

7.4 SPREAD OF THE COLD WAR

Russia (USSR) assumed a sum of $ 10 billion indemnity from Germany following the Second World War. The USA and Britain violating the decision of the July 1945 Potsdam Conference stopped the delivery of the reparations to Russia. It created a crisis which has come to be known as German Crisis. In order to overcome the crisis the big four powers, Russia, France, Britain and the USA met in a Conference in early 1947. The USA and Britain insisted the economic Unification of Germany. France and Russia opposed the proposal. The Conference ended without resolving the crisis. Meanwhile the USA violating all norms intervened the Greek Civil War in March 1947. President Truman of the USA delivered a speech to the US Congress on 12th March, 1947 to justify the intervention in Greece and asked the Congress to provide authority for financial assistance to Greece ar,d Turkey for suppressing the Communist led Civil War in those countries. The principles which Truman elaborated in the Congress have come to be known as Truman Doctrine, the essence of which is that the USA has the right to intervene anywhere to check the spread of the Communism. The Truman Doctrine is the naked manifestation of Cold War. The Cold War further was deepened in early 1950s. In December 1951 the USA came forward with European recovery programme, which is commonly known as the Marshall plan and is often interpreted as the economic counterpart of the Truman Doctrine which was basically political. Though, the USA declared that the plan aimed at reconstructing the War-torn Europe, it was generally called an attempt to protect Europe from being taken over by the Commmunists. Because throughout Europe there was a surge of Communist movements immediately after the Second World War. All West European states readily accepted the US assistance under Marshall Plan. The East European nations are alleged to have refused to accept the assistance because of the USSR machinations. The USSR immediately founded the Council for. Mutural Economic Assistance (CMEA), commonly known as Molotov Plan. Thus Europe got divided into two blocs which were further formalised when the defensive treaties were signed.

4

The surge of Communist movements throughout Europe, coupled with the growing tension between the USA and the USSR led the USA to propose a defensive alliance with the Western powers. Thus, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed in April, 1949 to found North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). The signatories of the Treaty were the USA, Canada, France, Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Iceland and Norway. Subsequently Greece, Turkcy and West Germany joined the treaty which provided that an armed attack against one or more of the signatories in Europe, and North America would be considered an attack against the all signatories. In response to the NATO, USSR got together the former East European socialist states into Warsaw Pact. Its terms and conditions were similar to that of the NATO. These developments (i.e. division of Europe into two economic and military blocs) deepened the Cold War.

Cold War : Meaning, Patterns and Dimer~sions

Cold War Period Check Your Progress 3



1) Write short notes on :

a) German Crisis

b) Truman Doctrine

c) The Marshall Plan

d) NATO

7.5 COLD WAR IN THE FAR EAST

The Cold War, although originated in Europe, did not remain confined there. Cold War spread over the Far East immediately after Europe. In China Communist Revolution became successful in 1949. Chiang Kai Shek though got full support from the USA, failed to withstand the Communist attack. The Communists inflicted a crushing defeat to Chiang's unpopular nationalist forces and drove them away from the mainland China. The success of the Communists in China was a great set back for the USA which had been following the policy of containment of communism world over. The USA along with its Western allies signed the peace treaty with Japan, much to the chargrin of the USSR. The treaty reduced Japan to almost a dependent of the USA, and made Japan the main US base in the Far East. The US military base in Japan is maintained by a massive financial support provided by the Japanese government: Japan meets almost 70% of the expenses incurred in the maintenance of the U.S. military bases and Korea was liberated by the Allies from Japan's occupation. The communist led army consolidated its position in North Korea and the anti-communist, pro-west forces, captured South Korea. In 1950, a civil war between North Korea (supported by China) and South Korea (supported by the U.S.) broke out. The country was divided along the 38th parallel and reached to the Yalu river which separates China from Korea. Now China backed by the USSR joined the fray in support of the communists. Immediately the North Korean army drove away the invaders. The war, however, continued for another two years. In July 1953 an armistice agreement was signed and the war ended but the tension over the Korean issue between the two superpowers continues even now.


Note : i) Use the space giGen below for your answers.


1) Critically discuss how the Cold War spread over the Far East.

Cold War : Meaning, Patterns ............................................................................................................................................. and Dimensions

7.6 RELAXATION OF THE COLD WAR

In 1952 Dwight Eisenhower was installed in power replacing Harry S. Truman in the USA. Disregarding the Truman Doctrine, he adopted necessary effective steps to end the Korean war. In April 1953 Joseph Stalin died. He was succeeded by more liberal and young leaders in the USSR. To some extent they liberalised both domestic and foreign policies of the USSR. Meanwhile the USSR gained the capability of making the hydrogen bomb which was nearly 800 times more powerful than the atomic bomb used on Hiroshima. With the gaining of the capability of H-bomb, the USSR obtained parity with the USA. Now the world leaders got frightened and started feeling more comfortable in peace than in war.

Many analysts feel that had there been no H-bomb with the two superpowers, some of the explosive situations that arose in subsequent years, would have exploded into actual wars between the superpowers. They cite the Cuban crisis as an example. In early 1960s a crisis situation developed in Cuba after the installation of the communists in power. A communist Cuba was considered to be the sword of Damocles pointed at the heart of the USA. The US wanted to crush the infant communist state at its door step. But the prompt action, taken by the USSR by sending missiles for the protection of Cuba, softened the aggressive mood of the USA. The crisis brought the two powers on the brink of war but the war. however, did not break out. The US rejaxed its attitude towards Cuba, the USSR withdrew the missiles. Thus the Cuban crisis ended in peace.

Following the end of the Cuban crisis both superpowers entered into several pacts for limiting the proliferation of nuclear weapons. In 1963 an agreement was signed for controlling the tests of nuclear weapons known as Parsial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT). In 1967 test of nuclear weapons in the space was prohibited, and also Latin America was declared a nuclear weapons beyond the nations already possessing them was signed in 1968. One agreement of prohibiting emplacement of nuclear weapons on the seabed and another, prohibiting the use of biological weapons were signed in 1971. JJI 1972, SALT-I was signed between the U.S. and USSR. It was followed by an interim arms control agreement signed in between the two Moscow in 1974, which subsequently y a s converted into SALT-I1 in 1978. These agreements collectively decreased the tension of the Cold War.

i Meanwhile Europe has restored itself from the Wartime destruction. The resurgent

I Europe began to compete with the US economy. France under Charles De-Gaulle 1 declined to remain dependent upon the USA. Germany also recovered quickly. The

monolithic international communist movement faced split. China and the USSR plunged into a kind of Cold War. these developments also greatly aided to relax the Cold War.




1) Mention the factors responsible for the relaxation of the Cold War.

.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. I

f

Cold War Period 7.7 THE REBIRTH OF THE COLD WAR

In late 1970s Afghanistan experienced a sort of revolution. A communist government was installed in power. But anti-communist force in collaboration with the religious fundamentalist forces opposed the new government. As a result Afghanistan soon plunged into an ending civil War. In this civil war the USA supported the anti- communists and the fundamentalists via Pakistan. The communist government in order to stem the tide of the civil war sought military and economic aid from the USSR who promptly sent a large contingent of armed forces and other military and economic aid in December 1979. The USA termed the presence of USSR army in Afghanistan as an invasion. The US attitude thus sensitized the already strained USA-USSR relations. The new conflict between the two super powers has been termed as the rebirth or the beginning of the new Cold War. The Cold War further deepened when in Poland martial law was imposed in 1981 to quell the pro-democracy unrest. The USA termed the action as the USSR intervention in Poland. The relation between the USA and the USSR reached already a breaking point in 1983 when the USSR shot down a South Korean civilian airliner which was alleged to be on the spy mission. The US condemned the shooting down o i the airliner and immediately 8eployed new intermediate-range missiles in Europe, in retaliation the USSR broke off arms talks with the USA. The USA meanwhile invaded Grenada in 1983, launched invisible was against the popular Sandista government in Nicaragua and pushed ahead the development of the Strategic Defensive Initiatives (SDI) or star wars. Thus spread the new Cold War through out the world. President Ronald Reagan of the USA adopted a strategy of rolling back of the expand~~,t . 'evil empire' of the Soviet Union.

. Check Your Progress 6

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer.


1 ) What are the incidents responsible for the beginning of the new or second Cold War?

7.8 PATTERNS AND DIMENSIONS

World was divided into two blocs during the Cold War period, basically on ideological grounds. Since the Russian Revolution in 1917 which had given birth to a new system in the world, the capitalist and imperialist forces declared invisible war against the new state of the USSR. Immediately after the end of the Second World War, the Cold War took birth on the issue of expansion of the communist powers in Europe and other parts of the world. The Communist movement and the national liberation struggle against the age old imperialist rule in the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America joincd together in many areas. The USA and other imperialist states found it difficult ro \tcln the tide of the emerging liberation struggle duly supported by the international communist movement. They, therefore, developed alliances, encircling the commuliih~ world with the aim of containing communism world over.

However, communism was not the lone issue. National interests of the warring states also played significant role in the spreading of Cold War. In the case of China-USSR conflict national interest played significant role. Religion also was an issue. Shina-Sunny

I issues, Hindu-Muslim issues contributed to develop tension and cold war between Iran- Iraq and India-Pakistan respectively. The Cold War that spread in South Asia between India and Pakistan, has been due to the issues of secularism, democracy and

nationalism. There has almost been an unending conflict between India and Pakistan over Kashmir Issue. India claims to be a secular democratic state where followers of different relig~ons can live together. Kashmir is considered to be the test ground of Indian secularism.

-

Cold War : Meaning, Pattcrns and Dimensions

The Cold War did not remaln confined to the superpowers alone. There are several dimensions of the Cold War. In the international arena it was between the two superpowers. In the regional areas, there were also Cold Wars between the regional powers. Thcrc was Cold War in 1970s between Iran and Iraq, Cold War burst out between the USSR and China over the border issues. There has been Cold War between Indla and Pakistan over the issue of Kashmir. Pakistan tried military solution of the problem but failed. Then the Cold War has engulfed the region.

Though the period from the end of the Second World War to the disintegration of the USSR is termed as the Cold War era, it was not a continuous phenomenon and the Issues were not the same. Cold War disturbed the peace in phases and periodically. The issues were also not the same. First the German crisis was the issue, then the Korean war, the Afghan crisls, US declslon to go ahead wlth the star war programme etc. augmented the process of Cold War.

Thus the pattern and dimensions of the Cold War are varied and multiple.


Note : i ) Use the space given below for your answer.


1 ) Disscuss the pattern and dimensions of the Cold War.

7.8 END OF THE COLD WAR

The depth of the Cold War started to decline in late 1980s. Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of 'Perestroika' and 'glasnost' were primarily responsible for the end of the Cold War. The USA and the USSR agreed to dismantle a whole category of nuclear weapons. An agreement known as the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty was slgned to that effect. Though the treaty was not fully implemented, it reduced strategic weapons by about 30 per cent. Meanwhile the world began to the less tense. Decade old Iran-Iraq war ended in 1988. The USSR under Gorbachev reversed the old Brezenev system. It pulled the troops out from Afghanistan. Vietnam, which had been helping Cambodian government to quell the civil war since late 1970s, withdrew its soldiers from Cambodia. Cuba which had sent army to Angola, brought back the forces. South Africa was forced to accord independence to Namibia. All these developments were positive signs for establishing peace in the world.

But situation started changing with the turn of 1980s and beginning of 1990s. In Central America the popular Sandinista government fell. The economic crisis that had engulfed the Eastern Europe and the USSR in mid 1980s was sought to be overcome by adopting the policies of political liberalization and market economy. The USSR put into effect Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of Perestroika and Glasnost. Both domestic and foreign policies of the USSR were drastically changed. Consequently communist regimes in Eastern Europe fell one by one. The State of East Germany was eliminated and whole of Germany was united. The infamous Berlin Wall was demolished. And the USSR got disintegrated. The Cold War thus ended with the demise of a superpower. With the distintegration of the USSR, Russia came out losing the status and position of a superpower.

Cold War Period At the ruins of the Cold War the unbridled supremacy of the USA has been established. The world now has become a unipolar one. The Cold War which had continued for more than four decades in one or another form, though kept the world free from any world wide conflict directly involving the two superpowers, failed to stop protracted civil wars or regional wars. During the period of Cold War most of the local or civil wars were the national liberations struggles. The Cold War period saw the decolonization of the world. Afro-Asian and Latin American nations who had so long been suffering from the European colonial rule, achieved independence during the period of Cold War. The end of Cold War has not eliminated the civil or local wars. But now the civil or local wars are no longer national liberation movements. They are mostly fratricidal battles which are being fought for parochial gains.




1) Account for the causes of the Cold War.

.............................................................................................................................................

2) What are the characteristics of the post Cold War world?

LET US SUM UP

Cold War means the non-military conflict. Though it had orginated in the wake of the first World War (with the emergence of the socialist system) the fury of the Cold War was being experienced in the post Second World War period. The Cold War having orginated in Europe in the late 1940s. spread over other parts of the world in the subsequent decades. Although the ideology remained the basic issue, the non~ideological issues crept over periodically. The Cold War had begun with the foundation of the USSR and declined with the disintegration of the USSR. The Cold War period experienced the decolonization process i& the world. The Cold War has now been replaced by a single power domination over the world and rise of certain regions into province. The post COld War period has been experiencing the civil or local wars over the parochial and ethnic issues where as such wars in Cold War period were over the questions of decolonisation and liberation of the depressed people.

7 . 1 KEY WORDS

Allied Powers : The states who came together the fight the Fascist Axis powers. The major allied powers were the USA, USSR, Britain, France and China. There were fifty states in this groups.

Axis powers : The fascist powers-Germany, Italy and Japan-constituted the Bloc in which a very few smaller states joined.

Glasnost : Open politics and multi-party democracy. It is a Russian word. Cold War : Meaning, Patterns and Dimensions

Perestroika : It is the Russian term which denotes market economy. It has given greater role to market forces in the Russian economy which had hitherto been planned or controlled economy.

Star wars It is a system to prevent nuclear war by providing the technological inputs and means to knock incoming missiles out of the air before they hit their targets.


L.S. Stavrianous, 1983, A Global History, The Human Heritage, New Jersey.

James Lee Ray, 1992, Global Politics, New Jersey.

D.F. Fleming, 1961, The Cold War and Its Origin, 1917-1960, 2 Vols, Doubleday.

W. La Feber, 1968, America, Russia and the Cold War, John Wiley.

- - - --


(Here points have been identified. For details the student should consult the lesson and the suggested books.)


1) Cold War means non-military conflict. Aggressive competition for supremacy.


1 ) 1917 Russian Revolution.

Second World War

German Crisis

Greek Civil War

Emergence of USSR-led Socialist Bloc

Emergence of neo-colonialism led by the USA.


a) Struggle for ,the control of Germany by the Superpowers.

b) US pledge to support anti-communist inovements.

C) Economic aid to keep away the countries from falling to communist rule

d) Aggressive defensive organisation to contain the forces of communism.


1) Take over of China by the Communists.

US base in Japan

Korean War


1) New leaderships in the USA and USSR. USSR's success in H-bomb. Resurrection of Europe. Split in the monolithic communist market.


1) Afghan crisis, shooting down of the Korean civil airliner

US invisible war in Nicaragua.

Star war programme of the USA.


1) Ideology, periodical Cold Wars, International Cold War.

Regional Cold War.


1) Economic crisis in the Socialist Bloc-liberalization in the USSR-Distintegration of the USSR.

2) Single Power (USA) supremacy, civil and local wars over the parochial and ethnic issues.

UNIT NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

Objectives Introduction Context and Imperatives The Concept of Non-Alignment Evolution of the Non-Aligned Movement Goals and Achievement of the Non-Aligned Movement Non-Aligned Movement Today 8.6.1 The Debate

8.6.2 The Relevance of Non-alignment

Let Us Sum Up Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

8.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

explain the concept of non-alignment and analyse the factors that led to its emergence;

trade the evolution and functioning of the Non-Aligned Movement; and

examine the relevance of both non-alignment and the non-aligned movement in a Post Cold War as well as a post Soviet world.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The term 'non-alignment' is used to describe the foreign policies of those states that refused to align with either of the two blocs led by the two Superpowers i.e. the U.S. and the U.S.S.R., and instead, opted to pursue an independent course of action in international politics. The Non-Aligned Movement (N.A.M.) emerged when individual non-aligned states came together and coordinated their efforts on a common platform. It changed the nature of inter-state relations by enabling the newly independent developing countries to play a significant role in world affairs.

8.2 CONTEXT AND IMPERATIVES

Non-alignment emerged within the context of two simultaneous global developments - Afro-Asian resurgence and bipolar world politics.

The reawakening of the nations of Africa and Asia kindled in them the urge for freedom from colonial rule and infused a determination to shape their destinies on their own. This led to the development of a distinct idea of active and independent involvement'in world affairs based on one's own perspectives of national and international interests. Therein evolved an independent stand on national and ihternational issues amongst the newly emergent nations.

This Afro-Asian resurgence occurred at a time when the world was divided into two hostile camps, each representing two different ideologies and two socio-economic as well as political systems, and led by the U.S. and erstwhile U.S.S.R. respectively. Each aspired for greater spheres of influence through military alliances with other states. In this context, the independent position of the newly emergent states came to be viewed I,

as non-alignment, as they refused to be allied with either bloc.

Cold War Period The iinpetus for the non-aligned approach stemmed from many sources. One of the foremost objectives of these states was economic development for which they needed resources in the form of economic assistance as well as increased trade. Non-alignment enabled them to have economic relations with all countries. The second imperative was the need for peace without which there could not be real development. A third source was that their need be secure from global threat perceptions emanating from Cold war politics. Other domestic imperatives also existed which varied from country to country. For example, in the case of India, its internal political plurality, its political processes, its historical role and geographical position were important contributing factors for the emergence of non-alignment.

8.3 THE CONCEPT OF NON-ALIGNMENT

Non-alignment means the refusal of states to take sides with one or the other of the two principal opposed groups of powers such as existed at the time of the cold war. Non- alignment can be defined as not entering into military alliances with any country, either of the Western bloc led by the U.S. or the communist bloc led by the U.S.S.R. It is an assertion of independence in foreign policy.

Some Western scholars have persistently confused non-alignment "with isolationism, non- commitment, neutrality, neutralism and non-involvement. Non-alignment is not neutrality. Non-alignment is a political concept, whereas, neutrality is a legal concept. Unlike neutrality, non-alignment is not a law written into the Constitution of the state. Neutrality is a permanent feature of state policy, while non-alignment is not. Further, unlike neutrality, non-alignment is not negative, but is a positive concept. It stands for (a) an active role in world affairs and (b) friendship and cooperation with all countries. It consists of taking an independent position based on the merits of each issue, and, on the requirements of national interest. It is not directed against any ideology but seeks to promote peace and friendship in the world, irrespective of ideological differences.

Non-aligned nations continuously opposed the politics of Cold War confrontations. They underlined the necessity of building peace and "peace areas" in a world of clear bipolarism. Non-alignment was also not a policy based on opportunism which tried to gain advantage by playing one power against another.




1) What kind of historical situation led to the development of non-alignment?

2) Which of the following statements are right or wrong. Mark (J ) or (x).

a) The newly independent states chose the path of non-alignment because the consequences of world war-alliance building and armament production threatened these backward economy states with neo-imperialist control. ( )

b] The attitude of non-alignment is anti-imperialist in nature because it does not allow domination or control of any state from outside. ( )

c) Yugoslavia did not choose the path of non-alignment because it did not feel threatened by the hegemonic role being played by the Soviet Union. ( )

d) Non-alignment does not mean equidistance from the two power blocs and it is an attitude which asserts independence in world politics. ( )

e) Neutralism can be another name for non-alignment. ( )

f ) Non-aligned group cannot be called a third bloc. ( )

Non-Aligned Movement

8.4 EVOLUTION OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

The non-aligned movement evolved out of the concerted efforts of individual non- aligned states to build a common front against the superpower and neo-imperialist domination. Jawaharlal Nehru from India, Gamal Abdal Nassar from Egypt and Josip Broz Tito from Yugoslavia took the first step in building this movement. Among thckt3 first architects Nehru would be specially remembered. His early perception about the rise of neo-imperialism and the consequent insecurity that would bc faced by the smaller states, made a major contribution towards building this movement. Nehru believed that the countries of Asia and Africa, should build up an alliance of solidarity to fight neo- imperialism. As a first step he tried to organise an Asian front in the forties. In 1947 he called an Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi. In the fifties as the states of Africa started gaining independence from colonial rule it became necessary to expand the base of this front. In April 1955, therefore, Nehru together with leaders of Indonesia, Burma, Sri Lanka and Pakistan convened an Afro-Asian Conference at Bandung in Indonesia. Both these Conferences highlight the political and economic insecurity that was threatening the newly independent states at the time. However, Bandung Conference failed to build a homogenous Asian and African front as a number of these States did not agree to conduct their foreign relations under the banner of anti-imperialism. 'They had either already joined the various Western military alliances or had closely identified their interests with that of the Western Powers. The rift between the two groups was visible at Bandung itself. In the post-Bandung years, thus, it became necessary to build up an identity for the non-aligned states on the basis of principles and not on the basis of region. The effort united these states with Yugoslavia which was similarly looking for a political identity in international affairs. The embryo of the later non-aligned conferences first came into being a Brioni, in Yugoslavia, in June 1956, where Tito conferred with Nehru and Nassar on the possibility of making real the unspoken alliance which bound them together. The efforts finally resulted in the convening of the first non-aligned conference at Belgrade in 1961.

Five basis were determined and applied, for countries to be members of the Non-aligned Movement. Only such countries as fulfilled these conditions were actually invited to the conference. There were :

a) independent foreign policy, particularly in the context of Cold War politics;

i b) opposition to colonialism in all its forms and manifestations;

! c) should not be a member o f any of the military blocs; ' d) should not have concluded any bilateral treaty with any of the two superpowers;

e) should not have allowed military bases on its territory to a superpower, qualified for attendance at the Belgrade summit.

The NAM summit conferences from time to time, have discussed several issues and problems. At the first summit (Belgrade, 1961) 25 countries, who attended it, discussed the situation in Berlin, question of representation of People's Republic of China in the United Nations, the Congo Crisis, imperialism as potential threat to world peace, and Apartheid. The Conference expressed full faith in the policy of peaceful co-existence. India was represented by Nehru.

The Cairo summit, held in 1964 was attended by 46 countries. The Indian delegation was led by La1 Bahadur Shastri. The conference emphasised the urgent need for disarmament, pleaded for peaceful settlement of all international disputes, urged member-governments not to recognise the white minority government in Rhodesia and reiterated the earlier stand of NAM against apartheid and colonialism. The demand for representation of People's China in the United Nations was also reiterated.

Cold War Period The third summit at Lusaka in 1970 (attended by 52 countries) called for withdrawal of foreign forces from Vietnam and urged the member-states to boycott Israel which was in occupation of certain neighbouring Arab countries territories. It requested governments of member-nations to intensify their struggle against Apartheid and as a part of the struggle, not to allow the fly over facility to the South African aircrafts. The summit resolved to increase economic cooperation. It rejected thc proposal to establish a permanent secretariat of the Movement. The Indian delegation was led by Indira Gandhi.

There were signs of detente in Cold War Politics by the time the next summit met at Algiers (1973 attended by 75 countries). It welcomed easing of international tens~on, supported detente, and repeated NAM's known stand against imperialism and apartheid, and resolved to encourage economic, trade and technical cooperation amongst member- states. The conference demanded a change in the existing international economic order which violated the principle of equality and justice.

In 1976, the Colombo summit was attended by 85 countries. The U.N General Assembly had given a call for a New International Economic Order In 1974. The NAM at Colombo not only gave whole-hearted support to this demand, but asked for a fundamental change in the world monetary system an3 form. It was proposed that the Indian ocean be declared a zone of peace.

As there was a caretaker government in India, the then Prime Minister Charan Singh decided to send his foreign minister to represent the country at the sixth summit at Havana (1979). The number of participant rose to 92. Pakistan was admitted to the Movement and Burma (a former member) left the NAM. The Cuban President Fidel .a

Castro described the former U.S.S.R. as a natural friend of the Movement The summlt reiterted the well known position against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism and apartheid. The summit resolved to support freedom struggle in South Africa and to stop oil supply to that country. As Egypt had resolved her differences with Israel, some of the anti-Israel countries sought suspension of Egypt. The summit merely discussed the' proposal.

t

The Seventh Summit (due in 1982 at Baghdad) could not be held in time due to Iran- Iraq War. It was held at New Delhi in 1983 and attended by 101 countries. The New Delhi declaration sought to reiterate the known position of NAM on various issues. It hoped for any early end to the Iran-Iraq War and for liberation of Nam~bia. However, the conference failed to take any stand on Soviet intervention in Afghanistan. The Soviet occupation was openly supported by Vietnam, S. Yemen, Syria and E th~op~a . It was strongly opposed by Singapore, Nepal, Pakstan. Egypt and Zaire.

The Harare Conference (1986) adopted the Harare declaration and sought greater economic cooperation among its members and North-South cooperation for faster development in the South. The summit gave a call for new International Information

1

and Communication Order to end the western monopoly over news disbursement. In view of likely retaliation by the apartheid regime of South Africa against Frontline

1 countries who were applying sanctions, the NAM decided to set up a fund called Action for Resistance against Imperialism, Colonialism and Apartheid. In abbreviated form it came to be known as the AFRICA Fund.

The 1989 Belgrade Summit was the last one to be held before Yugoslavia disintegrated and at a time when Cold War was just ending. It gave a call against international terrorism, smuggling and drug trafficking. The principle of self-determination was reiterated particularly in the context of South Africa and her continued rule over Namibia.

The tenth conference at Djakarata in 1992 was the first assembly of NAM after the end of Cold War. The summit was at pains to explain that even after the collapse of Soviet Union and end of Cold War, there was utility of the movement as a forum of developing countries struggling against neo-colonialism and all forms of big-power .

interference. The main issue was preservation of NAM and strengthening its identity as an agency of rapid development for its members in a tension-free world.

The eleventh NAM Summit was held at Cartagena (Colombia) in October, 1995. India was represented by a high-power delegation led by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao

The summit, second after the end of the Cold War, tried to find its role in the changed circumstances of a world without blocs. An effort was made by Pakistan, at the foreign ministers level, to persuade NAM to evolve a system in which bilateral disputes may be sought to be settled by the movement. This was a clever way of bringing Kashmir on the agenda of NAM. Pakistan did not succeed in its design. An important decision taken by the 113-member NAM summit was to give a call for general and universal disarmament. India won a spectacular victory in its lone battle against the monopoly of the nuclear power countries over atomic weapons. The NAM resolved to take the issue to the United Nations by moving a resolution for the complete elimination of all weapons of mass destruction. This endorsement of India's position gave encouragement to India's consistent stand against signing the discriminatory Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT). The endorsement of India's position on NPT by NAM was all the more significant because 11 1 out of 113 members of NAM have already signed the NPT. They had earlier in 1995, voted at New York for indefinite extension of. the NPT. Pakistan continued to favour a regional nuclear arrangement and did not share India's concern about discriminatory nature of the NPT. Pakistan's view was also

, acco~nmodated in the final communique which urged states to conclude agreements for creation of nuclear weapon free zones, wherever they did not exist. Pending creation of such zones, Israel was called upon to renounce possession of nuclear weapons, to accede to NPT, and to promptly place all its nuclear abilities under full scope of International Atomic Energy safeguards. This summit also called for total and complete prohibition of the transfer of all nuclear-related equipment, information, material and facilities.




1) How did Jawaharlal Nehru contribute to the development of the Non-aligned Movement?

8.5 GOALS AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE NAM

A major goal of .the Non-aligned Movement was to end colonialism. The conferences of the NAM continuously supported the national liberation movements and the organisations that led those movements were given the status of full members in these conferences. This support greatly facilitated the Qecolonization process in Asia and Africa.

It also condemned racial discrimination and injustice and lent full support to the anti- apartheid movement in South Africa and Namibia. Today in both countries this obnoxious policy has ended with independence and majority rule.

A third area in which the NAM made a significant contribution was towards the preservation of peace and disarmament. Its espousal of peace, of peaceful co-existence and of human brotherhood, opposition to wars of any kind contributed to the lowering of Cold War tensions and expanded areas of peace in the world with less states joining military blocs. It also continuously strove for disarmament and for an end to the arms race stating that universal peace and security can be assumed only by general and complete disarmament, under effective international control. It underlined that the arms


Cold War Period race blocked scarce resources which ought to be used for socio-economic development. They first.called for a permanent moratorium or nuclear testing and later for the conclusion of a treaty banning the development, production stockpiling and use of all chemical weapons.

Fourthly, the non-aligned states succeeded in altering the composition of the U.N. and consequently in changing the tenor of the interstate relation conducted through its organs. In the forties and fifties delibralions in the U.N. organs were entirely dominated by the super power and their associate states. The emergence of non-alignment has changed this situation. It has created not only a new voting majority in the General Assembly but also common platform from where the third world can espouse its cause. It is no longer possible to ignore this platform. Thus we see that non-alignment has facilitated third world's participation in world politics and in the process has democratized the international relations.

The fifty important contribution was with regard to economic equality. It was the NAM that called for the establishment of a New International Economic Order (NIEO). Despite their political sovereignty, the newly independent states remained economically unequal. They remained the same raw materials producing countries, which sold their commodities to the developed world at a lower price, and bought manufactured good from them at a higher price. The tragedy was that they were and continue to be part of an oppressive economic system and that have to function within it. This makes them perpetually dependent on the developed North for capital goods, finance and technology. In order to end this economic exploitation, termed as neocolonialism, the NAM called for a restructuring of the international economic and monetary systems on the basis of equality, non-discrimination and cooperation.

Non-aligned Movement's struggle for economic justice has demonstrated how realistic I ,

is to divide the world between the North and the South rather than between the East and the West. It has proved that what concerns the majority of humanity is not the choice between capitalism and communism but a choice between poverty and prosperity. Preachings of non-alignment has made the developed world realize, to some extent, that deprivation of the third world would some day affect adversely their prosperity too. This has, to a large extent, forced them to come to the negotiating table. Besides the general success in making third world's economic demands negotiable, non-alignment has won its battle for some specific issues also. For example, economic sovereignty over natural resources is now an accepted principle. Non-alignment has also succeeded in legitimizing the interventionist trade policy that the developing countries want to pursue. It has successfully turned world attention to the problem created by the role as played by multinationals, specially in the context of transfer of technology. It has also succeeded in pursuing the IMF to establish system of compensatory finance which help the developing states in overcoming their balance of payments difficulties.

In the cultural field the establishment of the Pool of News Agencies needs to be considered as an achievement. This is the first time in history that politically and economically weaker nations have been able to gather information and communicate with the outside world without the aid of the western communication system.

The most significant achievement of non-aligned movement lies in the fact that it has taught the developing world how to pursue independent economic development in spite of being a part of the world capitalist ecwomic order which makes them dependent on the developed states for capital and technology.




1) Which one of the following is not a pre-condition for the maintenance of peace that non-aligned movement emphasizes?

a) Dissolution of the military blocs.

b) Armament

,/ C) Avoidance of conflict between the super powers. - 4 1

d) Democratisation of interstate relations.

2) Which of the following statements are correct?

a) Political liberation is a kind of self-determination supported by Non-aligned Movement.

b) The non-aligned states ask for restructuring of the existing international economic order because colonial exploitation had made them unequal economic partners.

c) The Non-aligned Movement does not emphasize of the economic sovereignty of the developing countries.

d) Better deal in international trade is an economic demand put forward by the Non-aligned Movement.

8.6 NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT TODAY

8.6.1 The Debate

According to some scholars, Non-aligned Movement was the product of Cold War and bipolarism. Since the Cold War has ended and the Soviet Union has disintegrated, the NAM has lost its relevance. Whereas some others consider, NAM's work programme which was charted out earlier, has been accomplished. For instance, colonies have gained independence, apartheid has been dismantled, foreign bases have lost their significance, a modest beginning has been made in the nuclear arms reduction and more particularly when alliances have been distintegrating where is the importance for non- alignment? Still there are some others who think that Non-aligned Movement has to be disbanded because of its ineffective performance which became particularly evident after the recent Gulf Crisis.

These critics of non-alignment need to remember that although NAM had emerged as a new additional foreign policy choice in the years of Cold War and the bipolar world, its continued relevance had little to do with either of contexts. It is a mere coincidence that the policy originated and evolved at the time it did. While decolonisation was the central basis of the Non-aligned Movement, the Cold War-or rather the aversion of Cold War bipolarity-only helped the course that the ~ o v e m e n t would take in the years to come.

It also needs to be remembered that the end of the Cold War has not made the essence of non-alignment irrelevant. The essence is the right to consider every issue on merit and the right to take whatever action is considered feasible, against what is regarded as a wrong, irrespective of whether that wrong is perpetuated by one power bloc in a unipolar world or by one or both the superpowers in a bipolar world. As Nehru stated in his address to the United Nations in New York "where freedom is menaced or justice

, threatened or where aggression takes place, we cannot and shall not be neutral". To say it in another way, "taking the essence of non-alignment as the assertion of independence in foreign affairs, non-alignment does not become irrelevant at any time. What is perhaps being objected to is the name."

8.6.2 The Relevance of Non-alignment

Today the world is no longer bipolar. But the~e is also no consensus about the nature of its configuration. Some writers feel that it is unipolar with the U.S. being the sole Super Power. Other writers argue that it is multipolar with the European Union, Japan, Russia and China being important centres of power together with the U.S. Still others have referred to it as "uni-cum-multipolar. Whatever the terminology, that may be used, there is no doubt that the U.S. and the G-7 powers together are in a position to work in concert and manage the rest of the world. There has arisen what has been called the new Northern concert of Powers. Within this global scenario, the practice of non- alignment becomes difficult because there is no longer the space for manoeuvering nor


Cold War Period does there exist the intermediatory role. Nevertheless, there is a vital need for its practice, precisely because the developing countries of the South need to assert their independence and act together, if they are not to be totally overwhelmed by the North.

The imperatives for a revitalized Non-aligned Movement springs from many sources.

For the developing countries this multipolarity presents an uncertain, complex and gloomy environment in which there may not be many new opportunities, but increased vulnerability. At present there seems to be no change of the developing countries being able to exploit the differences that are seen among the major economic powers. Of course, the situation may change in the medium or long-term.

The Third World countries are also being pressurised to agree to all the demand of the developed world on the question of opening of markets and intellectual property rights, even though the fact of the matter is that trends towards protectionism are rising in the developed countries at the time when most of the developing countries are seriously reforming their economies and providing for market deregulation. So also is the impression being fostered that the Third World is somehow responsible for environmental pollution when actually it is the wanton wastage of resources by the Northern when actually it is the wanton wastage of resources by the Northern countries that has been the chief source of environmental degradation. The Northern governments are bent upon maintaining their unsustainable production and consumption systems. At the same time, they expect the Southern governments to make all the adjustments and sacrifices necessary to keep the environment safe for the North. Now the prospects of the North imposing sanctions and other punitive measures on the South in the name of environmental protection looms large before us.

Thirdly, there is a tendency on the part of the developed countries to impose stringent restrictions on the transfer of technology to the developing countries. The ever-growing list of items subjected to the so-called dual use restrictions effectively threatens to deprive the developing countries of the fruits of technological progress in many key areas. Such restrictions have come to cover everything from computers to machine tools, to specialised alloys to chemicals and even to medical equipment. They are imposed in the name of preventing proliferation even though the major responsibility for proliferation often rests with the very countries that are imposing the restrictions. This is extremely unfair.

Fourthly, the world continues to be divided into the nuclear 'haves' and 'have-nots'. The nuclear 'haves' seem to be determined to retain their arsenals of the nuclear weapons, albeit on a reduced scale and to prevent others from acquiring such weapons. The irony is that the targets of nuclear weapons are now the countries of the Third World as these are being looked upon as the main threat to the security of the nuclear-weapons powers. Instead of being discarded after the end of the Cold War, deterrence is being retained and honed for being used discriminately against the countries of the Third World. The countries of the Third World are now under tremendous pressure to desist from developing weapons of mass destruction and to reduce their alleged excessive military expenditure.

Fifthly, instead of revitalising multilaterialism under the United ~ a t i o k , the new alliance headed by the United States has successfully mounted an all out campaign to destroy the multilateral character of the world body to alter its agenda and to undermine its functioning to certain areas. Hard-core economic issues like the removal of poverty, developmental plans, trade, money, finance and debt have been taken off the agenda of the United Nations and transferred to the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, over which they have greater control and which permit them to use cross-conditionalities and cross-relation. Organisation forming part of the UN family are being held in leash through denial of the finances due to them. And in the UN Security Council, it is the permanent members which, acting in close cooperation, take all the decisions affecting world peace and security.

There are a number of ad hoc discriminatory regimes aimed at preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. These include regimes for chemical weapons (the 'Australian Club), nuclear weapons "London Supplier Group" (LSG) and Missiles (the Missile Technology Control Regimes, or MTCR). The lists of dual purpose

technologies, substances and equipment which cannot be exported to the countries of the Third World under these regimes are so extcnsive as to have the effect of freezing the technological and industrial development of the developing countries in those vital areas. It is also very difficult to judge whether the restrictions applied in any particular case are motivated by the commercial considerai.ion of preventing the country concerned from developing competitive capacity or by the consideration of ensuring non- proliferation. These regimes have no sanction of intcrnational law. As they are outside the United Nations and their membership is restricted, they have the effect of undermining multilateralism.

C I All the Third World countries are facing today the threat of the disintegration-of nation-

states. The examples are Czechoslovakia, Ethiopia, the former Soviet Union and

I Yugoslavia. Being sure of their own national integrity, which is underpinned by their

i military power or that of their allies and in view of their own relative political stability

i and economic prosperity, the countries of the new alliances have started espousing causes and championing principles aimed to encourage fissiparous tendencies in those countries of the Third World where the economic and political situation is far from stable. This may lead to further disintegration of nation-states'; recently discovered enthusiasm of the new alliance for self determination use its political and economic leverage to interfere in the affairs of other states in the name of human rights and good governance and the sanctions that it has successfully sought for intervention in other countries on humanitarian grounds-are all pointers in this direction. Sovereignty, of late, has never been absolute, but now it is being subjected to further curtailment and abridgement.

Then, there is a trend at present in the field of trade to resort increasingly to unilateral and bilateral coercive measures as exemplified in the application of the Special and

i Super 301 of the US Trade and Competitiveness Act, to negotiate reciprocal access to markets and to use cross-retaliation. This practice has not been stopped even after signing the GAIT Treaty at Marrakesh by 115 countries including America in April, 1994. Moreover, the attempt by the developed countries to raise new issues not directly linked to trade, such as labour standards, social conditions and environment at the , recently concluded GAIT Treaty clearly proves that the newly formed world trading system is not likely to serve any better the interests of the developing countries.

The above analysis shows that with the end of the Cold War, the threat to and pressure . on the independence of the non-aligned countries have assumed new forms. The present

negative trends in the world are contrary to the aims and objectives of the Non-aligned Movements for a just, equitable and democratic world order. None of the NAM countries or group of countries, however, big or rich they may be, can face these new realities alone. Hence, the countries of NAM must continue to stay and act together for common thought and action. But question is how to bell the cat? The answer is: the

I non-aligned countries can reverse the above negative trends by three important ways:

a) reforming and strengthening the United Nations; b

b) encouraging South-South Cooperation; and

1 C) consolidating the Movement through necessary reforms.

Thus the realities of current global politics make non-alignment equally relevant today for the developing'countries of the world as it was during the Cold War period.

However, while Non-alignment continues to be relevant, the role of the Non-aligned Movement in current global affairs has been somewhat declining. The NAM could not first prevent the conflict between two of its members-Iraq and Kuwait and neither could it play an effective role in the subsequent Gulf crises. Nor could it halt the civil

i war in Yugoslavia, itself an important member.

One of the reasons for its inefficiency is that today the NAM is faced with serious internal problems. Some of these include the membership criteria which is too liberal and often violated, the lack of self discipline amongst its members, the weaknesses in

I the method of consensus and the absence of any mechanism for monitoring of global

I events.


Cold War Period

40



ii) check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.

1) Discuss the achievement of the Non-aligned Movement.

2) Can the Non-aligned Movement serve an useful purpose in future?

8.7 LET US SUM UP

Non-alignment emerged in the context of two global developments: the national liberation struggles of colonies and the Cold War between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. leading to two military blocs and alliances. Despite political independence, the new states were economically underdeveloped and vulnerable to new imperialist pressures.

The term non-alignment denotes the perspective of states that wanted to remain outside this system of alliances in order to follow an independent course of action in external policy and relations. The imperatives for non-alignment sprang from economic, political, strategic and indigenous sources.

These states came together on a common platform and formed the Non-aligned Movement. It provided an important forum for the discussion of common problems facing the developing countries of the South and for arriving at Concerted Action to achieve common aims. It upholds principles which seek to promote political and economic justice in the international system. Its achievement were significant. There is debate about the relevance of non-alignment in a world without Cold War or bipolarism. But while the context of Cold War may have changed, the world remains divided into the rich and the poor nations. The developing countries which constitute three-fourth of the worlds population remain only on the periphery of the international system. The policy of non-aligned will remain valid until the system operates on the basis of genuine equality and reciprocity. There is an urgent need to reactivate the Non-aligned Movement in order to work concertedly for a more egalitarian world order.


Willettes, Peter, 1978: The Non-Alignment Movement: The Origin of a Third World Alliance, Popular Prakashan: Bombay.

Rana, A.P., 1976: The Imperatives of Non-alignment.

A. Appadorai & Rajan M.S., 1985: India's Foreign Policy and Relations.

Bandopadhyaya, J., 1970 : The Making of India's Foreign Policy: Determinants, Institutions, Processes, Personalities.

Rajan, M.S., 1990: Non-alignment and Non-aligned Movement.

Rajan, M.S., 1990: The Future of Non-alignment and Non-aligned Movement.



1) a) Cold War rivalry encouraged United States to launch a world-wide battle against communism.

b) In this pursuit it tried to make the Asian states its political allies.

c) This threatened the freedom of those states.

d) To protect their freedom these states decided to become non-aligned.


1) a) First Nehru tried to form an Asian-African front by convening the Asian Relations Conference and the Asian-African Conference.

b) Later he endeavoured to make this a world-wide front by joining hands with the like-mined countries like Yugoslavia and others.


2) a) b) d) % * .

5, .' Check Your Progress 4 1.

a 1) The movement'has facilitated decolonisation, increased the chances of securing

peace, helped in democratising international relations, made the world recognise the

C problem of economic justice and has partially won the battle for economic rights; and subverted the cultural imperialism of the West.


2) Yes. Since economic division is, and will remain in'future, as the most significant division among states, non-aligned movement would be required to perfom the important task of fighting for the economic demands of the third world.

UNIT 9 ARMS RACE AND THE NUCLEAR THREAT

Structure

Objectives Introduction Background to the Nuclear Arms Race 9.2.1 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race 9.2.2 The Manhatten Project 9.2.3 Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period

The Nuclear Arms Race : How it is different from all the Previous Arms Races in History 9.3.1 The Trinity Test 9.3.2. Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings 9.3.3. 'New York Times' and the Trinity Test

Different Phases of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Post-War Period 9.4.1 Fear of the Soviets and Communism 9.4.2 1945 to 1953 : Period of US Monopoly 9.4.3 1957 to 1968 : Period of 'Missile Crisis' and the ICBM Race 9.4.4 1968 to late 1970s : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race 9.4.5 1981 : Reagan's Strategic Modernization Plan 9.4.6 1983 : Militarization of Space-Reagan's Star War Programme 9.4.7 1984-1991 : Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the last days of

collapsing Soviet Union. 9.4.8 1991 to 1997 : Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet Union Nuclear Arms Race in the Third World and South Asia 9.5.1 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms Race in South Asia 9.5.2 India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race 95.3 'Domino Theory' in South Asia 9.5.4 General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia

Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

9.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit deals with Arms Race and the Nuclear Threat in the present day world. After studying this unit, you will be in a position to:

understand the background to the nuclear arms race;

explain how the nuclear arms race is different from all the previous arms races; * discuss the different phases of the nuclear arms race in the post-war period; and

emarnine the nuclear arms race in the Third World and especially in South Asia.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

This unit on 'Arms Race and Nuclear Threat' is part of Block 3 which deals with what is called the 'Cold War Period'; i.e., after the Second World War and the emergence of what is termed as Superpower Dominance. In Unit &'World War 11: Causes and Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)' you have read about how the USA and the USSR emerged as Superpowers in international politics after the end of the Second World War.

In Unit 7 : 'Cold War: Meaning, Patterns and Dimensions', you have learnt how the collapse of Germany and its allies in 1945 led to the emergence of what has been termed as 'Cold War' between the-two main powers of the post-1945 international order

i.e. USA and USSR. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) which was dealt with in Unit 8 of this block was a consequence of the cold war power bloc politics.

One thing common to the post-1945 international order as well as the pre-1945 world was the arms race. When studying about World War I and 11, you would have surely read about the arms race which was both quantitative and qualitative in character. It would also have been noticed that the arms race in its qualitative dimension in both the world wars was itself one of the greatest causes of the two wars. From the invention of dynamite by Sir Alfred Nobel of the Novel Industries in the First World War period, to the invention of rockets by Germany in the Second World War, it is the search for the ultimate weapon which could win all wars that constituted the greatest push for the arms race. In this madness scientists, nations, people, soldiers, politicians all fell prey and ended up only killing greater and greater number of civilians.

In the present unit, we will concentrate on the arms race in the post-1945 international order. As has been stated before, this quest for a qualitatively more destructive weapon was the greatest motivating factor in bringing the world a step closer to war, be it the First or the Second World War. The key difference in the arms race before 1945 (i.e. in the interwar period) and after 1945 was the nuclear dimension. Prior to 1945, all the arms races in human history never confronted what is now popularly known as the 'Nuclear Threat'. After 1945, the arms race that humanity got engaged in became the greatest living threat to life itself as known on this planet. The difference lies in one single qualitative step in the arms race, and that step was the creation of the Atomic or Nuclear bomb in 1945. Thus, from 1945 the arms race we discuss in this Unit, remained no longer 'conventional' but acquired a nuclear character and from then till today, man is engaged in an arms race that puts both parties who engage in it, under a perpetual 'Nuclear Threat'.

9.2 BACKGROUNDTOTHENUCLEARARMSRACE

9.2.1 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race

The nuclear arms race between the superpowers began initially in the pre-second world war period between the Germans and the Allied Powers. It was in the context of this conflict prior to the Second World War that in 1938, at the Kaiser William Institute in Germany, Otto Hann and Dr. Fritz Steersman first split the atom. Lise Meitner and Otto Hann later declared this successful splitting of the atom amounting to a nuclear fission. It was a matter of coincidence that at this juncture in history, the greatest minds working on the 'atomic problem' were Jews and that too, German.

Hitler's rapid anti-Semitism during the period sent most of these great minds in Germany rushing to the USA where they were welcomed. These fleeing scientists informed the American military who were closely monitoring events in Europe. There was widespread apprehension that Germany might be the first to produce the nuclear bomb as the knowledge of splitting the atom was already available to it. Albert Einstein too was one of the refugees and he knew fully the significance of this discovery, for it was he who first unlocked the secret power of the atom to the modern world. He warned the President of the United States about it.

9.2.2 The Manhatten Project

The Americans under President Roosevelt were fully aware of the international implications and so began the race to build the bomb first. Roosevelt commissioned what was the top secret 'Man Hatten Project', the biggest scientific effort ever made costing 2 billion dollars under Maj. Gen. Leslie Groves to construct the atomic bomb in a record time. Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, Herbert York, Edward Teller, Hans Beth and a host of other scientific luminaries were involved in the production of the first three nuclear bombs.

The interesting aspect of this bomb construction was that though the initial enemy was Germany, slowly the real enemy for whom the bomb was constructed turned out to be the Soviet Union. In fact, Gen. Leslie Groves stated that he had no illusions that Soviets were the real enemy.-This fact is critical to an understanding of the post 1945 world.

Arms Race and Nuclear Threat

1 Cold War Period 9.2.3 Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period

Germany, the first nation with whom the US engaged in the N-Arms race surrendered in May 1945 and all its nuclear facilities were destroyed, thus ending the first phase of an incipient nuclear arms race. Despite this the arms race had to continue once the weapons had been built. A new enemy across the horizon was discovered Communist Soviet Union. The fear of communism was ideologically fueling the furious pace of the A-Bomb construction. In that sense the emerging U.S. military-industrial complex was not wrong.

Communist USSR was definitely the biggest power confronting USA and its western allies once Germany collapsed. The world was definitely getting divided into two camps, the capitalist and the socialist and Europe including Germany was its first victims. The Allies could not do anything about it. Something had to be found, a new ultimate weapon which could stop and possibly destroy the march of communism. That something designed initially for fascist Germany and used for experimentation in Japan was to be probably used later against the Socialist Soviet union. This was the underlying ideological war cry in the American establishment and the subtle reason for continuing the arms race into the post-Second World War world era.

The discovery of the split atom gave confidence to the United States that it could fight the 'cold war' or 'iron-curtain' that Winston Churchill said had descended over Europe. It was an indication that the new war after 1945 would be fought against the USSR.




1) Examine the background to the nuclear arms race.

2) What are the rationale for the arms race in the post-war period?

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Arms Race and Nuclear Threat 9.3 THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE : HOW IT IS

DIFFERENT FROM ALL PREVIOUS ARMS RACES IN HISTORY

9.3.1 The 'Ikinity Test

Of the three bombs constructed, the first was tested on July 16, 1945 at Alamagordo, New Mexico. It is known as the Trinity Test. The successful Trinity Test heralded the birth of the Nuclear-Bomb in human history and the dawn of the nuclear age. Neils Bohr, the famous Danish Physicist, prophetically observed the insetting arms race and its qualitative difference. In a letter to Resident Roosevelt on 3 July 1944 he mentioned that a weapon of unparalleled power was being created which would completely change all future conditions of warfare. Some scientists anticipating the arms race between the US and the USSR urged the American Government to share the nuclear secrets with Soviet Union and thus prevent an arms race.

However, it is obvious that the scientists were too naive of the game of politics as well as the intensity of international politics. Such advice was never heard, and the race was continued in the hope of victory. To the military desperately looking for a way to deal with the Germans, the Japanese qnd finally the Soviets, the Trinity Test held out hope that they could win.

9.3.2 Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings

Two more historical events, however, finally sealed the destiny of mankind. They were the dropping of the two remaining untested nuclear devices, i.e., the 5 ton uranium bomb on Hiroshima on August 6 and on Nagasaki on August 8, 1945. Over 250,000 people died in both the cities and the 'living corpses' who survived bled incessantly and were blackened with their skins hanging in shreds, their hair scorched to the roots. Most were totally naked, their clothes burnt from their bodies. George Bernard Shaw observed in 'Man and Superman' about the art of killing that man, "out does nature herself ... when he goes out to slay, he carries a marvel of mechanism that lets loose at the touch of his finger all the hidden molecular energies and leaves the javelin, the arrow and blow pipe of his fathers far behind". Hiroshima and Nagasaki exemplified that.

9.3.3 'New York Times' and the 'Ikinity Test

It would be easier to comprehend the qualitative significance of nuclear arms race if we take note of two observations made at the time of the Trinity Test. The 'New York

s Times' reporter who witnessed the test observed "... a light not of this world, the light of many suns in one. It was a surprise such as the world had never seen, a great green super can climbing in a fraction of a second to a height of more than 8,000 ft, rising even higher until it touched the clouds, lighting earth and sky all round with a dazzling {uminosity. Up it went, a great ball ,of fire about a mile in diameter, changing colours, as it kept shooting upward, from deep purple to orange, expanding, growing bigger, rising as it was expanding, an elemental force freed from its bonds after being chained for billions of years. For a fleeting instant the colour was unearthly green, such as one only sees in the corona of the sun during a total eclipse. It was as though one had been privileged to witness the birth of the world to be present at the moment of creation when the Lord said: "Let There Be Light".

Robert Oppenheimer perhaps summarized in one line the destiny of modern man's predicament vis-a-vis his own creation, when he quoted the Gita to exclaim "I have become death, destroyer of worlds". The roar created by the explosion at Alamagordo could be heard 50 miles afar and the pillar of fire that the New York Times reporter talked about rose 6 miles into the sky. These observations of the Trinity Test and the dropping of the bomb at Hiroshima and Nagasaki sum up why the arms race mankind got caught in after 1945 is totally different in its complexion from all the previous arms races in human history. The sad part, however, for any idealist scholar of international relations is that despite these evidences of destruction, the arms race continued with greater vigour and vengeance.




1) What is the Trinity Test?

9.4 DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IN THE POST-WAR PERIOD

9.4.1 Fear of the Soviets and Communism

It was the Trinity Test on July 16, 1945 that truly sparked off the nuclear arms race between the US and the Soviet Union. Despite the horror of Hiroshima and Nagasaki the race never stopped. 'The second fact that fuelled the nuclear arms race was the Soviet Communist enemy. This was, in fact, testified to by Gen. Leslie Groves who said he had no illusions as to whom the bomb was really being built for, i.e., the Soviets. The ideological, political and military threat to capitalism by rising communism had to be dealt with. The discovery of the nuclear bomb was truly the biggest boost to the arms race. United Kingdom followed US-Soviet acquisition of the bomb in 1952, France in 1960 and China in 1964. The nuclear arms race passed through the following phases, they cannot be clearly distinguished from each other.

9.4.2 1945 to 1953: Period of US Monopoly

During this period, the United States first enjoyed a total monopoly until 1953 and then, nuclear superiority. In this phase, the US territory was regarded as a sanctuary because the Soviets did not have any reciprocal delivery capability to reach the American targets from USSR. The United States, on the other hand, could attack the Soviet targets from American bases in Western Europe.

9.4.3 1957 to 1968 : Period of 'Missile Crisis' and the ICBM Race

The monopoly enjoyed the US during the first phase was broken when the Soviets successfully tested the ICBM in 1957 creating what has been called the 'Missile Crisis' in America. The advent of ICBMs shifted the focus of the nuclear arms race to strategic weapons; i.e. Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), Sea Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) and strategic or inter-continental bombers which provided the strategic tripod. In 1967, USSR tested what is called a Fractional Orbital Bombardment System. This accelerated the qualitative dimension of the nuclear arms race further into space.

9.4.4 1968 to Late 1970's : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race

The third phase in the nuclear arms race began when the American delivery technology took a gigantic leap by introducitfg what is called the Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) capability in their ICBMs in 1968. This meant that now one single lCBM could carry many small nuclear warhead fitted missiles which on re- entering Soviet airspace would go in different directions hitting many targets. MIRV marked a tremendous exponential upgradation of the arms race. This sent shivers down the Soviets who, however, mastered the technology by 1974. During this phase, the Soviets deployed two other weapon systems. First, the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM)

system in 1968 and second, the first Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile and warhead, thus Arms Race and Nuclear Threat

ensuring that the arms race went on.




1) Briefly examine the period of US Monopoly in the Arms Race.

. 2) Describe the efforts made by the erstwhile Soviet Union to break the US Monopoly in armaments.

9.4.5 1981 : Regan's Strategic Modernization Plan

The next major technological tussle took place between the two Superpowers over the MX-Missile. On October 2, 1981 President Regan announced a strategic modernization plan at an estimated cost of $ 160 billion. The weapons systems planned included :

(i) Missile Experimental or MX missle : 100 of these were to be built; (ii) B-IB Bombers : 100 of them to be built; (iii) STEALTH Bombers that are radar resistant by 1990s; (iv) TRIDENT-I1 D-5 missiles-one per year between 1983 and 1987; (v) Command Control and Intelligence system (C,I) to be modernized; (vi) NAVSTAR Satellite global positioning system; (vii) Encapsulated dormant missiles; (viii) TERCOM for precision guided cruise missile; an advanced communication system; (ix) Global Positioning System (GPS) for guidance of the ICBMs during the boost phase; (x) Route encrypted comunications to missiles or launchers; (xi) slackwire buoys radio reception by submarines; (xii) Fuel-Cell propulsion.

9.4.6 1983: Militarization of Space-Reagan's Star Wars Programme

The militarization of space began from 1958 and since then, over 2219 satellites-military and civilian have been launched by t'he superpowers and other nations, and 75% of the satellites launched have been for surveillance and military use, thus clearly violating the Space Treaty of 1967. On March 23, 1983 President Reagan announced the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) popularly called 'Star Wars' Programme costing 1 trillion dollars to raise the militarization of space to a qunlitatively rlcr; high. The aim being to build both a ground based and space based Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) to protect US territory against Soviet strategic missile attacks.

Theoretically, the SDI programme, was supposed to be an alternative to the Mutual Assured Destruction or MAD dogma as it would provide Mutual Assured Survival. It was thought the render nuclear weapons obsolete be relying on three new types of non- nuclear weapon systems. These were :

Cold War Period i) Kinetic Energy Weapons

ii) Directed Energy Weapons and

iii) Microwave Energy Weapons

All these weapons were based on various types of chemicals, electromaphetic forces. and x-rays and lasers. The SDI programme did not take off for many reasons. They being:

a) It was too expensive.

b) It was not a sure technological venture, in the sense that it was far too complicated and thus not feasible.

C ) The Soviets could easily render SDI ineffective by building a counter SDI.

d) Reagan never consulted his European NATO allies and infact, surprised them by his announcement thus creating opposition to the programme in Europe.

e) Reagan by signing the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) completely ended the political rationale of the SDI programme.

f) In the USA itself, in the Congress and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, both the Republicans and the Democrats were of the opinion that they would not allow SDI to pass at any cost and thus, damage the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty of 1972.

Thus, they rejected SDI as otherwise it would have meant that the ABM Treaty alongwith SALT I and I1 would be nullified. Same would be the fate of START negotiations thus destroying the whole edifice of arms control and the start of an unbridled nuclear arms race.

Added to this, many important scientists in USA, important people like James Schlesinger, former Secretary of Defense Mc-George Bundy, cold warriors likc George F. Kennan and Robert McNamara, former Secretary of Defence Harold Brown and a host of other people opposed the very fundamental logic of SDI that it would make the world safe of USA by removing the stability provided by the MAD capability of both the superpowers. Later on, the sweeping changes initiated by Michael Gorbachev within the USSR vide 'Glassnost' and 'Perestroika' and allowing democracy in Eastern Europe ended the whole logic of SDI.




1) What were the main cornponcnts of US President Ronald Reagan's Strategic Modernisation Plan?

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\ 2) What were the reasons for the criticism of Regan's SDI P r o g r a ~ r i ; ~ , ~ !

9.4.7 1984-1991: Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the Last Days of Collapsing Soviet Union

By January 1985, due to the damage already done by SDI of Ronald Reagan, massive rearmament programmes were on the both the sides, and the future direction of the arms race was dependent upon the two superpowers.

The arms race was on at three levels of nuclear weaponary, i.e.,-space weapons, intercontinental weapons, and intermediate nuclear weapons. The US position on militarization of space through SDI really put the arms negotiation in difficult state. The Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko said, "If there were no advancement on the issues of outer space, it would be superfluous to discuss the possibility of reducing strategic armaments."

The US in 1984 had a massive programme for rearmament of many types of weapon systems. The rearmament programme of USA consisted of more Sea Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs); about 800 more nuclear warheads to be fitted on sea and air delivery systems; MX missile testing; Midgetsman Missiles; the eighth Trident submarine fitted with more accurate SLBMs and 100 B-lB bombs. On the Soviet side, in 1984-1985 the rearmament meant rearmament of all Soviet SS-17s SS-18s and SS-19s into the MIRV ed mode, a new TYPHOON class submarine and testing a new type of more accurate SLBM. There was a reported attempt to make 40% of Soviet ICBMs on the movable mode instead of the existing 25% and all 243 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBMs) were to be deployed. All in all, 1984-85 was a period of massive rearmament of all weapon systems.

In 1985-86, the picture as regards arms race was the same. There was no restraint. The only hope that some kind of arms control was possible was generated by the November 1985 summit meeting at Geneva between President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev where both in a joint statement stated that, "The sides .... have agreed that a nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought." They also agreed to hold summit level meetings in 1987 and 1988. These words were an indirect admission by USA that the SDI was not workable. In other words, it recognised as unfeasible that the MAD doctrine could be replaced and a limited nuclear war waged by militarizing space was recognised as unfeasible. Apart from this, there was little progress in the talks on arms reduction in Europe.

As regards the nuclear arms race in 1986-87, the situation was still more or less the same except that there was a little movement towards arms control. The US put its first MX ICBM and B-1B bomber on operational position and on a 24 hour alert. Deployment of Pershing I1 missiles and SS-20s continued in Europe. However, certain positive developments took place which definitely halted the arms race in the long run.

First, the 27th CPSU Congress in February 1986 decided on Perestroika (Restructuring of Economy), Glasnost (Openness and Democratization) and reversal of military confi.ontation in Europe and opening up of Eastern Europe. Second, the Raykiajavik summit on 11 and 12 October 1986 declared that a nuclear war could never be won and should never be fougkt. Third, within the USA a tattered Reagan's economy and the Senate's opposition to SDI hit US arms race plans. Fourth, there were differences between USA and its NATO Allies who were never consulted on SDI. Thus, though the arms race went on in 1986-87 it was definitely going to end soon.

As regards 1987-88, on December 8, 1987 the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) was signed for the elimination of all intermediate and short range missiles. The agreement required the USA and USSR remove 2695 intermediate range GLBMs with a range of 1000 to 5500 kms. It also envisaged the removal of GLBMs short range i.e., 500 to 1000 kms. USSR agreed to remove 1836 missiles while USA removed 867 missiles. The INF Treaty saved the ABM Treaty from being neutralised by SDI, because with this treaty the rationale for SDI became even weaker and Reagan found it very difficult to push the matter in the Congress as well as with US public. In this sense, it saved the world from another dangerous dimension of arms race i.e., the space opening

UP.

1988-89 was another significant year as it too had something to show in terms of peace.


Cold War Period 1988-83 can be characterised as the year of settlement of disputes in Afghanistan, Namibia, Iran-Iraq War, Israel-PLO and South Africa. It was also the year Gorbachev announced at the UN, unilateral reduction of Soviet troops and armaments in Europe amounting to 40% reduction of Soviet tank divisions and 50% of Soviet tanks deployed in GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. This was a very significant political and military move as regards the continuation of conventional and nuclear arms race in Europe.

1989-90 can be characterized as the Year of Europe. By the end of 1989, almost all Soviet Allies in Eastern Europe and Central Europe except Rumania and Albania were free. In August 1989, the first non-communist government got elected in Poland. By November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall had crashed. Elections also took place in Hungary, GDR and Czechoslovakia. On 29 December 1989 Vaclav Havel took over as the President of Czechoslovakia. At the Malta summit in December 1989, President Gorbachev showed readiness to regulate further and move ahead on the START process. Gewge Bush, the US President, hesitated a bit though he committed US towards a Chemical Weapon Ban and the required agreement in the future. I

1990 was a year full of events. While Europe and the two superpowers were moving towards peace the Gulf was in flames with the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq on August 2, 1990. Apart from this, in 1990, the WARSAW Pact was dissolved on 3rd March. On June 1, 1990, US and USSR signed a treaty on the destruction of and non-production of chemical weapons and on multilateral measures to ban chemical weapons. It was decided that by 31 December, 1992, all chemical weapons in the world would be destroyed and' only 5000 tons of agents would be kept. Then, the membership of the Missiles Technology Control Regime (MTCR) expanded. On November 20, 1990 there was the Treaty and a Joint Declaration of Conventional Armed Forces (CFF) forever reducing the nuclear threat in Europe.




1) What were the salient features of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev era?

9.4.8 1991 to 97 : Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet Union

1991-92 was a historic year in the sense that due to the collapse of USSR, the enemy that fueled the arms race for US militarists broke up into 14 new states. Yugoslavia also broke up and in one stroke the enemy in so far as the US was concerned was gone and so, the whole political ideologic'al basis of the nuclear arms race.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2nd August 1990 led to the launch of US and Allied coalition attack under UN auspices against Iraq on 17th January, 1991. It ended on 28th February, 1991 with the complete defeat of Iraq. Arms trade as a result showed a down-ward trend. In 1991 the total value of global arms trade touched $ 22, 114 million. This .was 20% less than in 1990.

In 1992-93 USA, the Russian Federation, France, and Britain all agreed to halt the Arms Race and Nuclear Threat

nuclear arms race totally except vis-a-vis R & D. At the regional level, there was further concretization of Europe's complete demilitarization by the signing of the Helsinkl Document by all Eastern and West European countries. Added to this, there was the world summit on environment at Rio and UN Secretary General's declaration of the 'Agenda for Peace'.

The peripd between 1993 and 1997 saw two other significant events taking place in~the nuclear arms race. First, in 1995 the NPT review Conference took place for an indefinite extension of the treaty and on 24th September 1996, the Comprehensive Test Ban Traty (CTBT) was up for signature. US and the other nuclear weapons states and 60 other non-nuclear states signed the CTBT. India did not sign either the NPT or CTBT. The government argued that it did so to keep the nuclear weapons option open. This position taken by India brings us to the question of nuclear arms race in the Third World, dealt with in the following section.

.; Check Your Progress 6

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer. L


I ) Examine the nuclear arms race after the collapse of the USSR.

9.5 NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IN THE THIRD WORLD AND SOUTH ASIA

r The nuclear arms race that went on in the First World throughout the Cold War definitely had its impact on the Third World. The quest of the German Bomb fueled the

r American 'Manhattan Project' initially, and as the Second World War came to a close it was the Soviet ideological and military power manifest in the occupation of Eastern Europe that really put Americans firmly on the track of nuclear bomb making.

However, at that time the Allies needed the Soviet Communists to destroy fascist Germany, Italy and Japan. Stalin's intelligence agencies were well aware of the secret American nuclear programme and at Postdam, his suspicions were confirmed when President Roosevelt informed Stalin of a secret weapon. This knowledge fueled the Soviet desire to build the bomb at a feverish pace to counter the threat form captalist west. The bombing on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, though not really necessary were also a veiled threat to Soviets of the American resolve. These events in a way led to the nuclear arms race. After 1949, when Communist China emerged under Mao, it is believed that the Chinese through Soviet help (prior to Sino-Soviet split) too got the nuclear capability and tested in 1964. China was considered a Third World state and one can see how the ideological and political nature of nations deeply affected their decision to develop a nuclear capability.

Cold War Period 9.5.1 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms Race in South Asia

Thus, the acquisition of nuclear capability of China in 1964 signalled the beginning of a nuclear arms race in South Asia. The Indo-Pak conflict was not actually the factor responsible for India's quest for nuclear capability as many scholars claims, though it came in much later. The Kashmir conflict and partition and the three subsequent wars in 1948, 1965 and 1971 did fuel the conventional arms race.

9.5.2 India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race

The nuclew arms race in South Asia however was not of India's making.

It rather came after the massive defeat India suffered at Chinese hands in 1962, which hit our whole defense and foreign policy. This followed by the news of Chinese exploding the nuclear device in 1964 shook the Indian political and military establishment and they decided to develop India's nuclear capability. The decision was also influenced, perhaps, by the Chinese collusion with Pakistan in the 1950s prior to the 1962 war. It brought home to the Indian strategists the real possibility of Chinese and Pakistanis joining hands against India. After 1962, there was thus no looking back and the nuclear arms race reached South Asia.

When India conducted the Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) in 1974, the Pakistanis too decided to go for a nuclear programme. The onset of the Second Cold War with the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan 1979 put Pakistan on the high priority zone of US in its fight against communism. It signalled deeper military cooperation and aid to Pakistan and some say, the beginning of some help even in fledgling Pakistan nuclear weapons programme.

As of now, the South Asian region, is definitely a zone of nuclear competition with India consciously 'keeping its option open' and not exercising its capability. This is expressed in its refusal to sign both the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty in the 1995 Review Conference ahd the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) on 24th September, 1996.

9.5.3 'Domino Theory' in South Asia

The South Asian case amply demonstrates the 'Domino Theory' which fuels nuclear arms race or any arms race. First, it was the German threat to Europe which made the US go for the bomb. Then, the Soviet threat made US go in for the bomb again. The bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki led Soviets to acquiring the bomb. The common threat to world communism led to Soviets helping the new communist state of China in 1949 with nuclear technology which helped China to conduct a nuclear test in 1964. The Soviets, however, had refused to give nuclear weapon design to China, which became the cause of Sino-Soviet rift. The Indian defeat in 1962 and Pakistan's collusion with the Chines led the Indians to develop the nuclear capability by 1974. The Indian explosion coupled with successive defeats in wars with India led the Pakistanis onto the bomb. The cases of other third world countries acquiring the bomb in similar; e.g. the Iraqi and Iranian nuclear programmes. The South African case too is due to perceived survival threats. The other nuclear capable states are Argentina and Brazil-two major States in, Latin America.

9.5.4 General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia

Overall one can say that the third world nuclear arms race is definitely a product of the nuclear arms race in the first world and the many conflicts within the Third World sustain it. The cold war military alliance system helped this process. Now, after the collapse of soviet Union and the massive reduction prior to it and after it in Western nuclear arsenals, nuclear peace has been brought to the world in the sense that we aren't always 'living on the edge' of a nuclear holocaust. However, the non-resolution of conflicts in the Third World, e.g. Indo-Pak conflicts, Arab-Israeli conflict is a definite reason for the continuance of nuclear arms race in the Third World.

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Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. F ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the wit.

t 1) What are the factor propelling the arms race in South Asia?

2) Briefly comment on India's stand on the nuclear proliferation issue.

9.6 LET US SUM UP

We can conclude this unit by recalling a few pertinent points. Thus:

i) The discovery of the.power of the 'atom' in both its creative and destructive senses was possibly the greatest event in 20th century history. The creation and blasting of the nuclear bomb by the US demonstrated its power with telling effect.

ii) The ideological conflict between capitalist West and socialist East was the single biggest factor instigating the nuclear arm race until the collapse of one side i.e., of the USSR in 1991.

iii) However, despite the demise of Socialist Soviet Union nuclear weapons still remain the basis for military power and their quest continues by many third world countries e.g. India, Pakistan, South Africa, Israel, Iran, Iraq and North Korea.

iv) The nuclear threat to humanity remains even today and there is very little hope of complete disarmament. The only possible way is probably to reduce the number of warheads and number of nations acquiring this technology for settling their disputes.

KEY WORDS

ABM-Anti-Ballistic Missile System : It is a weapon system designed to defend against a ballistic attack by intercepting and destroying ballistic missiles and their warheads in flight.


Cold War Period BMD-Ballistic Missile Defense : Systems capable of intercepting and destroying nuclear weapons in flight for defense against a ballistic Missile attack.

CFE Tnaty : The h a t y on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe : Negotiated in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), a process which began in 1973 and was signed in 1990 by NATO and WTO countries and came into force on 9 November, 1992.

NATO-North Atlantic h a t y Organisation : Created by the US and its allies in Western Europe after the Second World War to counter USSR.

WTO-Warsaw %sty Organisation: Created by Soviet Union in 1955 to counter NATO military alliance. Dissolved in 199 1.

ICBM-Inter Continental Ballistic Missile: Ground launched Ballistic Missile capable fo delivering a warhead to a target at ranges in excess of 5500 km.

INF-Intermediate Range Nuclear forces: are nuclear forces with a range oflfrom 1000 km. upto and including 5500 kms.

MIRV-Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicles, carried by a nuclear ballistic missile, which can be directed to separate targets along separte trajectories (as distinct from MRVs). A missile can carry two or more RVs.

MRV-Multiple Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicle, carried by a nuclear missile, directed to the same target as the missile's other RVs.

MAD-Mutual Assured Destruction: Concept of reciprocal deterrence which rests on the ability of the nuclear weapon powers to inflict intolerable damage on one another after receiving a nuclear attack.

Open Skies h a t y - A Treaty signed by 25 CSCE states in 1992, permitting flights by unarmed military or civilian surveillance aircraft over the territory of the signatory states, in the area from Vancouver to Vladivostock.

SLBM--Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile: A ballistic Missile launched from a submarine, usually with a range in excess of 5500 kms.

START I TREATY : Strategic Arms Reduction lkeaty : Between USA and USSR to reduce strategic nuclear weapons.

Strategic Nuclear Weapons : ICBMs, SLBMs and bomber aircraft carrying nuclear weapons of inter-continental range of usually over 5500 kms.

Doctriae of Deterrence : It theorically means that the most appropriate way to prevent your enemy employ atomic weapons against you is to put a counter threat by also possessing the atomic bomb.

Doctrine of Massive Retaliation: Was a strategy of employing nuclear weapons and outlined by US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles after President Eisenhower took over from President Truman in 1954. The massive retaliation doctrine was founded on responding to any communist inspired aggression, however marginal the confrontation, by means of a massive nuclear strike against major centres in the Soviet Union and China.

Doctrine of Limited War : Was propounded by Captain Basil Liddel Hart in the late 1940s. He argued in his book 'the Revolution in Warfare' in 1946 that "When both sides possess atomic power 'total warfare' makes nonsense... Any unlimited war waged with atomic power would be worse than non-sense, it would be mutually suicidal". He argued that war should, therefore, be a controlled affair and without barbarous excess. However, many US strategies criticized his concept of limited war as practically impossible.

Doctrine of Flexible Response : Adapted by NATO in 1967 and based on a flexible and balanced range of appropriate responses, conventional and nuclear, to all levels of aggression or threats. These responses, subject to appropriate political control, are

designed first to deter aggression and thus preserve peace; but, should aggression unhappily occur, to maintain the security of NATO area within the concept of forward defense.



Lawrence Freedman: The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy.

P:M.S. Blackett: Atomic Weapons and East West Relations.

Hedly Bull : The Control of the Arms Race.

Morton Halperin : Limited War in the Nuclear Age.

Freed Ikle : Can Nuclear Deterrence last out the country?

Robert Jervis : Perceptions and Misperceptions in International Politics.

Herman Kahn : On Escalation : Metaphors and Scenarios.

Henry Kissinger : Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy.

Thomas Shelling : Arms and Influence.

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1) See Section 9.2

2) See Section 9.2 and sub-section 9.2.3


1) SeeSection9.3


1) See Section 9.4 and sub-sections 9.4.1 to 9.4.4



1) See sub-sections 9.4.5 and 9.4.6

2) See sub-section 9.4.6






1) See Section 9.5


UNIT 10 DISARMAMENT AND PEACE MOVEMENT

Structure

10.0 Objectives 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Rationale of Disarmament i

10.3 Brief History of Disarmament 10.4 Disarmament Agreements and Treaties 10.5 Concept of Peace

1 10.6 Peace Movements 10.7 India, and Peace Movement and Disarmament

10.7.1 lndia and NPT 10.7.2 lndia and CTBT

10.8 Let Us Sum Up 10.9 Key Words 10.10 Some Useful Books 10.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

10.0 OBJECTIVES

Disarmament and peace are the desired goal of humanity. After going through this unit you would be in position to :

dcffne the concepts of disarmament and peace;

trace the hisotry of the movements for disarmament and peace in the world; and

discuss India's role and views on disarmament treaties so far signed.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

The word disarmament means the reduction or disbandment by a state of its military forces and weapons. The disarmament may be self imposed, externally imposed or due to international or regional treaties. Disarmarncnt may again be partial or general. Partial disarmament stands for the reduction of special types of weapons which are generally considered to be more dangerous. General and complete disarmament stands for abolition of all kinds of weapons. Though the general disarmament is the ideal position, the partial disarmament is the pragmatic approach. The present advocates of disarmament generally talk in terms of partial disarmament. Reductions deadly weapons . is the immediate goal while the general disarmament is the ultimate goal.

10.2 THE RATIONALE OF DISARMAMENT

The concept of disarmament his originated from an understanding that weapons are the source of tcnsion which at times create wars. The stock piling of arms instills mutual fear and hastility into interstate relations. It is being argued that in order to stop wars or hostilities and to develop trust between thc states, the weapons, which are considered to be the root of all these evils, are required to be eliminated.

Disarmament is necessary for maintaining peace and progress of the human civilization. The increasing stockpiles of armaments, continuing enlargement of the armed forces and the growing investment for research and dcvelopment of the weapon technology of the world pose fresh threats to peace and development of the human race. The invention and development of nuclear weapons have posed the threat of total annihilation of the human race in the event of another world war. All these have made the people more conscious about disarmament because only the elimination of these weapons can ease the tension in the world and remove the fear of any world wide holocaust. The

t

i invention and development of sophisticated military technology has made all countries - vulnerable. None can be self-sufficient in defense. It is impossible for any single country to defend itself from the attack of any other country. So disarmament is the only way to make the world safe. The increasing investment in the military industry is also consuming money and useful resources which otherwise could be diverted to the development sectors. In the context of the growing poverty in large parts of the world, the increasing investment in military industry can further increase the poverty and accentuate the social tension in every society of the world. The huge expenditure in the defence sector can only be stopped or decreased if the disarmament at least of partial type is achieved.

Disarmament and Peace Movement




1) Discuss in details the rationale for disarmament.

1'0.3 BRIEF HISTORY OF DISARMAMENT

The concept of disarmament is an old one. It has been in use as an instrument to achieve international security for a long time. Its dated history can be traced back to 546 B.C. when warring Chinese principalities met in a conference and signed a disarmament agreement to end protracted wars between them.

With the beginning of the modern period the urge for disarmament increased among the big powers. Several attempts were made by the Western powers and Russia. But none of these attempts could become successful because of deep rooted suspicions against the big powers. So the moves for disarmament were so designed that interests of the proposers could be protected. Not all disarmaments efforts ended in failure. Probably the first disarmament agreement in the modern age which still continuing was the one signed in 1817 by the Great Britain and the USA known as the Rush-Bagot Agreement it sought to demilitarize the Canadian American Frontier.

In 1899 first international disarmament conference was held in Hague. All European major powers attended the conference which ended without much success. However, it passed resolutions proscribing certain type of deadly weapons, and asking the states to limit the military expenses so that more funds could be diverted for developmental purpose. The second international disarmament conference was held again in Hague in 1907. The conference failed lo stop the contemporary growing arms race.

When First World War broke out in 1914, all waring countries broke their commitments, and undertakings which had been given by them in different conferences and meetings. After the war, the first international organisation, named the League of Nations was established in 1920. It served as a forum for holding discussions on the issues connected with the disarmament. Disarmament had been one of the cherished goals of League of Nations, under the auspices of the League conferences were held, studies on disarmament were sponsored. The League of Nations convened the first World Disarmament Conference in 1932. The Conference however contributed to augment the process of disarmament.

Disarmament conferences were also held outside the League of Nations. The United States organised a Naval Conference in Washington in 1922. The Washington Naval Conference ended with a treaty which limited the size of warships, imposed restrictions on the building of warships and aircrafts for ten years. The treaty also banned the indiscriminate raising of naval bases in the Pacific.

Cold War Period The large scale destruction in Second World War and the devastating impact of the explosion of atom bombs on Japan again made the people anxious for the world peace and disarmament. The war ended with formation of the new world body, known as the United Nations, (UN). The UN General Assembly in its very first session in 1946 founded the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC), which was asked to make specific recommendations for the elimination of weapons. The UN General Assembly also called the UNAEC to prepare plan for the peaceful use of the atomic energy for the developmental purpose.




1) Who signed the first disarmament agreement and when?

,) Write short notes on:

a) Rush-Bagot Agreement

b) Hague Disarmament Conference

c) First World Disarmament Conference

.............................................................................................................................................

d) U.N.A.E.C.

10.4 DISARMAMENT AGREEMENTS AND TREATIES

In the wake of the Second World war efforts for disarmament increased. Immediately after the war, the USA put forward a proposal, named as the Baruch Plan. In response

to the US plan, the USSR came out with the Gromyko Plan which was diametrically opposed to the Baruch Ptan. After the failure of these plans, more plans were proposed by both the sides. In 1955 the USA proposed the Open Skies Plan. It was also rejected. The plahs and proposals so far advocated by the different powers were so designed that the proposer's monopoly over its weapons remained frozen indefinitely.

However the disarmament movement started registering progress from the early 1960's. In 1950's both the USA and the USSR were placed under new administration. In USA General Eisenhower came in power following presidential election in 1952 and in the USSR due to Stalin's death a new leadership emerged. Besides, the USSR acquired the capability of making of nuclear weapons. It brought the USSR near to the nuclear capability of the USA. These developments created the way to achieve some success in disarmament.

In 1963 an agreement was signed. It has banned the nuclear tests in the atmosphere (in outer space and under water). In 1967 another agreement was signed to stop the deployment of the nuclear weapon in outer space. Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty was signed in 1968. The treaty has banned the acquisition of nuclear power capability by non-nuclear nations. The treaty was not signed by a few countries including India. India has termed the treaty as discriminatory. In 1971 another treaty was brought into the world book of statute, which has banned the deployment of nuclear arms in sea bed and ocean floor. In 1972 the convention on banning the biological weapons was held. SALT-I and SALT-I1 were signed in 1972 and 1979 respectively. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) began in early 1970's between the USA and the USSR. The h ~ s t SALT agreement was signed in 1972. It is a treaty limiting the stockpiling of the Antiballistic Missile systems (ABM). The negotiations for SALT-I1 had started in 1974 and ended in 1979 with the signing of the agreement by the USA and the USSR. As per the terms, the high contracting states agreed to destroy a portion of the arms in their arsenals. However, the treaty has remained non-ratified. The American senate did not ratify the treaty. But it was ~mplemented without official sanctions. Another non-ratified treaty is the threshold Test Ban Treaty which was signed in 1974 by the USA and the USSR. It prohibited all tests with a yield of 150 kilotons. In 1987 the Intermediate Range Nuclear forces (INF) was signed between the USA and the USSR. The Treaty sanctioned for the destruction of intermediate range land-based nuclear weapons, stocked by both countries. All these agreements though have not made the world free from deadly weapons, have registered some progress towards the desired goal of disarmament.


I Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.


1) Write short notes on :

a) NPT

a) SALT

.............................................................................................................................................


Cold War Period

CONCEPT OF PEACE

Peace is an eternal desire of a human being. It is considered to be one of the highest values of life. The quotations like "Peace at any price", "The most disadvantageous peace is better than the most just war." "Peace is more important than all justice." "I prefer the most unjust peace to the justest war that was ever waged." "There never was a good war or bad peace." Show-how precious peace has been. The New Testament defines peace as absence of dissension, violence of war. Peace is also considered as concord, harmony, agreement between the two or more, tranquillity, quiet, etc. Peace is contrary to antagonistic hostilities, violence or war. Peace is freedom from or the cessation of war. It is a state of freedom from war.

A large number of peace concepts, proposals and plans have been put forward so far for the realisation of the everlasting peace-an eternal dream of the human being. In order to achieve peace many plans have been contemplated. Proposals for establishing federations of states, signing of treaties between and over nations and people, setting up of courts of arbitration, reforming the legal system and many other proposals have so far been advocated.

The concept of peace changes in response to the charge in the context and characters of the ages. In medieval Europe the concept of peace was identified with the slogan of the unification of the Christian world against the invasions of the 'infidels'. The concept of peace was given communal orientations. During the same period a few scholars of course talked about secular peace. In the subsequent ages the peace concept became more secular and acquired universal contents. In the wake of the industrial revolution in England peace was demanded because it was found to be helpful for the development 4 of capitalist society. In the years of Revolution the French people gave different orientation to the concept of peace. Reason and basic human rights became the i

1 contents of the concept of peace. With the emergence of national states the idea of federation of states or fations and the system of arbitration in international relations started coming to the fore.

When the wars began to be considered as patriotic acts and accordingly people were I

being mobilized to fight in the wars, people started becoming aware of the necessity for peace. Peace now became the people's concern.

In 19th century peace societies and movements began to come up and international peace conferences and organisations were founded for the first time. With the birth of 1

Marxism and Marxist movements in mid 19th century a new approach took birth in the peace movement. It is being propagated that peace can be achieved only through the basic social transformation of the society. A classless society is only capable to establish i peace.

Today we have two concepts of peace, which are offered to each other-Bourgeois concept and Marxist concept. 1




1) Why the people desire for peace?

.............................................................................................................................................

10.6 PEACE MOVEMENTS Disarmament and Peace

Movement

The publication of Saint-Simoan's "The Reorganization of ~ u r o ~ e a n ' Society" cGncided with the foundation of the peace societies. The first peace society was founded in the United States. Europe followed the suit. Early peace societies were engaged in the debates over the issues like just and unjust wars, need of violence, colonialism, etc.

.. Debates gradually arose over the subjects such as linking peace with social issues, like ' the slavery, the emancipation of women, universal education and other human rights.

The national peace societies gradually felt the need of international movement. From mid 19th century international peace conferences began to be held. These international congresses debated over the issues of establishing world organisation of nations and of setting up of the international ,our? of arbitration to solve the conflict. These peace congresses also discussed the questions of freedom of the colonial peoples. The individualists, came out with the concept that peace would be achieved by implementing the principle of free trade among the states. However, all these organisations and the peace movements were domina~ed by liberal democrats who passed many radical decisions but failed to implement any of the decisions.

In 1870, the followers of Marxism established the first International (The International Working Men's association). The Marxists consider that the transformation of society is the principal object of the working class movement and the transformed society can only guarantee the world peace. The state International passed a historic resolution which states that :

"The burden of war is borne mainly by the working class, in as much as war does not only deprive the workers of the means of subsistence but compels them to shed one another's blood. Armed peace paralyses the forces of production, asks the workers nothing but useless labour peace, which it is the first requisite of general well-being, must be consolidated by a new order of things which shall no longer recognise in society and existence of two classes, one of which is exploited by another."

The inception of the Marxist peace movement added a new dimension in the odgoing peace movement and rested the leadership of the movement from the idealist leaders of the movement.

By the beginning of the 20th century, a large number of peace societies had emerged on the international arena. But these societies failed to stop the breaking out of the First World War in 1914. During the war, most of the peace societies gave up their idealistic universal stand and responded to the nationalist call. After the War, new proposals and plans like Lenin's Decrees on peace, President Wilson's Fourteen Points, etc., were placed before the world. But the Second World War could not be stopped. The Second World war was most horrifying and most murderous weapon, the atom bomb was used in the war for the first time. The war has left a horrifying impact on the people of the world. The war ended with the beginning of a new age named as Nuclear Age. The new age gave birth to new fears and also dangers of total destruction of the civilisation if the nuclear war ever broke out. Thus the fears of nuclear war give birth to new peace concepts, new debates and new movements.

After the Second World War peace movement turned into a mass movement under the auspices of the World Peace Council. In different countries of the world the Council developed the organisational network. These organisations propagated the ideals of world peace. The writers, philosophers, artists of world fame joined this movement. Even Burtrand Russel the famous novelist cum philosopher also joined this movement. But the United States went on condemning the emerging peace movement in the post world war period as the ploy of the USSR and the communists. Despite the condemnation, the movement spread for and wide in the world. Now there are several peace organisations, which are not only propagating the ideals of peace, they have also added an academic dimension to the movement by encouraging research and identifying the problems and other connected issues. Many organizations are working as the think

. tank for the peace movement.




1) What is the Marxist concept of peace?

10.7 INDIA, AND PEACE MOVEMENTS AND DISARMAMENT

India is a peace loving nation. It achieved independence from centuries old British colonial rule through peaceful non-violent movements. India has a long tradition of peace and apathy towards war of any kind. Ashoka the Great renounced the use of weapon and abandoned the principles of war. This is one of the earliest examples of disarmament. Till the arrival of the Europeans in India, the Kings had fought wars and battles. But these battles did not affect the lives and properties of the common citizens. Pursuing the tradition of peace, India at the very dawn of its independence declared peace as the cornerstone of its policies. In 1954 India took the initiative to ban the nuclear tests. India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru proposed at the U.N. a standstill agreement in respect of the atomic tests. He knew that the total destruction of the existing weapons was not possible, so he wanted to stop the tests so that there might not be further escalation of nuclear weapons. Many countries of the world supported the view, but the big powers hardly paid any heed to the proposal. However, the proposal set the ball of disarmament in motion and countries in the UN became vocal in support of peace and disarmament. Consequently from early 1960s new initiatives towards the direction of disarmament started.

10.7.1 India and NPT

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was concluded in 1967, kept open for signature in 1968 and was promulgated in 1970 for a period of 25 years. The NPT has been extended unconditionally and indefinitely by its Review and Extension Conference held in New York from 17th April to 12th May, 1995. The 1995 Conference has not suggested any change, alteration or modification of its provisions. The Conference even has not produced any review document. 178 states signed the treaty and 13 countries including India did not sign the NPT.

'The NPT appears to be a pious attempt to stop the proliferation of nuclear weapon technology. Its contents, however, bear ample evidences to establish the fact that the five nuclear states who are also the veto-wielding permanent members of the Security Council, intend to monopolise the nuclear technology and to establish their hegemony over the world. The NPT demands that the present non nuclear states, and the states which are on the threshold of acquiring the nuclear capability must stop the research and making of nuclear weapons. India objected to such a treaty calling it discriminatory. India has categorically declared that it will not sign the Treaty in its present form because its indefinite extension only serves to perpetuate its discriminatory aspects which have created a division between the nuclear "haves" and "have nots".

10.7.2 India and CTBT

The concept of Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was mentioned in the NPT. The CTBT has been planned to realise the objective of general and complete nuclear disarmament. The CTBT in present form, however, is not intended to make the weapon free world

free from nuclear weapons. It would neither actually reduce the number of nuclear .

weapons, nor decrease the present offensive capabilities of the nuclear weapon states. * The treaty asks the non-nuclear states not to go for testing of nuclear devices thus

I preventing them from emerging as nuclear capable states. It has no provision for

1 reducing the nuclear capabilities of the weapon states. Like the NPT, the CTBT too wants to divide the world into nuclear haves and have-nots. India has, therefore, not signed the CTBT.

After the CTBT was ratified in 1996, negotiations on another treaty to cut off fissile material production have started in January, 1997. The proposed Fissile Material production Cut-off Treaty (FMCT) seeks to put a cut-off point in the sphere of fissile material production. India has refused to be a party in the FMCT. It has opposed the treaty on the same grounds that India put forward while opposing the NPT and the CTBT.

In fact all the three treaties have been planned in a way that the nuclear weapon states can control the nuclear technology and maintain their hegemony over the world. These treaties will not deter the weapon states to sharpen and improve their technology. Because they have reached a stage, now they can further improve their technology through computer and other indoor tests which have not been banned. They are also not willing to destroy the existing weapons within a time frame.

These treaties, therefore, are not in a position to eliminate the nuclear weapons leading to general and complete disarmament.

' Check Your Progress 6



1 ) Why does India refuse to sign the NIT, CTBT and FCCT?

10.8 LET US SUM UP

Though the armaments are the cause of tension and war, the nation-states are reluctant to disband the arms. Both from political and economic points of view, the states are compelled to pile up the stock of arms. Consequently, disarmament proposals are being neutralized.

The efforts for reduction of arms to ensure peace in the world during the inter war period and during the Cold War years have failed to check the stockpiling and inventions of more sophisticated and deadly weapons. India though the initiator of the disarmament movement, has refused to sign of the NIT, CTBT, etc., because of their discriminatory character.

KEY WORDS

Antiballistic Missile Systems: 'Defensive Strategy, in which missiles are deployed to counter the incoming missiles.

Fissile: It is capable of undergoing nuclear fission, fission means the action of dividing or splitting matter into two or more parts.


NPT: Treaty to check the horizontal proliferation of Nuclear weapon states.

Cold War Period 10.10 SOME USE BOOKS

F.H. Hindley, 1963, Power and the Pursuit of Peace, Cambridge.

Istvan Kende, The History of Peace ; Concept and Organisations from the Late Middle . Ages to the 1870s in Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1989.

Ghanshyam Paradesi (ed.) : 1982, Contemporary Peace Research, New Delhi.

S.J.R. Bilgrami, The Arms Race and Disarmament, New Delhi.

1011 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Yaur Progress 1

Inventions of deadly weapons, destruction in wars, devastating impact of the explosion of atom bomb on Japan during the closing days of the Second World War and the need of more resources for socio-economic development in the developing world are some of basic reasons for disarmament.

Check Yotlr Progress 2

1) Different Chinese Independent rulers in 546 B.C.

2) a) Signed between the USA and the Great Britain in 18 17 to demilitarise US- Canada border. It is still in vogue.

b) Hague Disarmament Conferences were held once in 1899 and again in 1909. Pirst Conference prescribed the use of certain deadly weapons. It emphasised on reducing the military budget and increasing the developmental budget. Second Conference failed to stop the on going arms race.

c) First World Disarmament Conference was held in 1932 under the auspices of .! j

the League of Nations. It passed certain pious resolutions. 4 i

d) The UN founded the UNAEC (United Nations Atomic Energy Commission) in 1946. It was asked to prepare a plan for peaceful use of atomic power.

Check Your Progress 3 I

a) Nude@ Non-Proliferation Treaty, first signed in 1968 for twenty five years. Again signed in 1995 for indefinite period. India has not yet signed the treaty because India considers it discriminatory.

b) SALT I + I1 signed between the USA and the USSR. It is Strategic Armed Limitation Treaty.


Peace is necessary for the even development of the human civilization

Check Yout. Progress 5

Classless transformed society can only guarantee the world peace.


Because the treaties are discriminatory, they have divided the world into nuclear haves and have-notes states.

I

i UNIT 11 COLONIALISM AND PATTERNS ' ,

OF NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENTS

I I

structure

Objectives Introduction Causes for decolonization ~ o ~ o N & o I ~ b e s s 11.3.1 LatinAmerica 11.3.2 Deoolonizatim After thc Secand World War 11.3.3 South M c a Impact of Decolonization Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise8

- - - -

11.0 OBJECTIVES I Decolonisation heralded the independence of the colonies and marks an important phase \

I in world history. After going through the unit, you will be able to :

I trace the cause of decolonisation i i explain the patterns of struggle in winning independence, and

l understand the role of the international organisations in the decolonisation process. I

1 1 . INTRODUCTION

Colonialism appeared on the political horizon of the globe when European nations like Great Britain. France. Portugal. Spain and Holland build their empires over Asia, Africa and Latin America. The European powers exploited the resources of what came to be lcnown as the third world countries and subjugated their people for about four centuries by their colonial and imperialist policies. The exploitation inevitably provoked its own contradictions in the fonn of national liberation and democratic movements. During the inter-war period (1919-1939) the colonies questioned the right of the coloniser to

, colonize and oppress the people of the third world. The process of decolonisarion was accelerated with the end of Second World War and the establishment of the United Nations.

Although the general &ework of colonial 'policies was economic exploitation and political subjugation, each colonial power followed specific policies in respect of their c6lonies. Likewise, while nationalist movements arose in almost all the colonies, the patterns of their.struggle varied. Some colonies attained independence through ~0II~tihltional means, while in some others, nationalism, attained a militant f m . While some nationalist movements worked within the liberal democratic h e w o r k , yet solae others adopted the Marxist ideology' as their guiding philosophy. Post colonial political processes also varied according to the ideologies and nature of national liberation movements in the respective countries.

I

Emergence of the Third World 11.2 CAUSES FOR DECOLONICSATION -.

Even before the Second World War, modem nationalism clocked as anti-imperialist movements arose in different colonies. It was a sense of identification with and pride in the nation state, as well as also the quest for power and national self-fulfillment. The birth of national organization in different colonies consolidated the national movements for independence. The psycological ongins of nationalism are to be found in the fact ,

that the introduction of European authority v d culture disrupted the traditional life and institutions of the colonies. Those natives (as'they were called by the white man) who received western education and were alienated from their own traditional milieu were never really treated as equals of the white man. It was among these elements that one finds the first signs of nationalist revolt. The superior economic and social status of the Europeans provoked a sense of revolt among the western educated elites of colonies. It is these 'elites' who first raised the banner of revolt and provided the leadership in the nationalist movements in the colonies.

Christian missionaries, Cath~lic and Protestant, spreading Christianity under the imperial banner, preached the ideals of universal brotherhood and love. The 'natives' who received missionary education questioned the right of colonisers to treat them as . inferiors. The ideals of the French Revolution influenced the minds of the elite who imbibed the values of democracy and freedom.

Another ideology that made a powerful appeal to the oppressed of colonies was Marxism, Communists were influencing the nationalist movements in different colonies and were endeavouring to convert the same into communist movements. Western nations were being dubbed as imperialists and exploiters by the socialist camp. This emboldened the nationalist movements in the colonies and they were progressively veering towards the socialist camp. This emboldened the nationalist movements in the colonies and they were progressively veering towards the socialist block in whom they saw a sympathizer and a saviour.

The profound involvement of the United Nations in the post Second was period compelled the imperialist powers to withdraw from their colonies. The credit for the success of decolonisation and expansion of the world community goes to the UN. The UN has played a significant role by encouraging the aspirations of dependent people and by setting goals and standards which accelerated assistance to attain their freedom.

Apart from these external clauses there were three current of thought, rather ideologies, which expressed the nationalist aspirations of Afro-Asian people. One such current was the rise of Islam. As a non-European religion, Islam had an appeal and a tremendous propaganda value with its simple and democratic creed. In those Muslim countries which were colonised, Islam separated the natives from the Europeans. The pride of Islamic faith and the duty it imposes on Muslims to fight infidels gave a certain militancy to anti-colonial movements in Islamic countries. The contact with the west provoked an intellectual ferment and Islamic fraternity and solidarity.

The second of these currents of thought was Asiatism, centuries of Dutch colonial oppression in Indonesia and British in India, gave rise to nationalist sentiments and a

' certain sense of unity among the people. The Indian National Congress was formed in the year 1885 to lead the national moment. Other colonies such as Malaya, Indonesia and Burma refused to accept political suppression. Japan became an Asiatic strength and power. Though it was an imperialist power, it raised the slogan of 'Asia for Asians' in . order to garb its imperialist ambition and to carry the Asians along with it. In China. Sun-yatden led the nationalist revolt in 1911, which was followed by a long civil war and the final victory of the communist forces.

The third of these currents of Lhought was 'pan-Africanism*. By the end of the 19th Century, Africans were questionalist the European domination. The ideals and aspirations of the peoples of Africa was expressed in terms of pan-Africanism. Marcus Garvey was its most celebrated exponent. Du Boix was another champion of pan-Africanism and

made the League of Nations adopt a charter of Human rights for Africans. In later years Colonialism & Patterns Nikrumah of Ghana, became the leading ideologue of pan-Africanism. of National Llberatlon

Movements

After the end of First World War, the victorious powers, in a novel way, put the colonial temtories under the mandatory system of the League of Nations. Article 22 of the Treaty of Versallies 1919, dealt with the future of these temtories. Depending upon the varying degree of evolution, geographic factors, and economic situation these temtories were divided into three different categories A, B, C, and placed under the mandate of the Allied Powers. In general the people of these temtories were to be led to self- determination. The mandatory council of League of Nations was charged with the responsibility of supervising the administration of these territories. In 1917, A.J. Balfour, British Foreign Secretary, made his statement that a national place for the Jewish people would be found in politics without any prejudice to the civil ahd religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine. The eventful establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 and the rise of militant Arab Nationalism have made the middle East one of the most sensitive areas in the East West conflict. P


Note : i) Use the space below for your answers. ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) What are the causes for the rise of national liberation movements?

2) Explain the ideological framework within which national liberation movements operated.

11.3 DECOLONISATION PROCESS

The term 'decolonisation' is likely to give the impression that process of gaining independence was a peaceful one. However, this has been so. Colonisation itself was a violent process involving deceit, war and simple annexations by the colonial powers. The independence of the colonies was won by the people strugging in various forms. In some countries the p e s s was relatively peaceful as in some of the French colonies of Afiica like Senegal, the Ivory Coast in West Africa and in some British colonies such as Nigeria, Ghana etc. Some of the countries attained independence through the intervention of international organisations - the League of Nations and the United Nations.

Mandated tenitones under the League of Nations such as Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Iraq, Tanganyika, Rwanda, Burundi, Cameroon, Pacific territories etc. either became independent or were placed under the Trusteeship council of the United Nations. The aims of these organisation was to lead these territories to self determination an! eventually to independence. Most of them attained independence except South West Africa (now Namibia) which was under the Trusteeship of South Afiica which pursued the policy of apartheid.

In the African colonies of Portugal - Angola, Mozambique, Guinea Bissau - there was a long drawn armed struggle and they could not h o m e independent until 1974 when Portugal herself witnessed a democratic revolution that overthrew the military dictator Salazaar.

Emergence of the- The former French colony of Algeria too had to put up an armed struggle for seven Thlrd World \ long years from 1954 to 1961, while Morocco and Tunisia attained independence with

comparative ease. The opposition of the French settlers in Algeria to its independence resulted in a violent struggle under the leadership of Ben Bella and Ferhat Abbas of National Liberation Front of Algeria (FNLA).

,

11.3.1 Latin America

In Latin America, independence was achieved by the Spanish and Portuguese colonies such before the African and Asian colonies. Revolutionary movements started in the Spanish colonies of Mexico and elsewhere and wars of independence developed in Veneaela. Argentina etc. by the early 19th century. By 1825 Spain lost her vast empire except Cuba and Puerto Rico. Unlike the North American struggle against the English. against the English which led to the Thirteen colonies becoming the United States, the Spanish American revolts and wars of independence paved the way for seventeen separate republics.

Cuba and Puerto Rico continued under the corrupt rule of the Spanish until the United States became involved in the Cuban movement against Spain. Cuba not only fought a revolutionary was of independence against Spain, but also against US domination. The US drove Spain out of Cuba in 1898, but US investors then attained a dominant position in the island so that Cuba lost control over her own economic resources. Under the leadership of Fidel Castro, Cuba fought a guerrilla was against the dictatorial regime of Batista and overthrew him in December 1958. Later Castro expropriated US property, sought Soviet support and established a regime inspired by Marxism - Leninism. The ideological conflict between the United States and Cuba continues to this day even in the post Cold War era.

As early as 1823, the United States assumed the role of arbiter of the New World through the famous Munro doctrine, which, while recognizing the existing colonies ar dependencies of h p e a n powers refused to permit any future colonization by any European power. This was, in fact, a part of British and American manoeuvres to promote their rival interests in Latin America.

11.3.2 Decolonisation after the Second World War

The process of decolonisation was accelerated after the Second World War. Some of the colonial temtories like French, Indo-China, Dutch Indonesia, British Malaya and Italian East Africa were occupied by enemy conquest and were virtually cut off from their colonial governors. The Japanese occupation of South East Asia provided a filip to the nationalist sentiments and movements in the region by driving out the Western colonialists, removing them from strategic positions in the colonial administration and replacing many of these with natives. Finally, though quits authoritarian and oppressive the eventual collapse of the Japanese gave the nationalists an opportunity to seize the arms left by the defeated armies and gave a militant thrust to their struggles. Indonesia and Vietnam proclaimed theh independence in this way. The Indonesian nationalists had to fight a long struggle for four years against the Dutch to gain their independence. In both cases, an open war was fought between the colonial power and the nationalist forces. In Vietnam, under the leadership of Viet Minh, after the 1954 cease-fire, the French withdrew from the northern parts of the country. In the South, a non-Communist government was installed. Later the French presence was replaced by the Americans. The long drawn heroic struggle of the Vietnamese against American imperialism is a legend in itself.

The most far-reaching historical outcome of World War I1 was undoubtedly the precipi- tate liquidation of nineteenth century empires and the contraction of Europe. The most momentous event was indeed the independence of India in 1947. The various present the independence of India in 1947. The various present and ebal revolts against the British and local land lords in different parts of the country and the rebellion of 1857, ccmtributed to the rise of a nationalist Movement. The establishment of Indian National Congrass gave an organisational expression to the movement.

Indian Nationalism was strongly influenced by Gandhi whose tenets were non-violence and non-cooperation. Gandhiss enrry turned the movement into a mass movement. The transfer of power in India was facilitated after the labour Government came to power in Britain, though the vivisection of the country into India and Pakistan could not be avoided. The Cabinet Mission attempted to fmd a constitutional settlement. The partition of British India became investable. Although partition was not peaceful, it paved the way for the establishment of the Constitution.

Among the British African colonies, Gold Coast (Ghana since independence) and Nigeria became the pioneers of independence. In March 1957 the Gold Coast togethex with the Trust territory of Togo land became the independent state of Ghana with dominion status within the Commonwealth. Nknunah, its Prime Minister, was a champion of African independence and an exponent of Post Africanism. The federation of Nigeria attained complete independence in 1960. . .

11.33 South Africa

The struggles of the African People in South Africa and Namibia &me special attention in the history of decolonisation. Historically, the Dutch were the fmt to settle in South Africa in 1652 on the site of what is today modem Cape Town. The area of White settlement extended more rapidly in the first half of the 19th century with the coming of the British and the establishment of British colonial rule in the Cape Town in 1806, the Dutch settling Africaners were forced to leave the Cape and go north of the Orange river - culminating in the mass exodus, the Great Trek, in 1830s. This resulted in the formation of two independent Africaner republics, Orange Free State and transval, and the new British colony of Natal. In each of these, as in Cape Colony, racially stratified society developed with Whites assuming a position of dominance and the African being reduced to a state of serfdom. Although the declared policy of the British in the Cape and Natal was against discrimination, in practice, however, a property qualification restricted the franchise largely to Whites. In the Dutch Afrikaner republics, Africans were denied franchise, debarred from acquiring ownership of land in the Orange Free State and obliged to carry passes within the White occupied areas of Transval. The discovery of diamonds at Kimberly and large deposits of gold in the Transval after the end of the 19th century led to a scramble for control of these areas between the Dutch and the British, eventually leading to the defeat of the Dutch and the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, bringing together the Afrikaner.repub1ics of Orange Free State, Transval, Cape Colony and Natal. The Union of South Africa attained Dominion status and later became a sovereign independent state within the British Empire in 1934. In 1961 it broke its links with Great Britain, and left the Commonwealth to become a Republic.

The racist Government - the Apartheid regime - of South Africa denied even the most basic human rights to the Africans. The regime received support from many Western Governments which had strategic and economic interest in South Africa. As the African people had no legal rights nor freedom, opposition to the regime had to be clandestine. As the apartheid regime became increasingly brutal, African opposition to it also gained militancy. African resistance which began as cultural resistance to the White, eventually took the form of African National Congress in 1923 and Nelson Mandela emerged as its

C legendary leader. He was sentenced to life imprisonment following the Rivonia trail in 1963. Third world countries and the Non Aligned Movement supported the South African cause in international fora. In the eighties and early nineties the increasing 1 international pressure both within the UN and from the Third World forced the Western nations to concede some of the demands of African countries. This forced the apartheid regime to agree to negotiate with African opposition. In 1993 Nelson Mandela was released from jail. After prolonged negotiations, elections were held in 1994. Thus, with the parliamentary elections, power was transferred to the black majority.

The former German colony of South West Africa (Namibia) came under the Mandate of South Africa. When the UN succeeded the League of Nations, south Africa claimed the Trusteeship over South West Africa, thus extending apartheid to the territory. The UN lrleclated South African occupation as illegal and in 1967 the UN established the

Emergence of the ThM World

. -

Council for Namibia to administer the territory. After a long drawn struggle put by the South Western African Peoples' Organization (SWAPO) and the implementation of UN resolutions, South West Africa attained independence to become Namibia.


Note. i) Use the space below for your answers. ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) ; Distinguish between the various national movements in the Third World.

2) Write note on the Anti-Apartheid movement in South Africa. .............................................................................................................................................................

IVBACT OF DECOLONIZATION

As a sequel to decolonization and expansion of international community, international relations assumed a truly international character. After decolonization new and sovereign nations emerged in Asia, Africa and Latin America. These states became the battlefield of ideological competition and cold war. Their international importance was certainly heightened by this competition during the cold war. Naturally they opted for a foreign policy of neutralism in this period. They followed nonalignment as a symbol of new national prestige and dignity. They had articulated a new identity through their foreign policy orientation. Another important outcome is that the operation and working of UNO has undergone a sea-change owing to the presence of Afro-Asian nations. The United Nations has also reiterated their importance by openly aligning itself with the cause of their rising expectations. These countries have used the forum of the UN for pressing their demands on economic issues.

11.5 LET US SUM UP

The rise of colonialism marks an ,important chapter in the history of the world as it changed the relations between different parts of the world. Decolonisation as well as anti-imperialist struggles of the colonies gave rise to what is referred to as the Third world. These nationalist, anti-imperialist movements varied from country to country in their specifics. This was due to the patterns of colonial policies and their impact on colonial societies. There were those colonies which became independent through constitutional procedures and reforms; there were some which achieved independence through m e d liberation struggles. Some attained independence due to international pressures and the intervention of organisations such as the League of Nations. However, these differences should not be over-emphasized. Ractically all clones experienced violent oppression by the colonial powers. Even for those countries which attained independence through constitutional reforms it would be false to say that these struggles were always peaceful. Armed struggles became inevitable in some colonies due to the intransigence of colonial powers. However, there were ideological frameworks which differed depending upon the nature of the elite, national leaders and the participation of the people.

11.6 KEY WORDS

Apartheid : Policy of the racial sewon . It had been practised in South African white people towards the black people.

Colonialism : A policy of acquiring and maintaining foreign country as colony and of exploiting it for the interest of the colonial power.


I A. Vandana 1995 : Theory of International Politics; Vikas pl;blishing Co, New Delhi.

Hari Sharan Chabra: UN and Decolonisation World Focus No. 149, May 1992.

I Henri Grimal, 1%5 : Decolonisation, the British, French, Dutch and Belgian Empires 1919-1963; London.

r 4 Immanuel Wallertein 1%1 : Africa : the Politics of Independence, Vintage Body, New York, Ny. Rama S. Melkote 1992 : International Relations; Sterling Publishem Pvt. Ltd., New ' Delhi.


/'

Check Your w e & 1 1. Exploitative character of foreign rule competed with the progressive developments

in the international arena which are basically responsible for'the rise of national liberation.

2. Ideologies like liberation, Marxism and many other progressive ideologies provided the framework.

Check Your Progress 2 1. There had not been an uniform national movement throughout the world. National

P movements emerged in different countries in the context of the ground realities of the country concerned

t 2. It is basically a non-violent movement backed by the progressive world.

Colonialism & Patterns of Natloaal Llberatlon

Movements

FEATURES OF THE THIRD WORLD STATE

Structure I 12.0 Objectives 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Theoretical Frameworks

12.2.1 L i W hmewurk 12.2.2 Marxist framework 12.2.3 Dependency

12.3 characteristics of thejstate 123.1 An Over-developed state 12.3.2 Autonomy 12.3.3 Control of the Memopolis

12.4 Let Us Sum Up 12.5 Key Words 12.6 Some Useful Books 12.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

12.0 OBJECTIVES 1 This unit deals with third world states. After going through the unit you will be able to: 1

Understand what is meant by the term third world 1 Explain the characteristic features of the States of the third world

Identify the essential attributes of the states of the third world, and

Locate the role of third world in world politics.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

There has been a debate on the question of the nature of the State in the Third World. sometimes referred to as the post-colonial societies in political theory and comparative politics. It is important to understand the nature of state in the Third World as it enables us to locate the role of the Third World in international relations.

The term 'Third World' refers to a group of countries with certain common features. According to some writers the developed capitalist countries constitute the first world. The socialist countries are called the second world. The underdeveloped countries in Africa. Asia and Latin American that were subjected to colonial domination are called the third world. Some writers categorize the superpowers as the first world. The other developed countries like UK, Germany, Australia and Can& are clubbed together as the second world. The third world consists of underdeveloped countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Both defihitions have a few things in common. In both classifications the attributes of the third world are one and the same. The third world is defined in both the classifications in relation to the developed countries. The Third World Countries are economically poor and they have a colonial past.

In the course of identifying the common features of the Third World one should not ignore variations among them. Some third world countries like the Arab couqtries are very rich while the others like Bangladesh are very poor. There are countries with democratic institutions. On the other hand some thud world countries are ruled by military regimes. There are also differences amount the third world countries in terms of social formations ranging from tribal societies to capitalist societies.

In spite of all these differences, the third world is not a meaningless category becauw it helps us in grouping together countries that came into being by fighting against the colonial domination. They a l l encounter similar problems because of their background. Hence, it is useful to study the third world keeping in mind both similarities and dissimilarities without exaggerating one to eliminate the other. There are certain general characteristics that the state in the Third World has acquired which may be attributed largely to the fact that they have been colonised and that colonialism has introduced certain fundamental changes in their societies. There are different theoretical frameworks in which the state can be understood.

12.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.

Ihae are several theoretical frameworks for studying the states of the third world. Among them most signif~cant and popular frameworks are the liberal and Mmist 6ramewtxks.

)I 12.2.1 Liberal Framework

The liberals argue that the state is a neutral agency and acts as an arbiter between the contending group in the society. In other words no group has a privileged access to state. Different groups in the society make their demands on the political system. The state agencies consider all these demands and take decisions in thg general interest-of the society. Within the fold of liberalism some writers-prop& that state agencies are dominated by the elite groups. Elite groups exercise domination by virtue of certain personal attributes not due to the control over economic resources. Liberal theory holds that in a democracy elite groups do not use power in their personal or group interests. Electoral compulsions force them to work for the welfare of all groups. In the third world the westernized elite controls the state and use it as an instrument to transform the traditional agrarian society into a modem induseial society.

The liberal approach has two lapses. In the first instance it refuses to recognize that political capacity of individuals is decided by their economic resources. Secondly it fails to explain how elite groups work for the entire society rising above their narrow economic and social interests.

In other words any explanation of the state in total disregard of the class divisions in i, the society would be simplistic. State is embedded in the society. Therefore it has to be

studied in relation to the society.

@ 12.2.2 Marxist Framework

Man and English argued that states is neither an impartial agency nor a common trustee. It expresses the interests of the dominant classes to protect their interests. In other words it is an instrument in the hands of the dominant classes. The state follows society but does not precede it.

Hence the nature of the state depends upon the character of the division of labour in the society. Unfortunately, Marx has not written elaborately on the state. He made sketchy remarks. The followers of Man have written extensively about the state. However most of these writings deal with the developed capitalist countries. These explanations are not valid for the third world which are different from the capitalist countries. The third world countries have a colonial past. Even after securing political independence they are subjected to economic exploitation by the western developed countries. Yet mother important attribute of the third world countries is that they are dominated not by one single class but multiple classes.

Due to the above mentioned conditions the third world state has a district nature. It is known by various names such as peripheral state, the postcolonial state, and the over- developed state.

Features of Third World States

Emergence of the Third World

The third world countries were subjected to colonial exploitation, that disturbed the course of development and brought about lopsided development. The domination of the third world by the imperialist powers continued even after decolonization. There is no unanimity amount writers about the nature of relationship between developed western countries and the third world.

12.2.3 Dependency Theory

Some writers who propounded the dependency theory argue that the third world countries do not enjoy political freedom and continue to be dominated by the imperialist powers. According to these writers the world is integrated into a single capitalist system.

The developed western countries constitute the core of the world system. During the colonial periods, the third world countries were shaped by the imperialist countries to suit their requirements. Due to this process, the third world is structurally integrated with the economies of the developed countries and is dependent on the developed countries. I In world capitalism the third world survives as an adjunct of the core also known as metropolis - and lies on the periphery of world capitalism. In this model the third world state is an instrument in the hands of the metropolitan capital.

L 1

While agreeing with the notion that the underdeveloped countries are dominated by the developed capitalist countries, critiques of the dependency theory rejected the argument that the third world state has no autonomy. According to these writers, political freedom has enabled the third world countries to use the state to further their interests within the constraints imposed by neocolonial dominations.

Similarly, divergent opinions are expressed about the nature of the dominant classes in the third world. Some argue that .the third world is dominated by the native capitalist class. But the predominant view is that there is no well formed dominant class in the third world. A loose alliance of various classes dominates the third world.

The third world state is also analyzed in terms of its relationship with the dominant classes. Most of the writers on the third world argue that the state has autonomy from the ruling classes that is delimited by the social structure.

-.

Due to certain historical personalities, the third world state has acquired another distinct character. The colonial rulers have a created a highly centralized state machinery to 4

maintain their domination over the colonized. The state machinery is thus imposed from above and it has not evolved out of the internal social dynamics. Hence the third world state is not in tune with society, it is either advanced or over developed when 1 compared with society at large.

After taking a look at the third world from various angles one may say that the third world state is an over-developed, post-colonial state, with autonomy from the ruling classes. In other words, it is a product of a complex social formation of the third world. . Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space below for your answers. ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) Write short notes on

a) Liberal framework .................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................. ....................................................................... P.......,.,.....................................................".........

..................................................................................................................................................

) Marxist framework .................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................................................

Features of Thlrd World States

c) Dependency theory. ..................................................................................................................................................

12.3 CHARACTERISTIC OF THE STATE

The State as an institution came into existence as part of a historical process. In the third world, decolonisation shaped the state, giving it specific characteristics. The

? boundaries existing at the time of colonisation were modified in some cases; in other cases entirely new states were carved out. The temforial boundaries of the state did not always coincide with the Nation; that is, often people belonging to different ethnic groups, nationalities were brought together and the boundaries of the colonies were traced, delimited according to the needs of the colonial powers. African states are the best examples to indicate the armciality of the state. Nigeria for example was entirely a British creation. The Third World States became states before they became nations. This, is to a large extent, is responsible for territorial conflicts and for problem of national integration. A number of Third World Counuies face ethnic and secessionist movements in the post-colonial era. British colonial policies and the dynamics of nationalist movements led to the creation of Pakistan's secessionist movement which is turn led to the creation of Bangladesh. The d ~ c i a l i t y of the colonial boundaries, the impact of colonial legacy and the dynamics of decolonisation processes explain the complexity of the Third World State.

The third world state has the following distinct features.

1. It is an over developed state;

2. It enjoys autonomy from the dominant classes;

3. It protects the interests of the metropolitan bourgeoisie &so.

12.3.1 An 'Over-developed State'

In the Western capitalist countries the modem nation-state has emerged due to internal dynamics of society. It cam into being in the course of a historical transition to capitalism. The rising capitalist class took the initiative to establish a nation-state.

In the third world the motive force for change in the political institutions came from outside. During the colonial period the third world was dominated by the western capitalist countries. The colonial rulers had created political institutions in their own image to facilitate domination over the native classes and economic exploitation of the colonies.

To perform these functions the colonial rulers have related an elaborated legal-institutional structure to control the colonies. The many and the bureaucracy who manned these institutions played a vital role in managing the affairs of the colonial rulers.

Even after independence the elaborate structure remained in existence. There are two salient features of this state: one, that it is not formed by the local classes nor is it established as a consequence of social change, two, the native ruling classes had no control over the state.

Emergence of the Third World

-, .

The state is far ahead of the time and space in which it is located. In the third world counmes therefore bureaucracy and the army have acquired a central place. In the western capitalist counuies the bureaucracy plays an auxiliary role. It is an instrument of the dominant class, whereas in the third world it has a central place and it enjoys autonomy from the dominant classes.

An over developed state weakens democratic institutions. Even in those third world counaies where democratic institutions exist and the elected representatives control the state agencies, bureaucracy retains its domination over the state. However it exercises control in league with politicians. ,

In counuies having democratic control politicians occupy central place. Politicians articulate the demands of the people to cultivate support. They formulate policies to fulfill the demands of the people. In this process politicians provide legitimacy to the political institutions. However, the power is hemmed in by bureaucratic procedures and controls. Politicians are converted into brokers between the state and the people.

12.3.2 Autonomy

The western countries are domina~cd by a single well-formed dominant class. In all the western countries the capitalist class is the dominant class. The third world is marked by the existence of multiple dominant classes. The landlord class, i.e. local bourgeoisie of the metropolis control the third world. An alliance consisting of all these classes dominates the state. The alliance is called historic bloc. The historic bloc arises because the social formation in third world consists of elements from both capitalist as well as precapitalist social relations. The capitalist class is weak and incapable of fighting against the pre-capitalist relations in society.

The capitalist class is weak because it exercises limited control over the economic activity. A large part of the economic production is controlled either by the metropolitan bourgeoisie or by the local landed gentry. No class is enough strong to exercise contrdl over the state.

Since there is no single dominant class, the slate acquires the autonomy to regulate the relationship between different classes of the historic bloc. The third world state, by deploying vast economic resources to reproduce capitalist production pmess in the interest of local dominant classes and the bourgeoisie of the metropolis, sustains its Autonomy.

12.3.3 Control of the Metropolis

The third world state is subjected' to control by extraneous forces. The under-developed nature of the economy and the nature of the ruling elitelclasses renders the state dependent on foreign aid and capital. The ruling elite by acting as mediators between the sfate and the external capital amass profits. This process does not help developmerit. The gap between the ruled and the rulers and between the rich and the poor widens. It is fanfetched to argue that €he third world state is completely under the control of imperialist rulers. Independence from colonial domination has eliminated the scope for the bourgeoisie of the imperialist powers to exercise direct control over the third world state. However it influences the third world state indirectly. The over-developed third world state by dissolving the national boundaries, creates favourable conditions for the world market to penetrate into the third world. The state by facilitating the induction of technology and investment brings about the integration of the third world into the global market. The state, the ruling elite, negotiate with C.e external world with dimirgishing power and ability to do so.

Check Your Progress 2 Note: i) Use the space below for your answers.

ii) Check your progress with the. model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) What are the characteristics of the third world?

2) Write a note on the continuing control of the ex-colonial powers on their former colonies.

12.4 LET US SUM UP

The Third World statelstates are to a large extent colonial creations in the sense that their boundaries, the nature of their regimes have been deeply influenced by colonial policies. The nature of the Third World state is analysed in liberal democratic, Marxist and new Marxist frameworks. The Third World economies are integrated into the World economy, which is guided by the principles of free market, and represent the interests of the dominant sections of the society. While they are dependent on the former colonial power, they also exercise a certain independence and mediate between the state and the metropolis. The Third World state is desired as 'over developed', as one with 'relative autonomy', as 'dependent' state.

12.5 KEY WORDS

Capitalist Class : The class of people who own the means of production, exploit he wage labour and appropriate the surplus value produced by the wage labour.

Latin America : The areas of central and South America where Spanish or Portuguese is the principal language.


Features of Third World States

Hamza Alavi and Teodor Shamin (Ed.) Introduction to the Sociology of Developing Societies - Longman , Harry Galbowrne : (1979) : Politics and the State in the Third World, Macmillan.

James Manor: 1991 : Returning Third World Politics, Longman.

Pool and Tardoff : 1981 : Third World Politits : A Comparative Introduction Gammoch - Macmillan.

Emergence or me 'rh~rd world 12.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS


a) Liberals believe in democracy and rule of law. They do not subscribe to the view that the individuals are guided by their economic interests.

b) Consciousness is a product of matter, it is the reflections of the external world. As per Marxist theory of state, the state is neither an impartial agency nor a common trustee. It is an instrument in the hands of the dominant class.

c) As per the dependency theory the post colonial states are not in the real sense independent; they are still dependent upon their ex-colonial masters.


1. The chief characteristic of the third world countries is the economic backwardness.

2. The fonner colonial countries and other western developed states have been continuing their control over the states of the third world through unequal trade terms and through tied economic aid.

1

1 UNIT 13 THE GULF WAR

Structure

0bje.ctives Introduction Genesib of the Gulf War 13.2.1 The Roots of the Conflict

13.2.2 International Situation on the eve of Gulf War

Iraq's Action against Kuwait 13.3.1 Conquest and Annexation of Kuwait

Liberation of Kuwait 13.4.1 The 28-Nations coalition Under U.S. Leadership

13.4.2 Sanchons against Iraq and Restorahon of Sovereignty of Kuwait.

Impact of the Gulf War Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

13.0 OBJECTIVES

This Unit deals with the first major crisis in West Asia after the end of the Cold War. The Gulf War caused by Iraq's annexation of Kuwait eventually resulted in the defeat of Iraq. After going througn this unit, you should be able to :

trace the events since the end of First World War till the Iraqi action against Kuwait;

S analyse the Iraqi decision to take military action and annex Kuwait;

explain the reaction of the USA, U.S.S.R. and West Asian countries:

+ recall briefly the events of the Gulf War, and

discuss the outcome of US-led action against Iraq.

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The Cold War lasted for about 45 years. It had begun almost simultaneously with the end of Second World War in 1945. Nobody knows the exact date when the Cold War commenced. But it edded in1989 when US President George Bush and. Soviet President Gorbachev met and vowed to lead the w.orld on the path of peace and progress. The first major international crisis after the Cold war occurred in West Asia during 1990-91. The attack by Iraq on neighbouring oil-rich Kuwait, and its subsequent conquest and annexation as Iraq's nineteenth province marked the first phase of the crisis. When all efforts to persuade Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait failed and peaceful solution appeared to be impossible, 28 nation : 1 coalition, led by the United States and authorised by the U.N. Security Council waged a war on Iraq and liberated Kuwait. This was the second Gulf War. The Iran-Iraq war of 1980-88 maylbe de'scribed as 'Gulf War One'. That prolonged war had been generally indecisive: though Iraq claimed eventual advantage. As Iran had alre#y come under the fundamentalist regime of Ayottolah Khoemeine, Americans had ,generally supported Iraq in that war, without beipg actually . '

involved in it. This unit is not concerned with Iran-Iraq war. It ib the Gulf War of

t 1990-91 whibh threatened internatiaqal peace, with injected ~rab-1srael conflict

End of the Cold War and its Aftterrnath

input and an attempt to give it an ideological colour. Despite provocation by Iraq. Israel was restrained from retaliation. The Gulf War period witnessed unexpected cooperation between West and East, though the U.S.S .R. did not send its troops to

' 5 fight against Iraq.

13.2 GENESIS OF THE GULF WAR .

The Persian Gulf region in West Asia (Middle East) includes several oil-rich states. These include several Arab countries such as Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Jordon, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. There are non-Arab states also. These include Iran and the Jewish state of Israel. Most of these countries (except Iran) were part oS the Ottoman Empire which collapsed after the defeat of Turkey in the First World War. Many of the non-Turkish territories in West Asia were separated from Turkey but were not given independence. They were placed under Britain or France as the mandated territories in the League of Nations Mandate System. Iraq was one such territory that was seized from the Ottoman Empire and made a British mandate.

13.2.1 The Roots of the Conflict

The roots of the conflict are embedded in the creation of Iraq in 1920 (as a British mandate, to begin with), and establishment of British Protectorate of Kuwait. It '

was in 1961 that Kuwait was granted the freedom and power transferred to the Al- Sabah family. Iraq had questioned the legitimacy of Kuwait as a state in 1961 itself and had been wanting to'include Kuwait in the territory of Iraq. After the Iran-Iraq war, Saddam Hussein's 'Iraq had formidable military arsenal, including a million-man army, advanced Soviet tanks and planes, and a stockpile of chemical and biological weapons. At the same time, Iraq had incurred large debts of ~ r a b states to finance the Iran-Iraq war. Its economy was in bad shape. If Kuwait, could be annexed, Iraq's economy was likely to get a boost. There was a long standing territorial dispute between Iraq and Kuwait, particularly over the strategic islands of Bubiyan and Warba and the invaluable Rumaila oil field.

President Saddam Hussain chose Kuwait to be his country's principal victim. On July 17, 1990 President Hussain denounced Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) for producing more oil than the quota fixed for them by the Organisation :

of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This had resulted in fall in oil prices, and consequent oil revenues for Iraq. The alleged loss to Iraq was to the tune of

'

$ 14 billion. Iraq, therefore, asked Kuwait and UAE to curb their excess oil output, failing which use of force was threatened. Iraq said : "if words fail to afford us protection, then we will have no choice but to resort to effective action to put things right and ensure the restitution of our rights." This threat was issued in the pre-crisis period, and it resulted in "one of the most dramatic and intense military - security crisis in the twentieth century." Kuwait was a helpless weak neighbour. Its immense oil reserves could become Iraqi wealth if the state of Al- Sabah was brought into the Arab State headed by President Saddam Hussain.

13.2.2 International situation on the Eve of Gulf War

International situation appeared to favour Iraq. The Soviet Union which had been supplying most of the military requirements of Iraq was facing the crisis which eventually led to its disintegration. The United States had been sympathetic to Iraq during its war with Iran. Therefore, President Bush was perceived by Saddam to be friendly with him. He was unlikely to intervene in case Iraq decided to

annex Kuwait. In May 1990 Saddam Hussein, however, had expressed a fear that after collapse of socialism in Eastern Europe, America might try to establish hegemony in the Middle East. He had also accused Kuwait and the UAE of overproduction of oil leading to fall in its international prices. He termed it a kind of war against Iraq ...."

At the end of the long war between Iran and Iraq, the latter was perceived to be a Cictor, although apparently the war had resulted in a stalemate. Iraq had failed to establish its hegemony in the entire Gulf region, yet it was clearly one of the two major regional powers. Iraq possessed a million-man army, advanced Soviet tanks and planes and stockpile of chemical and biological weapons. It had a formidable military arsenal. However, Iraq had to repay large sums of money that it had . borrowed from neighbouring Arab countries during Gulf War-I (Iran-Iraq Wat, 1980-88). Iraq's economy needed a "massive infusion of funds for reconstruction". Besides, opined Brecher, "it had an insatiable desire for more advanced weapons, including a nuclear capability".

The Cold War had just ended. Iraq's principal " patron and arms supplier", the U.S.S.R. wau passing through several internal conflicts and crisis and was on the verge of collapse. President Saddam did not expect any anti-Iraq action from the United States. The situation in second half of 1990 was, thus, "ripe for extracting economic and territorial concessions from Kuwait and, if necessary, using force to annex Kuwait as Iraq's long coveted 19th province". Analysing the events leading to,Gulf War, Michael Brecher suggests that there was abundant evidence to show that the crisis was initiated by Iraq and directed against Kuwait. The prelude began several months before the Iraqi military action against Kuwait. The first anniversary meeting of the Arab Cooperation Council (ACC) was held on February 24,1990. It was attended by Egypt, Iraq, Jordan andYemen. In this meeting held at Amman, President Saddam Hussain warned that in view of .

impending collapse of Soviet Bloc, the Arabs had to be careful to resist US attempts to establish hegemony in the West Asian region. He also expressed displeasure at the behaviour of lesser oil producing states of the Gulf. As mentioned earlier, Saddam blamed Kuwait and the UAE for violation of OPEC production quotas. He said on May 30,1990 that this was a kind of war against Iraq. Thus, by the end of May 1990, President Hussain appeared determined to acquire Kuwait and achieve increased oil benefits in the bargain.

Check your Progress 1


ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit.

1) Why did Iraq opt for military action against Kuwait?

..................................................................................................................... . :>r

. .

.................................................................................. ............ ..x. ................. . ,

Z'J What was the international situation gn the eve of oulf War?

The Gulf War

Elid of the Cold War nnd its Aftter~iiatli 13.3 IRAQ'S ACTION AGAINST KUWAIT

In the second half of July 1990, Iraq began large scaie pr:paration for the invasion of Kuwait. She deployed 35,000 troops, tanks and rockets from three elite divisions. On July 18, Iraq's Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz charged that Kuwait had stolen $ 2.4 billion worth of oil from disputed Rumaila oil field. A few days later .America announced a joint military exercise with the UAE, and sent two additional warships as if " lay down a mark for Saddam Hussein". The next day Iraq demanded 2.4 billion dollar compensation from Kuwait. Under Iraq's pressure, oil prices were raised by Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) from 18 to 21 dollars a barrel on July 27. The two-day talks between officials of Iraq and Kuwait failed on August 1, 1990. Iraq was now ready for invasion, but Kuwait did not realise the seriousness of the crisis. Kuwait had not moved any of its forces towards 'the border even on July 27. They were put on full alert and deployed by two of the commanders north of Kuwait city. But the Emir of Kuwait did not expect an invasion and he ordered the troops to go back to their barracks. Even on August 1, Kuwait's envoy to the United States ruled out the possibility of an aggression. Sg poor was the intelligence of Kuwait's army.

13.3.1 Conquest and Annexation of Kuwait

Iraq began the invasion of Kuwait at 2 A.M. (local time) on 2nd of August 1990. Iraqi tanks reached the capital so fast that Kuwaiti army had no time to offer any resitstance. Within six hours the Emirate of Kuwait had been conquered by Iraq.

Saudi Arabia, an ally of the U.S.A., was also taken by surprise. On being told of Iraq's invasion, Saudi King Fahd asked : "Are you sure?" Till a few hours before the attack most of the U.S. officials were regarding as very low the possibility of an attack. There were reasons for this. Firstly, Iraq's challenge to the existence of Kuwait was not new. Her stand consistently had been that from 1875 till the end of the first world war, Kuwait had been a part of the Province of Basra which was now a part of Iraq since 1920. Even after Iraq recognised the independencc: of Kuwait there were prolonged border disputes between Iraq and Kuwait. But, military action had never been threatened. Several rounds of talks had taken place right upto February, 1989. Secondly, during the Iran-Iraq war Kuwait had openly supported Iraq and had given about 15 billion dollar interest-free loan to her. So how could Kuwait now expect an attack? Thirdly, in any case, accusatory rhetoric is a core element of the political culture of inter-Arab politics.

In less than six hours of the commencement of invasion, America had made its position clear. The White House condemned Iraq's invasion and called for "the imfnediate and unconditional withdrawal of all Iraqi forces". But the U.S. had not made up its mind on the nature of action to be taken. The next day (August 3) (thbugh August 2, U.S. time) President Bush said, "We are not ruling any options in but we are not ruling any options out." Bush did not say anything about the use of force for the simple reason that he did not know whether he would have to use force. The US President declared, " 8ur goal is not the conquest of Iraq. It is the liberation of Kuwait".$ut, after a month Bush added a personal dimension and said that his aim was ouster of Saddam Hussain. He said, "There is another way fo'r the bloxlshed to stop, and that is ... for the Iraqi people ta take matters into their hands, to force Saddam Hussain, the dictator, to step aside and to comply with the United Nations resolutions ..."

The personality of President Saddam Hussain must be taken note of at this juncture. According to Michael Brecher, "he ruled through pervasive fear ... his aspiration to dominate the Gulf region, and ultimately, establish his pre-eminence

II 1112 Arab World". Somehow, he was convinced that after his 'success, in Gulf L\'dr-I, there was a conspiracy against Iraq spearh'eaded by the United States and Ib,rael. Saudi Arabia and some other Gulf countries were also involved in the conspiracy. The Soviet leader Gorbachev's special envoy was told of this fear, and he opined "something in all this may have corresponded to the truth".

The U.N. Security Council debated the issue of Iraqi invasion, and subsequent annexation of Kuwait. Meanwhile, as mentioned above, Iraq's Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) decreed on August 8, 1990 the annexation of Kuwait "in a comprehensive, eternal and inseparable merger". Kuwait was made the nineteenth province of Iraq.

For Iraq, annexation of Kuwait was going to be a major economic gain. These included Kuwait's world-wide assets, and its valuable oil reserves. These gains were designed to overcome serious economic difficulties created by the prolonged Iraq-Iran War. Besides, Kuwait's 310 - mile coastline would improve Iraq's access to sea, so that Iraq could fulfil its ambition to be the hegemonial power in the Gulf region; and it could achieve the goal of pre-eminence in the Arab World. US condemnation of Iraq came as a surprise to Saddam Hussain because since 1982 Americans had clearly tilted towards Iraq as against "fundamental Iran".

-



ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this unit.

1) Sum up the outcome of Iraq's military action against Kuwait in Phase I of Gulf War I I.

13.4 LIBERATION OF KUWAIT

The Gulf War

From the time Iraq fnvaded Kuwait on August 2, hectic diplomatic and other activities were initiated to pressure Iraq to vacate Kuwait. Saudi Arabia was among the main critics of. Iraq. Therefore, Iraq sent 60,000 troops on Saudi border on August 3, 1990. Two days later it ordered formation of 11 additional &visions of the army. This was followed by deployment of 6000 to 15,000 U.S. troops and four fighter squadrons in Saudi Arabia; by August 11 the strength of U.S. forces in Saudi Arabia was proposed to be raised to 200,000. On August 16, Iraq took thousands of foreigners - British, French, American and Japanese as hostages; on September 21, 1990 the Iraqi RCC called upon the people to be prepared for "the mother of all battles". By that time Iraq had about 130,000 troops in the south and in Kuwait. As U.N. decided to imp8se economic sanctions (which were in force even till 1997) Iraq threatened to attack Saudi oil fields, unfriendly Arab countries and Israel. The inevitability of U.N. authorised war against Iraq was evident by mid November, 1990. Meanwhile, Saddam Hussain offered to release the hostages on condition that U.N. guaranteed U.S. withdrawal of all allied forces from the region or if Bush gave in writing a "clear unequivocal commitment" to withdraw all allied forces from the region "along with a lifting of the U.W. blockade of

End of the Cold War Iraq." Immediately, the United States rejected this demand until Iraq met the and its Aftternlath coliditions of the Security Council resolutions of restoration of Emir's regime, and

the release of all the hostages. Earlier Iraq had tried to link the Kuwait crisis with I the Arab-Israel conflict. Iraq demanded the end of Israel's occupation of West

Bank and Gaza, the Golan Heights and southern Lebanon. President Bush told the I

General Assembly that if Iraq withdrew unconditionally from Kuwait, there may soon be enough opportunities to settle issues that divided the Arabs from Israel.

13.4.1 The 28-Nations Coalition led by the United States

As there were no signs of Iraq's compliance with the Security Council resolution, the United States went about building coalition of countries who were opposed to Iraq's annexation of Kuwait. It was not an easy task, yet a 28-nation coalition led by the United States was put in place. Some of them were NATO powers; others were from the West Asian region itself. While most of the 28 countries contributcd to the military build up against Iraq in support of UN res'olutions and to use force, if nececsary, yet only six were actively involved in the war when it came. These were the United States, Saudi Arabia, Britain, France, Egypt and Syria. Besldes, there were non-combatants from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Morocco, Niger and Emirates. The war that took place from 17th January to 28th February, '

1991 was generally a trial of strength between Iraq and the United States . On the other 3 e , Izaq was supported by Jordan, Yemen and the PLO diplomatically, politically dad economically, but none fought on the side of Iraq. Thus, it was an unequal fight between 28-nation coalition led by the US and Iraq.

The coalition led by the United States comprised more than 700,000 troops. ' l l~e largest contingent was of course that of the United States. It consisted of 527,000 Americans backed by approximately 1500 aircraft and mighty naval flotilla of 91 warships.

The Soviet Union, facet with growing troubles at home, had joined the coalition and fully supported the U.N. resolutions and the U.S. determination to expel Iraq from Kuwait; but she refused to participate in a military build up in the Gulf or join in war against Iraq; and she made a high-profile attempt to mediate between the two conflicting sides. The Sovlet Union was aware of likely repercussions among the muslim republics of USSR, in case she actively engaged herself in the

a hostilities. Besides, she had been giving massive aid to Iraq for two decades and the Gulf is too closely sitiated to the then'soviet territory.

For most Arab countries Iraq's action had created a dilemma -how to respond to the destruction of sovereignty of one of the Arab League members by another. If they condemned Iraq, that would mean giving the impression of aligning with the United States, generally described as an imperialist power. To suppoit Iraq would mean undermining the core principle of territorial integrity and national sovereignty. Therefore, most of them either remained neutral or expressed rhetoric sympathy either with Iraq or the coalition.

Meanwhile, Soviet Union agreed to support Security Council resalution number 678 which called upon Iraq to vacate Kuwait by November 30, 1990 failing which use of force could be resorted to compel Iraq to vacate the aggression. The United States wanted military action to commence on January 1, 1991. But, Soviet Union brought about a compromise fixing January 15 incorporating Gorbachev's "pause of goodwill". The Security Council Resolution No. 678 was adopted by 12 votes to 2 (Cuba and Yemen voted against) and Chlna abstained (which was not a veto). It authorised all UN members "to use all necessary means ... to restore International peace and security in the area".

The U.S. led 28-nation coalition commenced military action against Iraq for the liberation of Kuwait on January 17, 1991 at 2.4 A.M. (Gulf time). The Gulf War I1 was fought in two phases. From January 17 to February 23 it was limited to aerial bombardment of strategic targets in Iraq and occupied Kuwait. The aerial action was supported by naval action by the coalition forces. The ground action began on February 24 and by February 28, 1991 Iraq was defeated and Kuwait was

I liberated.

The Gulf War

The air war, with nadval support in the Gulf and Red sea, was a relentless daily assault on multiple Iraqi targets -roads, railways, airports, power system ammunition dumps and oil installations, etc. This was in addition to bombardment aimed at Iraqi troops, main scud missile-launching sites and nuclear reactor plants. 700 Iraqi aeroplanes were no match to nearly double the strength of the coalition. Besides, some of the ace Iraqi pilots landed their planes in Iran and thus avoided taking part in the battle.

13.4.2 Sanctions against Iraq and Restoration of Sovereignty of Kuwait

I President Saddam Hussain, in a desperate move, tried to change the Gulf War into an Arab-Israel conflict, but he totally failed. For weeks, scud missile attacks were

I I inade on Israel by Iraq. The idea was that when Israel would retaliate, the Arab I World would be called upon to fight against the Jewish state. That would make the

position of Egypt and Saudi Arabia very difficult. Despite prolonged provocation, Israel did not retaliate. Israel was repeatedly requested by the United States not be

1 dragged in the war.

i Meanwhile, Gorbachev's diplomatic efforts unsuccessfully continued. Saddam

, Hussain had said that once the ground fighting began, Americans would have to swim in their own blood, and that the Vietnam War would be forgotten as picnic. But, within four days of ground action, Kuwait was liberated and Al-Sabah was restored as Emir of the sountry. Thus Kuwait's sovereignty was restored and Iraq suffered a clear defeat.

Although the war ended in early 199 1. U.N. imposed sanction against Iraq were not withdrawn.even till 1997. As 1rG had failed to destroy its nuclear capability, the United States is in no mood to oblige Iraq. Meanwhile, in 1995 Ptesident Saddam faced a new challenge when two of his daughters and their husbands defected to Jordan. Both the sons-in-law of Saddam Hussain were occupying important strategic position in Iraq. Their defection, with state secrets, was a big bl'ow to Iraq's President. The King of Jordan had been a strong supporter of Iraq. When he allowed Saddam's sons-in-law to defect and stay in Jordan. It was a big blow to the Iraqi President.

Aftkr a few months (early 1996) President Saddam's daughters and sons-in-law w k e allowed to return to Iraq. Saddam's first wife had secured an assurance that their sons-in-law would be pardoned. However, soon afterwards both the sons-in- law were killed. The Gulf War 11, which ended in 1991, was a serious crisis. Soviet Union was still in existence, but she could not support Iraq. The United Nations efforts to persuade Iraq to vacate her aggression having failed, military solution had to be sought under American leadership. This may be regarded as an example of collective security action which freed Kuwait from Iraq. Unlike the textbook meaning of collective security (U.N. calling upon all member-nations to help the victims), in this case the U.S. coalition was authorised to vacate the aggression and secure independence and restoration of sovereignty of Kuwait.


Note : 1) Use the space pven below for your answers.


1 ) Describe the role of 28-nation coalition in the liberation of Kuwait.

.....................................................................................................................

2) Analyse the role of USSR and various Arab countries during the Gulf crisis.

.....................................................................................................................

3) Explain the events Leading to the restoration of sovereignty of Kuwait.

13.5 IMPACT OF THE GULF WAR

In this section an attempt will be made to analyse the impact of the entire Gulf crisis on the major actors involved. The crisis had begun as a result of Iraqi military action against Kuwait, and the latter country's annexation as Iraq's nine~teenth province. Thus, the direct impact was on Kuwait who lost its sovereignty, and regained it after the intervention of US-led coalition. During Seven month long occupation of Kuwait estimated 2,000 to 5,000 people were killed, several thousand were abducted, maimed and rendered homeless. Large number of people fled Kuwait's economy suffered wanton destruction, particularly when Iraq put most of its oil field on fire. About 100 oil wells were burning till much after Kuwait regained its sovereignty. All this traumatised the people of Kuwait, which resulted in near-universal anger, bitterness and fear of powerful Iraq..

,,I,, Y V ~ S , demand for democratisation was renewed. People called for restoration of the Constitution of 1962 which had provided for an elected

t legislature with limited powers, a check on authoritarian powers of A1-Sabah I ruling family. That constitution was set aside in 1986. Now, under the

pressure of the u.S:, the Government announced elections to a 50-member national Assembly. The elections held in 1992 resulted in 31 seats being won by pro-democracy elements.

Saudi Arabia is immediate neighbour of two main actors of the Gulf crisis. .Saudi Arabia is a larger Arab Kingdom which was one of the 28-nation coalition that fought against Iraq in the second phase of the crisis and liberated Kuwait. Saudi Government and people lived in fear of Iraqi attack for six weeks (mid-January to end-February 1991). Iraq had amassed its forces on Saudi borders, while it was making repeated Scud missile attacks In Israel to provoke the Jewish State to retaliate. Iraqi forces made a brief incursion into Saudi territory early in February and resulted in the battle of Khafji. Saudis were aware of Iraq's military superiority and Saddam Hussain's ambition of hegemony in the Gulf region, but it did not expect the type of aggressiveness that was adopted by Iraq. The Iraq-Saudi relations were badly damaged.

The Saudi Government fully supported the US policy of maintaining UN sanctions against Iraq till Saddam Hussain was ousted. Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia was aware of her smaller population and a small, though well- equipped, army. During the Gulf crisis Saudi financial resources were reduced by about $ 16 billion, but her oil fields remained intact.

Israel boldly faced the Scud attacks, but did not get provoked. Despite temptation to retaliate, Israelis listened to US advice and did not attack Iraq.

The task of liberation of Kuwait was performed, as mentioned above, under the leadership of the United States of America. However, American casualties in the war, estimated by the generals between 10,000-20,000 were a source of unconcealed relief to the political leadership. President Saddam Hussain hail talked of US soldiers' swim in their blood. But US led a victory. There was no physical damage to US installations and no scud missile attack took place on US cities. There were no trauma like the Kuwaitis had faced, nor long-term vulnerability as experienced by Saudi Arabia. The financial contribution of the allies exceeded the money spent by the US. Americans only witnessed the "Operation Desert Storm" on their TV sets. Besides, this came out to be America's first major vlctory after Second World War, as Korehn War had resulted in a stalemate, and Vietnam War had resulted in America's "ignominious defeat."

The unilateral cease fire was ordered by the United States on February 28. 1991 hoping that the Iraqi people would throw Saddam Hussain out. Here the US proved wrong. The US had operated tllriirl;~!~ thc UN Security Council. stringent economic sanctions were imposed on Iraq -vhich were not removed for years, and persistent attempts were made to destroy Iraq's weapons of mass destruction. The victory of the coalition was also victory of the lrnited Nations.

The outcome of Gulf War did not eliminate Iraq as a major regional power, as her stockpile of armaments survived 38-day air strikes. However, Iraq lost its primacy in the Gulf region. Iran now acquired that position. and a victorious Saudi Arabia emerged as a growing military power. In the larger Arab world, Egypt and Syria came out more powerful. Israel remained undisturbed and PLO - Israel peace process was speeded up. Iraq became preoccupied with Kurdish and shieite revolts.

End of the Cold War and its Afttermath


Note : i) Use the space given below for y2ur answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this unit.

1) What was the impact of Gulf crisis on Saudi Arabia?

B

13.6 LET US SUM UP

Gulf war was the first major crisis after the end of Cold War. During the prolonged Iran-Iraq war, 1980-88, (Gulf War-I) Iraq had received full support from Kuwait as well as the United States. Thus, Kuwait did not expect that Iraq would attack and annex her. But, Iraq had the ambition of turning the small, but immensely oil-rich, Kuwait into its nineteenth province. In view of US dislike for new Iranian regime, Iraq did not expect that the Americans would oppose its adventure against Kuwait.

Kuwait was totally unprepared when Iraq launched massive attack on her in August 1990, and conquered her in just six hours of unequal war. Kuwait was later proclaimed to be Iraq's nineteenth province. This was phase I of Gulf War 11.

On the initiative of the United States, the UR Security Council took up the cause of Kuwait and tried to reason with Iraq to vacate its aggression. Soviet Union was passing through a difficult period which later ended in its disintegration. The cold War had ended. Iraq did not get support from the Soviet Union. In effect USSR supported the US position and UN resolutions. China abstained on various resolutions adopted by the Security Council, but this did not mean Chinese supnort to Iraq.

When Iraq failed to comply with the Security Council resolutions, the UN permitted the setting up of a 28-nation coalition, led by the United States, to liberate Kuwait. Iraq was confident that it could not be thrown out of Kuwait. But, Iraq was decisively defeated after 38-days of air strikes and four days of ground fighting. Iraq's attempt to turn the crisis into an Arab-Israel conflict failed, and many Arab countries such as Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia joined hands with the US, defeated Iraq and liberated Kuwait. Sovereignty of Kuwait was restored and Al-Sabah returned to ower. B The Gulf Warturned out to be first major gain of the United States after Second World War, a setback to Iraqi ambitions of hegemony in the Gulf and a victor of the United Nations. However, it had traumatised Kuwait and caused terrific fear in Saudi Arabia.

13.7 KEY WORDS

Mandate System : A Commission from the league of Nations to a member state to administer a territory.

Gulf : A expanse of a sea comprising a deep in let with a nanow mouth.


James Lee Ray, 1992 : Global Politics, New Jersey

Rama S. Melkote & A Narasimha Rao, 1993 : International Relations. .

L.S. Srivastava, 1983 : A Global History : The Human Heritage : New Jersey.



1) Iraq decided to annex Kuwait (a) because she had always regarded Kuwait as part of Iraq, (b) after Iran-Iraq war, the economy of Iraq had become weak, and (c) Kuwait is an oil-rich small neighbour. Kuwait as part of Iraq would help the latter acquire lot of oil-related wealth and tide over Iraq's financial difficulties.

2) The cold war had ended. Soviet Union, the principal arms supplier of armaments to Iraq, was passing through a difficult phase. During Iran-Iraq war both USA and Kuwait had supported Iraq. Thus, Iraq did not expect opposition from any quarter, and she could extend her territory.


1) Iraqi invasion of Kuwait came as a complete surprise to the latter. Iraq's

I massive armed might took just six hours to seize the entire Emirate of Al- Sabah. Ignoring U.S. warning, Iraq formally annexed Kuwait as its 19th province.

I Check Your Progress 3

1 1) The 28-nation coalition was put together by the United States under

1 authorisation by the U.N. Armed forces were mainly provided by the US and Saudi Arabia, Britain, France, Egypt and Syria. 38 days of air strikes could not force Iraq lo free Kuwait. But, in subsequent four days of ground

/ action the coalition brought unconditional surrender of Iraq and liberation of Kuwait.

1

2) The Soviet Union fully supported the'UN resolutions and tried to persuade I Iraq to vacate its aggression. But, when the coalition took action, USSR did

not contribute troops or armaments. Several of Arab countries like Egypt and Saudi Arabia actively participated in military action against Iraq. Others like Jordan did not take military action against Iraq nor gave it Military support.

The Gulf War

End of the Cold War and its Afttermath

3) UN authorised use of force by 28-nation coalition to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi aggression. Last minute efforts by USSR to persuade Iraq failed, but this delayed action by the coalition. Iraq tried to turn the crisis into Arab- Israel conflict through repeated scud missile attacks on Israel. The latter

. was not provoked. Air attacks, followed by 4 days of ground fighting, liberated Kuwait. UN imposed sanctions against Iraq which were not withdrawn for several years.


1) Saudi Arabia is a neighbour of Iraq and Kuwait. Saudis were totally against Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. As Saudi Arabia fully supported action against Iraq, the latter amassed its troops on Saudi borders. Saudi people lived in fear of Iraqi aggression for six weeks. Iraqi forces made a brief incursion in Saudi territory and the battle of Khafji took place. Saudi financial resources were addressly affected to the extent of,$ 16 billion.

UNIT 14 DISINTEGRATION OF THE SOCIALIST BLOC

Structure

Objectives Introduction Internal Reasons for the Disintegration 14.2.1 Historical 14.2.2 Cultural 14.2.3 Political 14.2.4 Economic

External Reasons for the Disintegration 14.3.1 Role of the USSR 1-4.3.2 Role of the West 14.3.3 The Demonstration Effect

The Fall of the Communist Governments and Parties in Different Countries 14.4.1 poland 14.4.2 Hungary 14.4.3 GDR 14.4.4 Czechoslovakia 14.4.5 Bulgaria 14.4.6 Romania

Let Us Sum Up Key Word Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

14.0 OBJECTIVES

The objective of this unit is to examine the reasons which led to the disintegration of the Socialist Bloc and to trace the sequence of events which culminated in the end of the bipolar world order. After goin through this unit should be able to

identify the internal and external factor, that have led to the collapse of Socialist bloc, and ' .

explain the manner in which each country of the Socialist bloc witnessed the decline and fall of communist parties.

24.1 INTRODUCTION

The events of 1989, which culminated in the disintegration of the Socialist bloc, have been described as "an earth quake" in world politics. Indeed, the sheer speed of those events left those who were observing the same as well as those who participated in them absolutely stunned. In fact, the pace With which the communist regimes in the socialist bloc fell one after another itself became a crucial part of the process of change. From mid 1989 and especially in the last quarter of 1989, almost every day there were reports of demonstrations, strikes, protests, fall of leaders and Governments. The entire atmosphere was charged

I with excitement and expectancy and high drama which cannot be fully conveyed in its description and analysis. The other aspect of this integration was that while' the end result of the upheavals was the same, i.e. the fall of the ruling classes,

1

I there are a number of differences among the various countries as regards the

End of tlie Cold War and its Aftterrnath

manner in which they fell. Thus, for example in Poland, the revolutionary changes were the result of prolonged and sustained resistance of solidarity, supported by the Catholic Church, in Hungary, they were the result of power struggle within the political elite; in East Germany and Czechoslovakia, the regime was overthrown by peaceful mass demonstrations but in Romania, the government of. Ceaucescu was toppled by a bloody revolution and in Bulgaria the changes came about slowly sluggishly.

14.2 INTERNAL REASONS FOR THE DISINTEGRATION

14.2.1 Historical

Although the final disintegration of the Socialist bloc took a few months in the latter half of 1989 , the basic reasons for the collapse can be traced to the period when, more than forty years earlier, communist rule was imposed in these

L

countries during Stalin's time. This fact of forcible imposition of a system of government and an ideology, and the lack of democratic means in this had alienated the citizens of these countries and the feeling grkw stronger with the passage of time.

14.2.2 Cultural

The countries of the Socialist bloc could neither compete in the new fields of consumer culture, the third industrial revolution and the speed of information technology, nor could they constitute an alternative block which could insulate itself from the capitalist world as was possible at one time in history when the "iron curtain" and descended across Europe after World War 11. They simply lagged behind, condemned to only copy from the west. In the most crucial field of all, comunications , it became more and more possible for people in the Socialist bloc countries to hear and see what was happening in the outside world. The impact of West German television in much of East Germany and Czechoslovakia is an example of this. Pop music provided a direct means of reaching the young in the Socialist world. With higher levels of education and increasing opportunities for travel, the comparison between living standard and political conditions in the socialist and advanced capitalist countries became more obvious. It was this comparative, rather than absolute failure that provided the basis for the collapse; not only did it generate discontent with the Socialist system which was increasingly seen as bankrupt, but it also destroyed the belief that the Socialist system could in any way catch up with the capitalist West, let alone overtake it.

14.2.3 Political

The discontent generated by this failure led to a widespread discrediting of the ruling Communist parties and its leaders which in turn led to an erosion of their legitimacy to rule. The fact that, historically, these regimes had been imposed forcibly during the post World War I1 period, and that they had not been democratically elected, formed the basis for the simmering discontent among the people. The economic failures brought their discontent into sharper focus and the authoritarian nature of the rule made the people generally question the legitimacy . of the Communists parties to govern and dictate. Economic failure not only stimulated but also consolidated the societal tensions and opposition in most of the East European countries and it finally erupted in a major upsurge of nationalism in the different counties. It brought together workers and intellectuals, many young people and all sorts of underground organisations, and this unity

proved to be an extremely effective and strong threat to the ruling elite. I t must be kept in mind that in Olfferent countries, there were different degrees of unity and cooperation among these sections. Even those groups which had formerly supported the communist regimes now joined ranks with the opposition.

In some countries, such as East Germany, Czechoslovakia and Poland for e.g., as a result of all these pressures and lack of support, and in the face of mounting economic crisis, the ruling party began to lose confidence in its ability to rule. Whereas, in the sixties and seventies, whenever there had been mass demonstrations or opposition, the Communist Party had not hesitated to use force to suppress the threat to its rule, now in the late eighties, most of these ruling elites found it difficult to use force to maintain its rule. This inability to use force had both internal and external causes. .

14.2.4 Economic

It has been pointed out that the most fundamental and all-encompassing reason was the failure of these counties to live on to their promise of "catching up with and overtaking capitalism" in political and economic terms. It was a multifaceted failure in which the most crucial aspect was a pervasive economic failure. Not only were these countries unable to catch up with the West in narrow, quantitative terms such as industrial output, technological changes and food production, but also, in more general terms were unable to raise standards of living and meet the r~sing popular expectations, especially in the newly arisen consumerism and popular culture where the contrast with the capitalist West became more pronounced.

Undoubtedly, this was the most important cause and it has been argued by many experts that if drastic economic reforms had been initiated, the other problems could have been contained to some degree. Economic success could have possibly made the sociocultural and political issues less acute and could have made the management of the discontent somewhat easier.

Uptill now, we have been discussing the domestic causes. Now we shall turn to the external factors. d Check Your Progress 1



1) Which was the most important internal factor in the disintegration of the Socialist Bloc ?

......................................................................................................................

2 ) How did cultural factors generate and increase opposition in the countries of Eastern Europe ?

Disintegration of the Socialist Bloc

E11d of the Cold War and its Aftterlliath 14.3 EXTERNAL REASONS FOR THE

DISINTEGRATION

14.3.1 Role of the USSR

The most significant of the external factors was the role and politics of the erstwhile USSR. More than six years after the disintegration of the Socialist Bloc and five years after the break up of the Soviet Union, it is possible to state that Gorbachev's policies of Glasnost and Perestroika in the Soviet Union, made the upheavals in East Europe both possible and successful. Of course, we cannot say that Gorbachev had known or anticipated the chain reaction that took place - but certainly, he was totally incapable of stopping or controlling what he had started. Gorbachev wanted to reform socialism and he was indeed successful to the extent that a great many changes came about in the Soviet Union. He was responsible for introducing political reforms and greater democracy in the political system of the Soviet Union and countries of Eastern Europe. On the one hand democracy - of the Western capitalist kind -produced a great enthusiasm among the youth, the opposition groups and associations and those sections of political and social groups which were desiring reforms. On the other hand it dealt a blow to the more conservative elements. The demand for reforms soon snowballed into a demand for an all-embracing,.extensive reform of the Cdminunist political system.

There can be no doubt now that the most crucial decision on the part of the Soviet leadership, particularly Gorbachev, which had the greatest demoralizing effect on the Communist regimes in East Europe, was the decision to revoke the Brezhnev Doctrine. Certainly, in the ultimate analysis; the ruling regime of the Socialist bloc was overthrown or replaced by powerful mass lnovements, but they would never have taken place without the change in Soviet policy towards its satellite states. In November 1988, Gorbachev announced in the United Nations the decision to unilaterally reduce the size of the Soviet armed forces and to withdraw 50,000 troops from the GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. The Soviet troops would no longer intervene in these countries whenever there arose any threat to the Communist regimes in power. These regimes could now no longer depend on external support in times of crisis. Gorbachev's change of policy became the indispensable precondition for the changes to occur, since the regimes could now no longer go on ruling in the old way and the opposition groups would not have to fear the use of external force.

From the above it should not be understood that there was no opposition to dissent in East Europe during the Communist Party rule, before Gorbachev's November 1988 decision. There was opposition, but it was fragmented and not very strongly organised. Moreover, the Communist Party was in complete and strict control of the country. During the second half of the eighties, opposition acquired form, purpose and some order. And ultimately the Gorbachev factor became responsible for strengthening the forces of change and bringing them together, inspired by his role as a radical reformer of the system. Poland had already had a long period of opposition movements led by Solidarity; there was some opposition in Hungary but it was not very significant; in Czechoslovakia and the GDR, opposition had existed for a long time but it was mainly confined to intellectuals and it links with the larger masses were very weak. In Bulgaria and Romania, where the regimes had been most repressive, there was hardly any active opposition. But in the latter half of 1988 and 1989, the dissent movements and opposition became very active, began multiplying and in a surprisingly short

period, became a tidal wavc : G ~ I I ; ! I [lc!i;Jci y and conclusively swept away the old regimes. As we/ mentioned in tlliB !i!qt p:;r:,gr:rph, both the time in which these events took place as well as the manlier i . i .\ - : zh they occurred, were different in all the countries. What took a year in Poland and Hungary, took a few weeks in the GDR. a few bloodless days in Czechoslovakia and a Pew bloody days in Romania. while in Bulgaria, the orthodox Communist rulers went quietly in a couple o f months. Looking back we can see that the rapid expulsion of the Communist Party and the total rejection of its role in society (which had been one of complcte doinii>ntion) was the one common factor in all these countries - and also the most remarkable. For it was with the weakening of these parties, that the popular forces and pluralistic elements came to the front. And, by withdrawing the support of Soviet troops, Gorbachev greatly facilitated this process of the weakening of the ruling Communist parties.

14.3.2 Role of the West

Yet ailother important international factor was [he rolc of the Western capitalist countries. As the people in Eastern Europe began to gel Inore and more organised in their demAand for systemic reform, greatcr denlocrac.- dn(l rcmoval of the Communist Parties, they received a lot of encouragcnicll! m d \velcome lrom Western Europe and the U.S.A. There was widespread bellct among tlie people of Eastern Europe that they would receive financial, diplomatic and even military assistance from the capitalist West. In this way, [he expectallon of support also worked as a stiinulus in the galhering protest.

14.3.3 The Demonstration Effect

There was also what one may call the demonstration effect which we mentioned in the first paragraph 01' thic eY\<ly and which we can consider in the category of external factors. Thc ~ucccss v.,hicll rllcse movements of democracy and reform were achieving in the different countries. had a greatly encouraging effect on other similar illoveinents and protest:, ol the Socialist bloc and each victory took the entire process a step further towards the eventual disintegration of the Socialist bloc. Thus, people I'lrst wit~lessed liberalisation measures initiated by the government in Hungary. then the elcction of a Solidarity government in Poland. Then, all of a sudden, mass ~nigratlons began taking place from the GDR in the summer of 1989 followed by mass demonstrations. Events acquired a faster momentum new and Czechoslovakia witnessed upheavals and finally, the curtain came down with the sudden, violent and bloody change in Romania.


Note : 1 ) Use the space glvcn below for your answers.

il) Check your answer wlth the model answer given at the end of this unlt.

I ) What was Gorbachev'j cnntrlbution in beginning the process of change in the Social~st Bloc')

Disintegration of the Socialist Bloc

End of the Cold War and its Aftternlath 14.4 THE FALL OF THE COMMUNIST

. GOVERNMENTS AND PARTIES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

Now let us make a mdre detailed examination of the manner in which the Communist regimes were opposed and overthrown in individual countries of the Socialist Bloc.

14.4.1 Poland

In the second half of 1989, changes first began in Poland and Hungary. In August, the Polish United Workers Party - which was the official title of the Communist Party headed by Gen. Jaruzelski - ceased to form the government, and Solidarity, headed by Lech Walesa as President, formed the government.

14.4.2 Hungary

In September, the Hungarian Government took an unprecedented foreign policy decision : they opened their borders and permitted several thousand East German citizens (who were spending their vacation in Eastern Europe and who refused to return to the GDR) to cross over into Austria and from there to West Germany, i.e., the FRG. While this decision obviously had the approval of the Soviet Union, it meant that for the first time, a country of the Secialist bloc was declaring its preference for the West during a time of crislis. As the future Czech foreign minister later commented, it was this action that signalled the beginning of the end of the Soviet Bloc. An agreement was also reached between the Hungarian government and the opposition parties on the creation of a multiparty system and finally, in October 1989, the Hungarian Socialist Workers Party (as the Communist Party was called) renamed itself the Hungarian Socialist Party (HSP) and ab3ndoned Leninism as its ideology. The HSP also declared its country to be a 'republic' - and not a "people's republic" - in which bourgeois democracy and democratic socialism would apply and we can see the degree to which this decision influenced public life - as many as 51 parties were expected to contest the parliamentary elections scheduled for 1990.

14.4.3 GDR 4

The regimes in the GDR ad the Czech Republic were the next to crumble. Erich Honecker was removed as party leader and head of the State of GDR ir 1

1

October 1989 and widespread public demonstrations for democracy took place. The emigration of the country's youth and other professionals also continued in large numbers so that finally, in November, the GDR announced 1 an end to travel restrictions for its citizens and threw open its borders with ! FRG, allowing direct emigration to the West. The Berlin Wall - which was the most important symbol of the East-West divide for so long - came j crashing down, as thousands of people poured across - most of whom did not 1 return. The entire Politbureau and the go unmen t resigned in December and theeleading role of the Communist Party was scrapped and its name was also changed. In early January 1990, the official name of the party became party

! of Communist Democratic Socialism and all the time, the mass exodus of East Germans into the West continued.-More than 4000 people were leaving every day, creating serious problems for both the GDR and FRG.

Increasingly, reunification of the two Germanies was seen as the only solution to the problem and finally ds the East German crisis depended, both Moscow and the wartime allied powers of the West - United States, Great Britain and France - agreed to hold meetings and conferences to discuss all the aspects of reunification of the two Germanies.

i 14.4.4 Czechoslovakia

i The Czech government tried unsuccessfully to suppress the popular

E demonstrations and rising opposition in October, and finally in November, I 1989 the government and party leadership were overthrown. On 27

b November a two hour general strike took place in cities and towns all over the country which finally resulted in the rejection of the leading role of the Communist Party. And on December 29, a special joint session of the Czech Federal Assembly unanimously elected Vaclav Have1 - the man who barely eleven months earlier was arrested with 800 others for human rights protests in January 1989 - as the first Czech non-Communist President since 1943.

14.4.5 Bulgaria

Dbuikgration of the Socidist Bloc

Problems in Bulgaria erupted next. The first independent demonstration by more than five thousand people (after forty years of the Bulgarian Communist [BCP] rule) outside the National Assembly occurred on November 3, 1989 and a week later, the Bulgarian Central Committee accepted the resignation of the 78 year old BCP Secretary - General Zhikov. The new Bulgarian Party Politburo condemned the 1968 Soviet led invasion of Czechoslovakia and in this manner tried to reverse the then existing view of history. In early December, nine independent organisations joined tog ther to establish the Union of Democratic Forces in Bulgaria (UDF). The UDF later announced that it would campaign for political pluralism, a market economy and follow the rule of law. Finally, in January 1990, in an extraordinary Bulgarian Communist Party Congress, the orthodox conservatives were totally defeated, the Central Committee and Politburo were abolished and replaced with a 153 member Supreme Council.

14.4.6 Romania

,In Romania, the Communist Party regime continued to resist the popular uprisings and also attempted to organise "joint action" with other socialist countries to crush the opposition movements. Here, the downfall of the ruling elite was the bloodiest. At the 14th Congress of the Romanian Communist Party in November 1989, Nicolai Ceaucescu strongly resisted the idea that reform was necessary. At a time when the entire Socialist Base was in turmoil, this resistance to change is truly surprising. The critical point came in December when the government's attempts to seize a priest who defended the rights of ethnic Hungarians in Romania led to massive demonstrations, which quickly turned into anti-government protest. Security and army troops were ordered to open fire on crowds in two cities and when the Defence Minister refused to cooperate in this killing of innocent people, he was executed. This led to the Army joining ranks with the demonstrators, which ended with the fall of the govern'ment. A short but bloody civil war ensued which ended with the capture and trial of Nicolai Ceaucescu and his wife by a military tribunal after which they were executed by a firing squad. National Salvation Front, which had been created earlier, was recognised by the Soviet government, which promised a return to democracy.

UNIT 16 RESTRUCTURING OF THE UNITED NATIONS SYSTEM

Structure

Objectives Introduction Organization, Structure and Functions of the UN System 16.2.1 The UN Charter : Purposes and Principles 16.2.2 Main Organs of the UN and their Functions

The Changing Role of the UN 16.3.1 The Cold War Period 16.3.2 . Post-Cold War Period Some Accomplishments and Shortcomings 16.4.1 Ammplishmsnts 16.4.2 . Shortoomings

Restructuring of the UN System - Major Proposals and India's Position Lei Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

16.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit deals with the most s i m c a n t international governmental organization - the vnited Nations - surveying its changing role in maintaining international pace and security slnce its inception. It also briefly discusses the UN's role in the field of socioeconormc

I development. Its main focus is to summarise the ongoing discussion at international fora regarding restructuring of the UN system so as to make it more democratic, effective and relevant to contemporary world problems. After going through this unit you should be able

i to :

1 describe the organizations, structure and functions of the UN system.

i gain an overview of the chaqyng role of the UN during and after the end of the Cold war.

1 examine some of the major successes and failures of the UN.

1 describe the major proposals on the restructuring and reforming of the UN.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Unit 16 has examined the Gulf War, disintegration of the USSR and the socialist bloc and the different perspectives on the concept of World Order. . These extraordinary changes have' influenced the changing role of the United Nations.

The UN was established on 24 October 1945. On that day, the UN Charter (constitution) came into force. The UN Day is celebrated each year on this day. The study of the UN system is important for many reasons. But two of them are most important. First, out of 3 90 inter-govemental international organizations that have been established since 1945, the UN has been the most important because of its s i m c a n t influence on world politics. It has institutionalised a framework for international cooperation on a scale unprecedented in human history. It has attempted to resolve numerous international social, economic and humanitarian problems. Second, it has survived its first half century existence and in the process of reforming itself to face the future. Its predecessor, the League of Nations, which

was the first international organization for global peace and security, could not actively function for more than 20 years. In fact, with the birth of the UN, the death of the League of Nations was officially pronounced.

16.2 ORGANIZATION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE UN SYSTEM

The sub-unit discusses the organisational set up of the United Nations under different sub- headings, such as the UN Charter: Purposes and Principles and the main organs of the UN and their functions.

16.2.1 The UN Charter : Purposes and Principles

The UN charter was originally ratified by 5 1 states in 1945, including India. These states are known a$ founding members of the UN. During the first 50 years its membership rose to185, thus making the UN Charter an universally ratified international treaty.

According to Article 1 of the UN Charter, the purposes of the United Nations are four-fold : (i) to maintain international peace and security; (ii) to develor, friendly relations among nations based on the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples; (iii) camerate internationally in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; and (iv) be a cenm for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these common ends.

The basic purposes on which the UN works are that it is based on the recognition of sovereign cquality of all its Members, who are expected to fulfill their Charter obligations. They are to settle their international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering peace. security and justice. They are to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against any other state. They are to assist the UN, in any action it takes in accordance with the provisions of the Charter. The UN does not interfere in the domestic matters of any State.

In the preamble to the UN Charter there are four stated concerns and objectives and four methods and ~ractical s t a s suggested for their realisation. The concerns are : (i) to save succeeding generations from war (as it should be recalled here that the two great World Wars of this century brought untold sorrows and destruction the casuality of human life in these wars was approximately 41.5 and 60 millions respectively); (ii) to re f i rm faith in fundamental human rights and the dignity and worth of human beings, in the equal rights of nations large and small; (iii) to establish conditions for justice and respect for treaty obligations; and (iv) to Dromote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom. And for these ends; (i) to practise tolerance; (ii) to unite in maintaining international peace and security; (iii) to ensure that armed forces shall not be used save in common interest; and (iv) to e m ~ l w international machinery for the promotion of economic and social advancement of peoples.

16.2.2 Main Organs of the UN and their Functions

To enable the UN to achieve its stated purposes and objectives the organization has been equipped with six main organs. .

The Genleral Assembly, perhaps the closest approximation of a world parliament, is the main deliberative body. It is designed to utilize the time honoured technique of resolving problem$ by free and frank discussions. It is to function as the worlds permanent forum and a meeting place. It is created on the assumption that "war of words" is better than war fought with "swords" or bombs. All Member states of the UN, are represented in it, and each has one vote on the basis of sovereign equality. Decisions on ordinary matters are taken by simple majority. Important questions require two thirds of the vote.

Rertr uchring. of the Unlted The Assembly has the right to discuss and make recommendations on all matters within the NaU0111 &atan scope of the UN Charter. Its decisions are not binding on member States, but they cany the weight of world opinion. Thus, it does not legislate like a national parliament. But in the meeting rooms and corridors of the UN, representatives of almost all countries of the world - large and small, rich and poor, from diverse political and social systems - have a voice and vote in shaping the policies of the international community.

The Security Council is the organ to which the Charter gives primary mponsibility for maintaining peace and security. It can be convened at any time, even at mid-night when peace is threatened. Member States are obligated to carry out its decisions. It has 15 members. Five of these - China, France, the Russian Federation, the UK and the US - are permanent members. The other 10 are elected by the Assembly for two - year terms. Decisions require nine votes; except in votes on procedural questions. A decision cannot be taken if there is a "no" vote by a permanent member (known as the "veto") on substantive questions.

When a threat to peace is brought before the Council, it usually first asks the parties to reach agreement by peaceful means. The Council may undertake mediation or set forth principles for settlement. It may request the Secretary General to investigate and report on a situation. If fighting breaks out, the Council tries to secure a cease-fire. It may send peace-keeping units (observers or troops) to troubled areas, with the consent of the parties involved, to reduce tension and keep opposing forces apart. Unlike the General Assembly resolutions, its decisions are binding and it has the power to enforce its decisions by imposing economic sanctions and by ordering collective military action as it did during Korean Crisis (1 950) and authorized US-led forces to take action in Iraq-Kuwait Crisis (1990-91).

Absence or prevention of war does not automatically ensure a peaceful international system. To diminish the underlying causes of future conflicts that might lead to such h t s to the peace or breach of peace, the founding fathers of the UN also provided mechanisms for economic and social progress and development and to promote higher standards of living. This job has been assigned to the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and specialized agencies.

The ECOSOC has 54 members. It usually holds two-month long sessions each year. It coordinates the economic and social work of the UN and related specialized agencies and institutions - together, known as the UN family of organizations or simply as the UN system. It recommends and directs activities aimed at, among others, promoting economic growth of developing countries, administering development and humanitarian assistance projects, promoting the observance of human rights, ending discrimination against minorities, spreading the benefits of science and technology, and fostering world cooperation in areas such as better housing, family planning and crime prevention.

The Trusteeship Council was created to supervise the administration of 11 Trust Territories and to ensure that Governments responsible for their administration take adequate steps to prepare them for self-government and independence. It is gratifjing to note that all these territories have attained independence by the end of 1994 and now this body has little work. In fact, the Secretary General has recommended its abolition.

The International Court of Justice consists of 15 judges who are elected c o n m n t l y by the General Assembly and the S@ty Council. It is the main judicial organ of the UN. It resolves legal issues and interprets international treaties.

The secretariat is the main organ. It consists of the Secretary General and other staff and ' personnel who run the UN administration and carry out the day-to-day work of the UN. Staff members are drawn from some 160 countries. As international civil servants, they work for the UN as a whole, and pledge not to seek or receive instructions from any government or outside authority. It has more than 25,000 staff, whereas its specialized agencies have around 30,000 staff. Till now the office of the Secretary-General has been occupied by seven incumbents: Trygve

~ U ~ U U O I U and O~~MLWUOIU Lie (Nonvay); Dag Ha.mmarskjold (Sweden) U Thant (Myanmar), Kurt Waldheim (Austria), Javier perez de Cuellar (Peru), Boutros Boutros Ghali (Egypt) and Kofi Annan (Ghana).

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer. ii) Check your progress with the answers given at the end of the unit.

2) What broad distinction can you make between the decision of General Assembly and the Security Council?

) What is veto power? Who possesses it in the UN?

......................................................................................................................................................

16.3 THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE UN

The role of the UN can be examined briefly under two sections - the Cold War and the posf- Cold War period.

16.3.1 The Cold War Period

We may recall here from unit 7 that among the main casualties of the Cold War was the UN. The Cold War has had such a profound impact that the UN could not perform its basic function of ensuring peace across the world. The Security Council was often deadlocked due to the use/misuse of veto by its permanent members - the so-called "Great Powers". During the last 50 years, over 100 major conflicts around the world have occurred. which left some 20 million people dead. The Security ~ o G c i l was able to take action and edorce pedce only on two occasions - the KO- Crisis of 1950 and the Iraq-Kuwait Crisis of 1990- 91. In no other crisis - situations it was able to act, due to the exercise of veto. Till now, 280 times veto has been used, in the UN, of which half were cast in the first 10 years of the Cold Wqr era. The veto power has been used by all the five permanent members of the Council at some time or the other, but the erstwhile USSR and USA - the two Superpowers - have used it somewhat indiscriminately. For instance, during the period 1945-85, the US exercised the veto 58 times while the Soviet Union used it 117 times. Due to the frequent use and misuse of veto, the Council was not able to pass resolutions on a number of serious crises that were brought before it. This led to the decline of the Security Council's role.

During the Cold War period the UN had to deal with many crisis-situations such as the Korean' Crisis (1950), Palestine question, Indo-Pak dispute over Kashmir, Suez crisis (1956), Soviet intervention in Hungary (1956), the Congo Crisis (1960-64), Soviet occupation of Afghanisation (1 979-88), Cambodian situation (1 978), and Iran-Iraq War (1 980-88) On

4

most of these cases, the Security Council could not agree on the nature of action to'be taken to resolve them due to the veto problem. Under such c k m M a m x , the General Assembly went into action under the authority of the Earnous "Uniting for Peace Resolutionn of 1950, which enabled it to meet within 24 hours notice and recommend action to maintain peace and security in troubled region. The Assembly can invoke this resolution only when the Security Council is p+ due to veto. In such cases, the Assembly assumes powers which were entrusted by the Charter exclusively to the Security Cauncil.

Under the "Uniting for Peacen resolution, the Assembly has met in emergency d o n s to deal with many crises such as those of Suez, Hungary, Congo, Afghanistan, Nambia etc. During the Suez crisis, it invented a n m l method to maintain peace. It sent to Suez a peace-keeping force - a force which does not fight to enforce peace, it only acts as buffer between parties to the conflict and is deployed on cease-fire line with the permission of the parties. Such a force

I was also sent to Congo and other places.

With the beginning of Detente between the two Cold wamors - the US and the former USSR - in 1970s, the Security Council regained its lost importance. As a result, the Cold War really became cold and the veto was not invoked as frequently as earlier.

16.3.2 The Post-Cold War Period

It should be noted that thirteen peace-keeping operations were wdertaken by the UN between I 1 945 - 1 987. Such "peace-keeping" functions were quite successful as the forces were mainly

drawn from non-aligned States, while the Great Powers were barred from contributing forces. Due to its significant role in this field, the UN peace-keeping forces were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988. But the first five years after the Cold War has witbnessed more crisis- situations in than any comparable period of the Cold War era. Beginning with the Iraq- Kuwait crisis, the UN had to deal with mauy intra-State ethnic conflicts or civil wars. Since the end of the Cold War more than 20 UN peace-keeping operations have been launched.

i I During the last 50 years nearly 6,50,000 people have served in such peace-keeping operations.

A Qtal of 1,145 h-ve died while carrying out their duties. The UN has spent over $ 11 billion on these operatiorts. At the end of July 1995 nearly 70,000 peace keepers were deployed in 16 UN peace-keeping operations with an aggregate annual budget of approximately $3.6 billion. Thus, the post-Cold War scenario has made the UN Members to rediscover the relevance of the UN to threatening peace and security.

Check Your h g m s Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer. ii) Check Ydur progress with the answers given at the end of the unit.

1) What is the importance of "Uniting for Peace" resolution?

2) l$qlain the term "Peace-Keeping Force7'.

x ertructurlng of the United -4ldan

r n a a t I o a r a n d ~

16.4 SOME ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND SHORTCOMINGS

Like any other international organization, the UN-too has many accomplishments and shortcomings. Cooperation h m its members has made it successful in many areas. The constraints and limitations under which it operates have contributed towards some of its failures. For reasons of space, only some of the accomplishments and limitations of the UN are attenlpkd here.

16.4.1 Accomplishments

1) One of the greatest achievements of the UN is its role in the field of decolonization. It gave inspiration to millions of African and Asian people, who were under colonial rule, to claim the right of self-determination and independence. When the UN was founded, 80 of the present UN Members were under colonial rule. The UN helped many of them to achieve independence.

2) In the field of human rights, the UN has played a significant role. It has set a comprehensive list of norms or standards of human rights. These noms are defined in UN comntions, declarations and covenants. Till now it has adopted around 88 human rights instruments.

3) ML,- hternational law has been formalised through the UN in the first 50 years of its existence than in the entire previous history of mankind. It has made major contributions towards expanding the rule of law among nations through the cdfication of international law.

4) In 1980 the World Health Organization (WHO), a Specialized Agency, proclaimed the total eradication of small pox from the world, as a result of 13 years WHO global programme.

5) In 1991, the heads of WHO and UNICEF (UN Intemational Children's Education Fund) certified the immunization of 80% of the world's children against six killer diseases - polio, tetanus, measles, whooping cough, diphtheria and tuberculosis. The joint WHO-UNICEF programme saves the lives of more than 3.5 million children each year.

6) The UN Development Programme (UNDP) has made significant efforts to bring about social and economic progess all over the world. UNDP works with the . Governments of developing countries to carry out projects in various sectors, such as agriculture, industry and education. It is the world's largest multi-lateral grant assistance organization. 'With an annual budget of $ 1.3 billion, it supports more than 6,100 projects in some 150 developing countries and territories. In addition, UNDP- financed activities stimulate some $14 billion a year in follow-up investdent from public and private sources. More than 50% of the UNDP funds for projects go to 45 of the world's poorest countries.

7) Currently the UN is providing humanitarian assistance (like providing food, shelter, medical aid, education) through UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to some 24 million refugees worldwide. The cost of meeting their needs was estimated (in 1995) to be more than $1 billion. For its role the UNHCR was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize twice - in 1 954 and 1 98 1.

16.4.2 Shortcomings

The UN's shortcomings are mainly due to the following two problems :

1) As discussed earlier, one of the most important operational problems ofthe UN has beentheuseofvetobythepermanentmembersofthe~tyCouncil.

2) Another important problem that the UN is faciag now is the financial crisis. Earlier in 1960s also it faced a similar problem when France and the USSR had refused to pay their contributions towards the costs of peace keeping operations. These two states alongwith others had refused to pay the costs ofthe UN Emergency Force (stationed at Suez) and the UN opemtion in Congo, on the plea that these two forces were illegally created by the General Assembly. In In view such forces can be orgainzed only on the basis of a Security Council decision. The crisis of 1960's was solved by seeking an advisory opinion ofthe Intamtianal Court of Justice on the quest ionwhethe ipe irce-~expensesoautdcanbed~aspartof the expenses of the UN. The court by a majority decision declared that the peace keeping expenses constitute "expenses of the organization" within the meaning of the Charter provisions.

The fhncid crisis beginning from the 1980s, has been different from the earlier one. It all started with the decision of the US F'resident to withhold its approved contributions on the ground that the US government dhppnmd certain UN I

programmes. This policy started by president Reagan and comistmtly followed by his successors, including Bill Clinton, has brought the UN on the edge of bankruptcy. Because, according to the formula approved by the General Assembly, the US is required to pay 25% of the UN budget. Some other states also have not paid their arrears in time, both for the regular budget and for peace-keeping opemtim. According to the 1995 annual report of the Secretary General to the Assembly, as on 10 August1995, unpaid assessed contributions totalled $3.9 billion: $858.2 million for the regular budget (of which $456.1 million relates to the cunent years, i.e. 1995 and $402.1 million relates to prior years) and $3 billion for peace-keeping operations. 70% of these arrears were due from 5 top debtors (the largest being the US), all among the rich countries of the world.

Many interesting suggestions have been made not for solving the present tinancial crisis, but for ensuring an independent source of incame for the UN to make it less dependent on Member. Some of these suggestions include :

a A tax on the international sale of designated weapons. a A tax on international trade. a A fee for the use international water -ways. a A tax on international mail or telecommunications. a l'dxes on international travel or international passprt fees. a Licensing fees for the use of outer space. a Fees for fishing rim or mining mineral resources on high sea, which is

"the common heritage ofmankhY.

However, none ofthese proposals have fourgd approval by Mcmber States.

Rentructurlng of the United Nations 8yacm

16.5 RESTRUCTURING OF THE UN SYSTEM- 1 MAJOR PROPOSALS AND INDIA9S POSITION I

$hca the meting ofthe Heads of Government of the ~ e t k t y Council on 3 1 January 1992, a

I global debate on the re-ng ofthe UN system has beguri. Many proposals have been made in this regard. The main objective of such d o r m proposalsk to make the world body,

I

1

specially its Security Council, more democratic, &dent and adaptable to the changing international milieu. Since the UN mponsi'bilities and concerns are world wide and now expanding to virtually every conceivable area of human activity, it is imperative to redesign the UM strumre so that it can meet the challenges of the 21st century,

Many studies have been co- on the basis of which suggestions have been made to restructure the UN system. These include the following :

1) The membership of the Security Council should be expanded from 15 to 23 or 25, out of which 5 should be additional permanent members - two industrialized countries (Germany and Japan) and three large developing countries (Brazil, India and Nigeria). The erstwhile UN Secretary General, Boutros-Ghali was reported to have suggested the names of these countries on 14 August 1992. Infact, in the General Assembly session on 25 September 1992, India formally staked its claim to a permanent seat in the Security Council. As the criteria suggested for expansion in the category of permanent members justified India's candidature, it was hoped that India would be elected to a permanent seat in the Security Council. The criteria was the ability and wiWgness ofthe incumbent of contnite to UN peace-keeping opemtions. India has been at the foreftont of such operations since the inception of the UN, e.g. in Korea, Indo-Chma, Suez, Congo, Gaza, etc.

There is also a proposal to give the states based on this criteria, permanent seats in the . Council without the veto power. Other suggestions include one that would urge the fwe present weildem of the veto to voluntarily renounce their veto power until the Charter is formally amended to abolish the right of veto. India accepts this suggestion but opposes any move to deny veto power to the new permanent members. Some of @ese proposals were discussed at an openended working Gmup of the 49th &mend Assembly session. The Working Group though agreeing on the need for earpanding the Security Council, did not consider the question of which states to be madt permanent members. The US has openly supported the case of Germany and Japan but is reluctant to support India's candidature. Moreover, other developing countries like Argentina, Iran, Egypt and South Africa are in the race.

2) There has also been a suggestion to replace the UN Disarmament Commission by a Jtbint Working Gmup after General Assembly and Security Council on Disarmament.

3) Because the Economic and Social Council has failed to perform its assigned om, suggestion has been made to replace it by the creation of the Economic Security Council (ESC). The functions suggested for the proposed ESC include, among others, dealing with economic emergency situations, to considering such major non-military threats as the degradation of the emironment, global poverty, wmployment, food security, dmg rUgcking, migration etc. According to the syggestion, its membership should be limited and should not exceed 25. It should take decisions by consensus.

a Others have opposed this proposal and have said that ECOSOC is actually the ESC, except for its name. ECOSOC has comprehensive mandate under the present UN Charter to deal witb economic, social and humanitarian isms. In fact in recent years the ECOSOC has been dealing at the highest level to Governments, such issues like environment, human rights, social development, sustainable economic development etc. Therefore, they see no need to restructure the present ECOSOC.

4) Replace ECOSOC by an Economic Council and a Social Council. These new Cauncilsshauldhave23members.

5) Abalish.UN Conferen'eeon Trade and Development Organization (UNIDO) the UNIDO there has been a general two, it has been said that they are

6 ) International Bank for Reconshuction and Development @RD) and International itr rt ructuri~~g of the Unlted

Monetary Fund 0 should be brought within the fold of the UN. Now they are NnUonr S 3 m

Specialized Agencies only in name. Their agreements of association with the UN are of a limited nature, which require them to function as "independent" organizations. As a result, they are not subject to substantive coordination by the UN either at the inter-governmental level (i.e. ECOSOC) or at the Secretariat level. They do not provide all the information UN may require of them. They do not give the UN full access to theu meetings, their heads annually address the ECOSOC, but they no longer invite the UN Secretary General to address their annual meetings. They have refbed to accept UN's involvement in their budget making. And they do not feel themselves bound by any decision of the UN. This state of afthim is due to the policies of the rich industrialized states who dominate these bodies.

- A serious debate on some of these proposals is taking place in the 185 capitals of the world and the UN headquarters. Unless the UN is redesigned in the light of constructive proposals, its functioning can not be improved.


Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer. ii) Check your progress with the answers given at the end of the unit.

.. 1) The UN Organizations which were awarded Nobel Peace Prize are..

...........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................................

2) Which country is the biggest defaulter in paying its due contributions to the UN? (1) USSR (2) USA (3) India (4) Britain

16.6 LET US SUM UP

This Unit has SU~eyed the objectives and principles of the UN, the structure and functions of its main Organs and Specialized Agencies, its changing role during and after the Cold War, some of its major accomplishments and problems and the various proposals for restructuring the UN system. It has underscored the urgent need for donning the UN system.

16.7 KEY WORDS

Conflict : A situation marked by direct or indirect use of military force by one or more countries.

Veto : The privilege granted by the charter to the permanent Members of the S d t y Council to cast a negative vote and prevent adoption of substantive resolution.

Detente : Originally a French word meaning relaxation of strained relations between two countries.

Resolution : A duly approved document containing a formal statement of a considered view on a given question.

Whtkbm d -tIom ,163 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Childem, Efikline and Urquhart, Brain, (1994) Renewing the United Nations System (Uppkah: Dag Hammarskjold Foundation). . .

Fawaett, Eric and Newcornbe, Hanna, (ed.), (1995) United Nations Reform: Looking Ahead Aj?er FiJty Years (Toronto Science for Peace).

Rajan, M.S. (ed.), (1996) United Nations at FlfZy and Beyond (New Delhi: Lancers Books). Roberts, Adam and Kingsbury, Benedict, (ed.), (1993) United Nations, Divided World : the UN t role in International Relations,) 2nd edn. (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

United Nations, h i c ~ac tsAb&t the United Nations (1996) New York: Department of Public Information.)



1) UN was created to maintain international peace and Security, to develop friendly relations among nations; to solve international economic, social , cultural and humanitarian problems and to promote human rights.

2) The General Assembly can recommend, while the security Council decides and acts. Whefeas recommendations are not binding on UN members, the decisions are.

3) The power to rethe concurrence to - or vote against - a resolution is the veto power. enjoyed by the five permanent members of the UN, namely China, France. Russian Federation, UK and the US.

Check Your progress Exercise 2

1) "Uniting for Peace Resolution" enables the General Assembly to discuss a crisis - situation and to take action specially when the Security Council is unable to do so in view of a veto problem.

2) "Peacekeeping Force" refers to a military contingent sent to the area of conflict with the permission of the parties to the conflict. It does not indulge in actual figting. but is deployed on the cease-fire line and acts as buffer and fires only in self-defense.

Check Your Pmgresa Exercise 3

1. The UN peace keeping force got Nobel Peace Prize in 1988 and the UNHCR got it twice - in 1954 and 1981.

2. The US is the largest defaultor. It owed to UN more than $527 million (regular budget) and $ 553 million (Peace keeping).

UNIT 17 GLOBALISATION OF THE ECONOMY-IBRD, IMF AND WTO

Structure

17.0 Objectives 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Globalisation - Its Meaning and Structures

17.2.1 Historical bxkpund 17.2.2 Bretton Wcada S y h n 17.2.3 IMF - Objectiwa and Function6 17.2.4 Structurs 17.2.5 iBRD - Objedivea 17.2.6 Functiolul 17.2.7 GAlT 17.2.8 Uruguay Round and WM

17.3 Post Bretton Woods Developments 17.3.1 Globalition and Third World 17.3.2 Impact of Globalisation

17.4 LetUsSumUp 17.5 Key Words 17.6 Some Useful Books 17.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

17.0 OBJECTIVES

This'unit explains ibe meaning of the Globalisation of the World economy and the insmtioh that have come into existence as part of the process of the globalisation. After going through the Unit you should be able to :

I

- # ' - +, ,d trace the historical process of globalisation

. . - ' 'describe the functions and structure of the institutions that govern the global

. ' economy

- .. critidally assess the impact of globalisation

p e word'globalisation has now become familiar to most of us. The idea suggests that the world is undergoing an increasing process of international interdependence so that national e'conopues as distinct entities with supreme authority within their tcnitorial jurisdiction are beconling increasingly irrelevant. This does not mean the creation of a world or global communityhsed on equality. Historically, the international economic system has developed on, the basis of nation-states. Revolution in transport and communication, highly sophisticated industrial production technologies in the post-war period created a capitalist world market. The Bretton Woods System 'heated in the post-war period that laid dpwn the rules for international trade and commerce, collapsed in the henties. The nineti& has seen the emergence of the process of globalisation. New institutions and rules to govem world trade have come into existence in the form, of WTO - World Trade Organization.

hlstitutions w d Orgunisetiurb

17.2 GLOBALISATION -ITS MEANING AND STRUCTURES

We must recognise the conceptual distinction between the international economy and globalized economy. 'International' economy refers to the collective is one in which process and outcome of the various national economies at the intkrnational plane. "International economy is an aggregate of nationally located functions". A wide range of international economic interactions such as financial markets and trade in mtymfactured goods tend to function as opportunities or constraints for nationally determined economic actions. In a global economy, as markets and production become global and interdependent, domestic policies whether of private corporations or sovereign states, have to take into account the predominantly supra - national determinants of their spheres of operation. The state has to constnict national policies to cope with increasing inter-connectedness of production, markets, at the global plane. As factors of production becomes international, particularly finance, and market forces extend to the global plane, the role of the sovereign state becomes subordinate to the &crates of global markets. Another major consequence of the notion of globalization is the transformation of Multi-National Corporations - MNCs, into Transnational corporations - TNC's, as the major players in the world economy. TNC's capital has no specific national identification and with an internationalised management. it is willing to locate and relocate anywhere in the globe to obtain either the most secure or the highest returns. With the revolution in communications, capital, particularly the financial sector, a "NC could relocate itself at the touch of a button. In a truly globalized economy this would be wholly dictated by market forces, without reference to national monetary policies. A TNC can produce and market at the global level as strategy and opportunities dictated. A TNC's production-base is not restricted within one predominant national location (as with the multinational corporation), but it services global markets through global operations. Thus the TNC, unlike the MNC, is not controlled or even constrained by the policies of particular national states. This process tends to undermine the traditional notion of state - soveraignty.

17.2.1 Historical Background

The post-second world war period of international trade was governed by, what has come to be known as the Bretton Woods System. The great depression of the 30s and the collapse of the international monetary system were attributed to economic nationalism, competitive exchange rate, devaluations, formation of competing monetary blocs and absence of international cooperation. In July 1994, as the Allied forces were moving across France, representatives of forty four nations met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, to create a new ktemtional monetary order. A consensus emerged, which underscored that, the previous lor~etary systems which had relied primarily on market forces had proved inadequate. .enceforth, governments acting together would have assumed the responsibility of managing le international monetary system. United States of America, as the dominant economic and ~ilitary power in this phase, assumed the primary responsibility for establishing a post - war :onamic order that was designed to prevent economic nationalism and encouraging free ade, along with increased international interaction. A liberal economic system, with ~ternationd cooperation, was assumed to promote lasting peace. The United States and the Init+ Kingdom, drew up a plan for new system of internatisnal monetary management. The Anglo-American plan, approved at Bretton Woods, became the first collective intemational monetary order that provided a basis for growing international trade, economic growth and political harmony among the developed market economies. l'benty seven years later, on August 15, 1971, President Nixon appeared on television to announce to the world the end of the Bretton Woods System, and that, the US would no longer abide by the rules and' procedures of the International Monetary Order. The successive oil crises, the growing instability in the market economies, fall in the growth rates of the industrialised countries, have contributed to the increasing trend towards, what is now termed, 'globalisation' in the nineties. Before we go on to explain 'globalisation' let us turn back to the Bretton Woods system and the institutions established under it, particularly the International Monetary Fund

(IMF) and International Banlr for RemWruction and Development (IBRD) known as the World Bank.

rk

17.2.2 Bretton Woods System

Under the system, it was agreed that fixed exchange rates was the most conducive to trade and economic stability. Thus all countries agreed to establish the parity of their currencies in terms of gold and to maintain exchange rates within one per cent, plus or minus, of parity. The rules further sought to encourage an open system by committing members to the convertibility of their respective cumncies into other currencies and to free trade. The IMF was to be the enforcing authority of the rules and the main instrument of public international management.

To facilitate post-war m a y , the IBRD or World Bank was created with a capitalization of '

.S 10 billion and was expected to make loans of its own funds and to issue securities to raise new funds. However, the economic destruction of Europe was far too heaky and it was clear by 1947 that only the US contribution of $570 million were actually available for IBRD . lending and the credit facilities of the IMF were clearly insufficient to deal with Europe's huge deficits. In 1947 the United States stepped into fill the economic gap left by Bretton Woods and in the next two years a new international monetary system - the dollar standard - (replacing gold stmdard) based on unilateral American Management Development from 1947 to 1958. The US deliberately encouraged the outflow of dollars (as it had huge balance-of- trade surpluses) through various American Aid Programmes - the Marshall plan for European recovery, the Tnunan plan for aid to Greece and Turkey etc. Another source of dollar liquidity for the international monetary system grew out of the Cold War, i.e. the American aid to its military allies and US troop deployment across the world. The Cold War required significant military expenditures, overwhelming by the United States. Thus the doll& became the world's currency and the United States became the world's central banker, issuing dollars for the international monetary system.

The Bretton Woods Conference established the -

1) International Monetary Fund (IMF) to alleviate the problems of international liquidity, i.e. to help the member countries to meet their balance of payment deficit and international monetary instability.

2) The International Bank for Reconstnlction and Development (IBRD) to help the reconstruction and development of various national economies by providing long - term capital assistance; and

3) The International Trade Organization (ITO) to work towards the liberalization of trade.

The IMF and IBRD, known as the Bretton Wood %ins were established in 1946. The proposed IT0 did not materialize. In its place came the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GAIT). The World Trade Organization (WTO) of 1995 was the culmination of prolonged GAm negotiations in the earlier era within the framework of the GATT.

17.2.3' IMF : Objectives and Functions

The IMF is & organization that seeks to promote international monetary cooperation and to facilitate the expansion of trade, and thus to contribute increased employment and improved economic conditions. Its membership consists of 153 countries which today account for over 80% of world trade. Membership of the IMF is a prerequisite to membership in the World

1 Bank. There exists a close relationships between the two organizations as well %between the ! IMF and GATT. The IMF is a specialized agency within the United Nations sy&em.

1 The important functions of the IMF are - I

Globalisation of the Economy- IBRD, IMF and W O

~nstnuuomud Organimuom 1) , To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade and to contribute thereby to the promotion and maintenance of high levels of employment and real income.

2) To promote exchange - stability, to maintain orderly exchange arrangements among members and to avoid competitive exchange depreciation.

3) To eliminate foreign exchange restrictions which hamper the growth of world trade. The fund also provides loans to members to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments, without resorting to measures detrimental to national or international prosperity. The IMF thus combines three major functions : Regulatory, Financial and Consultative.

The Fund maintains a large pool of financial resources that it makes available to members temporarily and subject to conditions to enable them to carry out programmes to remedy their payment deficits. The policy adjustments that countries make in connection with the use of the Furid resources is geared to improve support credit-worthiness with other official sources and private financial markets. The Fund also helps members to coordinate their national economic policies internationally as the focus of the fund is not only on the problems of individual countries but also on the structure of the international monetary system. Sometimes, such problems at the two levels of concern for the IMF are in conflict with one another, which tends to be to this disadvantage of the weaker national economics of the world.

17.2.4 Structure

The wotk of the IMF is canied by the Board of Governors, an Executive Board, a Managing Director and the staff. h c h member counuy is represented by a Governor, on the Board of Governors, which is the Fund's highest authority, and which meets annually. A member country" voting power is related to its contribution to the Fund's financial resources. which in turn is related to its relative size in the world economy. The Board of Governors delegates

, most of its powers to the Executive Board, which is responsible for conducting its business. The Executive Board is chaired by the Managing Director.

Resomats - The r e s o m of IMF come from subscription by members and borrowings. Every member is required to subscribe to the Fund an amount equivalent to its quota. Each member is assigned a quota expressed in Special Drawing Rights (SDRs). Quotas are used to determine the voting power of members, their contribution to the Fund's resources, their power to determine these resources and their share in the allocation of.SDRs. A member% quoia reflects its economic size in relation to the total membership of the Fund. The MF is also authorized to supplement its resources by borrowing to forestall any threat to the strength of the international monetary system. The eleven highly developed industrial countries of the world have undertaken to lend to the IMF, if necessary.

The states can borrow drom the IMF to meet their balance of payments needs, under various policies and facilities. Those who borrow from the Fund are required to follow an economic policy programme aimed at achieving a viable balance uf payments position over an appropriate period of time. This is known as conditionality and reflects the principle th:.' h c i n g and adjustment must go hand in hand. IMF conditionality and its adjust me^^^ programmes (Structural Adjustment or SAP) are the subject of much debate in the developm,? countries. These conditionalities and structural adjustment programmedpolicies that have been impbsed on the developing countries include yithdrawal of subsidies, devaluation of rxmncies, privatisation of economy etc. that have resulted in unemployment and have dkctly altfected &en% the poorer sections of the socie .: current debate in India on the economic policies of liberalization and withdrawal of es reflects the controversial policies of the IMF.

17.2.5 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Clubdhtlon of the Economy- IBRD, IMF and WTO

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development was established in 1945. 11 has two other affiliated institutions :

The ~nternabonal Finance Corporation (IFC) established in1956: and the International Development Association (IDA) established in 1960. Membemhip of the IMF is the principal condition for membership of the Bank.

0 bjectives

The objectives of the Bank as laid down in the Articles of Agreement are - 1. To assist in the reconstruction and development of the member states, by Wlitating

capital investments for productive purposes, including the restoration of economies destroyed or disrupted by war, the reconversion of productive facilities to peace-time needs, and the encouraging of the development of productive facilities and resources in less developed countries (LDCs).

2. To promote foreign investment by means of guarantees or participation in loans and other investments made by private investors, and when private capital is not available on reasonable terms, to supplement private investment by providing, or suitable conditions, finance for productive purposes out of its own capital funds, raised by it and its other resources.

3. To promote long-Age balanced growth of international trade and the maintenance of equilibrium in the balance of payments, by encouraging international investment of the productive resources of members in order to raise productivity, the standard of living and conditions of labour in the various countries of the world needing such help.

17.2.6 Functions

The IBRD, whose capital is subscribed by its member countries, finances its lending operations primarily from its own borrowings in the world capital markets. The Bank's loans have a grace period of five years and are repayable over twenty years or less. They are directed towards developing countries at a relatively advanced stage of economic and social growth.

The Board of Governors, on which each member country is represented by one Governor exercises all power vested in the Bank. The Governors of the Bank have delegated their powers to a Board of Executive Directors, which perform its duties on a full time basis. There are 2 1 Executive Directors who are appointed by the five members having the largest number of shares of capital stock and the rest are elected by Governors representing the other member countries.

The Bank assesses the repayment prospects of its loans, and for this purpose, takes into account the availability of natural resources, the country's past debt record etc. The bank lends only for specific projects which are economically and technically sound and of a high priority in the context of its larger objectives. As a matter of general policy, it lends for projects which are designed to contribute directly to economic productivity, and normally does not finance projects of primarily social character, such as education and housing. Most bank loans have been made for provision of basic utilities, such as power and transport which are prerequisites for economic development. The Bank encourages the borrowers to procure machinery and goods for Bank-financed projects in the cheapest possible market consistent with satisfactory performance. Finally, the Bank indirectly encourages promotion of local private enterprise.

11~9titut10ns a d OrganlSIItlm In recent years the Bank has stepped up its lending for energy development, which now forms the largest part of the Bank's lending programme. Gas and oil development have also shown increasing attention in Bank lending. As economic conditions deteriorated in the third world countries in the 1980's the bank inauguarted a progrmme of structural adjustment lending. This lending supports programmes of specific policy changes and institutional reforms in less developed countries designed to achieve a more efficient use of resources. In 1983, the bank initiated its special action programme (SAP) for a two-year period designed to increase assistance to countries trying to cope with exceptionally difFicult economic enviranment due to global recession. This comprised financial measures. combined with policy advice, needed to restore credit worthiness and growth.

17.2.7 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

An attempt to create an international organization to look after matters of trade and commercial policy were made as early as 1947. Although a charter for an International Trade Organization was &d at the Havana Conference it was never ratified due to differences betwqn those who wanted a free multihteral trading system and those who placed emphasis on full employment policies on a nation4,basis. However, the American proposal for a general agreement on tariffs and tradwas agreed upon, and many nations signed. So emerged the General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade with no formal organization and no elaborate secretariat. It is though increasing liberalization of world trade and through GATT negotiations that the world Trade Organization emerged in 1995.

The two outstanding fGtures of GA'IT were the principle of non discrimination and the principle of reciprocity with the purpose of promoting fair and free international trade among members. To ensure non-discrimination the members of GA'IT agreed to apply the principle of h4FN (Most Favoured Nation) to-all import and export duties. This meant that each nation shall be treated as well as the most favoured nation. However GATT did not prohibit econolplic integration such as the formation of free trade areas or customs unions, provided that the purpose of such integration was to facilitate trade between constitutent territories and not to raise barriers to the trade of other parties.

Several rounds of GA'IT negotiations aimed at reduction of tries and non tariff barriers to trade led to the lowering of duties on trade, involving more than two-third of the world's States.

17.2.8 Uruguay Round and World Trade Organisation

The last round of multilateral trade negotiations known as the Uruguay Round (held in Punte del este in Uruguay), which was the eighth round, centered around three main issues -

1) Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

2) Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS) and

3) Trade in Agricultural Commodities.

The m d World countries have been by and large dissatisfied with GA'IT negotiations. Liberalisation of trade related intellectual property rights would mean that the less developed countries would have to compete with the advanced coun'tries or the transnational companies. TRIPS covering copyrights, patents and trademarks is likely to harm the indigenous technology and nascent industries - particularly pharmaceutical and drug industry, GATT covers the service sector as well under TRIMS. This is likely to affect the employment conditl.0n.s in the developing countries as they will be swamped by professionals from the advanped industrial countries. Agriculture is another contentious issue under GA'IT. While the U9 insisted on free trade in agriculture, withdrawal of state subsidies, EEC countries particularly France, which heavily subsidize their agriculture obje5ed. The US threatened to use a law called super 301, under which punitive action is taken against countries which do not follow a free trade regime.

17.2.9 World made Organisation Gl~~lr;~llsPtlon of the Economy- IIiI{I), IMFmd WTO

i The Uruguay Round was scheduled to be completed by 1990, that is within four years aRer its t .commencement. However, as the negotiations reached a deadlock over several contentious

issues, the Director General of GATT - Arthur Dunkel intervened and proposed a draft that is known as the Dunkel Draft. also decisively called DDT (Dunkel Draft Text). The Dunkel proposals called for reduction in domestic and export subsidies, and replacement of non-tariff bamers, like quotas and quantitative restrictions by tariffs. Then proposals also called for require longer enforcement of copy rights and trade marks in case of India. Such a provision requires a change in India legislation on patents to conform to the Paris Convention.

The multilatexal trading system sanctioned by GATT and the Dunkel proposal$ niaintain thc predominance of the advanced industrial countries of the West in the international economy. The GATT, the Uruguay Round, and the Dunkel Draft a d not take into account the role of MNCs in exploiting the countries of the third world and widening the gap between the rich and the poor in such countries as well as with in the global system.

The Dunkel Draft was signed by member nations of December 15, 1993. After seven years of intensive negotiations, the new GATT agreements of Uruguay Round were ratified in December 1994 by the Indian Cabinet. The significant aspect of the GATT agreement is the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) that supersedes the GATT. The 500 page agreement setting up the WTO ushers in a new era of multilateralisation of world trade. The WTO has become operational since 1st January , 1995 and has a status sirililar to the World Bank and the lMF. The treaty is binding on all its 117 member countries,:two thirds of which are less - developed counties (LDCs). The Organization is expected to be the arbiter between the trading parties and generally ensure that the rules of the are,being followed. A dispute settlement mechanism is also to be established under the WTO. Asb how the LDCs (including India with its vast market) fare in the competition'with powerful, industrialized counties of the west is yet to be seen.


Note : i) Use the space below for your answers. ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) Define the concept of "International Economy".

~~~~ ~ .~~ . . . . ~ . .

2 ) What do you mean by globalisation of the economy?

.....................................................................................................................................................................

.. 3) The Brettonwoods System was established in the contract of..

.... 4) The IMF is intended

5 ) GAlT was founded to promote ......

6) What is WTO.

17.3 POST BRETTONWOODS DEVELOPMENTS

T b significant development in the global economy since 1950 are the growth of regional economic subsystems, and the growth of multinational corporations (MNCs) which operate across ~ t i o n a l boundaries. While MNCs contribute to globalisation they can also pose a threat to national economic autonomy. Within the core of the capitalist industrialized world. ' regional economic activity emerged in the of west European Economy leading froin a common market to European Union in the 90's; in the Pacific and South East Asia regonal subsystems erneeeti:' ,-'Rfefnergence of a financial and securities market centred in New York, Tokyo and London is sympton of regionalization and globalization through interregional linkage. The growth of MNCs is both the cause and consequence of globalization. The emergence of world markets, and an international economic regime, provided the environment favourable to the growth of transnational firms. Initially such companies were predominantly If$-based and sometimes dominated a whole sector of the global economy,

'

.imposing standards on it?I"I'e classic example is the IBM which at one time accounted for more than 80 per cent of the World Market in computers and was able to use this dominant position to define standards to maintain or increase its share of t l~e market andlor competitive advantage. In the postwar period, the number, range and diversity of MNCs increased along with a changing balance between them in banking, oil, car manufacture and so on. Tlus growth in the MNCs produced more complex interdependence in the global economy. It also posed difficult problems for national economies in areas of investment, capital movement and control of technology. A new managerial class - the class of corporate managers - emerged moving between companies and countries.

The post-war economy clearly indicates three features - the hegemonic position and role of the US in the world economy; the decline of the less developed (or developing) countries share of world exports from 1960-70 ; the relative isolation of the centrally planned economies (or socialist countries) in terms of their share of world trade. These countries (i.e. the socialist economies) did not receive Marshall Aid nor join the Bretton Woods system. Their post-war recovery was followed by world wide recession, with increasing energy prices. as the oil-producing countries of the Gulf hiked oil prices. In 197 1, the US suspended fixed dollar convertibility to gold, and world trade and finance moved to a system of flexible exchange rates rather than fixed parities and regulated adjustment mechanisms that had been planned originally. The end of the Bretton Woods system led to the intervention of the

( ;lobslbPtton of the Econumy-, Central Banks of major economies in the money market to keep exchange rate fluctuations I BRD, IMF and WTO within limits and reintroduce some stability into the international system.

Over the last twenty years or so the dominance of the US in the world economy has declined. However, the dollar has retained its role as the principal international currency, and this has helped it to stay at the centre of both monetary and trade regimes. The US still remains committed to the institutions of international economic order and to multilateralism and trade liberalism. But the emergence of Western Europe, particularly West Germany, and Japan as major economic powers has to some extent altered the distribution of economic power in the post-cold war era.

17.3.1 Globalisation and the Third World

The expansion of industrial capitalisin to the 'periphery' of the international economy - South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and the neighbouring newly industrializing countries - 'South East Asian Tiger ' as they are referred to - is also another feature of the 80s . But, these countries are inhabited by less then 2 per cent of the Third World propulation. Throughout the 80s the gap between the richsand poor countries of the world widened and has continues to do so. The hope for a new international economic order (NIEO) through the North-South dialogue have not resulted in any improvement in the conditions of the people of the ,Sou@. The belief, following neoclassical economies, that unrestricted international trade would allow the poor emtries to come closer to the level of the rich, has been belied by historical experience. On the contrary, the lending policies of the World Bank & IMF, the conditionalities and structural adjustment programmes imposed on the countries of the third World - Africa partidularly - have resulted in food riots, unemployment and increasing poverty in these countries. It must also be noted that international mechanisms of free trade led to inflation and recession, the deterioration of tenns of trade for many European countries.

17.3.2 Impact of Globalisation

The technological advances of the last two decades have brought' about a revolution in communications and transportation eroding the boundaries between markets and nation- states. Thus, economic process have become increasingly internationalized in a number of key spheres, like communications, production, trade, finance. New technology has also radically increased the mobility of economic units and the sensitivity of markets, and societies to one another, thus globalising economies of the world. This has paved the way for the ideal of global free trade to be achieved through the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Globalization has brought about radical changes in the production process, shifting industry r from its old centres in the rich countries with high labour costs to countries of abundant cheap labour. While, earlier, labour remained a major factor of production, technology continued to render human labour redundant thus increasing unemployment and underemployment.

I' Historically such pressures have been met by state interventions, like protectionism. However, globalisation with a free market ideology removed or weakened the possibilities of state intervention - whether in the form of subsidies or protection of their internal markets. While the labour in the developed countries fear losing jobs, the third world countries hope to see increasing employment opportunities. But, when commitment to free market ideology compels governments of the west, and more particularly the third world c~untries, to reduce the costs of social s d t y and public welfare, mass reduction of employment and marginalisation of large sections of the society is inevitably taking place. Such social and political consequences of globalisation are likely to be world-wide, with its relatively greater impact with in the countries of the Third World.

I An important consequence of globalisation is labour migration. As labour migrates to the industrialized countries of the West, or the oil-producing countries of the Gulf, in search of jobs social conflicts are on the increase. Racism in Germany and other western wuntries, resentment against immigrants in the Gulf by the local people are examples ofthis. Revolution in communications has undoubtedly brought the different parts of the World closer. Yet, that in itself is not sufficient to build a global community. An important

~nstltutl~~ and orgrnbptlom consequenk of globalisation of economies is also fragmentation of societies, rise of movements of identities - ethnic, nationalist and religious. Free trade and WTO do not automatically halIU0niZe the interest of the states. This is quite evident from the conflicts between the US and European countries over questions of telecommunications and satellite T.V programmes, electronic industries etc. Economic glowsation should not be equated with the emergence of a Global community as a Nation. States (even after if their .

, sovereignty has been undermined) continue to assert their priorities and interests over global interests. These conflicts tend to produce global insecurity and inter-state tensions.

Check Your progress 2

Note: i) Use the space below for your answers. ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) What are the most significant development in the field of international economy during the post Brettonwoods period.

' 17.4 LET US SUM UP

Globalisation is a process of intensifying economic interconnectedness and interdependence of the national economies of the World. This tends to curtail the powers of the state to regulate their economies. Globalisation has been a historical process. The post-war period has seen the establishment of iqstitutions that attempted to regulate the international monetary and trade relations. 'I'hese institutions are the W, the World Bank and the GATT The system was known as the Bretton-Woods system. However, this system under the hegemony of the United States of America collapsed in the 70s because the United States. unilaterally, refused to abide by its rules and prucedures. The subsequent oil crisis followed by the revolution in industrial production through highly sophisticated computerised methods brought about radical changes in the international economic order. The Western countries need for resources, the economic crisis and stagnation in these countries, eventually led to globalisation under American hegemony. The process of globalisation has neither promoted equality among the national-states nor necessarily development for the third world countries. The transnational corporations and the indusuialised countries continue to exploit and enjoy a dominant position in the global economy. The World Trade Organisation has been set up following the Uruguay Round of GA'IT.

17.5 KEY WORDS

Allied forces : The World War I1 was fought between two power blocs, known as Allied forces and Axis forces. The forces were led by the UK. USA, France and the erstwhile USSR.

Dunkel Draft : In order to break the deadlock in the Uruguay Round negotiations, The Director General of GA'IT, Mr.Arthur Dunkel prepared certain proposals. They have came to be known as Dankel Draft.

Service Sector : There are two sectors in any Country's economy, namely, primary , sector and secondary sector. Primary sector is directly involved in production of goods and services. Secondary sector offers services 1 to the people, it is, therefore, known as s e ~ c e sector. ,

t

~kmlhl lon of the Era-y- I I 17.6 SOME USEFUL BOOKS IBRD, IMF Pnd WTO

Joan Edelman Spero, 1997 : ' The politics of International Economic Relations' George A

I llen & Unwin. Holt, Rinebart and Winston, 1975 : 'International Economic Institutions' London, 1975.

I Chernulum F., 'Papi McGraw Hill 1988 : 'International Eoonomies - New Delhi.


1) International Economy is one in which procesm are determined at the national level economics and International phenomena are results of the distinct and differential perfonnames of the national economics.

2) The globalization of economy means that the national level economics do not have control over the International economy. The whole economy is guided by international market forces.

3) The great depression of the 1930s' the collapse of the International Monetary system and the devastating World War II.

4) The Bretton Woods System envisaged a fixed exchange ram lbt conducting International Trade. AU Countries agreed to maintain the parity of &ir conveniences in terms of gold and to maintain exchange rates witbin one percent plus or minus or parity.

5 ) The IMF is an organisation that seeks to promote international morretary cooperation and to facilitate the expansion of trade and thus to contriie increased employment and improved economic conditions.

5) The GATT was founded to promote fair and fice International Trade among member Countries.

6) The WTO superseded the GAIT and has come into operatio116 from 1st January, 1955.


1. The most si@cant-Bwelopment are the emergence of economic subsystems and the growth of the MNC's.

UNIT 18 THE REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS : EU, ASEAN, APEC, SAARC, OIC AND OAU

Structure Objectives Introduction European Union 18.2.1 Origin. Hiatory and Obj& 18.2.2 InshtionsorOrgPIII 18.2.3 Role and its Future in World P o l i i Association of South East Asian Nations 18.3.1 ah sand^ 18.3.2 b t h t i c n u or Structure 18.3.3 Pow- Fbdions and Role Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation Council South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation 1 . 1 h andobjectivea 18.5.2 Stytum a u d M o n s 18.5.3 ~ l i ~ andPnmpoUs

Organization of Islamic Conference 18.6.1 A h Md Objadvw 18.6.2 CkgatuofOIC Organhtions of African Unity 18.7.1 PurpoamaudPrhiplm 18.7:2 Organa arrdhtitutiono 18.7.3 Role and Adivitias Let Us Sum Up Key word5 Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

18.0 OBJECTIVES

This Unit deals with six major regional organizations. Like the UN, these orgmzations are playing a decisive role not only in political or economic m a w at regional level but also at the international level. As the world is becoming more interdependent, national barriers are getting weakened aad nations of a particular region are forming their own associations. T h i ~ process is still continuing. After going through this unit you should be able to :

explain the origin, objectives or functions and structure of major regional organhations or groupbgs; gain an omview of their chaziging role in regional or inteznational politics; examine some of their major a c c o m p l i ~ t s and shortcomings.

1 , INTRODUCTION

Unlike the global international organization, regional international otganizations and WMiws ate mated to @om gpecifc or limited functions for a group of countria which are united by some geographical, cultural or historical fsctors. These States of a particular @on may unite themeelvea in group or organizations for economic and political ties or for political ideology and similarity of social institution6. E@mce of such regional organizations m y be useful for governments and peoples to appreciate the benefits of bmational integration and bmational confsderal arrangomults. Such experienct may

The &@MI Orpn&ati(#~~ : EU, also teach them to develop the intergrab political habits and skills for possible application ASEAN. APEC, SAARC, OIC snd on a larger scale and for a broader range of functions. OAU

Since the end of World War 11 many regional organizations Slave been established in the various regions of the world. This unit discusses the following ones.

1 18.2 EUROPEAN UNION

The European Union (EU) was previously known (till 1992) as the European Community (EC) or the European Economic Community (EEC). It is a closely-knit group of 15 European States. It was created to foster greater economic and political integration in Europe, to help them avoid another war among them, like World War II. These 15 members of EU, having a collective population of 370 million, share the common institutions and policies that have brought an unprecedented era of peace and prosperity to Western Europe. The EU is in inany ways unique among the attempts towards fostering supranationalism among the people in its member countries. In fact, its unprecedented success story has served as a model for other similar expeaiments.

18.2.1 Otigin, ~ & t > r y and Objectives

Before and after the World War I1 many efforts were made to create unity among European States on institutional basis. However, the origin of EU can be meed d imt ly to the year 1952, wheh six countries - Belgium, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and The Netherlands - decided to create the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) by pooling their coal and steel resources in a common market controlled by an independent supranational auf;hority. A major landmark, however, came in 1958 when the Treaties of Rome (1957) entered into force. The Rome Treaties established the EEC and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), extending the common market for coal and steel to most other economic sectors in the member countries. The basic objective of these treaties was to establish gradually a European Common Market with the eventual free movement of goods, persons, services and capital among the EC countries.

( In 1973, three other cwmies - UK, Ireland and Denmark -joined the EC. From Nine in 1973, its membership has risen to 15 by 1 January 1995. Others joining it were Greece (1981), Spain and Portugal (1986), Australia, Finland and Sweden (1995).

Many significant developments occurred between1958 and 1992 which enabled the EC to be transformed into what it is now known as EU. In 1973 the Constitution of the European Monetary Co-operation was signed. From 1999 the European Monetary System starts to operate. The single European Act (1986) and the Maastricht Treaty on European Union (1992) were milestones in the history of EU. The former entered into force in July 1987 and the latter on 1 November 1993. The former envisaged the creation of a single maiket by 1 January 1993. The Maastricht Treaty sets into motion an ambitious programme: a common or single currency at the earliest by 1 January 1997 or the latest by 1 January 1999; a 1 European Central Bank, a common foreign and security policy and internal security and the European citizenship. Its task is to mould the Member States into a single Community embracing every sector of the economy covering such key areas as the free movement of goods and workers, freedom of establishment and services, the free movement of capital and payments, competition policy, economic and monetary policy, environmental policy, search and technology and industrial policy.

The introducing of Union (European) citizenship can be considered as the most important feature of Maastricht Treaty. It gives Union citizens the right to live, study or spend their retirement in any Member-State. Originally the right to freedom was restricted to workers only, but now everyone can benefit from it. Union citizens have the right to vote and stand as candidate in municipal elections in the Member State where they reside. This has major

implioations. Indeed some Member States had to amend their constitutions to make it possiile. It should be noted that the Union ci-p stands alongside national citizenship so that people can still retain their national identity. However, it must be acknowledged that the Union citizenship is one of the innovations introduced by the Treaty showing how the EU is gradually evolsing from an economic community into a political upion.

18.2.2 Institutions or Organs

The EU functions thmugh seven organs. They are

1) The Council of the Eumpean Union is the main decision - making institution. It is made up of Ministers from the 15 Member States. Different Ministers attend Council meetings depending on the agenda. It elu~cts Union Legislations (regulations, directives and decisions). Its decisions are binding throughout the EU territory and it directs inter-governmental cooperation. The Presidency of the Council rotates among the Member States every six months. Each Presidency concludes with a d t of the Council which brings together the Heads of State or Government.

2) The European Parliament (EP) is composed of 626 members, directly elected (since 1979) to five year terms. Members of the EP (MEPs) form political rather than national groups. The EP acts as the EU's public forum, debating issues of public importance and raises questioning for the Council and the Commission. It can amend or reject the EU budget.

The Eumpean Commisdon : A single Commission for all three Communities (the ECSC, the EEC and Euratom) was created when the Treaty merging the executives entered into force in July 1967. The number of commissioners was increased to 20 in January 1995. The Commission proposes policies and legislation, and ensures that the provisions of the treaties and the decisions of the institution are properly implemented.

The Court of Justice interprets EU law and its rulings are binding. The Court comprises 15 judges assisted by 9 Advocates-General. It is assisted by a Court of First Instance, which has jurisdiction to hear cases in limited areas.

I*-pther bodies of EU are the Court ofAuditors (15 members), the Economic and ;&cia1 Committee (222 members) and the Committee of the Regions (222 members). The second body represents employers, employees and many groups such as farmers and consumers, and the third one represents local and regional authorities.

18.2.3 Role and its Future in World Politics

D u i q th8 Last four decades the EU has emerged as the world's largest trading bloc and an econo& giant. It has served as a magnet to attract new members (the applications of Hungary and Poland for EU membership are pending since April 1994) bringing its total population and GNP equivalent to those of the present and former Super Powers - the USA and the USSR It is gradually moving tow& greater European integration and federalism. It may become a United States of Eumpe in due course. It is a Super Power in the making and may fill the vacuum created by the disintegration of the USSR, the only other Super Power since 1945. Its constructive role may restore the balance of power in the present unipolar world politics.

18.3 ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN NATIONS

The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) was formed following the signing of the Barngkok Declaration on 8 August 1967 by five States - Indonesia, Malaysia, the

Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei joined it in January 1984 and Vietnam The Reglolrpl Oqanizalons : Eb, ASEAN. APEC, SAARC, OIC and

recently. Though ASEAN came into existence principally as a result of the V~emun war and OAU its perceived threat to the noncommunist States of South-east Asia, by admitting Vietnam (a communist State) it has overcome its earlier anti-communist bias. Like EU, it is attracting many new members. Myanmar has been given observer status at a meeting of its foreign ministers on 20 July 1996. It is expected that Myanmar alongwith Laos and Cambodia will soon join ASEAN.

18.3.1 Aims and Purposes

Seven aims and purposes were included in the ASEAN declaration. These are :

i) to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region .through joint endeavours in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a prosperous and peaceful community of South East Asian Nations;

ii) to promote peace and stability through binding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries of the region and adherence to the principles of the UN Charter;

iii) to promote collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific and administrative fields,

iv) to provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities in the educational, professional, technical and administrative spheres;

V) to collaborate more effectively for the greater utilization of their agriculture and industries,' expansion of their trade including the study of the problem of

'

international commodity trade, improvement of their transport and transport and communication facilities and raising living standards of their peoples;

vi) to promote Southeast Asian studies; and

vii) to maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes and to explore all avenues for even closer cooperation among themselves.

18.3.2 Institutions or Structure

ASEAN's highest authority is the summit of heads of government of its members States. The summits are held only when necessary, the first such summit was held in 1976 and the third and most recent in 1987. The ministerial conference is an annual meeting of foreign ministers held on a rotating basis in each country. The ministerial conferences are supplemented by bimonthly meetings of the standing committee which comprises the foreign minister of the host country and ambassadors from other six. The ASEAN secretariat was formed in 1976; the post of Secretary-General rotates among member States every three years.

Other permanent comniittees include : (i) trade and tourism; (ii) industry, mimines and energy; (iii) food, agriculture and forestry; (iv) transportation and communications; (v) finance and banking; (vi) science and technology; (vii) social development; (viii) culture and information; and (ix) budget.

.IJ_g.3.3 Powers, Functions and Role

ASEAN provides a urrifed front for the member countries vis-a-vis third countries primarily in the areas of trade, development aid and some areas of foreign policy. -

Institutionsmd O r w o r n ASEAN's internal powers are executed in the areas of, and through, its standing and other committees. Its primary functions in these areas are the coordination of joint industrial and technical projects and the harmonization of policies, standards and regulations.

It played an important role in two areas : (1) With the aim of maintaining peace and stability in the area, it sponsored the UN Conference on Cambodia 1981. (2) In 1977 it established Preferential Trading Agreements (PTA), which resulted in the increase of intra-ASEAN trade from 15% in 1977 to 21% in 1983.

18.4 THE ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION COUNCIL

On 5 Nwember 1989 Asia-Pacific Economic Corporation Council the APEC was established. ASEAN members participated in its founding. APEC includes the ASEAN countries and the USA, Japan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Korea. At the July 1990 inaugural meeting of APEC it was agreed to open membership negotiations with China, Taiwan and Hong Kong. The European Community-APEC relations were on the agenda for the October 1991 meeting. ASEAN reactions to the foundation of APEC (a new regional economic organization) varied from Singapore which was very enthusiastic to Indonesia which called for greater concentration on intra-ASEAN rather than external economic relations.

Check Your Progms Exercise 1


ii) Check your progress with the answers given at the end of the unit.

1) What are the bases or reasons for the creation of regional organizations?

.... 2) The main features of the Maastricht Treaty are

3) The three main goals of ASEAN are ....

(I) ........................................................................................................................... (2) ............................................................................................................................. (3) .................................................................................................................. .: .........

'1 Reglonnl OrganizPt~ons : EU,

18.5 SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL \W.\Y, APEC, SAARC, OIC road OAU

COOPERATION (SAARC)

The SAARC was formally inaugurated at the first summit meeting of the Heads of State or Government of the South Asian countries in December 1985 in Dhaka. Seven countries of South Asia - Bangladesh, Bhutan, In& Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka - had begun discussions on regional co-operation after the initiative for such an organization had been taken by the late President of Bangladesh, Zia-ur-Rahman, in May 1980. King Birendra of Nepal is also reported to have been among those who conceived the idea.

18.5.1 Aims and Objectives

According to Article 1 of the SAARC Charter (adopted in December 1985) its main objectives are as follows :

to promote the welfare of the people of South Asia and to improve their quality of life; to accelerak economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region; to promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among countries of South Asia; to contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another's problems; to promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields; to strengthen cosperation with other developing countries; to stengthen co-operation among themselves in international fora on matters of common interests; and to co-operate with international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes.

18.5.2 Structure and Functions

1) Meeting of Heads of State or Government The SAARC Summit is the supreme policy making organ and meets ordinarily once a year. SAARC Summits have so far met in Dhaka (1985), Bangalore (1986), Kathmandu (1987), Islamabad (1988), Male (1990), Colomob (1991), Dhaka (1993) and New Delhi (1995). No summit meeting was held in 1989, 1992 and 1994.

ii) Council of Ministers consists of the Foreign Ministers of the members States. It meets ordinarily twice a year and is concerned with the formulation of policies, review of programme of co-operation etc.

iii) Standing Committee, comprising of Foreign Secretaries of the Member countries, is concerned with overall monitoring and co-operation, mobili~ation of resources, identification of new areas of co-operation etc. It meets as ofien as deemed necessary but at least twice a year.

iv) Rchnical Committees comprising representatives of member8tates are responsible for imnplementation, co-ordination, and monitoring of the programmes in their respective areas, of co-operation. They submit periodic reportsdo the Standing Committee.

V) Action Committees may be set up by the standing committee. They consist of member-States ~ c e m e d with implementation of projects involving more 16an two but not all member-States.

i ) The Secretariat, established in 1987, consists of a Secretary-General and other stafl' monitoring the dina at ion and implementation of programmes as well as for servicing the meetings of the SAARC organs. It is based at Kathmandu.

18.5.3 Accomplishments and Prospects

Though SAARC has completed ten years, like the other regional organizations it has not been as successful as it should have been. Progress on the generally agreed items of the SAARC agenda has been not only very slow but also unsatisfactory. It has not been able to make any signilicant impact on the process of cooperation and coordination in implementing the aims and objectives of the SAARC. The reasons for thiS state of affairs are not far to seek The region is marred by ethnic tensions such as the Tamil-Sinhala mnflrct, Assamese-Bangladeshi tensions and Hindu-Muslim conflicts. In all these ethnic tenslons India, as the geographical centre of the region, becomes involved. Also, historically-rooted mutual mistrust, misperception and misunderstanding among its member-States prevails. The endemic conflict bemeen India and Pakistan is well known. Indo-Sri Lankan tension over the Tamil question or the Nepalese complaints about India's interference in her domestic affairs are other factors for tension. Moreover, as the region's largest country, there is a lurking fear of Indian domination among other members. Although external samity threats do not exist in South Asia today, the problem of cross-border movements of terrorists from Pakistan to India, first in W a b and later in Kashmir, leading to continuous tension, skirmishes, military alert and low-level proxy-war, has aspects of security concern constraining genuine regional cooperation.

Despite these problems, SAARC has been gradually moving towards greater co-operation. The seventh Summit at Dhaka in April 1993 achieved a major breakthrough. It decided to set up the South Asian Preferential Trade Agreement (SAPTA) which is a concrete step in the direction of trade liberation in the region. The SAPTA became operational in January 1996. But till in September 1996 intra-regional trade under SAPTA had not taken off as it remains hampered by a paucity of infrastructure, lack of information and prevalence of high tariff wvalls among its members. The attempts to throw open the borders for mnter-State trade have run into trouble with businessmen in Pakistan and Bangladesh raising fears that their industries wauld be swamped by competition.

Since the SAARC is still in ils initial stages one cannot expect quick results. However, within the existing constraints it has made some progress in regional co-operation. Its Visa Exemption Endorsement Facility is worth mentioning. Under this facility, with a view to promote people-to-people contact, visa exemption has been provided to Supreme Court Judges, members of National Parliaments, heads of national academic institutions, their spouses arid dependent children from 1 March 1992. This facility allows them visa-free travel within the SAARC region.

18.6 ORGANIZATION OF ISLAMIC CONFERENCE

The Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC) was established in May 1971, following a summit meeting of Muslim Heads of State at Rabat (Morocco), in September 1969 and the Islamic Foreign Minister's Conference in Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) in March 1970 and in Karachi (F'akistan) in December 1970.

At present OIC has 45 members: Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Benin, Brunei. Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Comoros, Djibuti, Egypt, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea- Bissau, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.

18.6.1 Aims and Objectives

The aims of OIC, as set out in the Charter adopted in 1972 are :

1) To promote Islamic solidarity among member-States ; 2) To consolidate wqeration among member-states in the economic, social, cultural,

scientific and other vital fields. and to arrange consultations among member States belonging to international organizations; -

3) To endeavour to eliminate racial segregation aud discrimination and to eradicate colonialism in all its forms;

4) To take necessary measures to support international peace and security founded on justice;

5) To~o~all~forthesafe~oftheHolyPlacesandsupportofthe struggle of the people of Palestine and help them to regain their rights and liberate their W,

6) To stmgthen the sbuggle of all Muslim people with a view to safegmrding their dignity, idepemlence and national rights; and

7. To mate suitable atmosphere for the promotion of cooperation and understanding among member States and other countries.

18.6.2 Organs of OIC

Over the years, the OIC has been actively working towards greater cooperation among its members in the field of economic, cultural, humanitariau and political matters. In this

' regard, it has launched programmes and has set-up the Islamic Reinsurance Corporation with authorised capital of USS200 million. The Organization supports education of Muslim communities throughout the world, and, through the Islamic Solidarity Fund, has helped to establish Islamic Universities in Niger, Uganda and Malaysia In the political field, however, the organization is mainly concerned with the recognition of the rights of Palesthiam and the PLO. The 1981 Summit Conference called for a Jihad (holy war - though not necessarily in a military sense) for the h i t i o n of Jerusalem and the Israeli-occupied territories. Also, this was to include an Islamic economic boycott of Israel. In the last 15 years it demanded, among others, for the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Af-. In Ebct, the Conference had asked its members not to participate in the 1980 Olympics unless the Swiet troops had withdrawn from Af&ni&m. Though it is not vev successll in building cuoperation and consensus in political field, it is nonetheless an important international community-group.

18.7 ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY

The R e g i o d Oqanhtha : EU. ASEAN, APEC. SAARC. OIC and OAU

The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) is one of the multipurpose regional organizations and is the largest in terms of membership. It was established in 1963. From iGorginal membership of 30 it has grown to include 51 States. All members are from Africa, since the OAU Charter does permit non-A6ican States to join. Only independent and sovereign States are admitted. After getting independence in 1990 Namibia was admitted as the 5 1st member.

18.7.1 Purposes and Principles

The purposes of the OAU are the following : (i) to promote unity and so&darity of the f i c a n States; (ii) to cooperate and coordinate efforts to achieve a better life for the people of

I m t i M o ~ a n d o r ~ Aftica; (iii) to defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of the African States; (iv) to eradicate all forms of colonialism from Afiica; and (v) to promote international cooperation with due regard to the UN Charter and the Universal Dechtion of Human Rights.

The bagic principles of OUA include; (i) peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation. mediatibn, conciliation, or arbitration; (2) unreserved condemnation of political assassinations and subversive activities; and (3) aflhmation of a policy of nonalignment with regard to all blocs.

At the inception of the OAU, Ghana led an attempt to establish a central political organization with power to formulate a common foreign policy, common planning for economic development, a common currency, and a common defence system. These suggestions, implying the surrender of national sovereignty, were unacceptable to most of the Heads of State and Gowmment €hat a p p d the OAU Charter. The Ghanian proposal for organic political union was rejected in favour of a loose organization with a limited functional , approaah to unity.

18.7.2 Organs or Institutions

The supreme organ of the OAU is the Annual Assembly of the Heads of State and Government. The agenda for the supreme organ is prepared by the Council of Ministers, which meets twice a year to superrvise the general work of the organization and which is also called into emergency session to meet with any crises. The Council is charged with the responsibility of implementing the decisions of the supreme organ. A permanent General Secretnriat carries on the continuous activities of the organization and provides necessary support for the periodic meetings of the policy making organs. The Secretariat is headed by an Administrative Secretary General, a title that underscores the limited initiative conferred upon the &a. Five functional specialized Commissions and a Commission of Mediation. Conciliation and Arbitration complete the organizational structure of the OAU.

18.7.3 Role and Activities

The OAU does not have an impressive record of resolving regional political, economic or refuged problems. During the last 30 years it has witnessed, most often helplessly, many crises that have sometimes threatened its disintegration. Many African States lmve experienced civil wars and guerilla fighting. The UN-imposed sanctions against racist South African government or the earlier white-dominated regime in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), were often at the behest of the OAU organs pressures for effective UN action. But when it came t~ the actual implementation of UN resolution, the individual African States have often violaH UN resolutions imposing trade embargo by continuing to have W e links with South Afiica apartheid regime. However, the OAU has some accomplishments in political, ecano@c and social matters. First, in 1965, in the area of economic and social cooperation, the OAU and the UN Economic Commission for Africa signed an agreement for mutual cooperstion on a continuing basis to facilitate economic and social development in Africa. Second', in 198 1, it adopted the African Charter on Human and People's Rights, which entered into force in 1986. OAU is the third regional organization (besides the Council of Europe and OAS) to have a regional human rights and mechanise to implement it.

Check Your Pro- Exercise 2

Note : i) Use the space given below for yeur answer.

ii) Check your progress with the answers given at the end of the unit.

1) List the eight main purposes of the SAARC.

..................................................................................................................................................................... I'he ReglollPl Oqmlratio~ : EU,

.................................................................................................................................................................... .\SEAN, APEC, SAARC, OIC and OAU

2) Why OAU is not a very successful organization?

.....................................................................................................................................................................

18.8 LET US SUM UP

This Unit has begun with the discussion of the rationale of regional organization. It surveyed six kinds of major regional institutions, each of which have had different reasons for its creation. Thus we learnt that Merent reasons or factors, such as the homogeneity of interests. traditions, and values within small groups of neighbouring States, prompted their establishment. Moreover, it shows that political, economic and social integration is more easily attainable among a lesser number of States within a limited geographic area than on a global basis.

Also, this Unit has enabled us to examine some of the major accomplishments and shortcomings of these regional associations.

18.9 KEY WORDS

Regional Integration : The process whereby a group of nations or other political units shift loyalties from a national setting to a larger regional entity.

Free 'Ikade Areas : An area where goods and products can mwe without tariff or custom duties.

Common Market : A customs union where labour and capital can move freely within the area characterid by product and factor integration.

Apartheid : The official policy of racial discrimination practised in South Africa till the white-minority government, which was in power for the last 50 years, was replaced by the fvst democractidly elected non-racist government headed by Nelson Mandela in May 1994.


Bennett, A LeRoy, (1988) International Organization - Principles andlssues. 4th edn. (Ea@ewood Cliffs, N. J. : Practice-Hall International).

Borchardt, Klaus-Dieter, (1995) European Integration - The Origin's and Growth of the European Union (Luxembourg: 08tice for Ofticial Publicatidlls of the European Communities).

Elazer, Daniel J. (ed.), (1994) Federal Systems of the World - A Handbook of Federal, Confederal and Autonomy Arrangements, 2nd edn. (London: Longman).


+

1. See Section 18.1 2. (a) It entered into force in November 1993

(b) It seeks to establish common an single currency in Europe (c) A envisages European or Union Citizenship

3. See the first three aims in Section 18.3.1. (a) to accelerate economic growth & devel-ment (b) to promote peace and stability. (c) to promote collaboration and astwtance for mutual development of member

states

1. See ~ectihn 18.5.1 of this Unit. 2. See Section 18.7.3 of this Unit.

UNIT 19 ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

19.0 Objectives 19.1 Introduction 19.2 The Concept of Sustainable Human Development

r 19.2.1 Components of Human Development Paradlgm 19.2.2 Concepts and Definitions of Sustainable Human Development

19.3 Sustainable Human Development and the Environment

P 19.3.1 Economic Activity and the Environment 19.3.2 Watsr , 19.3.3 Air Pollution 19.3.4 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 19.3.5 Land and Habitat 19.3.6 Atmospheric Changes

19.4 Intcmational~Environment Concems 19.4.1 Introduction of International Environment Concerns 19.4.2 Agenda 21 and the Rio-Declaration 19.4.3 Can Market Mechanism solve the Environmental Problem? 19.4.4 Multi-Stakeholder Paitnership

19.5 Let Us Sum Up 19.6 Key Words 19.7 Some Useful Books 194 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

19.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, you will have an idea of:

interface bctwwn sustainable human development and the enviroiunent;

the trade off between economic growth and sustainable development; and

global environmental concerns and the choice of partnership in sustaining human development.

19.1 . INTRODYCTION

The development theories practised in the 1950's and 1960's ovenwhelmingly emphasised economic growth, growth of gross national product (GNP). In 1970's the world witnessed growing poverty and the approach followed was basic needs. However, the basic eeds approach failed not only because of the selfishness of the privileged few but also 8' ue to helplessness of tho deprived many. The 1980's have also witnessed selfishness and helplessness, both accumulated by the acute problems of environmental degradation in general and debt, deprivation and growing disparities within the countries in particular. However, in 1990's some hopes am king surfaced on the horizon: more balanced management policies, greater awareness of interdisciplinary linkages, sustainable benefits arising out of technological advances, the role of partnerships, etc. So, the pivot around which the new paradigm revolves is sustainable human development. Human development cannot be propelled by pursuing economic growth alone. Quantity of economic growth is only one dimension of davelopment. Distribution of income, health, education, clean environment and freedom of expression am the most critical dimensions in the development process.

Sustainable development is primarily concerned with the replicable models of material i consumption, models that recognises the limitations of the environment. .However, . I smasts;nahlr r l r u r l n n m r n t ;a n n t a i m n l u a r a l l fn- r n u ; m n m r d s l r.mtrdin* T t a lsn im.rl;rs

a new concept of development which provides opportunity for all the people of the world without depleting the world's finite natural resources. So, sustainable development is a process in which economic, fiscal, agriculture, industry and all other policies are taken care of to bring about development that is economically, socially and ecologically sustainable.

Sustainability also requires far-reaching changes at both national and international levels. At the national level, sustainability demands a balance between the compulsions of today and the needs of. tomorrow, between private initiative and public action, between individual greed and social compassion. Sustainability also requires a major restructuring of budgetary provisions from military spending and inefficient public investment towards more human investment and environmentally safe technologies. At the international level, sustainable development require a consensus that the world cannot be safe for anyone without hearty co-operation of every one. For this what is needed is a equitable world order by dismantling the present international economic order. The present international order denies more than $ 500 billion of economic opportunities each year to poor nations due to their unequal access to international market (market for good, services and financial capital). In such an unequal world, the concept of one world cannot be realised without global reforms. Without global equity, global sustainability will always remain an elusive concept.

19.2 THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human development as defined in the UNDP's Human Development Report as the enlargement of the range of people's choices. It is an extension of the basic needs approach. (The concept of basic needs approach reminds us that the objective of development effort is to provide all human beings the opportunity for a full ffe.) Since, some basic interpretations are in terms of commodity bundles or specific needs, human development is trying to get away from this. Human development goes beyond basic needs in a sense that it is concerned with all human beings irrespective of poor and rich within a nation-state and among nation-states.

19.2.1 Components of Human Development Paradigm

There are essentially four components of human development paradigm; equity, sustainability, productivity and empowennent. Since human development paradigm distinguishes from the traditional concept of economic development, each of them needs to be taken care of in its proper prospective. Equity: Since, development is to enlarge people's choices, people must enjoy equitable access to opportunities. However, equity in opportunities need not necessarily result in same choices or same results. Even if, equity in opportunities result in unequal outcomes, equity in access to social, political and economic opportunities is regarded as a basic human right in a human development paradigm. It is based on the assumption that all human beings must be enabled to develop their capabilities to the maximum extent and put those capabilities to the best use in all possible areas.

Sustainability

Sustainability is another essential component of human development paradigm. Sustainability does not mean renewal of natural resources alone, which is only one

. aspect of sustainable development. It is the sustainability of human development including forms of capital -physical, financial, human and environmental. Putting it differently, it is the human life that must be sustained.

It also does not necessarily require preserving all kinds of capital in its current form. Technological progress undoubtedly create substitutes for some form of capital. And if cost effective substitutes are available, they can be used to sustain human choices. So, what could be sustained is at least the capacity to produce similar level of human well- being.

Sustainability is a dynamic concept focusing sharing of opportunities between present and future generations by ensuring intragenerational and intergenerational equity in

Productivity

Another essential dimension of human development paradigm is productivity. It requires that adequate investments must be made in human resources so as to achieve their potentiality. In fact, many East Asian countries have accelerated their growth through investments in human capital. Japan and Korea could emerge as the efficient exporters of steel products without possessing iron ore is mainly due to their tremendous human resources potential.

Empowerment

The human development paradigm focus on development by the people who must participate in the process which shape their lives. The strategy of prescription for the poor is neither consistent with human dignity nor sustainable over time. That is why human development paradigm envisages full empowerment of the people.

Empowerment means that people must be in a position to exercise choice of their own. It implies a political democracy where people can influence the decision about their lives. It also implies Economic liberalisation so that people are free from excessive controls and regulations. In other words, there must be decentralisation of power so that governance can be brought to the door step of every individual. Against the above discussions it is obvious that human development paradigm welcomes all choices whereas the older concept of basic needs concept is confined to only economic forces.

19.2.2 Concepts and Definitions of Sustainable Human Development

The concept of sustainable human development is that development which lasts for ever. It may be possible that those who enjoy the fruits of development today may be at the cost of making future generations worse-off by degrading the earth's finite resources and the environment. The general principle of sustainable development adopted by the World Commission on Environment and Development (our common future. 1987) is that "Current generations should meet their needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

The sustainable human development i.e., ensuring that "present needs are met without compromisik the ability of future generation to meet their own needs" require deliberate intervention to prevent depletion or degradation of environmental assets so that the resource base and ecological base for human activities may be sustained for ever. Differeqt kinds of environmental assets, the renewable and non-renewable resources and sinks (the kind of actions that can ensure ecological sustainability) are sumrnarised in the following two boxes.

BOX 1

Meeting the needs of the presen t....

Economic Needs: Includes access to an adequate liielihood or productive assets, also economic security when unemployed, ill, disabled or otherwise unable to secure a livelihood.

Social, cultural and health needs: Includes a shelter which is healthy, safe, afforc'able and secure, within a neighbourhood with provision for piped water, sanitation, drainage, transport, health care, education and child development. Also a home, workplace and living environment protected from environmental hazards, including chemical pollution. Also important are needs related to people's choice and control including homes and neighbourhoods which they value and where their social and cultural priorities are met.

Shelter and services must meet the specific needs of children and adults responsible for most child rearing (usually women). Achieving this implies a more equitable distribution of income between nations and in most within nations.

Political Needs: Includes freedom to participate in national and local politics and in decisions regarding management and development of one's home and neighbourhood within a broader framework which ensures respect for civil and political rights q d the implementation of environmental legislation.

Source: Mitlin Diana and David Satterthwaite, "Cities and Sustainable Development" the background paper to Global Forum '94, Manchester City Council, June, 1994.

Enviro~lent and Sustainable Human

Development

BOX 2

... Without compromlsig the ability of future gelleratioaar to meet their own needs

Minimldng uoe or wante of non renewable murcer: Includm minimising the consumption of fossil fwls in houring, commerce, industry and transport plus substituting renewable sources where feasible. Also, minimising water of scarce mineral res.ources (rtduce use, reuse, recycle, nclalrn). There arc also cultural, historical and natural assets within cities that are implaccable and thus non-mewable for instance, historic districts '

and parks and natural landscapes which provide space for play, recreation and access to nature.

a SrurWnable use of renewable resourceat Cltles drawing on fresh water &sources at levelr which can be sustained; keeping to a sustainable ecological footprlnt in tame of land area on which produma and cansumem In any city draw for @cultural crops, wood prodIhcts and blomaae fuels.

a Wanb from dtla keeplng wltbln absorptive cnpadty of local and global dnka: IncluViing renewable dnks (e.g., capacity of river to breakdown biodegradable wastes) and non-renewable sinke (for p ls ten t chemicals, include8 green house wee, stratoepherlc ozone depleting chemicals and many pesticides).

Source: MlUn Dlana and Daxfd Satterthwslte, "Clties and Sutainable Development" the background paper to Global Forum '94, Manchester Clty Council, June, 1994.

W n g into account both the development and environment components in sustainable human development, the important criteria for judging sustainable h u m development could be:

a The quality of life of the inhabitants including exidking levels of poverty, social exclusion and integration and socio-political stabilib;

a The scale and nature of renewable resource use, inbluding the extent to which w& recycling or reuse reduces it;

a The scale and nature of renewable resource use, inbluding provision to ensure sustainable levels of demand; and

a The scale and nature of non-renewable wasm gen#rated by production and comumption activities and the means by which thqse are disposed off. It also includes the extent to which the wastes affect hurrJan health, natural systems and amenities.

However, this definition remains silent about the constilbenb of needs of the present and future generation. This is crucial, primarily, because developing countries in general are not satisfied with their present levels of consumptioi, while developed countries are not entitled for 85% of the world's income even without reversing the present patterns of consumption. As a matter of fact, the preservation of1 the global environment raises serious question about the distribution of global income(and asset at present.

In fact, what we really need to sustain is human life. ~dstaining the physical environnhent is a means, not an end, like growth of ON$ is only a means towards human development. The environmental debate, therefob, must be given a human face to save it from the crises of environmental degradation. In other words, sustainable human development is putting people, not trees at the dentre stage of the environmental debate.

Tho concept of sustainable development implies that eabh generation must meet its needs without incurring debts that it cannot repay. The word debt includes four dimensi$ns, which are as follows:

t

1) Avoiding the accumulation of environmental debts by depleting natural resources;

2) . ' Avoiding financial debts by incurring unsustainable borrowing; . .

3) Avoiding social debts by neglecting investmsnt in human capital; and

4) Avoiding demographic debts by permitting unchecked population growth vis-a-vis ucbanisation.

1 f

Human development can be sustainable if adequate care has to be taken, of course,, through the budgetary policies; in each of these four areas so that it remain balance in each generation. Sustainable development, therefore, requires that it must be different from economic development as well as respectful of the physical environment. And it must translate into human lives. However, preservation of physical environment is. only a means towards the end, the end being sustaining human life. Development opportunities and human choices must be present for future generation so that the next generation enjoy at least the level of welfare/well-being enjoyed by our own generation.

Against this backdrop, the concept of sustainable human development should thus focus

, not only on the future but also on the present. It is ridiculous to worry about unborn

1 generations if the present generation are living below the poverty line. It is neither , : necessary nor desirable to perpetuate today's inequities, which in fact is neither

sustainable nor worth sustaining. So, adequate restructuring of the world's income and consumption patterns is a necessary precondition for any viable strategy for sustainable human development.


Note:' i) Use the space below for your answers.

i ii) Check your answers with the model answers given at the end of the unit.

1) What is human development? What are the different components of human 1 development paradigm?

....................................................................................................... . ,

2) How can we sustain human development? . .

. ' t

What are the important yardsticks for measuring a country's level of sustainable human development?

4) "~ustaiiable human development not only focus on the future but also on the present." Elucidate.

z! ......................................................................................................

{ 19.3 SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND i THE ENVIRONMENT

f "Economic development and sound environmental management are complementary aspects of the same agenda. Without adequate environmental protection, development will be undermined; without development, environmental protection will fail" (World Development Report, 1992).

It has already been discussed in section 2 that development is all about well being of people. Improving living standards and levels of health, education and opportunity are

1 6 the important dimensions of economic development. However, the measure of economic I development does not adequately reflect environmental degradation and the consumption

of natural resources damaged by economic growth. In fact, it is neither possible nor 1 desirable to give monetary values on all types of environniental damages. Nonetheless, i I

b-ab* Sust.inaB1e msti

Development

Issues in Development it is desirable to know how much environmental quality is being given up in the name of development as well as how much development is being up in the name of environmental protection. The World Development Report, 1992 argues that too much of environmental quality is being given up and too much of economic growth may be given up in the future to reap the benefits of both economic development and the environment. In other words, raising economic growth combined with sound environmental management policies can be used for tackling both environment and development problems.

Now, the obvious question comes out is that why some economic activity lead to excessive environmental degradation? One possible answer could be that' many natural resources are shared and the net value of many environmental goods and services is not paid for by those who use them. Besides, some natural resources are shared and in most of the cases there is no mechanism for enforcing property rights. Another possible reason could be that in some projects government policies subsidise environmental degradation which can induce more damage that would have been otherwise. One more reason could be that the poor who does not have adequate resources and hence no choice but to degrade natural resources in excess of what is currently needed to sustain.

The most important environmental concern in today's world that 'resources that are regenerative but are under valued'. For instance, air and water are renewable resources but there is a limit of assimilate emissions and wastes. If pollution exceeds a particular limit, ecosystem can deteriorate rapidly. When fisheries and forests deplete beyond a threshold point, there would be loss of ecosystem and species.

19.3.1 Economic Activity and the Environment

The proposition that higher economic activity inevitably affect the environment adversely is based on the assumption that technology, taxes and environmental investment remain static. As the scale of economic activity increases, there may be a possibility that the earth's 'carrying capacity' could be exceeded. The dynamic relationship between economic activity and the environment is given in Chart 1.

Chart 1 >

ECONOMIC ACTIVITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1 Demand for

better

Scale of the economy

(Income per capita x

environment rises as income per capita grows

Greater efficiency reduces

demand for resource inputs

X

technologies and practices reduce- emissions, wastes and degradation

output structure

0 Policies [7 Linkages [? Environmental Bepefits

Source: World Development Report 1992. World Bank, Oxford University Press, Page 39, (Figure 1.4)

inp~t-o~tput efficiency x

Environmental damage per

unit of output = Quality of the

environment

In Chart 1 it is clear that the scale of the economy' is only of the factors that will determine environmental quality. The important question here is whether the factors that tend to reduce environmental damage per unit of activity can adequately compensate for any negative spill-over of the growth in the scale. The most important factors are:

Structure: Goods and services produced in the economy.

Efficiency: Inputs used per unit of output in the economy.

Substitution: The ability to substitute for those resources that are becoming scarce.

Clean Technologies and Management Practices: The ability to reduce environmental damage per unit of input or output.

Economic policies, environmental policies and environmental investments take cognisance of the individual behaviour in the true value of environmental resources. Economic policies affect the scale, structure and efficiency of production. Which in turn result in positive or negative effects on the environment. Efficiency resulting from economic policies often reduce the land for natural resource inputs. Environmental policies can reinforce efficiency and provide incentives for adopting environment friendly technologies. The environmental policy induced incentives may result in lower quantity of output but will generate benefits that can increase human welfare. As the scale of economy incieases, there would be a possibility of increase in demand for cleaner environment, due to available of more resources for investment. Without rational reallocation of investment, the adverse consequences of economic growth is likely to dominate. For instance, increased income allows societies to deliver public goods such as health care, education, etc. On the other hand, environment may be worsened as the scale of economy increases. For instance, carbon dioxide emissions, municipal wastes, etc., tend to increase with income. So, what is necessary is introduction of sufficient incentives and disincentives to change the behaviour and attitude through regulations, charges, reliefs or by other necessary means. Even through, individual costs of changing behaviour are likely to be relatively higher in comparison to individual benefits, due to spill-over effect, it enables all the countries to grow more rapidly with less environmental impact then would have been otherwise.

Environmental degradation has basically three damaging effects. It affects human health adversely, reduces overall efficiency and productivity and involves loss of amenities. The health of people is affected by the contaminated drinking water, polluted air released by cooking fuels, smoke released by hazardous units, burning of woods, etc. We are going to discus each aspect in a great detail.

Box 3

Concerns in Poor Countries

Diarrhoes diseases that result from contaminated water kill about 2 million children and cause about 900 million episodes of illness each year.

Indoor air pollution from burning wood, charcoal and dung endangers the health of 400 million to 700 million people.

Dust and soot in city can cause between 300,000 and 700,000 premature deaths a year.

Soil erosion can cause annual economic losses ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent of GNP.

A quarter of all imgated land suffers from salinisation.

Tropical Forests -the primary source of livelihood for about 140 million.people are being lost at a rate of 0.9 per cent annually.

Ozone depletion, loss of bio-diversity and greenhouse effect are increasing at an'alarming rate.

Source: 'World Development Report, 1992" World Bank, Oxford University Press, Page 44.

Environment and Sustainable Human

Development

Issues in Development 19.3.2 Water

Access to safe drinking water is becoming an urgent need in many countries. The problem has been compounded further by acute scarcity of water. The most widespread contamination is fecal contamination (fecal coliform levels), which affect the human health indirectly. Human sewage, industrial effluent. intensive use of chemical fertiliser in agriculture, etc. are the main causes for the inadequate levels of dissolved oxygen which in turn endangers the fish population.

Since, surface water in cities are becoming polluted and costly to purify, ground water turned out to be the potential source of safe drinking water. However, in some areas, ground water to.0 is polluted which is very important to prevent from conthination. Seepage from the improper use and disposal of heavy metals synthetic chemicals and other hazardous wastes are the primary reason for ground water pollution. Sometimes, industrial effluents are also directly discharged into the ground water. In coastal areas, over pumping also results in salinity of water. Lack of sewage system, the improper maintenance of septic tanks, etc. often contaminates the ground water. The use of contaminated waters for drinking and bathing is one of the principal reason for spreading of waterborne disease like typhoid, cholera, etc. It is because of their repercussions on humolr well being and thus economic development, polluted water supplies posts serious environmental problems.

Effect of Improved Water on Sanitation

Diseas~ Million of people affected by Median reduction attributable illness to improvement (percent)

i

Diarrhoea 900* 22

Roundworm 900 28

4 Guineaworm 76

Schistosomiasis 200 74

* Refers to No. of cases per year

Source: Esfey et a1 (1990) "Health Benefits from Improvements in Water supply and sanitation. Survey and Analysis of the literature of selected diseases" USAID, Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH), Technical report 66, Washington D.C. Also reproduced in "World Development Report 1992" World Bank, Oxford University press, Page-49.

The health impact of improvement of water supplies can be perceived from a recent review by the US Agency for International Development (USAID).

The above mentioned review shows that the effects of these improvements are large with medium reductions ranging from 22 per cent in case of diarrhoea to 76 per cent for guineaworm. Besides, improved water supply also affect the mortality and morbidity patterns.

19.3.3 Air Pollution

Air pollution has mainly three man-made sources : energy use, vehicular emissions and industrial production. All these tend to expand exponefitidly with economic growth unless suitable pollution abatement measures are adopted. The most serious health risks are due to exposure to suspended particulate material (SPM), indoor air pollution and lead. There is an increasing evidence of sickness, mortiidity and mortality linked to SPM. At a higher level of SPM, polminary diseases, pbeumonia and heart diseases are common, particularly among old people and individuals whose health status is very poor. Even the lower level of SPM can cause respiratory problems.

Indoor air pollution also cause respiratory and other health problems. In poor countries. most of the women and children are exposed to indoor air risks. According to a rough. estimate by WHO. approximately 400 million to 700 million'are exposed to indoor

pollution in developing countries. In highly developed countries, the major indoor air 'risks are emissions from synthetic materials, resins and radon gas. In poor countries, the problem arises primarily when households cook with wood, straw or dung. In fact, in most of the rural areas, these are the only fuels available or affordable. Bio-mass burning is also linked to deforestation. This in turn is another source of environmental damage. Studies in Nepal and India of non-smoking women who were exposed to bio- mass smoke have found very high levels of chronic respiratory diseases with mortality at an earlier age.

Lead also affect human health through ingestion and inhalation. The most important source is vehicular emissions where lead is used as a fuel additive. The problem has been compounded in towns and cities where the number of vehicles is continuously growing very rapidly. Thus, it is imperative to reduce the lead content of fuels.

9

Transboundary air pollution harms human health and causes loss of trees and forests. It has been well conceived at various forums that regional agreements for pollution abatement should be established and strengthened. Early warming systems and response mechanisms are needed for production from industrial accidents, natural disasters and destruction of natural resources.

19.3.4 Solid arid Hazardous Wastes

Most of the cities in the world generate more solid wastes than they collect or dispose off. Usually, the volume increases with the level of income. Municipal waste services generally consume between 20%-50% of city budgets. Still, much of solid wastes is not renewed Even if, municipal budget is adequate for collection, safe disposal of collected waste remains a problem. Open dumping, however, remains the principal method of- disposal in many developing countries. Improper collection and disposal lead to a number of problems for human health as well as contamination of surface as well as and ground water. Solid wastes dumped in public areas or into waterways results in spread of many diseases. Industrial countries produce approximately 5000 tons of waste for every billion dollars of GDP whereas for many developing countries the total amount could be few hundred tons. The health risks arising from toxic and hazardous wastes vary across countries, of course, it depends upon how they are handled.

Management of hazardous wastes are improving in some countries whereas in many others it is dumped into water or on land-sites without any safeguard. However, the most crucial phenomena in today's world is that the toxic chemical banned in one country as hazardous are deliberately sold to and dumped into other countries, often 'developing countries. Even though, exposure to toxic and hazardous wastes are primarily local and less important risk compared to air and water pollution, without adequate measure of collection and safeguard disposal, the likely consequences could be too big to solve.

19.3.5 Land and Habitat

i Land

Certain'kinds of land use can decrease greenhouse sinks and increase atmospheric emissions. In this context. Agenda 21 'proposes that appropriate national, administrative social and economic measures to be undertaken and limit greenhouse gas emissions, conserve natural resources which are relevant to atmospheric changes.

Against the backdrop, what is essential is an integrated approach to the planning and management of land resources. Integration means that environmental, social and economic issues should be combined simultaneously. Government should formulate legislation, regulations and economic incentives to encourage sustainable land-use and management of land resources, paying particular emphasis to agricultural land.

Forest

Forest occupy more than 25% of the world's land area. Forests are of three broad types - tropical moist and dry forests, temperate forests and degraded forest. Tropical moist forests are particularly rich in species. 'lkopical dry forests are not as species rich


Development

- - --

I The concept of Agenda 21 has been explained at length in the next section.

Issues in Development as tropical moist forests, but they provide important protection against soil erosion. Temperate forests are the lowest bio-diverse of the three. They are the main source of industrial wood. The most serious cause of concern is with the tropical moist forests which are degrading at a rate that threatens the economic and ecological sustainability of the globe.

Forests are not only a source of timber but also a source of social and ecological functions. They provide livelihood strategies for forest dwellers and a habitat for a variety of plants and animals. They protect and enrich soils, regulates the hydrologic cycle, affect climate through evaporation, influence surface and ground water flows and help in stabilising the global environment by neutralising the growth of carbon dioxide. Different kinds of forests serve the above mentioned objectives in various proportions.

The rapid deforestation caused by farmers, logging and mining companies, fuel wood collectors, etc. Pose a serious threat to both development and preservation of the global environment. Deforestation in developing countries, however, is a recent phenomena. Growth of population in rural areas of developing countries often leads to a rising demand for fuel wood. Besides, modernisation of agriculture in some countries results in less demand for labour which in turn releases a sizeable labour force who find new livelihood strategies in forest frontiers.

To support the ecological, economic, social and cultural roles of forest and forest land Agenda 21 calls all countries to strengthen the forest related institutions and professional skilk though:

Promoting the participation of labour unions, rural co-operatives, local oommunities, indigenous people, youth, women, NGOs, etc. in forest related activities.

Conducting research on forests, collecting data on forest cover and areas suitable for afforestation and ecological values.

Supporting and enhancing technology transfer and specialised training.

Biodiversity

Biological diversity (a composite of genetic information, species and ecosystems) provides material wealth in the form of food, clothing, housing, fibre, medicine, inputs into industrial processes, spiritual nourishment, etc. In order to conserve biological diversity, Agenda 21 calls for governments to:

Early entry into force of the UN convention on Biological Diversity

Foster traditional methods and knowledge of indigenous people

Share the benefits of biological resources and biotechnology with developing countries.

Develop national strategies for the conservation of biodiversity and safe transfer of biotechnology.

19.3.16 Atmospheric Changes

Greehhouse Warming

The atmospheric concentration of the gases that cause greenhouse warming have been increasing over the years. Carbon dioxide, the principle component of greenhouse gases, has increased by more than 12 per cent in the past thirty years. This new development is mainly the result of human activities on the earth. Concentration of greenhouse gases in the coming days depend on a number of factors -economic growth, the energy intensity and the .chemistry of atmosphere, biosphere and ocean.

The greenhouse effect is a global issue, primarily because all emissions of greenhouse gases affect climate. But then, the conventional cost-benefit measures to tackle the greenhouse effect may be spread unevenly across the countries. As a result, negotiations on any international agreement on greenhouse warming is a difficult process. A host of factors that must be taken into account are the following:

Climate change will vary across countries. Climate changes will be smaller but more rapid in equatorial zones than in the temperate zones.

The damaging effecvwill vary across countries. Some countries may find that their climate is improving and hence gains accrue while others may find that such effects cause substantial losses. Even if the pattern of climate change is similar it may affect countries unequally due to differences in ecology, economic activity, the habitat and other environmental resources.

The high-income countries have been emitting large amounts of gases for many years and thus contributing a disproportionate share of accumulated gases in the atmosphere. On the other hand, emissions from low income countries, starting from a lower base, are growing more rapidly.

Measures to reduce emissions are one response to the threat of climate change. Another response could be to seek to adapt by investing in assets that will mitigate the impact of climate change on economic activities. However, the relative costs and benefits varies across countries.

Some countries are solely dependent on exports of fossil fuels and are likely to suffer from the policies that tend to reduce the world demand.

Despite the above mentioned difficulties, there are various measures that can be adopted at national and international levels to reduce current emissions of greenhouse gases. There are broadly four technological options available for reducing harmful emissions:

1) Changing the fuel by switching to low sulfar coals, oil and gas.

2 ) Controlling emissions.

3) Using existing fuels more efficiently by adopting high efficiency and low emission technologies.

Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion is the result of increasing atmospheric concentrations of chlorine originating from CFCs. In the Montreal Protocol, countries agreed to phase out production of CFCs. The consequences of decrease in the protective ozone layer in the long-run will be harmful for health and productivity of marine and terrestrial systems. Atmospheric levels of CFCs are expected to peak around 2000 A.D. The largest ozone impact is over Antarctica where the maximum depletion was deep and extensive (about 50 per cent), since measurement began. The most important consequence of ozone depletion is an increase in solar ultraviolet radiation received at the earth's surface.

In the absence of changes in human behaviour to protect against exposure to the sun's rays, a sustained ozone decrease of 10 per cent would mean an increase of eye damages from cataracts and skin cancers, particularly fair skinned individuals. Besides, continuous exposure to increase levels of ultraviolet radiation can suppress the immune system in

'people of all skin colours. The health risks could be reduced if people would avoid unnecessary exposure by making small changes in their behaviour.

Impact of UV radiation on plant productivity has also emerged as another cause of concern. Even though some plants have considerable capacity for adoption and repair, there are instances where agricultural crops have shown some inhibition of growth and photosynthesis when plants are exposed to UV radiation. Nevertheless, there are some scope to deal with increased UV radiation through plant breeding. There are also instances where increased UV radiation marine productivity and ecosystem in general.


Note: i) Use the space below for your answers.


Development

ii) Check your answers with the model answers given at the end of the unit.

1) "Economic activities lead to environmental degradation". Give two reasons in favour of and two against the above argument.

IssuC~La Development

- ........ L........ ......................................................................................

1 1

1 ...................................................................................................... 2) "Environmental degradation affect the mankind adversely". Write down at least

two most important mechanisms with respect to each of the aspects mentioned below to make the earth safer in the future.

A) Water Pollution

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...................................................................................................... B) Air pollution

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...................................................................................................... C) Solid and Hazardous Waste

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...................................................................................................... D) Land Degradation

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...................................................................................................... E) , Deforestation

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...................................................................................................... F) Greenhouse Warming

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19.4 INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT CONCERNS 4 "Znternational environqwntal problems are most complicated to solve than national problems for k o reasons. First, no single authority can lay down and enforce appropriate policies. Secondly, solutions must accommodate large variations in the balance of benefits and costs to different countries. Some countries may have more pressing local problems and less money for solving them To secure action, rich countries may sometimes need to pay poor ones" (World Development Report, 1992).

19.4.1 Introduction of International Environment Concerns

At the international level, it is often impossible to rely on a common regulatory framework, economic policy, legal framework and the authoritative powers of a national government. Solutions to international environmental pqoblems therefore rest on collaboration, persuasion and negotiation among sovereign states. Prioritising the issues at the international level is also a highly complex. Since, the costs of doing nothing may be borne by the other nations. Also, the gains may not accrue to those who make a headway in the national policy. There are three main contours which necessitates international solutions:

Enhnment and Sustainable Human

Development

First, regional problems regarding sharing of common resources, where the action of one country affect the others in the region. The typical problems coming under this category are transboundary pollution including acid rain, management of rivers, seas, etc.

Second, the world shares certain global commons where the action of one country affect the action of all other countries. For instance, atmosphere and deep oceans are the global resources. Accumulation of greenhouse gases, ozone layer depletion caused by the emission of CFCs and the like are international problems that affect the global community.

Third, there are resources that belong to one country but have immense value for the international community. They are not necess&ly reflected in the market mechanism. Examples of this type are tropical rainforests, specific ecological habitats, individual species, etc.

Since the United Nations.Conference on the Human Environment in 1972 in Stockholm, concerns have been growing regarding continuous deterioration of the global environment. As a matter of fact, any disruption of the ecological balance would sterilise the life-sustaining capabilities and eventual economic and ecological disaster. This global environmental deterioration has been attributed primarily to unsustainable patterns of certain kinds of consumption of production, especially in the industrialised nations. In fact, industrialised countries are solely responsible for the largest share of the world's current emission of pollutants including toxic and hazardous wastes.

In the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), member countries argued that poverty and environmental degradation were interrelated and environmental protection in developed countries had to be viewed as an integral part of the development process. This in fact is a logical culmination of thc 1987 report of the World Commission on Environment and Development which, recognises that 'international environmental protection measures have to take into account current global imbalances in production and consumption. In the UNCED member countries agreed that the global character of the environmental problems (climate change, ozone layer depletion, transboundary air, water pollution, contamination of the Oceans and Seas, etc.) necessitated concerned efforts and effective participation of all countries. Indeed, concerted efforts are made in a partnership manner at the international level to the fulfilment of basic needs, improved living standards for all, better protected and managed ecosystems and a safer future.

19.4.2 Agenda 21 and the Rio-Declaration

Agenda 21 -a programme for action for sustainable development internationally, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and the statement of principles for ' sustainable management of forests were adopted by 179 countries at the United National Conference on Environment and Qvelopment (UNCED) held in Rio de Janerio, Brazil 3-4, June, 1992. It brought together thousands of business people, environmental and social scientists, educationists, trade unionists, indigenous people, religious leaders, women and youth. Qe key message from the UNCED were:

The interdependence. between development. issues and the environment and

The need for partnership between different nations and sectors of society to tackle these complex issues.

Issues in Develbpment Agenda 21, one of the major outputs of the Conference, is a logical culmination of several years of intensive work where thousands of people from diverse countries and sectors were participated. Agenda 21 has 40 chapters which are divided into four sections:

Social and economic dimensions

Conservation and management of resources for development

Strengthening the role of major groups and

Means of implementation

Even though, Agenda 21 is not legally enforceable, it serves as a valuable statement of all the major socio-economic and environmental issues relevant to the achievement of sustainable development. It also deals with the complex and dynamic myriad of linkages between these issues and provides action and partnership between nations as well as sectors.

19.4.3 Can Market Mechanism Solve the Environmental Problem?

As has already been pointed out that the purpose of development policy and environmental policy is to improve the well-being of people. Environmental degradation necessarily occurs when those who decides to use environmental resources ignore or underestimate the costs of enirironmental damage to society. In fact, market mechanism does recdgnise the true social value of the environment. Some of the important underlyink i-xsons are as:

Market dcks not exist because it is difficult to exclude anybody's right to own or use the environment. Air for instance, market for air does not exist. Even if prices prevail they do not reflect costs to the society. As a result there is too much air pollution.

0 Some uses of particular resource are marketable but other not. For instance, tropical rainforests where timber is marketed but watershed is not. In this non- marketable profits are often ignored and other uses are heavily exploited.

When resources are open to all, they are exploited irrespective of their impact. Deforestation and overfishing are the typical examples of this type of externalities.

There is often lack of information about environmental affects or low cost availability to the users.

It is because of the externalities associated with the environmental problems, market mechanism seems to be incapable of guiding resource consumption. The plausible way out of this crisis could be by adopting and reinforcing the wheels of partnership.

19.4.4 Multi-Stakeholder Partnership

Partnership has become one of the most crucial word in the debate on sustainable human development. By partnership in this context would imply that: voluntary and mutually beneficial collaboration between one or more parties aimed at developing strategies and solutions to the socio-economic and environmental challenges of sustainable development. The aim has been a total shift from provisions of confrontation, dependence and isolation to positions of mutual agreed interdependence.

Even though there are diverse sectors arid types of stake-holders, the document looks at three broad sectors:

the government

the voluntary or "not-for-profit" non-governmental sector (NGOs) and

the corporate or "for-profit" business and industry sector

Even thou~h, there are overlaps between these three groups in terms of their roles and responsibilities in public life, they can be uses as a starting point for a fruitful discussion. Each sector has distinct skills and resources which can add value to the other sector in a partnership way.

Agenda 21

Section 1


Development

Social and Economic Dimensions

1. Preamble 2. International cooperation to accelerate sustainable

development in developing countries 3. Combating poverty 4. Changing consumption patterns 5. Demographic dynamics and stability 6. Protection and promotion of human health- 7. Promotion sustainable human settlement development 8. Integrating environment and development in decision making

Section Three I Section Four

Strengthening the role Means of Implementation of Major-Groups

23. Preamble 33. Financial resources and mechanisms 24. Women 34. Transfer of Environmentally 'sound

Children and Youth Indigenous people and their communities

Non-Governmental Organisation (NGOs)

Local authorities

Workers and Trade Unions Business and Industry Scientific and Technological community Farmers

technology 35. Science for sustainable development 36. Promoting education, public

awareness, and tr' 37. National mechanisms and

international cooperation for capacity building

38. International institutional arrangements -

39. International legal instruments 40. Information for decision ma16ng

Section 'ho

Conservation and management of resources for development

Protection of the atmosphere Integrated approach to the planning and management of land resources Combating deforestation Managing fragile ecosystems: combating desertification and drought Managing fragile ecosystems: sustainable mountain development Promoting sustainable agricultural and rural development Conservation of biological diversity Environmentally sound management of biotechnology Protection of the Oceans, all kinds of seas including enclosed anc' semi-enclosed seas and Costal areas Protection of the quality and supply of fresh water resources Environmentally sound managempnt of toxic chemicals Environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes

' Environmentally sound management of solid wastes and sewage related wastes. Safe and environmentally sound management of radioactive wastes

Issues in Devt lopment Business and industry play a critical role in the process of building partnership for sustainable development. The combined social, economic and environmental effect of private enterprises, large and small, formal and informal, transnational and local is very crucial. The business sector generates livelihood strategies, new markets, products and services. Technological progress takes place in this sector because it undertakes risks, it is also a major consumer of natural resources and producer of wastes. So, what is . needed is to find our ways and means to optimise the positive effects and ininimise the negative effects.

However, in practice the business sector often lacks the following.

The appropriate regulatory framework.

The appropriate environmental, cultural and scientific expertise.

The co-operation of local communities.

In the work place and market place: During its course of transaction with the employees, customers, suppliers, financiers and environmentalists, it can cooperate to develop cleaner process and products.

Multi-Stakeholder Partnership

Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems today and International Governments - Un systems so aims at preparing the world for the Regional Government Grouping challenge of the next century. It reflects National Government a global consensus on development and State Government environdent co-operation. Its successful Local Self Government implemehta. -- is first and foremost responsibility of the governments

Academia Local and Foreign Researchers Large and small scale Scientists Fomtal and In Rural and Urban Primwy, Secondary an

Indigenous People Trade Unions . Womens Group

Non-Governmental Organisations play in the shaping and implementation of parliament democracy. Their credibility lies in the and constructive role they play in society and informal organisations, as well as movements should be recognised as the implementation of Agenda 21.

In the research and training field: Business sector can afford partnership with the academician and scientific personnel to develop new technologies, new products and new management systems.

In host communities: It can work with NGOs, local government and the public to add the quality of life investments in human capital.

In the public policy realm: It can collabor~e with the government, international organisations, and research institutes to develop appropriate regulatory frameworks to improve its environmental performance with sacrificing its economic performance.

USEFULNESS OF PARTNERSHIP

It can mobilise diverse skills and resources in a greater amount than otherwise.

It can address problems in a more integrated, multidisciplinary and comprehensive manner.

It can eliminate unnecessary duplication of costs and efforts (where there are shortages of financial and human resources)

It can help traditional organisation to broaden their horizon and to respect each otherwise needs and capabilities.

It can facilitate dialogue, creativity and mutual trust for conflicting interests. .

Interface between partners can also facilitate the flow of information and transfer of technology.

19.5 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you get an idea of the link between environment and sustainable human development. Human development cannot be taken care of by pursuing economic growth alone. Economic growth is only one dimension of development. Distribution of income, provision of health care, education, safe environment and freedom of impression are the important dimensions in the development process'. Sustaining human development therefore is not simply a call for environmental protection but which provides opportunity for all the people of the world to grow without affecting the world's finite natural resources. The general principle of

I sustainable human development is adopted by the world commission on Environment

I and Development is that current generations should meet their needs without 1 compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own need. In other words,

what we really need to sustain is human life. So, the environment must be given a

I human face to save it from the crises of environmental degradation.

Sometimes economic activities degrade environment primarily due to lack of interface I

between what is provided (resources advanced) and what is used. Environmental I I degradation damages human health, reduces efficiency and productivity and entails loss

i of opportunity to people. In order to counteract the adverse consec;uences of economic growth, it is necessary to rationally reallocate investment patterns as well as change the behaviour and attitude through proper incentive and disincentive structures. At the I international level, any disruption of the ecological balance would sterilise the life sustaining opportunities and eventual ecological and economic disaster. If the present pattern of environmental degradation will continue, the life cannot be safer for organ without hearty co-operation of every one in the world. In this critical juncture, what we really need is to build up partnership to sustain human life. It implies voluntary co-operation among all the stake-holders in the world. The Rio Declaration is precisely addressing these fundamental issues in a much more scientific way.


Development

Issues in Development 19.6 KEY WORDS

Abutement: A measure taken for reducing or eliminating air or noise pollution.

Air pollution: The contamination of the atmosphere with undersirable solids, liquids apd gases.

Environment: The-region, surroundings or circumstances in which anything exists, everything internal to the organism.

Environmental Impact: Any. change in the environment for better or for worse, especially the effects on air, land or water of solid, liquid or gaseous wastes, smells or noise.

'Gross National Product (GNP): It is the money value of goods and services produced in a country during a year plus net income from abroad. By economic growth we mean an increase in perception GNP over a long period of time.

Economic Development: It is defined as growth plus qualitative changes in various parameters of life, may be social, political, economic, cultural or religious. Thus, development involves structural changes encompassing institutional transformation including monetisation and modernisation of different sectors of ~ 1 %

the economy.

Basic Weeds: The approach to development aims at achieving the full physical, mental and social development of tiuman personality through a package of measures, and concentrates on the nature of what is provided rather than on income.

Carrying Capacity: It is the maximum capacity of the environment to assimilate all kinds of emissions and wastes. If pollution exceeds the carrying capacity, there would be loss of eco-systems and species.

Ozone: A highly reactive poisonous form of oxygen having chlorine like door detectable by most people at an air concentration as low as 0.02 parts per million. Ozone is produced naturally during lightening storms by the passage of electricity through air. Ozone occurs high in the stratosphere in an 'ozone layer' where it forms and breaks down in an ozone cycle of reaction.

Chlorofluro Carbons: The aerosol propellants, refrigerant fluids and framblowing agents are members of chloroflurocarbons known by a trade name Freon.

Greenhouse effect: The property of selective absorption used in the co.nstruction of greenhouses which finds parallel in the general atmosphere, water vapour and carbon dioxide although only a minute fraction of the mass of the atmosphere, exercise considerable influence over the head balance of the atmosphere and ground.


World Development Report, 1992, Development and the Environment, World Bank, Oxford University Press.

World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987, Our Common Future, New York, Oxford University Press.

Anand Sudhir and Amaritya Sen (1992), "Sustainable Human Development: Concepts and Priorities", Human Development Report Office, Occasional paper 8, UNDP, Mew York.



1) Read Sub-section 19.2 and answer the questions.

2) Read Sub-section 19.2.2 and answer the questions.

3) Read Sub-section 19.2.2 and answer the questions.

4) Read Sub-section 19.2 and answer the questions.

Check Your Progress 2 P

1) Read Sub-section 19.3.1 and answer the question.

2) a) Read Sub-section 19.3.2 to 19.3.6. b


Development

UNIT 20 HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

Structure 20.0 Objectives 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Significance of Human Rights 20.3 The Concept: Evolution and Meaning

20.3.1 The Ancient Greeks and the Stoics 20.3.2 Dominant Notion Today 20.3.3 Milestones of Development 20.3.4 Right to Development 20.3.5 Diverse Conceptualisations of the Individual

20.4 Universal vls Cultural Relativism 20.4.1 Vasak's Three Generations of Rights 20.4.2 Differences between the Two Covenants 20.4.3 UN's Special Conventions 20.4.4 The UN and Decolonization

20.5 Human Rights, Development and Democracy 20.5.1 Helsinki Process 20.5.2 Strategic Shifts in Global Political Economy 20.5.3 USA's Policy on Human Rights

20.6 Features of Vienna Declaration on Human Rights 20.7 Emerging Challenges to Human Rights Protection 20.8 Let Us Sum Up 20.9 Appendix I

20.9.1 UDHR 20.9.2 India: Fundamental Duties (Article 51A) 20.9.3 India: Fundamental Rights 20.9.4 India: Directives Principles of State Policy

20.10 Appendix I1 20.11 Some Useful Books 20.12 Answers to Checks Your Progress Exercises

20.0 OBJECTIVES

'Human Rights' has become a popular topic. It has got several dimensions and each dimension may require a full thesis for a detailed treatment. In this Unit we will discuss various issues and developments in Human Rights and International Politics. After going through this unit, you will be able to:

identify the concept: evaluation, meaning and its significance;

discuss the issues at the global level;

e explain the position of Human Rights on various issues of development and democracy; and

evaluate the role of international agencies in protection of Human Rights in the developing countries.

. L .

Human Rights as we hear and read about today are predominantly of the Western heritage. Rights have always been there in every culture and tradition. But the influence of West in conceptualisation, standardization and their observance throughout the world has made its possible to identify human rights with its liberal underpinnings. This is however a reductionist way of understanding human rights. A balanced perspective will demand a closer examination of the changing political economy of the globe. HUFLI

Rights can acquire lasting importance (really due to them) only in the light of such an analysis which is undertaken in the following sections.

Human Rights and International Politics

-

20.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF HUMAN RIGHTS

'Human Rights' is, at once, a simple and a complex concept. The most popular version of human rights refers to having a right as a human being. But on serious examination, it will not be difficult to see that it is a complex notion also. Two factors contribute to making it a complex notion: (a) its philosophical features are interwoven with political considerations and (b) over the years, confusing terminologies have been used in various expressions of human rights.

Despite rich complexity, the meaning of human rights has never moved away from its central plank, namely, provision, protection and promotion of those values through which "we affirm together that we are a single human community". In any sense, respect for human dignity is the essential value which lends meaning to human rights. But when it

I comes to 'packaging' human rights for implementation, influence of political considerations occupies centre-stage. This is an unfortunate development today. However, as we near the end of the 20th century, few will dispute that human rights is the most dominant idea on the agenda of the 21st century, and will continue to be so at least for the initial years in the next century.

The significance of human rights today can be highlighted by some of the development indicators given below:

a) On the initiative of the UN, a World Conference on Human Rights was held in Vienna during 14-25, June 1993 (the first International conference was held in Teheran in 1968). After two weeks of lively proceeding in Vienna, a consensus was reached on the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action which, in the words of the then UN Secretary General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali heralded "a new vision "Gob01 action for Human Rights in to the next century" later in March 1995, the world submmit for Social Development included in the list of ten commitments to which the world leaders had pledged themselves:

"to promote social integration based on the enhancement and protection of all human rights".

b) In pursuance of the above, member-states have found it necessary to devote the task of Human Rights Education among their people. "The International Decade for Human Rights Education"'has been proclaimed and it has been in force since 1995. India has set up its National Human Rights Commission in 1993 and the Commission has started working full swing ever since.'The national task and campaign for rights consciousness aim strategically at awareness promotion among its people as well as articulation and campaign for various 'group rights' belonging to women, child, tribals and dalits, consumers, sick and elderly, disabled and the others.

C) A closer scrutiny of the post-war international politics will reveal that it has increasingly been characterized by "a constantly shifting, often contradictory, but dominant transnational discourse on aid policy" (R.E. Wood). This aid diplomacy focused on question of development and seldom addressed the questions of democracy, good governance and human rights which is the situation today. The shift in focus today has largely been occasioned following the end of the Cold War and dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc. As will become clear later, human rights observance has become unavoidable in their conduct and practice of states in the post-Cold war phase of international relations. All the aid donor countries and agencies have got this incorporated in their aid-policy requirements.

d) Even those who differed with the aid conditions for human rights observance had their arguments focused on significance of human rights for today's world. These countries, mostly of East and South East Asia in the non-Western world (and without necessarily subscribing to the Western liberal individualism) have offered the arguments of "cultural relativism" as a counter. Briefly, 'cultural relativism' refers to a country's cultural pecularities which should be incorporated, as the

Issues in Development argument runs, in the conceptualisation of human rights if the latter are to be effectively observed in practice. No cultural relativist has ever questioned the significance of human rights. If anything, they have also joined the Western advocates to make human rights real and practicable.


Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the unit.

1) Describe various development indicators demonstrating the significance of human rights today.

2) Stale whether the following statements are True or False:

A) National Ikman Rights Commission was set up in 1995

B) International Decade for Human Rights Education started with, 1993

C) World Conference on Human Rights met at Vienna in June, 1993.

D) Till recently aid policies addressed questions of development and did not give primary importance to those of democracy and human rights.

20.3 THE CONCEPT: EVOLUTION AND MEANING

If human rights are significant today, it needs to be mentioned here that the evolution of the concept and their practice have got a chequered history. It ma$ be interesting to know that prior to the use of the term human right3 such rights were typically called the Rights of man or Natural rights. This difference is more than terminological. For example, Thomas Paine who is credited to have coined the expression 'human rights' in his English translation of the French Declaration of The Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789) wrote the basic book on human rights in 1792 and titled it the Rights of Man. In the same year, (1792), in France only and for the first time in recorded history, Mary Wollstonqcraft argued for equal rights for women in her equally classic book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. The name change from'rights of man' to 'human rights' w$s suggested by Eleanor Roosevelt in 1947 and it has since then been uniformly observed beginning with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which the Gene~al Assembly had passed on 10 December 1948.

20.3.1 The Ancient Greeks and the Stoics

The concept of human rights is rooted in the most ancient values as taught by different religions in the world. But the most dominant strand in the conceptualisation of human rights belongs to its western heritage whose philosophers, as a rule, trace the term to the classical Athenian democracy and the Social influence on Roman jurisprudence. It should be interesting to know that as a normative ethical concept, origins of human rights acquired a political connotation which is continuing till date in modem versions. The Classical Greeks views 'nature' as an "objective standard for the instruction of human social conduct" and insisted that natural laws can be known through a systematic description of the behaviour which "ought to occur" in a society. Politically, this only meant that not everybody in the city-state can have natural rights; actually, only the citizens and not others had access to benefits of natural.law. But ironically, in their general defence of such inequalities, Plato and Aristotle have also introduced to the knowing world several conceptions of equality which serve as key elements in human rights theory today. To mention some of these prominent contributions:

I

i equal respect for all citizens (isotimia), equality before law (isonomia) equality in political power (isokratia) and

-1 equality in suffiage (isopsephia)

!h equality of civil rights (isopoliteia)

But, as said earlier, these benefits were available to the citizen only and they were only half of the Athens' population. The Roman concept of equality, however broadened the scope of the rights application. The Stoics were the foremost contributors to the natural law theory. Working within the classical Greek view, they however conceptualised 'nature' as "a universal system of rules" (as embodied in the Roman society) in which all rational human beings were entitled to equal civic status. The Roman doctrine of natural law introduced a revolutionary improvement over the narrow Greek view in that

' local conventional law uus civile) can co-exist with the collective principles Qus gentium) which are observed by all and which by implication, meant that all persons were equal as members of the world community. There is definitely some lesson here to

L learn viz., coexistence of the general with a plurality of particulars. This has become an important element in the conceptualisation and practice of human rights today.

20.3.2 Dominant Notion Today

The dominant conception of human rights today belongs to the Western heritage of natural law philosophy and, as such, even today, human rights discourse cannot be said to be free from the influence of the Greek and the Roman views. Universalism of human rights today is practically possible only when the totality of the argument takes into account .local variations.

Ideally, human rights should address issues and concerns relating to human dignity regardless of barriers of ideology and political and economic system. It should also focus on diverse groups of humanity in order to empower and restore their dignity.

It should provide an element of a social cement, "an irreducible human element" through which each member can proudly claim to belong to a single human community regardless of differences. Every religion and social ethos has got its own variant of what we call "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam". But in these days of aggressive globalization of ,

economy and finance, universalization of the values of equality and freedom does not appear to be anywhere within sight.

For an average student, the picture of human rights has been one presented by the established authorities on the subject. This however is a biased view which equates human rights primarily with:

a) the protection and promotion of civil and political rights,

b) the demand for economic rights thrown in at times,

c) democracy and more so, liberal democracy, as practised in the western world.

It is argued by the Western policy makers and scholars that it was only under the U.S. hesident Jimmy Carter's leadership that the Operations Human Rights began. Later, according to them, human rights became an international concern.

20.3.3 Milestones of Development

However, concepts of democracy and human rights predate Jimmy Carter through he 1 gave the term and usage an official respectability. It thus became a cornerstone of his 1 presidency between 1977 and 1981. t

'Democracy' which entered the Vocabulary of the English language in the sixteenth century, had its birth way back in Athens some 2500 years ago. Similarly, official respect for freedom was sanctified (in the western heritage) by the 1688 English Bill of Rights, the 1776 American Declaration of Independence and the 1789 (French) Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. It is important to remember that all these declarations centered around the nation-state. However, following the second World War, a more universalistic approach to the question of rights emerged. The first example of this was the 1945 United Nations Charter under which the U.N. is "to promote

Human Rights and IntemUonPl Pollties

Issues in Development universal respect for, and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all" and "to develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal right and self-determination of peoples." Thee years later, on 10 December, 1948, (which is today observed as the Human Rights Day) the U.N. General Assembly adopted without dissent (but with abstentions by the Soviet bloc nations, South Africa and Saudi Arabia) the Universal Declaration of ~ u m a h Rights (UDHR) which comprehensively spelled out the concept of human rights. Though only one fourth of the present strength of the U.N. adopted the UDHR then, many nations further committed themselves to respect human rights through a number of international agreements in subsequent years:

Some of the international agreements are:

a) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR); and Iqternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966), came into foice in 1976

b) The European Convention on Human Rights (1950), came into force in 1953

c) The American Convention on Human Right (1969). came into force in 1978

d) The Helsinki Accords (adopted in 1975)

e) The African Charter on People's and Human Rights (1981). came into force in 1986.

Along with the UDHR, both the international Covenants (ICCPR & ICESCR) and their Optional Protocols constitute what is known as The International Bill of Rights (IBR). IBR actually provides the conceptual framework to which other human rights instruz-nts are to conform. Two unique features of the IBR must be mentioned. First the intenl,.':nal covenants took the 1948 Declaration a step further by making the given provisions legally binding on the signatory states. Such States are required to open the doors for international monitoring of human rights. The ICPR has been signed by 121 states and ICESR by 123 states. The Indian Government has ratified both these covenants on 10 April, 1979 during the Janata Government headed by Morarji Desai. Secondly, of the thousands of treaties registered with the United Nations, about 5 per

. cent are multi-lateral, whereas in the human rights field, the opposite is true. Virtually, all human rights agreements are multi-lateral. This speaks for the widest observance of human rights in the world.

In view of these developments, the connotation of individual rights has acquired two new dimensions which were unthinkable till 1945. Today, international lawyers and commentators have sanctified and promoted the view that nation-states which are sovereign have however accepted the legal obligations and they do not question the treatment of their citizens under various human rights conventions. Secondly, the right of self-determination of peoples .is now recognized as a legal right.

It is also important to note that the United Nations has been the main area within which the international politics of human rights has been played out. It is a different story that the international politics may itself be influenced by the national interest perceptions of a dominant power in today's uneven world. But it cannot be denied that the international norms regarding the rights of the individuals and groups have been established, and necessary institutions and mechanisms created to give concrete expression to these norms only under the auspices of the UN. That is where both the success and failures regarding human rights protection and promotion lie. Whereas the iniquitous politics of the globe have set limits to human rights observance, one also finds efforts of counter- vailing forces as represented in various multi-lateral treaties, declarations, resolutions and agreements as well as emergence of powerful regional regimes and the NGOs which have, on balance, made human rights a noble objective for most of the states to pursue.

-The Universal Declaration of Human Rights which contains a Preamble and 30 Articles was proclaimed by the General Assembly "as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations." The Indian Constitution also provides for rights and duties for its citizens. Are our rights and duties at variance with the objectives of the Declaration? (Please find out the area of agreement and convergence of rights and duties as given in the Indian Constitution and compare them with that of the Universal Declaration from !

the lists given in Annexure-I. Remember that the lists contain rights and duties in their abbreviqted form only).

The first World Conference on Human Rights held in Tehramin 1968 affirmed these Human Rights and principles contained in the Declaration. It is useful to remember that the General International Politics

Assembly had passed a resolution in 1950 declaring that "enjoyment of civil and poLitica1 freedoms and of economic, social and cultural rights are inter-connected and inter-dependent." These two characteristics of human rights viz., 'inalienability' and 'inter-dependence to the extent of inseparability" between civil and political rights on the one hand and the economic, social and cultural rights on the other, constituted the building blocks in the final re-affirmation of the content of human rights by the Second World Conference on Human Rights at Vienna in 1993. The nature, content and importance of human rights are no more in dispute today after the Vienna Congress.

20.3.4 Right to Development

1950 to 1993 was a long journey of debate and resistance to the questions .of accepting an essentially Third World position which was that the economic and social rights be treated as inseparable from the civil and political rights. This controversy at the international level was reflected in the efforts of the developing countries backed by the then Soviet Union to formulate a concept of "the right to development" acceptable to all members of the U.N. Such a demand met hostility and rejection by the Western capitalist countries which denounced the idea of 'collective rights' and the 'global economic reforms' to be given as a concession to authoritarian regimes that curtailed freedoms to their citizens. In other words, right to development conveyed to the western liberals, curbing of fundamental political and civic rights. Despite this opposition, the General Assembly did finally adopt in 1986, a Declaration on the Right to Development after many years of preparation. According to this Declaration, the right to development is:

"an inalienable right by virtue of which every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized."

A universally acceptable definition of 'development' however is awaited even in the year 1997, that is, more than thirty years after ICESCR was signed in 1966:

20.3.5 Diverse Conceptualisations of the Individual

Western liberalism has its sheet anchor in individualism - a political philosophy which focuses on "the phy&alist conception of the individual." That is to say, the sensory of body and not the interrelationships with other individuals and the Nature, is what counts in an individual. As hof. Bhikhu Parekh has pointed out: "Life, the continuation of the body in time, and liberty, the unhindered movement of the body, became two of the highest moral values." Violence, curtailment/restrictions, sufferings etc. which affect human rights have always been construed in their physical terms. Crying, dying, starving, and such other 'physical' sufferings provoked moral denunciation and condemnation for violation of human rights. But if one sees a child frustrated from developing his abilities for want of money, or a man in despair for lack of gainful employment, one would not generally see a moral problem involved there are believe that its redress becomes just as a urgent as prevention of death. The developing countries of the third world therefore found little use in such a narrow conception of human rights, based on an 'individual' abstracted from hisher society and the surroundings.

It is worth remembering at this stage that this 'narrow view of the individual' came to dominate the world of moral concerns from the seventeenth century onwards, beginning, with John Locke, the English political philosopher. Locke was closely associated with the drafting of the 1689 Bill of Rights which spelt out the rights of the individual unambiguously and limited the prerogatives of the Crown. As such, the 1689 Bill of Rights came to contain for the first time in the world. Common Law principles of 'due process' and 'the writ of habeas corpus' (produce the body) besides all those existing rights which protected the subjects from the Crown under the 1215 Magna Carta. But such efforts at articuiating civil and, later, political rights of the individual against the prerogatives of the Crown, though inherently progressive, were however based on narrowing down the meaning and the scope of the individual. The individual had a rich 29

Issues in Development and.complex meaning before the so-called phase of modern politics. The ancient Athenians believed that "a man taken together with his land and political rights constituted an individual. Almost upto the end of the Middle Ages, a craftsman's tools were believed to be inseparable from the man. They constituted his 'inorganic body' and were just as much an integral part of his self as his self as his hands and fee" (B. Parekh). The Hindus always believed that the individual is born into a set of social relations, called caste. The Chinese have a highly complex conception of the individual who is born into a family which links his ancestors and the descendants into a 'living union' and therefore remains inseparable from it.




1) Prepare a table in the chronological order indicating major dates against the milestones of development in the evolution of human rights concept and practice. Begin with Magna Carta (the great charter) which was signed by king John in June 1215 under the pressure of the English barons. Your table should end with two developments in the year 1993.

2) Indicate True or False:

A) Eleanor Roosevelt suggested the change in the name from 'right of man' to 'human rights'.

B) According to Plato and Aristotle, not everybody in the city-state should have natural rights.

C) The dominant notion of human rights is of Western heritage; other societies merely followed them.

D) Almost upto the end of the Middle Ages, craftsman's tools constituted his inorganic body.

E) (For answers see at the end.)

20.4 UNIVERSAL VIS CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Against such a divergent conceptualisation of the individual, human rights in the Asian 'countries, assumes a different but not contradictory meaning. The Chinese representative at the V~enna Congress (1993) made an important observation arguing in favour of plurd coexistence of the human rights regimes as against direct and indirect imposition of the West's views of liberal individualism.

"The concept of human rights is a product of historical development. Countries at diffbrent development stages or with different historical traditions and cultural backgrounds also have different understandings and practices of human rights. Thus one should not and cannot think the human rights standards and models of certain countries as the only proper ones and demand that all countries comply with them. It is neither realistic nor workable to make international economic assistance or even international co-operation conditional on them."

Important to note is that the Chinese are not against human rights; they are only against imposition of a single hegemonic model. This has also been the view, broadly, of the developing countries and the Vienna Congress had upheld this principle in paragraph 5 of the Declarations where it said:

"While the significance of national and regional pecularities and various historical, cultural and religious backgrounds must be borne in mind, it is the duty of the states, regardless of their political, economic and cultdal'systems to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms." Significance of this emphasis (to bear in mind the socio-cultural pecularities of states at different stages of socio-economic evolution) is clearly reflected in the ever-rising trade-based foreign policy pursuits of developed countries like USA, France and other countries towafds China which according to them has not been able to maintain its human rights records properly. The most effective cobnter argument to the proposition that the cultural diversities will impede the evolutiorl

of a common set of global standards of human rights, came in the Resolution adopted by the Asian NGOs meeting in the same year in a parallel session at the Bangkok regional human rights conference:

"Universal human rights standards are rooted in many cultures. We affirm the basis of universality of human rights which affords protection to all of humanity including special groups such as women, children, minorities and indigenous peoples, workers, refugees and displaced persons, the disabled and the elderly. While advocating cultural pluralism, those cultural practices which derogate universally accepted human rights including women's rights must not be tolerated."

While the argument for 'cultural relativism' for human rights concept and practice is valid in its own right, the limitation of such context-specific exercise must be strictly understood so that universality of human rights is promoted strongly. It is within such a conception of universality that the Third World countries will find the thesis of indivisible and inter-dependent rights working actually to the advantage of one and all.

20.4.1 Vasak's Three Generations of Rights

Karel Vasak has sought to classify the historical development of human rights according to the French revolutionary slogan "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity". Liberty or the first generation rights are represented by the civil and political rights which are predominantly "freedoms from" rather than "rights to" types. Equality or the second- generation rights, correspond to the protection of economic, social and cultural rights. They consists of rights to such conditions of loving which the state must create and make available for individual's maximal development of personality. Fraternity, or the third-generation rights refers to 'collective' or 'group' rights and are the new rights which are being claimed by the Third world States. These states have been demanding as a group for creation of an international legal and economic order that will guarantee the right to development, to disaster relief assistance, to peace and to a good and clean environment. Implementation of such rights would clearly depend upon international cooperation rather than international constitutional measures.

20.4.2 Differences between the Two Covenants

The two covenants the ICCPR and ICESCR were signed in 1956 but could not become effective. until 1976. The preamble and articles 1'3,s of both the Covenants are almost identical. The salient difference between them is that while article 2 of the ICCPR provides that the protected rights will be respected and ensured immediately, article 2 of the ICESCR simply provides that the states should 'recognize' the rights and implement them in accordance with specific programmes.

Again, whereas the ICCPR establishes the Human Rights Committee (HRC) to supervise implementation of the Covenant and to provide a mechanism by which individuals may petition the HRC, the ICESCR simply relegates the function of supervision to a political body of the UN i.e. ECOSOC.

20.4.3 UN's Special Conventions

Notwithstanding the difficulties in establishing a universal system for protection and promotion of human rights, the UN system is in continuous process of drafting legally binding instruments to deal with specific aspects of human rights. They are a tribute to international struggle for human rights world over. Some of them are given in Appendix-II.

20.4.4 The UN and Decolonization

An important international development in the field of human rights relates to UN's practice in the field of &colonization. The UN charter provided for transfer of the Mandates (which were created by the League of '~ations) to a 'Itusteeship system under the supervision of the hsteeship Council. Administering states with colonies or non- self governing territories were placed under an obligation to regularly report to Secretary General of the UN about the well being of the people. Although, the UN charter


Issues in Development referred to the principle of self-determination, it certainly did not refer to the right to self-determination. It is now however generally accepted that such a right exists in international law. This view now.has been reinforced by the General Assembly -

Resolution 2625 and the article I which is common to both the International Covenants which promised 'all peoples to have the right to self-determination.' Inclusion of this right reflects a collective right against an alien domination. But whether the right to self- determination goes further beyond one right to decolonization or to the right of minority cessation is an open question. Certainly the effects of large scale decolonization by the former colonial powers have created a group of new states who have been asking for the third generation rights referred to above.




1) %at is Cultural Relativism? What has Vienna Declaration got to say on this aspect?

...................................................................................................... 2) Identify at least two from each generation of rights as Vasak has formulated.

3) Vienna Congress also remained open on it but at least on one aspect of this right, there has been unanimity till and including the Vienna Declaration. Which right are we referring to?

20.5 HUMAN RIGHTS, DEVELOPMENT AND DEMOCRACY

As mentioned in section 20.3.2, the dominant notion of human rights is integrally related to two other liberal tenets of free market-based development and democracy. But this particular accent on human rights acquired its meaning and character from the post-cold war developments in the global political economy.

20.5.1 The Helsinki Process

A major international development to note in this field occurred during the period of detente (early 1970s) between the West (USA, France, Canada and -U.K.) and the Communist bloc countries of Europe. Known as the Conference on Securitynd Co- operation in Europe (SCE), the Helsinki process (the name is after the capital of Finland where it was first convened in 1973) reflected a significant diplomatic development in the super-power relations during the last days of Cold War. While the Soviet Union gat its Western borders recognised under the Helsinki Process, the Western powers got the Soviqt bloc countries to recognise and commit themselves to human rights observance as per international standards. With the disintegration of the Soviet bloc countries, the Helsinki process acquired far-reaching importance. Although the primary function of the

Helsinki process was to establish a framework for development of piace and securi't'i ih- - H g a n Rights and

Europe, the institutionalised nature of its not-so-binding agreements became a source of ' Internjltional Politics

great strength and momentum for promotion of the cause of democratic government and political pluralism all over the world. Internationalisation of human rights movement received its major impetus from the concessions which the Western countries extracted from the Soviet bloc countries. In this form, human rights movement came to be accentuated to imply democratic government and political pluralism after the liberal democratic ideals of the West w h i ~ h emerged victorious from the cold war.

,

It is therefore not surprising to note that human rights have emerged from the periphery of international arena to a position of primacy in the foreign policy of a substantial number of states during the post-cold war period. But its emergence has come about'in a package of combined developments viz., the triad of human rights, free market and democracy which have become desirable, and attainable as policy objectives for most of the developing countries which are dependent on the economic and other aid from the -

developed West.

In this connection, students of international relations may do well to recall the historical continuity in which the Soviet Union was brought down to its knees before it gave concessions at Helsinki. The seventies were particularly a decade of foreign policy disasters for the Western capitalist countries. With the quadruple rise in oil prices administered by the OPEC countries, a fear of "Third World Unionisation" gripped the USA led bloc as it continuously suffered foreign policy reversals notably in South East Asia. This paved the way for detente. On the other side, taking advantage of the situation, the Soviet Union was indulgently expanding its influence. Soviet forces entered Kabul on the Christmas Day of 1979 and it is now the turn of the Soviet Union to suffer a similar set of foreign policy disasters till the system itself crumbled down.

20.5.2 Strategic Shifts in Global Political Economy

The anti-communism prism through which the American foreign policy planners from George Kenyan onwards viewed and shaped their country's foreign policy now stands shattered with the end of the cold war. The Third World activism which had raised its pitch of revolt during the seventies when it demanded a New International Economic Order also lost its momentum. As William Robinson aptly observes "containing communisI;;" which legitimated US global interventions during the Cold War days has now been-replaqd by "democracy promotion" and "human rights protection" in order to secure the-same set of objectives of global hegemony as they used to be before. The US post-cold-war f6reign policy, according to this analysis, has witnessed a shift from "straight pow@ concepts" to "persuasion", from cold war rivalries to, what Prof. Huntington calls "the Third Wave of Democracy."

In the economic field, conditions are to be created for the free play of the market forces which will ensure global integration across national borders. Widely referred to the globalization phenbmenon, it conveniently overlooked that national economies are unequal among the politically equal sovereign states. Consider this instance : The top two richest industrialists of the world are Americans and their annual proceeds are of the same order as the GDP of India.

The globalization process which was unleashed in the wake of the end of cold war is showing contrary trends according to various Human Development Reports published by UNDP (United National Development Programme) annually. The 1992 Report brings out the ever-widening global income disparities:

"Between 1960 and 1989, the countries with the poorest 20 per cent of world population saw their share fall from 2.3 per cent to 1.4 percent. The consequences for income inequalities have been dramatic. In 1960, the top 20 per cent received thirty times more than the bottom 20 per cent but by 1989 they were receiving sixty time more". In terms of real consumption, "the North with about one fourth of the world's population, consumes 70 per cent of its food."

It is now an old story that the capitalist system of European production extedhed to other parts of the globe mainly through trading relationships. Today, the transnational corporations (TNCs) are responsible for more sales than the trade exports of all the countries in the world put together. In other words, private business of the TNCs are the major economic life lines of the world today and the governments have taken a back

Issues in Development seat. tn this changed development in the international trade, it becomes important to note that most of these TNCs are in the USA and 80 per cent of the latter's trade transactions with the rest of the world are carried out under the banner of the TNCs.

Before the TNCs took charge (which actually represents an aggressive phase of asymmetrical financial globalization), the Third World states were already in debt traps owing largely to foreign aid dependent strategies of development which those countries followed during cold war days. The debt crisis was beyond resolution. Most of these developing countries came under the conditionalities of the World Bank and the IMF (to whom they owed huge sums) and went for Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP) and liberal economic reforms. These so-called liberal economic reforms virtually meant freeing the economy from the state control and little social safety for the vast majority of the working people. According to a UNICEF estimate, "as many as 650,000 children die across the Third World each year because of this debt." It is common knowledge that there are few members and fewer votes from 'the developing world in the boards of IMF and the World Bank. It is the U.S. led West which dominates political, economic and cultural scenarios of the globe. Even in the media scene, as Chandra Muzaffar has pointed out, about 90 per cent of foreign news and information in the print media circulating in the worlds in controlled in one way or another by four news agencies located in the North.

Agdnst this changed background of the post-cold war era, one often hears about broad acceptance of "the triad of human rights, free markets and democracy." As mentioned earlier, neither of these three is new to the world; acceptance of democracy and human rights has always been considered a noble pursuit for societies, though free-market goal was a post-cold war addition to the package. This also is the reason for a biased constructio~ of human rights, and hence, opposition from groups of societies with divergent cultural values.

20.5.3 USA's Policy on Human Rights

TheUSA always maintained that its standards of maintaining human rights are unrivalled and second to none.'But a closer scrutiny of the US policy of ratifying Human Rights Conventions gives a different story. The aggression and aplomb with which they won in the sphere of ideology,(capitalism over communism), or international political economy ('Washington' over 'New York,' that is to sa$ victory of forces of Wodd Bank, IMF etc. over the UN systems like UNDP etc.) are nowhere to be seen in its national policy of ratification of human rights conventions, &ugh 'human rights promotion' is a major plank in the US foreign policy. This situation has more to it than what we read in newspapers about USA's inconsistent stand on human rights when it comes to trading with China, for instance.

In a set of editorial comments, The American Journal of International Law has brilliantly pointed out this indifference on the part of the United States which has "attached to each of its ratifications a package of reservations, understanding and declarations (RUD) which has evoked criticisms abroad and dismayed supporters inside.

Thase RUDs which have successfully stalled ratification of human rights conventions appEar to have been guided by the following principles:

1) The US may not respect a treaty which is inconsistent with its Constitutional '

Provision.

2) And it is definitely so, if such a treaty seeks or promises to effect a change in the existing US law and practice.

3) It will not submit to the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice to decide disputes as to the interpretation or application of human rights conventions.

4) Every human rights treaty should be subjected to a "federalism clause" whereby the states can largely have the responsibility of their implementation.

5) Every international human rights agreement should be "non self-executing", that ik . to say, the former cannot apply on its own merits. '

With these type of national policies of hesitations and reservations it is not therefore surprising to find that the United States has till 1995 ratified only the following five

major treaties (though the second Clinton Administration (1996-2000) appears to be more determined in this direction):

1) In 1989, the Genocide Convention that was adopted in 1948

2) In 1992, the ICCPR that was adopted in 1966

3) In 1994, the Convention against Torture that way adopted in 1984.

4) In 1994, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination that way adopted in 1965.

5) In 1995, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women that way adopted in 1979.

According to the editorial comments again, "It was reported that the Clinton administration would seek Senate consent also to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted in 1966), the Inter-American Convention on Human Rights (adopted in 1969) and the Convention on the Rights of Child (adopted in 1989)". It is important to mention here that the extremely slow progress in the ratification procedure may have been due to some technical snags in undertaking treaty obligations of international scope and application. But since these technical snags have been allowed to persist till date, the criticisms remain valid. More so in the light of developments like aggressive leadership by the US in creating a European Bank of Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) to help the transition process of the Central and East European Countries to free market economies, and its armed intervention in Haiti to "restore" democracy and the like. It may be of interest to note that the EBRD created in 1991 became the only international financial institution with an express

i commitment to human rights. I


20.6 FEATURES OF VIENNA DECLARATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS

Howsoever skewed in terms of meaning attached to Human Rights in the contemporary international relations, importance of human rights for the entire humankind cannot be overemphasized. But it is crucial to know that the contents of an internationally acceptable set of human rights have been finalized and reconfirmed at Vienna. Let us briefly outline the seminal features of this universally accepted human rights package.

1) The universal nature of human rights and freedom is beyond question.

Whereas the dissident Asian countries (China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Iran, North Korea but not India) could temper their opposition as join the rest in the unanimous acceptance of the human rights as universal, the Western Countries for the first time formally accepted the equal validity of economic and social rights and also of the right to development alone with the civil and political rights which, they always thought, represented the quintessence of human rights.

2) The human rights as i~ternationally declared and pledged to by most of the countries do not admit of any hierarchy among them and as such, are indivisible and inter-dependent.

3) Similarly, a new linkage has also been forged. According to the Declaration, "Democracy, development and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms are inter-dependent and mutually reinforcing." An important development in this direction is that the Human Rights Commission established a permanent working group to .formulate an internationally acceptable right to development.

4) The right of the international community to be concerned with human rights practices in any country was firmly stated. This made a big dent on the concept of state sovereignty.

5) Nowhere is the international obligation of the sovereign states invoked more vividly than in areas that were customarily beyond the state's jurisdiction. The international accountability of the state will focus on the areas of domestic violence involving women and other societal violations like racism, ethnic cleansing,' xenophobia, and others.

Lssues in Development 6 ) The Declaration called upon the international community and the national governments to mobilize institutionalized efforts to eradicate illiteracy and propagate human rights education. Following the World Conference recommendations, an International Decade for Human Rights Education (1995- 2004) was proclaimed ending years of long debate. Appointment of the High Commissioner for Human Rights was finally approved. The High Commissioner will have the overall responsibility for the UN Human Rights programmes.

20.7 EMERGING CHALLENGES TO HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION

Two trends related to promotion and protection of international human rights may be noted: On the one hand, there is a tremendous drive towards establishing democratic governments all over the world. Most states feel some legal obligation (at least political pressure) to treat their citizens according to the international standards. More people are becoming conscious of their rights and this wholesome phenomenon is due largely to active facilitation by the Non-Governmental Organizations which have increasingly been playing an important ,ole in human rights activities. The other trend however is the ' increasing incidence of human rights violations which have afflicted the society now. Re-emergence of fascist and undemocratic ideologies like fundamental in Europe, North America, Africa and Asia have raised the spectre of 'ethnic cleansing'. Human Rights violations have thus increased. Whether it is Bosnia or Rwanda or Afghanistan, the sordid story of human rights violations cannot be explained in a simple, straight jacket fashion. ??king stock of the human rights situation in the world, the UN Human Rights Centre in beneva presented to the Vienna Conference the following picture:

"At least half of the world's people suffer from serious violation of their economic, social, cultural, civil or political rights. These violations range from torture, execution, rape arbitrary detention, violence and disappearances, to extreme poverty, slavery, child abuse, famine and under-nourishment and lack of access to clean water, sanitation and health care "

Most of the Third World governments find themselves more committed to prevention of, economic and political stability as ground realities becomes from bad to worse whereas the industrialized countries have so far shown little genuine commitment to the "second generdtion rights" which would have contributed significantly to freeing the Third World rulers from their economic hamstrings. Together, given the needed political will and commitment, these countries would have helped more the world in a direction which would have made it possible for the humankind to realize rights, democracy and development. For this agenda to be canied to its logical end, three agencies need to be conscious, vigilant and assertive: the individual, the non-governmental organizations and the United Nations. It is widely hoped that with the genuine participation of the individual, growing organizational potentials of the NGOs, and the encouragement by the and the spearheading leadership of the UNO, the required political and economic pressure on the actors and agencies can be generated on the international scene in order to create a world of democracy, human rights and development.


Note : i) Use the space given below'for your answers.


1) Identify four undisputed achievements of the Vienna Conference and mention at least ten human rights violations reported to it.

2) Indicate T N ~ or False:

A) EBRD created in 1991 was the only international financial institution with an express commitment to human rights.

B) International human rights treaties and obligations can apply to the USA with the same force as they do to India, (form example).

C) per cent of the foreign news and information in the print media circulating in the world is controlled by four news agencies located in the North.

D) Human Rights occupied the centre-stage in the international arena only during the post cold war period.

kuman ~ i g h t s and international Politics

20.8 LET US SUM UP

Human rights and fundamental freedoms are integral to personality development of human beings whose dignity cannot be compromised. International struggle for human rights has made it possible the accountability of the Sovereign States not only against violations within its jurisdiction but also in areas of s o c i d living.

The picture of human rights in the mind of an average student is usually one which favours the idea that the concern for these rights began under US President Jimmy Carter's leadership. A closer scrutiny however suggests that such a picture is more often biased. .It also does not take into account the role of a 'stalking horse' which the US establishment had been using in promoting democracy and human rights as an important foreign policy plank. As the critics argue, the human rights talk today is all 'persuasion' which has replaced the cold war ideological confrontations.

More reasons, than the often-cited technical snags, should be seen in the tardy progress in the US ratification. of human rights. (So far they have signed only five major treaties). But the World Conference on Human Rights held at Vienna in 1993 finally succeeded in achieving four notable goals:

1) Confirmation of universality of Human Right. - .

2) Establishment of equal validity for social and economic rights along with civil and political rights and the right to development.

3) Expansion of the sphere of accountability of the sovereign state. It is obligated henceforth to protect human rights not only within its domestic jurisdiction but also conform to international conventions which is multilateral.

4) Finally, human rights, democracy and development are now going to constitute a mad of inter-relationships which are critically to influence the policy decisions of the aid donor and recipient countries. The Human Rights Commissioner has been set up to look after this responsibility. An International Decade for world wide Education in Human Rights has already been proclaimed. The support of the international community as well as the national governments including India has been enlisted.

All these official efforts represent but only one side of the picture. But no less significant would be a widely hoped co-ordination of efforts of the individual and non- governmental organizations under the spearheading leadership of the UNO. Collectively, joint and co-ordinated activities are expected to mount the needed pressure for building a world where democracy, human rights and development are given due emphasis and respectability. Official and institutional refoms hopefully would complement the individual efforts of Human Rights preservation and promotion.

20.9 APPENDIX-I

20.9.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Abbreviated)

Now, therefore, THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive bj) teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms:

Article 1 Rights to Equality

Article 2 Freedom from Discrimination

Article 3 Right to Life, Liberty, Personal Security

Article 4 Right from Slavery

Article 5 Right from Torture, Degrading Treatnient

Article 6

Article 7

Article 8

Article 9

Article 10

Article 11

Article 12

Article 13

Article 14

Article 15

Article 16

Article 17

Article 18

Right to Recognition as a Person before the Law

Right to Equality before the Law

Right to Remedy by Competent Tribunal

Freedom from Arbitrary Arrest, Exile

Right to Fair Public Hearing

Right to be Considered Innocent until Proven Guilty

Freedom from Interference with Privacy, Family, House and Correspondence

Right to Free Movement in and out of the Country

Right to Asylum in other Countries from persecution

Right to a Nationality and Freedom to change it

Right to Marriage and Family

Right to own Property

Right to Belief and Religion

Article 19 Right to Opinion and Information

Article 20 Right to Peaceful Assembly and Association

Article 21 Right to Participate in Government and in Free Elections

Article 22 Right to Social Security

Article 23 Right to Desirable Work and to join Trade Unions

Article 24 Right to Rest and Leisure

Article 25 Right to Adequate Living Standard

Article 26 Right to Education

Article 27 Right to Participate in the Cultural Life of Community

Article 28 Right to Social Order assuring Human Rights

Article 29 Community Duties essential to Free and Full Development

Article 30 Freedom from State or Personal Interference in the above Rights

20.9.2 India: Fundamental Duties (Article 51A)

1) Respect for Constitution, National Flag and National Anthem

2) Cherish and Follow Ideals of National Freedom Struggle

3) Uphold and Protect Sovereignty, Unity and Integrity of India

4) Defend the Country and Render National Service when called upon

5) Promote Harmony and Spirit of Common Brotherhood (and Sisterhood)

6) Renounce Practices Derogatory to Dignity of Women

7) Value and Preserve Rich Cultural Heritage of the Country

8) hotect and Improve Natural Environment

9) Rave Compassion for Living Creatures

10) Develop Knowledge of Science, Humanism and Spirit of Inquiry and Reform

11) Safeguard Public Property and Do Not Resort to =olence

12) Strive for Excellence in All Spheres of Individual and Collective Activity

20.9.3 India: Fundamental Rights

Right to Equality Before the Law (Article 14)

Freedom From Discrimination (Article 15)

Right to Equal Opportunity in Public Employment (Article 16)

Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression (Article 19)

Right to Assemble Peacefully Without Arms (Articie 19)

Right to Form Associations or Unions (Article 19)

Right to Mover Freely (Article 19)

Right to Settle and Reside Anywhere in the Country (Article 19)

Right to Practice Any Profession, Occupation, Trade or Business (Article 19)

Right Not to Be Convicted of Offences Noi Crimes At Time Committed (Article 20)

Right to Life ani Personal Liberty (Article 21)

Right Not to Be Detained Without Being Informed of Reasons (Article 22)

Right to Consult W~th, And Be Defended By, a Lawyer After Arrest (Article 22) .. Right Against Trafficking .in Human Beings And Forced Labour (Article 23)

%

Right Againat Employment of Children (Under 14 years) in Factories, Mines or Dangerous JoZs (Article 24)

Right to Freedom of Conscience And Freedom of Religion (Article 25-28)

17) Right to Protection of Cultural Rights of Minorities (Article 29)

18) Right to Protection of Educational Rights of Minorities (Article 30)

19) Right to Approach The Supreme Court if Rights Violated (Article 31)

20.9.4 India: Directive Principles of State Policy

Social, Economic and Political Justice (Article 38)

Means of Livelihood (Article 39)

Fair Distribution of Ownership and Control of Resources (Article 39)

Equal Pay for Equal Work (Article 39)

Preservation of Health and Strength of Workers and Children (Article 39)

Healthy, Free and Dignified Development of Children and Youth (Article 39)

Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid (Article 39A)

Right to Work, Education and Public Assistance (Article 41)

Just and Humane Conditions of Work and Maternity Relief (Article 42)

Living Wage and Decent Standard of Life (Article 43)

Full Enjoyment of F, Social and Cultural Opportunities (Article 43)

Participation of Workers in Management of Industries (Article 43A)

Free and Compulsory Education for Children (Article 45)

Promotion of Wucational and Economic Interests of Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes and Other Weaker Sections (Article 46)

15) ' Raising Standards of Nutrition, Living and Public Health (Article 47)

16) Protecting Environment, Forests and Wild Life (Article 48A)

17) Protection of Monuments, Places and Objects of National importance (Article 49)

18). Separation of Judiciary from Executive (Article 50)

Human Rights and . International Politics

Issues in Development

There are various human rights instruments and UN declarations which the nations have pledged themselves to, in the interest of promoting human rights. Some prominent among them are:

1) The First, Second, Third and Fourth Geneva Conventions (dealing with conduct of war, treatmint of prisoners and protection of civilians in war time)

2) The Convention on Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

3) Corivention on Political Rights of Women

4) International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD)

5) Convention on the Elimination*of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)

6) Convention Against Torture and other Cruel Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment

7) International Convention on the Rights of the Child (CAT)

8) The Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons

9). The Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees

10) The Slavery Convention of 1926 and its Supplementary convention adopted in 1956.

In addition to these multilateral instruments of treaty status, many resolutions and declarations have been passed (by the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council) which have contributed to setting international standards for human rights observance all over the world. They cover many specific areas of human rights concern. Prominent among them are:

Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (1957)

- a Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons (1971)

Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief (1981)

Basic Principles on the Independence of Judiciary (1985)

Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearances (1992)

Declaration on the Protection of Persons belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (1992)

Declaration on the Rights to Development (1986)

In the same direction and with the objective of protecting human rights of the related persons, International Labour Organization (ILO) has also passed some conventions governing freedom of association. Some of them are:

Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize (LO Convention No. 87)

Labour Relations (Public Service) Convention ( L O Convention No. 151)

Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries ( L O Convention No. 169)

- -


Amnesty International (T>ondon); Human Rights in India (1993) Human Rights are Women's Rights.

Richard Reoch, Human Rights - The New Consensus (London). n - - a v : u . . D L A II...L ....A D....I:+., \TA..I naih; i O ~ 7

A B Kalaiah: Huinan' Rights in International Law, New Delhi 1986.

K P Saksena: Teaching Human Rights: A Manual for Adult Education, New Delhi, 1996.

R J Vincent: Human Rights and International Relations (Cambridge) 1986.

Various Issues of Human Rights Quarterly


Hmnan Rights and International Politics


1) See Section 20.

2) A-F, B-J?, C-T, D-T


1) See Section 20

Last two developments are Vienna Congress (June) and NHRC (October) in 1993

2) Except C, all are True


1) See Section 20. (Refer to para 5 of the Vienna Declaration)

2) Right to self-determination


1) See Section 20

2) Except 13, all are True

UNIT 21 THE ETHNO-NATIONAL CONFLICTS, PATTERNS AND DIMENSIONS

Structure 21.0 Objectives 2 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Terminology

21.2.1 Nation 21.2.2 Nationalism 21.2.3 Ethnic Groups 21.2.4 Ethnicity

21.3 Meaning of Ethno-nationalism 21.4 Sources of Conflict

21.4:l Economic 21.4.2 Political Discrimination 21.4.3 Forced Assimilation 21.4.4 Historic4 21.4.5 Population Pressures 21.4.6 Refugee Movements 21.4.7 Massive, Chronic and Sustained Human Flight 21.4.8 State Collapse 21.4.9 Persistent Cleavages among Ethnic Groups 21.4.10 Complex of the Ethnic Minorities 21.4.11 The Principle of Self Determination

21.5 Patterns of Ethnic Minorities 21.6 Dimensions of Ethno-national Conflicts

21.6.1 Ethnic Domination 21.6.2 Ethnic Secession 21.6.3 Demand for Autonomy 21.6.4 Peaceful Ethnic Self-determination 21.6.5 Ethnic Cleansing

2 1.7 Implications of Ethno-national Conflicts 21.8 Suggestions 21.9 Let Us Sum Up 21.10 Key Words 21.1 1 Some Useful Books 21.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

21.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit deals with the ethno-national conflicts, the causes for emergence; the various patterns; and their dimensions with special reference to certain recent cases of ethnic conflicts Bosnia, Rwanda, Burundi, Chechnya, Sri Lanka, Quebec, Pakistan, etc.

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

explain the meanings of nation, nationalism ethnic groups and ethnicity,

define ethno-nationalism and ethno-national conflicts,

describe the causes of emergetce of ethno-national conflicts.

discuss the various dimensions of ethno-national conflicts, and

explain the implications of ethnic conflicts and also suggest certain preventive measures.

INTRODUCTION

Ethno-national conflicts pose one of the greatest challenges to international security in the post-Cold War world. Ethnic strife is not at all a recent phenomenon rather it has been an enduring factor of international relations. According to a estimate since 1945 alone, 10 million lives have been lost as a result of ethnic violence (Horowitz). The Cold War between the Soviet bloc and U.S. led western alliance had created a sense of stability among most of the world population by overshadowing various volatile issues. But the dissolution of the loose bipolar system has led to an ethnically fragmented multipolar international system and thereby aggravated insecurity among nations. The continuing spread of ethnic violence seems to replace the fear of the spread of conkunism as the central security concern among the western nations. This is probably because the rise of ethnic consciousness along with the demand for self-determination can assume dangerous proportions in a world where fewer than 10% of the 85 states are ethnically homogeneous. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, an American senator has warned, "the defining mode of conflict in the era ahead is ethnic conflict. It promises to be savage. Get ready for 50 new countries in the world in next 50 years. Most of them will be born in bloodshed". Ethno-national conflict, simply understood, is a manifestation of the enduring tension between the states that want to consolidate and expand their power and the ethnic groups the want to defend and promote their collective identity and interests. In case of most intense ethno conflicts protagonists want to establish their autonomy or independence. Ethno conflicts also arise when the subordinate groups strive to improve their status within the existing boundaries of a state rather than secede from it. For instance, in South Africa, the black community wanted greater control over state power. While the Tamils in Sri Lanka want to secede from the state itself.

TERMINOLOGY

Before examining ethno-national conflicts, let us study some important terms which are frequently used in dealing with this subject.

21.2.1 Nation

The most important term is 'nation' upon which the whole concept of ethno-nationalism revolves. 'Nation' writes Columbus a ~ d Wolfe, is a concept denoting a common ethnic and cultural identity shared by a 'single people'. It can be defined as a group of people who feel themselves to be a community bound together by ties of history, culture and common ancestry. That is nation is ethnically homogeneous.

Nations which are developed through particular historical process, spread over centuries have 'objective characteristics' which may include a territory, a language, a religion, or a common descent and 'subjective' characteristics essentially a people's awareness of its nationality and affection for it. However, unlike a state, a nation may exist beyond the geographical boundaries if they possess the above mentioned characteristics.

21 2.2 Nationalism

In simple words, nationalism is mainly the felling of unity and loyalty prevalent among the people of nation. Such a feeling seeks to defend and promote or in other words, it can be defined as 'a state condition of mind characteristic of certain people with a homogeneous culture, living together in a close association in a given territory and sharing a belief in distinctive existence and a common destiny.

The Ethno-National Conflicts Patterns and Dimensions

Here, it is important to mention that the idea of nationalism and the ideal of nation state were not necessarily based on ethnicity. Rather they stressed the voluntary coming together of people in a state with ,shared culture. Yet in modem times, especially in the twentieth century ethnicity has come to be predominant. The aspirations of smaller ethnic groups are raised to the consciousness of nationalism, which in turn, can mobilise people to demand an independent nation-state based on ethno-nationalism.

Issues in Development 21.2.3 Ethnic Groups

A nation-state may be composed of one or more ethnic groups. Ethnic groups are those groups that are composed of or share a distinctive and collective identity based on shared experience and cultural traits. They may define be themselves or be defined by others, in terms of any s r all of the following traits - life ways, religious beliefs, language, physical appearance, region of residence, traditional occupations and a history of conquest and repression by culturally different people.

21.2.4 Ethnicity

Ethnicity is a sense of ethnic identity or a feeling of belonging to a particular ethnic group. George de Vos defines it as, consisting of the "subjective, symbolic or emblematic use by a group if people . .. of any aspect of culture, in order to differentiat themselves from other groups". Further, according to Paul R. Brass, "Ethnicity or ethnic identity also involves in addition to subjective self-consciousness, a claim to status and recognition, either as a superior group or as a group at least equal to other groups. Ethnicity is too ethnic category what class consciousness is to class."

For the formation of in ethnic identity - a combination of factors - common descent, a socially relevant culturaUphysica1 characteristics and a set of attitudes and behaviour patterns is necessary. common descent is the most significant factor. Apart from this, cultural attributes like religion, language, customs, social beliefs and practices etc. After form the basis of identity to consolidate such an idehtity the members of an ethnic group must also share ideas, behaviour, patterns, feelings and meanings, Moreover, they should also perceive that they share a common destiny. For instances, Tamils of Sri Lanka, Muslims of former Yugoslavia, etc.

21.3 ' MEANING OF ETMNO-NATIONALISM

After understanding the core words now we can easily comprehend the meaning and concept of ethno-nationalism.

Ethno-nationalism is a kind of sub-nationalism based upon ethnic identity of the ethnic groups. It is as vertical division of nationalism and excludes all those people from it who do not belong to same ethnic group. That is, it is an exclusive form of nationalism involving just one ethnic group. For instance, Muslims throughout the world constitute the nation. But they are further divided in two major ethnic groups (Shiya and Sunni) and many smaller groups called 'Fiorkas' like Khan, Sayyed, Kureshi etc. Any upsurge on the basis of particular ethnic group will be called ethno-national conflict. The Iran-Iraq war which lasted for eight years is an example of ethno-national conflict on the 'Sbiya-Sunni' issue.

In short, ethno-nationalism is the nationalism of ethnic groups such as Muslim, Kurds, Latvians, Tamils etc., who define their nation in exclusive terms, mainly on the basis of common descent, race, culture, history and language. Here, the word, 'common descent' is the most important because merely by adoption of language and culture on one can be included in that particular ethnic group.

Ethno-nationalism transcends the boundaries of state, religion sect and class. It seeks to fragment established nationalities and communities and create new ones using ethnic indicatbrs. The symbolic and cultural aspects of ethnicity are important in themselves and often get politicised for the promotion of collective interests. Most ethno-national conflicts are for a larger share of economic resources and products and for a greater part in decision-making processes. According to Joseph Rothschild, "politicised ethnicity has become the most keen and potent edge of intrastate and interstate conflict and it asserts itself today dialectically as the leading legitimator or delegitimating or political authority."

There are two main approaches to the understanding of the new ethnic phenomenon. The primordalist approach to ethnic identities and ethnicity considers descent as the more important factor, for primordial loyalties can be activated more easily than rational principles and organisations founded upon them. The other approach is variously known as situational, subjectivist or instrumental. Its main emphasis is on the

perception of the members of a group of being different from others and on the' The Ethno-National Conflicts

implication of this for that groups present status or predicament and for its prospects for Patterns and Dimensitws

the future. These contending approaches are an aid to the explication of issues and to the understanding of contemporary reality.

Ethno-nationalism posses a threat to any state which does not have a common ethnicity or a shared identity and culture. Almost in all the plural societies are existing, the problem of ethno-nationalism is likely to pose a threat to the unity and integrity of the state.

21.4 SOURCES OF CONFLICT

There have been numerous attempts to explain the causes of the ethnic wars. One theory focuies on the role of mass passions or ancient hatred in driving ethnic violence. A second theory suggests that inter-ethni'c security dilemmas are necessary for ethnic war to result, i.e. the fear of the ethnic groups that their interests are threatened may cause them to fiercely protect their interests. A third approach blames ethnic war on manipulation by belligerent leaders. However, scholars, agrees that all three factor - hostile masses, belligerent leaders and inter-ethnic security dilemmas are essential for ethnic war to result.

Infact, these factors are mutually reinforcing, belligerent leaders stoke mass hostility, hostile masses support belligerent leaders and both together threaten other groups creating a security dilemma (a fear of extinction) among them. This may result in conflict for survival or even domination among various ethnic groups.

It is important to note that any ethno-national conflict cannot be attributed to a single cause. Rather there is a combination of factors which are responsible for rise of ethno- national conflicts. These can be ethnically defined grievances, demographic threats, histories of ethnic domination, reciprocal fears of group extinction, defects political anarchy, etc. Horowitz argues that atleast these six factors are present in every case of severe ethnic violence such as, former Yugoslavia, Sri Lanka, Rwanda, Georgia, Azerbaijan, etc.

The cause of ethno-national conflict can be understood as the factors threatening the sacredly preserved and maintained cultural identity of the certain ethnic groups. Such threats strengthen the group identity mobilise the groups to and promote their interests.

The certain causes responsible for rise of ethnic conflicts can be discussed as:

2i.4.1 Economic

Perhaps the most important source of ethno-national conflict is related too the economic conditions. Two main factors can be identified - first, uneven development of the regions of a state and second, the economic discrimination perpetuated by the state itself.

The uneven economic development can further give rise to two kinds of situations. First, if one or more ethnic groups become economically prosperous it may consider other ethnic groups which are relatively backward as 'liabilities' and therefore may try to suppress or get rid of the latter. Second, if a particular ethnic group remains economically backward it may blame the other ethnic group's for its economic deprivation. In both these cases, the hatred may develop into ethnic conflict.

Next, in the case of economic discrimination the state may not only deprive a particular ethnic group equal opportunities of development as well as deny and share in economic resources. For instance, the economic development policies of the Iraqi government have adversely affected the economic interests of Kurds. The Mosul oil fields are located predominantly in the Kurdish region but Iraqi governments have consistently refused to consider demands that a share of oil revenues be devoted to Kurdish region development. Moreover during 1980's the Iraqi government devastated the rural Kurdish economy by destroying thousands of villages and forcibly relocating their residents. The policy was a response to Kurdish rebellions and support-to Iranian during the Iran-Iraq war.

Issues in Development 21.4.2 Political Discrimination

Most states have ethnically interspersed populations and discriminatory policies have often provoked ethnic unrest and inter-state conflict. Ethnic grievances can emerge if the ethnic groups are denied political access the right to exercise political control over the international affairs of their own region and communities. According to a study 80% of the paliticised ethnic groups identified in 1990 lived with the consequence of historical or contemporary economic or political discrimination. And more than 200 of the 233 peoples identified in the study, had organised politically sometime between 1945 to 1980 to defend or promote their collective political interests against government and other groups.

21.4.3 Forced Assimilation

The assimilationist policies of the state constitute a direct ttiic;: to the ethnic identity of the group ahd develops resentment among the latter, which sooner or later may lead to an ethhic upsurge. By 'assimilation' we mean when minorities are made to forsake their old communal identities and adopt the language, value and behaviours of the dominant society see, for example, the Kurds in Turkey, who are repeatedly encouraged to assimilate into Turkish society. That is, the separate identity of the Kurds was rejected. Kurds were officially referred to as mountain Turks and were prohibited from teaching, writing or publishing in Kurdish.

21.4.4 Historical

The sense of a separate identity and grievances that result from imperial conquest and colonial rule can persist for many generatians and provide the fuel for contemporary ethno-national movements. For instance, Myanmar, (formerly known as Burma), an ex- British colony has been locked in ethnic, conflict since its independence in late 1940s. The conflict began during the World War I1 when nationalist belonging to majority group attacked the British colonial army, which was recruited largely fram ethnic minorities such as Karens, Chins and Kachins. Thousands had died in the ensuing struggle and the conflicts between minority people and Burma state have yet to be resolved.

21.4.5 Population Pressures

It refers to ethnic location, territory and entironment which shape inter-group perceptions, competition and conflict. It is related to the settlement pattern of the groups, groups' attachment to the land and the relationship between ethnic groups and their physical settings respectively.

h

In Boqnia, for example, where before the collapse of Yugoslavia, all people identified themselves as Bosnian on census and survey forms. But after Bosnia attained statehood, "r there was a change in population settlement, the minority ethnic groups clung to boundaries that were ethnically exclusive and seemed to protect their ethnic identity. This formed the basis for further ethnic conflict in independent Bosnia itself, between Serbs and other minority ethnic groups. Other examples of ethnically based territorial claims which grew over the years as a result of demographic factors are those of Palestinians and Kurds.

21.4.6 Refugee Movements

Massive refuge movements further intensify demographic pressures and has the potential to spiral into regional crises. Refugees may increase population density and cause environmental degradation, land competition, disease, food .shortages and lack of clean water, generating conflict and violence across borders. A current illustration is the Great Lakes region of Central Africa in which five countries (Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda and Tanzania) are affected by the two million refugees who were displaced in the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Using the refugee camps as their bases, armed. Hutu extremists have the potential not only to further destabilise Rwanda three main target, but in varying degrees, the surrounding countries as well.

Another example of nascent ethnic conflict caused by refuiees found in India-Chakma refugees. Chakma refugees who are basically the citizens of Bangladesh fled to India due to starvation and military crackdown in their own country. These people settled even beyond the border areas and can be easily found in the metropolitan cities - Bombay, Delhi, etc. Not only .this they forcibly shared the land and other economic resources. This brought changes into the settlement pattern of the locals and created a hatred for them (Chakmas). This abhorrence was one of the major causes of the Bombay riots in 1995.

21.4.7 Massive, Chronic and Sustained Human Flight t It refers not only to the refugees the most identifiable human index of internal conflict I but to a broader pattern of people on the move in the form of exodus of skilled I professionals, intellectuals, artists and technicians and emigration of economically I productive segments of the population such as entrepreneurs, businessmen, and traders

these emigrates gradually sidelines the locals and cause frustrations among them. Thus, L the roots for a ethnic conflict are laid down.

21.4.8 State Collapse

Another factor which contributes to ethno-national conflict is the state collapse or simply political anarchy.

Contrary to the popular perception which views ethnic conflict as a cause of state collapse, certain scholars also believe that it is infact the other way round. "State collapse cause ethnic conflict". Ethnic nationalism is the pathology of the state. The process starts with the deterioration of the centre. This leads to factionalisation as societal loyalties shift from the state to more traditional communities that are closer to the people and that offer psychic comfort and physical protection. The further a state disintegrates the more potential there is for the ethnic conflict to spread. Probably, there can be no other perfect example of this than the collapse of Soviet Union. With the fall of Soviet Empire and Communism pent up ethnic tensions were released. Economic collapse and removal of party discipline made possible secession on basis ethnic identities, apart from ethnic clashes in Chechnya, Azerbaijan, Nagarno-Karabakh, etc.

! '21.4.9 Persistent Cleavages Among Ethnic Groups

After the first World War - the creation of new states of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania on the ruins of Habsburg, Ottoman and Romanov empires reflected the triumph of principle of self-determination, but none of them was a nation state for all contained sizeable minorities. Further, even after all these decades cleavages between various ethnic groups were persisting. For instake, the former Yugoslavia was

P a unique multi-ethnic country with least homogeneity. The common unifying denominator was that were Slaves of the south. The major dividing factor was the religion, which was contained during the communist regime. There were six officially recognised 'Nations of Yugoslavia' Croats, Macedonia, Montenegrins, Muslims, Serbs and Slovens. Apart from nationalities there were ethnic minorities the largest being the Albanian and the Hungarians concentrated in two autonomous provinces of Serbia- kosovo and Vojvodina respectively. Among the ethnic groups 10 were officially recognised as "Nationalities of Yugoslavia". Albanians, Romanians, Ruthenians, Slovaks and Turks. The remaining ethnic groups w,ere classified as "Other Nationalities and Ethnic Groups". Austrians, Greeks, Jews, Germans, Poles, Russians, Ukrainians, Vlachs and "Others including those who preferred to classify themselves Yugoslavia".

Next, taking the example of Myanmar, it is found that the ethnic identities are quite well developed and cleavages between various groups persist. In 1981, the country had a popuhtion of 35.3 million people, 28.3 million Burmans, 3.14 million Shan, 1.55 million Arakanese, 2.4 million Karen and smaller Tribal groups like Kachin, Cha, and Wa.

The Shan, Arakanese, Karen, ~:n, Kachin, Cha and Wa have strong ethnic identities and substantial autonomy and their bonds with the central authority, even in the past were fragile and mostly national.

q e Ethno-National Contlicts Patterns and Dirnensionq

Issues in Development 21.4.10 Complex of the Ethnic Minorities

In a multi-ethnic state, the ethnic minorities suffer from a fear complex whereby the prominent or the largest ethnic group is considered as ruler by the smaller ethnic groups It may be possible that the combined population of smaller ethnic groups is more than the largest group. But the smaller groups perceive themselves as minorities and may complain about their suppression by the largest group.

Such a perception persisted in former Yugoslavia where Serbs were merely 36% of the population of the country but was generally regards as the rulers of the country and thus, the exploiters of other ethnic groups. The Croats and Slovenes usually felt that the central political authority was vested with the Serbs who could use the state power to suppress the aspirations of other ethnic groups.

Due to this kind of complex the ethnic minorities fiercely guard their cultural identity. Moreover, they also fail to develop strong association with nation-state, as they identify the largest ethnic group as the rulers of the state. Rather they intend to break away at the first opportunity.

21.4.11 The Principle of self~ete~rnination

The principle of self-determination once considered as essential for establishment of democracy, and break up of colonial empires like - Ottoman, Russian, etc. is now threatening the very existence of state system.

The principle of self-determination has now been frequently propagated to acquire a sovereign independent nation state for an ethnic group. In other words, it is a means to fragment an existing nation-state. The newly independent states created on the basis of self determination are not necessarily democratic countries. It may not grant equal rights to minority ethnic groups and thereby sow seeds for ethnic clashes at any time in future.

For instance, while the Baltic states, Estonia 'and Latvia have reduced Russians to second class citizens. In the case of Yugoslavia, the newly independent states are not democratic and follow the murderous policy of 'ethnic cleansing'. That is to say, in the post Cold War period, the principle of self determination may continue to create ethnic and nationality problems and haunts the newly independent states as well as their neighbours for many years to come.

These are some of the important causes of the ethno-national conflicts.

Sometimes, the end of Cold War is also associated as a cause of ethnic clashes, since there has been a major upsurge of ethnic conflicts. But, it is totally false to blame the end of Cold War for the rise of ethnic-national conflicts. This is so because the ethnic clashes were present not only during the Cold War but even long before it started. The only thing which needs to be highlighted is that before the fall of the Berlin wall, the communist order and bipolar systems had kept the lid on ethnic problems through the hegemony of ruling communist and imposed assimilation of all nationalities under party leadership. Police measures'eliminated or diluted dissent while economic development was expected to eliminate the root causes of ethnic hatred.

Infact, during the Cold War both communism and capitalism underestimated the force of ethnicity, each sbst%ning its own myth about how their systems would erode ethnic bonds. Capitalists assumed that modem economic development through - education, urbanisation, and formation of a middle class would bring people together and make than more alike. A modern person it was thought, would naturally shed his ethnicltribal identity.

Marxism, on the other hand maintained that ethnicity would be replaced by allegiance to a higher utopian ideal, a stateless society, in which there would be full equality. If there were no alass division, it was thought, there would be no need for group rivalry.

But, the things have not turned out to be simple as clear from the growing number of ethnic clashes.

21.5 PATTERNS OF ETHNIC MINORITIES The Ethno-National Conflicts

Patterns and Dimensions

I An important fact of the international politics that ethnicity is a world-wide reality. That is, ethnic identities are widely prevalent.

Said and Simmons (1976) presented the statistics of 132 states of the world. The date of these states are classified as out of 132 states, 12 states (9.1%) have one ethnic group of population, 25 states (18.9%) have one dominant ethnic group comprising half the population. In 53 states, the population comprised of five or more significant ethnic groups.

According to Walker Connor, (1971), "pre-dominant modem states are multi-ethnic". He referred to the above data and stated that only 12 states in the world can be described as nation-states and can be considered as free of ethnic conflict, 50 states contain a nation or a potential nation" (i.e. those with a single dominant ethnic group).

It has been pointed out that the nation is a matter of self-awareness or self- consciousness and ethnicity involves subjective beliefs. Thus, a nation is a self-conscious ethnic group.

Further, the ethnic or ethnically motivated unrest is found as a common phenomenon in different countries respective of their difference on the levels of development, economy, proportional ethnic composition and polity. Connor points out that in three blocks of the world, i.e. the First World, (Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Netherland, Switzerland and United Kingdom); the Second World (Soviet Union, China, Czechoslovakia, Laos, Romania, Vietnam, Yugoslavia, etc. ) and the Third World (Burma, Burundi, Chad, Ethiopia, Guyana, Iraq, Kenya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Sudan, Turkey, Uganda, etc.) experienced ethnic unrest.

The ethnic identities and demands are also the degree and intensity of ethnic conflict, vary with varying political, social and economic conditions. Yet, Pauline A Baker and John A. Ausink in their articles "State collapse and Ethnic Violence. Towards a predictive Model" have attempted to present a theoretical model of the various ethnic- national conflicts.

First state analyses the root causes of ethnic conflict, including the historical background, socio-economic composition and environment that predispose a society towards fragmentation. Stage 2, addresses recent bends of precipitating events that lead from fragmentation to friction, such as discriminatory government policies, collapsed empires coups d' etat, or political assassinations. Preventive action would be most effective if it were taken at this stage or before.

r A society is poised to go in one of the two directions as it enters the stage third the transition, which can occur violently or non-violently. A violent track at this stage is likely to lead a full-scale conflict between or among the ethnic group or ethnic group or state. At this stage the state transformations is underway. It is usually in this phase that

4 the international communitfis involved militarily i.e. for the purposes of peace- enforcement or peace building. In State 4, the state is transformed it has moved towards disorder or a new political order. If there is a violent transformation, it may result in military victory, ethnic, domination, war-Lordism, or on-going conflict (as in Somalia). If there is a non-violent transformation, it may result in electrons, peaceful partition, conflict resolution, and new state structures. (As in South Africa).

Stage 5 represents the outcome, a phase, that is depicted by a conthuum bounded at one end by a chaos, and at the other by constitutionalism. Obviously, there are several intermediate authoritarian or democratic outcomes, such as military rule, a one-party statela representative federal system. But this is not the end of the process. A country could more up and down the continuum, until it reaches equilibrium. Or it could revert to an earlier stage, if the peace is too fragile and ten institutional core is too weak to sustain it. This happened in the case of Angola, as 'backslide' from a non-violent to violent track, after the 1992 U.N. electrons were rejected by rebel forces and the war resumed.

I Conceptual Framework for Analyzing Ethnic Conflict

Issues in Development 21.6 DIMENSIONS OF ETHNO-NATIONAL CONFLICTS

Usually ethnic-national conflicts acquire the following dimensions such as ethnic domination, ethnic secession, demand for autonomy, peaceful ethnic self-determination or even, the most inhuman of all, ethnic cleaning. However, it needs to be understood that these cannot be strictly compartmentalised rather all the above dimensions are mutual and interlinked.

21.6.1 Ethnic Domination

To bedin with, ethnic domination is a common dimension of the ethnic-national conflict. It represents the inherent demand and desire of particular ethnic group to acquire and retain its control or domination over other ethnic groups.

In Rwanda, and Burundi for example, the conflict among two tribes for domination has resulted in grave ethnic crises.

The basic problem in Rwanda springs from the composition of its 8 million population. The entire population is tribal belonging to three tribes - Hutus, Tutsi and Twa. About 90% belong to the backward Hutu tribe whereas 9% are from the advanced Tutsi tribe. Just 1% are pygmies, also called Twa. It is said that Tutsis are aliens had settled in Rwanda and Bhundi about 4 centuries back, having migrated probably from the region of the Nile. Under the Belgium rule, the tribal feuds were kept under control. But the Tutsis had established their hold over the economy of the country and turned the Hutus almost into slaves. After independence, the Hutus, constituting an overwhelming majority in the country rose in revolt against the domination of the Tutsis. This is the root cause of the tribal conflict in Rwanda. Similarly, in Burundi, also there have been bitter clashes between Hutus, which account for 84% of the population, and the Tustsis which cobstitute the remaining 15% of the population.

Recently in 1994, a genocidal war between Hutu and Tutsi broke out after the killing the immediate cause of Rwanda President Juvenal Habyarimana, and Burundi President Cyprien Ntaryarnira, both of Hutu tribe when their plane was shot down at Kigali, the Rwandan capital in April, 1994. This plunged Rwanda into an ethnic conflict, later Burundi also got involved.

21.6.2 Ethnic Secession

It any particular ethnic group feels that its collective interests cannot be promoted outside the territories of the existing state, then it demands secession from the state. In this case, the principle of self-determination is claimed by the ethnic group wishing to secede.

There are many examples of ethnic secession - the most prominent in recent cases being the disintegration of Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.

After decades of subordination, several nationalities in USSR found that they could not any more rdconcile their interests with the once mighty Union and seceded as soon as the political centre became fragile. However, in case of Yugoslavia, the principle of self- determinatian was taken to an extreme, Slovenian and Croatia sought and attained violent sepatation from a perceived Serb dominated Yugoslavia on this principle. The same theme was used by the Serb in Croatia and the Serbs and Croats in Bosnia- Herzegovina for their recognition as independent entities. However, while Soviet Union collapsed without any bloodshed, Yugoslavia failed to check the bloody ethnic conflicts that followed its disintegration.

Another example of ethnic secession of Chechnya, a tiny republic of Russia. The Turkish speaking Chechens constitute a particular tribe, professing Islam. Their religious links with the Ingush and Avars, the largest group in Dagestan go beyond the causes and link them with several other Muslim ethnic republics like Tatarstan, and Bashkortastan in other parts of Russia and with the neighbouring countries like Turkey, Iran and Azerbaijan.

Superficially, it may appear that the Chechen issue is of recent origin. But historically it has been ~oinlted out that the Muslim tribes in the Caucasus region had never been an

integral part of the Russian polity. The Czars of Russia had invaded the mountainous regions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries but could not subjugate these territories effectively. The Chechens had rebelled after 1917. Russian Revolution but were temporarily subdued. Again they had been on warpath during world war I1 and hence incurred the wrath of dictator Stalin who had disposed more than half of the population of Chechnya on the charge of collaborating with the Nazis.

In 1991, the Chechens declared independence along with several other republics of the former Soviet Union. Russia refused to recognise Chechnya and troops were ordered to depose the general Dezhokar Dudayev, the President of Chechnya. This plunged it in a civil war.

An important fact which needs to be stated that secession on the basis of ethnic identity had hardly ever achieved its desired goal instead it creates a .vicious circle. There are numerous instances to prove it. First of all, take the case of Pakistan which separated from India on the basis of two nation theory i.e. the Hindu and Muslim population of pre-independence India constitute two different nations and cannot stay together.

Pakistan which aimed to establish a homeland for Muslim in South Asia, today has smaller population of Muslim than India, and in 1971 itself, a large portion of Bangla Muslims had succeeded from Pakistan.

Similarly, the armed conflicts in Georgia, Bosnia and Croatia have shown that the breakaway groups which subscribe to the exclusivist concepts of nation are likely to become embroiled in war with other ethnic groups living on the same territory and are also likely to have difficulty in establishing control over the territory they claim.

21.6.3 Demand for Autonomy

Sometimes the ethnic groups may simply demand more autonomy within the boundaries of the state.

For instance, in Pakistan the Muhajir Quami Movement (MQM) demands the separation of Karachi and other predominantly Urdu speaking Mohajir majority areas from Sindh constituting a fifth province of Pakistan or even an autonomous state. The ethnic confrontation between the Mohajirs, the Urdu speaking Muslim immigrants who came to Pakistan from India at the time of partition in 1947 and local Sindhi population is a much persistent phenomenon.

The Mohajirs who were economically and educationally better off than the Sindhis gave tough fight to Sindhi's for jobs and business. However, with the emergence of middle classes from among the local ethnic communities, the position of privilege that the Mohajirs enjoyed, eroded gradually since 1971, Mohajirs were increasingly alternated from the government services. Further with the secession of East Pakistan leading to the emergence of Bangladesh, every ethnic community in Pakistan became conscious of its identity, while Mohajirs realised that they alone had no identity of their own.

Here it is important to know the ethnic composition of Sind. Over the last several decades, Sind has become a cauldron of various ethnic communities which have immigrated into the area, due to social and political factors. Sind has a population of 19 million, and chronically Sindhis constitute less than half of the population. While six million are Mohajirs and Punjabis, four million are Baluchis and half a million are Pakhtuns.

So it was quite natural that the interests of the Mohajirs clashed with those of other ethnic groups. This resulted in outbreak of Mohajir-Sindhi riots, Mohajir-Pakhtun riots etc. in 1980s' the Mohajirs formed their own organisation (MQM) and have vigorously demanded an autonomous region of their own.

In 1994, about 1,200 people were killed in Karachi due to inua-muslim sectarian and ethnic violence between Mohajirs and Sindhis, Shias and Sunnis and the Mohajir factions.

21.6.4 Peaceful Ethnic Self-determination

- The Ethno-National Conflicts

Patterns and Dimemions

It is also seen that some ethno-national confllc(s arc fought democratically, in such cases, there is a political dialogue and not an , t r r l ~ ~ . c l ~ ~ ~ ~ l l i c t s on the basis of referendum

Issues in Development , different ethnic groups decide whether to stay in the same temtory or to secede. Quebec, for example, is the second largest province of Canada, having 82 % French- speaking population. On the basis of language identity they wanted to secede from English speaking Canada. But the population chose to adopt a democratic way instead of weapons and held a referendum in October 1995. In this referendum, the French- speaking pkvince of Quebec chose by a slender majority not to secede, while unity supporters won 50.6% votes as compared to 49.4% of separatists. In other words, the Quebeckers bid to break away was lost by just 50,000 votes.

Though the referendum may not be the end of the struggle for separation yet for the moment it gave a sign of relief to the protagonists of international peace and security.

21.6.5 Ethnic Cleansing

Ethnic cleansing is the most dreaded dimension of ethno-national conflict. It is a 'cleaning operation' carried out by one ethnic group of the other ethnic groups. In this type ethnic conflict, the indigenous ethnic group launches a genocide andlor expulsion of the farqigners (those who not originally belong to that state) Bosnia Herzegovina, for instance, which declared its independence from Serb-dominated Yugoslavia, late in ~ e c e h b e r 1991, will go in history for the magnitude of its human tragedy. Ethnic Serbs in Basnia not only captured two-thirds of Bosnia temtory, they also started an ethnic clean$ing programme that caused death, destitution and the forced eviction of a large number of Bosnian Muslims.

The Serbian campaign to 'cleanse' a temtory of another ethnic group, which gruesome and tragic, is historically speaking neither new nor remarkable population removal and transfer have occurred in history more than is generally acknowledge.

The Nazi campaign were an ethnic cleansing as these intended to remove Jews from territories of the Reich. The German term 'Judenrein' clean of Jews, was used to designate areas from which all Jews had been deported. The cleansing combined elements of deportation, expulsion, population transfer, massacre and genocide. Altogether about six million European Jews were murdered between 1935 and 1945.

Hitlar also carried out a 'reverse cleansing' in his effort to consolidate the Reich. Ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche) were in effect cleansed from Eastern Europe as they were recalled and resettled in Hitlers occupied territories especially western Poland. By spring 1942 more than 700,000 Germans had been transferred to German territories.

However, the largest and most sweeping ethnic cleansing in history -the removal of over 10 million Germans from Eastern Europe was taken by the U.S., the U.S.S.R. and Britain on August 2, 1945 in Potsdam. Though exact figures are not available, but it is estimated that nearly 12 million Germans were cleansed from Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania and Yugoslavia after World War 11. Later, the Czechoslovakia government with Stalin's consent expelled 25,000 to 30,000 Hungarians by the end of 1945. In 1946 there was an agreement for "population exchange" between Hungary and Czechoslovakia which allowed for the eventual exchange of 31,000 Magyars for 33,000 Slovaks.


Note: i) Use rhe space below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with the model answers given at the end of .the unit.

1) Mention at least five sources of ethno-national conflict.

i ) ................................................................................................ ii) ................................................................................................

iii) ................................................................................................. iv) ................................................................................................ v) ................................................................................................

2) How does the complex of ethnic minorities lead to ethnic conflict?

...................................................................................................... The Ethno-National Conflicts Patterns and Dimensions

......................................................................................................

3) Mention five dimensions of ethno-national conflicts.

ii) ............................................................................................. iii) ............................................................................................. iv) ............................................................................................ v) ; ............................................................................................

4) What do you understand by following terms. Give one example of each.

a) Ethnic Secession

............................................................................................. b) Ethnic Cleansing

.............................................................................................

............................................................................................. c) Ethnic domination

21.7 IMPLICATIONS OF ETHNO-NATIONAL CONFLICTS

The ethno-national conflicts, as already said, have dangerous repercussions. rkis former Secretary General of United Nations Boutros Ghali said in his Agenda of Peace ". ... If every ethnic, religious or language group claimed statehood there would be no limit to fragmentation and peace, security and economic well-being for all would become even more difficult to achieve."

The implications of ethno-national conflicts are discussed as follows:

1) It disturbs the international peace and security to a great extent. The ethnic groups usually adopt large scale terrorism and war and cause large scale death, decay and destruction.

2) Ethno-national conflicts possess the potential to destabilise any pluralistic society, as it makes all other ethnic groups conscious of their ethnic identity and the need to along then to promote their exclusive interests. Not only this, the ethnic groups once they consolidate their identity aim to suppress other ethnic groups.

3) It causes large scale refugee problem who fall prey to severe ethnic hatred and suppression flee to safer areas. At the beginning of 1993 it is estimated, about 63% of the worlds 42 million refugees were fleeing from ethnopolitical conflicts and repression.

4) Even if the ethnic conflict may be contained but the scars remain and the ethnic groups continue to feel insecure, and develop feelings to acquire and maintain dominating position even in peaceful times.

5) The mass-migrations and human flight created by the ethnic crisis does not help to end the problem. Instead, it increases the range of the ethnic conflict. As the mass movement of refugees to a particular territory increases demographic pressure on

P Issues in Development the land and environment and disturbs the ecology and economy. These in turn

created a volatile situation in the new territory also.

6 ) Further, there is no escape from the fact, that once the divisive principle of ethnic self-determination is accepted the breakaway states which would come into existence are likely to be 'sociologically monolithic.' Infact, according to a scholar Etizoni, "Ethnically based breakaway states generally result in more ethnic homogeneity and less pluralism, meaning that they after lack deeper sociological foundations of democracy". The absence of pluralism has the potential to create a predisposition towards further fragmentation.

7) Almost in all the major ethnic conflicts, external powers have to interfere. It creates the disturbances in the regional power balance and also threatens the security of those countries which are in the vicinity of the strife-torn state.

8) Ethno-national conflicts pose a grave threat to the sanctity of the nation-state system.

9) It not only halts the development process but even puts it off the track as much of the power and resources of state and international agencies are spent to curb these uprisings.

10) The motive of certain ethno-national conflicts as 'ethnic secession' or ethnic '

cleansing to form 'ethnically pure or stable states' is nothing but a mirage. As the war so succession in Yugoslavia and later ethnic cleansing in Bosnia shows. Henry Kissinger has been very critical of the international recognition granted to Bosnia and calls it an "irresponsible mistake". According to him "It is important to understand that Bosnia has never been a nation. There is no Bosnia ethnic group or specifically Bosnia cultural identity . . . where Croatia and Slovenia had their own identity. Bosnia was a Yugoslavia in microcosm. It is a mystery why anyone could think that Croats and Serbs unwilling to stay together in largest Yugoslavia, could be induced to create a joint state in Bosnia-Herzegovina, together with Muslims they had hated for centuries".

21.8 SUGGESTIONS

After studying the intensity of the ethno-national conflicts, it would be wrong to suggest that these can be managed within a short span of time still some measures can be suggested to curb this problem. The only way out is to strengthen the values of pluralism, multi-nationalism and mutual tolerance. The leading political elites have no choice but to grant not-only their cultural rights, as Soviet Union did in ample measure, but also their basic right is to have a truly responsive and democratic government.

Another essential thing is to replace the 'principle of self-determination' with the principles of "fuller representation responsiveness and democracy". Once such a state is estzblished an ethnic group or nationality would not have any legitimate claim to secede or demand an independent state. To prevent ethnic crises from emerging there is the need to foster the culture of consensus-making and political tolerance, among various ethno-political groups.

Next, in case of ethno-national conflicts, the external powers should maintain distance from ethdic politics. Usually, the external powers they support one ethnic group against the other, this only aggravates the problem instead of resolving it. The exploitation of different ethnic groups by the superpowers has virtually led to the grim situation of present day conflicts like in -Afghanistan, former Yugoslavia, Kurds, etc.

The foreign powers if they wish to assist should stress more on cease-fire and peacekeeping alone and stay from assuming the role of 'broker'.

Finally, the governments in multi-ethnic states should strive for balanced economic development so that certain ethnic groups do not prosper on the cost of other ethnic groups.

To conclude with the words of Boutros Ghali in his 'Agenda for Peace' "Respect for democratic principles at all levels of social existence is crucial, in communities within states and within the community of states. Our constant duty should be to maintain the integrity of each while finding a balanced design for all." Otherwise, if steps are not

taken to curb the tendencies of ethno-national conflicts, then the xorld may be in store for decades of instability unlike that has been witnessed in the past 50 yesrs.




1) Discuss five implications of ethno-national conflicts.

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...................................................................................................... 2) Suggest some measures to curb ethno-national conflicts.

21.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied the concepts of nation, nationalism, ethic groups, ethnicity, ethno-nationalism. We have also studied the causes of ethno-national conflicts, their patterns and dimensions. Finally, the implications of such conflicts have been examined followed by certain suggestion to curb or prevent the rise of ethnic tendencies.

The concept of nationalism in its perverted form has produced before the world. Such conflicts have the potential to destabilise almost all the nations of the world and plunge the international system in an era of insecurity and break-ups.

But if state government machinery acts judiciously and actively, develops economic resources, creates feeling of security and participation among the ethnic groups. In addition if people develop mutual tolerance and believe in universality of humankind and overlook the differences on the basis of race, religions language etc.

Finally, if international community learns to maintain its distance in ethnic conflicts, yet helps to promote peace in affected areas. This problem can be curbed to a great extent before it assumes dangerous dimensions.

-- -

21.10 KEY WORDS

Autonomy is a political arrangement in which an ethnic group has some control over its territory, people and resources but does not have independence as a sovereign stage.

Assimilation is a strategy for accommodating ethnic minorities that gives individual members incentives and opportunities to subordinate their identities to the language values and lifeways of the dominant group.

Ethnic Cleansing is the systematic elimination of ethnic minorities from a given territory using such means as terror, expulsion and murder.

Ethno Nationalists are large, regionally concentrated groups of people with a history of political independence or autonomy who seek to re-establish their autonomy. Those who want complete independence are called separatists.

Genocide is mass process by which leaders organise the energies and resources of their followers to pursue common political objectives.

The EthnaNational Conflicts Patterns and Dimensions

Issues in Development Plural Societies consists of a number of ethnic groups each with distinctive collective identity and interests who are no ranked or stratified in relationship to another.

Pluralism is a strategy for accommodating ethnic minorities that recognises their individual and collective right to preserve their language, values and lifeways in existence with those of the dominant groups.

cleavages: In stratified societies, status, power and wealth are unequally distributed among groups according to their ethnicity. These socially maintained distinction in stratified societies are called cleavages.


George de Vos and Lola Romauncci Ross (ed) Ethnic Identity: Cultural Continuities and Change, Mayfield Publishing Co. California 1975.

Kumar Rupasinghe and Khawar Mumtaz (ed), Internal Conflicts in South Asia, Sage, New Delhi, 1996.

Paul R. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison, Sage Publishing, New Delhi, 1991.

Ted Robert Curs and Barbara Harff, Ethnic conflict in World Politics, West View Press, Oxford 1994.



1) See Section 21.5

2) See Section 21.5.10

3) See Section 21.7

4) a) See Section 21.7.2

b) See Section 21.7.5

c) See Section 21.7.1


1) SeeSection21.8

2) See Section 21.9

UNIT 22 INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM

Structure 22.0 Objectives 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Genesis of International Terrorism

22.2.1 Nature of International Terrorism 22.2.2 Types of International Terrorism 22.2.3 Pattern of Global Terrorism

22.3 Urban Terrorism 22.3.1 Urban Terrorist Bodies 22.3.2 Techniques of the Urban Terrorists 22.3.3 Modes of Combating Urban Terrorism

22.4 Rural Terrorism 22.4.1 Growth of Rural Terrorism 22.4.2 Rural Terrorist Activities in Asia and Africa 22.4.3 Rural Terrorist Activities in Latin America

22.5 Fighting Global Terrorism 22.5.1 Preventing the Process of People Killing Each Other 22.5.2 Laws to Prevent Terrorist Practices

22.6 Let Us Sum Up 22.7 Key Words 22.8 Some Useful Books 22.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

22.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit deals with the nature and patterns of global terrorism, its operation at the urban and rural level and the attempts which can be made to curb terrorist practices at the international level. After studying this unit, you should be able to:

define the term 'terrorism' and understand it at the international level,

explain the different types of international terrorism,

8 understand the pattern of global terrorism,

8 recognise the two prominent levels at which international terrorism operates - urban and rural,

8 analyse the importance of preventing terrorist practices.

22.1 INTRODUCTION

The word 'terrorism' has emerged from the Latin verbs 'terrere' and 'deterre' which means an act to tremble and frighten respectively. It implies a strategy to achieve avowed objectives via the systematic use of violence thereby undermining the lawful authority of a government or a state. When the ruling authorities or the state fails to redress the grievances of the people and resorts to oppression and an undue infringement on their rights, it becomes imperative for the terrorists to make the concerned authorities accept their perspective by means of terror. Terrorism thus particularly has political overtures as it seeks to influence politics and governmental behaviour through in an adverse manner. But terrorist activities are sometimes tacitly applauded by the public as the terrorists succeed in making explicit the failures of the political machinery. It follows that governments which are involved in large scale abuse of its powers become vulnerable to such attacks by the terrorists. However terrorists may estrange themselves from the community if their activities directly hamper the economy of the concerned country and result in a loss of jobs.

Terrorism does not have an universally accepted definition. As it is the cheapest way to fight without actually going to war terrorist practices have been prevalent always in all

Issues in Development parts of the globe and has left it scar in every stages of history. But it had become popular only during the 1790's and henceforth, when revolutionary France sought to do away with the aristocracy and its concomitants.

22.2 GENESIS OF INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM

22.2.1 Nature of International Terrorism

As terrorism is a world wide phenomenon, any related act involves several nations thereby making the process a complicated one. ~h essential precondition of international terrorism calls for international linkages between terrorist organisations and groups. Their use of violence at times makes their goals and objectives obscured. These groups .

however exchange equipments, involve themselves in combine operation planning, avail the benefits of each others training areas and support each other from the administrative and logical points of view. The terrorists in fact considers the world as a stage where their problems, intentions and imaginations are made public. 'I'hey have no regard for their national boundaries. They belong to one country, achieve their training in some other country, get their finances and operate in some other different countries. Technological advancements have introduced new kinds of weapons and explosives in the fields of terrorism. Moreover the entry of criminals on an individual plane and the mergence of criminal gangs have changed the character of terrorism from being a politically motivated one to a criminally motivated one which comparatively is more dangerous.

22.2.2 Types of International Terrorism

Terrorism are of varied kinds no matter at which level it operates. -They .are:

a) Discriminate and Indiscriminate Terrorism: This distinction is based on the activities undertaken by the terrorists. The former can be easily comprehended as discriminate terrorists attack their obvious enemies. All their victims are either combatants or potential billigerents. Such terrorism thus has an element of justification. The latter is always difficult to understand as in it people are indiscriminately attacked. Innocent public may be perceived as legitimate targets because they happen to be at the sight of the attack. The cause of such an attack is difficult to determine as it has no justification behind it.

b) Right wing terrorism and Left wing Terrorism: The former involves themselves in pro-government activities and are reactionary in nature. The latter emerge from the intellectual class of the society and have a strong desire to move the economy in the right direction. Some of them may address one particulai problem and adopt terror related methods to publicise their cause and hence gain a sympathetic hearing.

c) Nationalists and separatists: Such terrorists are imbued with a sense of nationhood and want their state or temtory to be returned back so that their land is recognised as an independent entity in the pages of history. The desire what they perceive to be originally belonging to them.

22.2.3 Pattern of Global Terrorism

Terrorism has been prevalent throughout history, engulfing all regions of the globe. Use of terrorist techniques by factions against regimes is an age old phenomenon. It can be traced, to the Roman emperors who used such means to discourage any threat to their rule. However the first prominent instance of a movement resorting to terrorism as a major weapon was the Assassin Sect of the Middle East which had sent its agents throughout the Muslim world to carry out a chain of murders during the eleventh and the twelfth centuries. Significantly enough, the contemporary wave of global terrorism received a major bcpst in the late 1960's from the same area. Terror was openly sponsored during the French Revolution in order to instill a revolutionary fervour among the people. Gradually the supporters of anarchism in Russia, the United States and means to bring about revolutionary political and social change. From 1865 to 1905 the

scene of global terrorism was thus restricted to these countries where prime official were 'killed by anarchists guns or bombs.

The twentieth century brought about revolutionary changes in the techniques and use of terrorism. Technological upgraduation gave the terrorists a new mobility and lethality. Political movement of all shades of the political spectrum began to use such tactics. In .fact totalitarian regimes of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and the Soviet Union under Stalin virtually adopted terrorism as their State policy though they did not acknowledge it publicly. +In these States such techniques like torture and execution were carried out without legal restrictions to make people fearfully adhere to their policies and ideologies. Mao introduced a reign of terror. on a much wider scale than Stalin. Iran too experienced a phase of terror and counter-terror during the regimes of Reze Shah and Khomeine when executions and mass murders were carried out on large scale. Similarly Spain too experienced violence of numerous kinds terrorist, leftist state spofiored and the like.

Terrorism is generally identified with attempts made by individuals or groups to destabilise or overthrow existing political institutions. At the global level terrorism has been used in anti-colonial conflicts whether by both the sides or by one side (Algeria and France), it has been used by groups of different religious denominations (Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland), in conflicts between two national groups over possession of contested homeland (Palestinians and Israel) and also in disputes between revolutionary forces and established governments (Iran, Indonesia, Argentina etc.)

With advancement in the means of communication and media the public impact of any terrorist act gets wide coverage thereby bringing the event directly to millions of viewers worldwide who in turn becomes aware of the grievances or political goods of the terrorists. Modem day terrorism sometimes pursue unrealistic goals thereby loosing popular support and alienating themselves form the political mainstream. As such they resort to such violent acts like hijackings, bombings, kidnappings etc. The most prominent terrorist groups of the latter twentieth century include the Baader-Meinhof Gang of West Germany, Italy's Red Brigades, ~rahce's Direct Action, al-Fatat and other Palestinian organisations and the like international collaboration is an essential feature of modern day global terrorism. The terrorists operating on a global scale are today establishing linkages worldwide and are basing their connections on religion, race or political ideology. Sometimes terrorist groups are trained financed and equipped by agencies of countries other than those where they operate. The incidence of terrorism thus has grown alarmingly. Some countries particularly the super powers are today using the instrument of terror and violence to pursue their foreign policy goals. Thus the main sponsor of global terrorism the big powers who have no regard for international frontiers, making terrprism a preventing phenomena.

Terrorism has assumed different forms in different countries alongwith it the response of the lawful government of the concerned countries have also been varied. In Federal Germany detail analysis and classification of offences are carried out and the characteristics of terrorists are worked out. Moreover in this country police action against terrorism has become highly organised with each item of terrorist information being automatically linked to a sophisticated radio network. In France terrorism has taken the form of war and the Government is making use of computerised records to register and study terrorist crimes. Terrorist activities in Britain are mainly carried out by the banned organisation called the Irish Republican Army. This body was the culmination of age old hatred of Irish Roman Catholics against the injustice meted out by the Protestant majority in Britain. Formed in 1919 it continues to cany out such activities as murdersarson and such other acts sometimes in a small measure and sometimes in a small manner but it goes to the credit of British democracy that instead of resorting to illegal shootings and torture of the terrorist, it has dealt with the crisis with extraordinary stringent legislation, a supportive judiciary and the public.

Today terrorism has become a lethal weapon for initiating a process of destabilisation. It owes its origin to a few evil men who laid down the basic tenets for terrorist activities and initiated a trial of blood and violence. The most noted among them was Carlos, who originally hailed from Venzuala. Also known as the Jackel he is universally regarded as the chief protagonist of terrorists. He codified the aims of terrorists and the means of achieving them and enumerated a test of skills to be acquired by terrorists. He posed a challenge to governments around the globe till he met his death.

International Terrorism

Issues in Developme& Over the years a clear distinction could be drawn between politically motivated and criminally motivated terrorism. The formed terrorises people to exhort money to

,

maintain their groups. They have both foreign support and internal popular sympathy. The latter is motivated by criminal pecuniary gain and is led by criminal gangs who specidlise in kidnap and ransom. The former is difficult to curb because of popular sympathy but the latter can be checked effectively by efficient policing and intelligence work.




1) What is international terrorism?

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2) Can you enumerate the different type of terrorism?

22.3 URBAN TERRORISM

Urban Terrorism as the name goes involved terrorist activities in the urban areas. In its existing .form it is a relatively recent phenomenon. It was particularly meant to destabilise democratic societies in an effective manner thereby encouraging an authoritarian regime.

22.3.1 Urban Terrorists Bodies

International terrorism is largely urban in character. It dates back to the 1940's when Irgun Zuai Leumi (IZL) of Palestine conducted urban campaigns for terrorist practices. Brazil followed the same path in 1969. It began simultaneously in countries like Brazil, Uruguay, Guatemala and the Palestinians. The main constituent part of Arafat's Palestine liberation organisation (PLO) is his own al Fatah which has spread terror almost entirely within the Middle East. International terrorist operations have been carried out by the smaller constituent P- ganisations of the PLO which does not have a permanent home, renunciation of terrorist methods would be a far fetched goal. Lebanon has also been the target of Islamic fundamentalism since long.

Government agents do not carry out individual international terrorist attacks as they may prove to be ccunter productive if found out. But Iran, Iraq and Libya have been exceptitns to his rule. They have not only provided facilities for terrorist was the 'fatwa' pron:. lnced against British Indian author Salman Rushdie for alleged blasphemy. However Srlidarn Hussain of Iraq exceeded everybody in the use of terrorism againzt his ov 11 pe - )Ie :! exterminate thousands of Iraqi Kurds in 1988. Algeria and Egypt have a!so I: .zed ':rrorist campaigns by Islamic Fundamentalists. The IRA extort a l a r ~ e sum o! m:, i om the people and operate with an overall military structure mainly in the well-dl f~nf;: areas of Northern Ireland. The fanatical IRA members are still active today ana g,or~t lue the process of killing.

An unse; .* bu: deadly form of terror - ethnic cleansing present in crude forms since th dawn of - - " 'isation, continues to be practised by majorities when they wish to frightx the ~i t -. to leaving their territory. Beginning prominently from Hitler and St:

it emerged on a massive scale in Croatia and Bosnia, Herzegovinia following the break International Terrorism

up of Yugoslavia in 1991. It also occurred in numerous former Soviet States and to some extent in Germany by the new Nazis against Turkish guest workers. Still there are many places like Macedonia and Slovakia which run the risk of such a process. Considering the scale of human misery created because of this terror, it can be considered as the worst form of terrorism in the twentieth century. This bloodstained process constitutes of men who preferred to kill or eliminate each other rather than living together.

22.3.2 Techniques of the Urban Terrorists

The urban terrorists use varied techniques. Firstly, the militant environmental and animal rights, group avoid inflicting human casualties and confine themselves to the use of bombs and other violent devices to damage property thereby retaining public sympathy.

Secondly, bombing is another technique used by the urban terrorists. It involves very little risk to the bomber so it is a very p~~ular ' tactic. It is in fact one of the most bloodiest technique as it always involves mass casualties, thus inviting world-wide public disgust against such cases. An increasing sophistication in electronics and the continuing process of miniaturization provides the bombers with more precisely guided vehicles. It has become easier to conceal the mechanisms and use it more precisely. Things have reached such new heights that restraints on the use of weapons can be social and psychological rather than technological, thus requiring public awareness against terrorism.

Thirdly, sometimes the urban terrorists in an attempt to avoid the counter productive indiscriminate casualties, resort to murder of individual targets by shooting. Some developments which are most likely to affect this technique are the use of laser sights (which enable the terrorists to conceal their gun and hit their targets at short ranges), the use of silencers, facilities for longer rangers, and the recent use of expansive and sophisticated surface-to-surface and surface-to air missiles.

Fourthly, intimidation and racketeering are other various forms of terror. The former technique is used to intimidate companies or force them into submission by extorting large sums of money as revolutionary taxes or forces business bodies to pay large ransoms. It is a means to finance further terrorism and much of it goes unreported. The latter technique is also to terrorise people who are innocent and force them to submission.

Fifthly, another technique used by terrorists in the urban areas is that of kidnaping individuals. As one of the most ancient and most international of coercive techniques, it is used to extort money to fund criminal activity to achieve political concessions including release of fellow terrorists and changes in governments policies or government itself.

Sixthly, hostage seizures is another way used by the urban terrorists to spread terror. As different from kidnapping, under this technique hostage are kept in a known location. Domestic hostage seizures are meant to apply pressure on family acquicantances or colleagues. Political hostage seizures are done to attract publicity. Sometimes hostage tokens are provided safe-custody to a chosen location and at times are given a ransom so that the lives of the hostages are spared.

Seventhly, hijacking an aircraft, train or ship is another form of spreading terror. The premises seized in this case happen to be mobile but they are generally known where they are - Urban situations provide the environment for such occurrence because the aircraft, ship or train are all symbols of urban life. The primary aim of most hijacks is to gain publicity for a political cause.

22.3.3 Modes of Combating Urban Terrorism

There are various methods by the use of which urban terrorism can be countered. Some of them are epmerated as under:

Firstly, individuals who are threatened must be provided with secure environment so that they can put their best at work. An intruder would use every possible trick to deceive

Issues in Development the security guards. Entrances for staff visitors and vehicles should be thoroughly checked. Training and alertness of the security staff must be improved. Bullet proofing of office buildings should be provided if necessary.

Secondly, techniques for detecting explosives must be improved. Detection technology should be applied for electrical firing devices. The normal senses (sight, smell, hearing and touch) of the human searchers should also be developed. Many hurdles should be placed so that reliable research is guaranteed.

Thirdly, if armed response to possible terrorist attack is required the potential victims of terrorists must be guarded by trained bodyguards. The trained bodyguards can make their most contribution by giving the victims such advice which will prevent them from getting into a dangerous situation. As developments in personal weapons are likely to help the terrorist the only option would be to train the security forces individually so that they can respond quickly and fire accurately. As terrorists would have practised less often with live ammunition than soldiers or armed police m;~, ihe danger of surprise attack could be minimised to some extent and sometimes overcomed.

Fourthly, as individual victims of terrorists face the most risk when they are traveling especially by car the question of 'travel security' assumes significance. A kidnap or assassination requires more organisation because the kidnapers should know in detail about the tmveling plans of their targets. As such strict discretion should be maintained over the movement of potential targets and such plans should be varied often so that the kidnapers look for other targets. Similar discretion should be used over air or sea travel. During air travel targets should be as inconspicuous as possible particularly during check-in and boarding.

Fifthly, personnel in specialist riot and anti terrorist squads should be regularly brought back to their normal police duties or else these squads would assume a character of their own which would deprive them of public sympathy as they would loose touch with them. The anti-terrorist squads should be able to handle both .criminal and political terrorists interventions. A criminal case should be resolved with the greatest of restraint and the minimum use of force. Rescue operation further requires skilled judgement and timing. Accuracy is also important.

Sixthly, protection of the population from a terrorist attack depends on good intelligence. There should be coordination between intelligence organisations of each countries. Secrecy should be strictly adhered to by an intelligence service. Intelligence and personal surveillance should be regarded as supplements to human intelligence and not as substitutes for it. Tight safeguards are also a must for aids to police detection, such as tapping and toping of telephone. calls and bugging and also of eleceonic monitoring.

Seventhly, prevention of terrorism also demands steps to prevent impersonation and an increase in the accuracy of the process of identification. Visitors coming from other countries should be carefully checked so that they do not prove to be impostors. Fingerprint scanning system should be made effective as a weapon in combating terrorism, drug trafficking and other international crimes, so that the legal systems are not abused.

Lastly,, conviction not only deters terrorism and crime but also prevents it. But the most essential part of it is the collection of valid evidence and witness. Successful interrogation demands an interplay of proven facts with answers and statements provided by the suspect during the course of interrogation. However, trial by jury can be the best guardian of freedom and justice.

22.4 RURAL TERRORISM

Rural terrorist movements can also be called rural guerrilla movements. This is because rural terrorists operate from the forest or the jungles and have a rural background mainly. These organise popular support in the rural areas and terrorise anyone who do not support or cooperate with them. They develop their organisation in impoverished towns and involves in uprisings when the appropriate time comes.

22.4.1 Growth of Rural Terrorism International Terrorism

Rural terrorism is not a new phenomenon. Rural populations are very valuable to terrorist attacks because protection of rural populations is difficult and expansive. Village officials and police officers live under threat so they follow a policy of live-and-let-live with the terrorists. The prime targets of rural terrorism are rural affluence areas (for

i example the drug producing areas of Peru, Colombia, etc.), people in villages at work in the fields or on the roads or in any isolated areas, water supplies of the rural areas (as they are vulnerable to contamination), and the infrastructure which is again subjected to sabotage. Hand-held guided missiles and machine guns which are heavy is particularly used by the rural terrorists. Vulnerable premises in rural terrorism range from isolated army or police posts to large installations, oil refineries, air fields and villages which are defended. Because of long delay before help can come, isolated guards who protect installations are the most vulnerable for attacks. As such village security men must be

L equipped with surveillance and alarm systems if such attacks are to be stopped.

The most favourite technique of the rural terrorists used since the 1940's is the road mines detonated by the pressure of the wheel of a passing vehicle, because rural roads are mainly made of dirt, or oil-bound sand. Road bombs and impoverished explosives are other such weapons. Inspite of such weapons at their disposal the rural terrorists find it difficult to dominate the rural areas which require regular with the villages which again makes the task difficult because visitors in rural areas do not remain unnoticed, a fact which can be made use of by intelligence agencies.

In ordinary circumstances the army or the police better armed and with better opportunities for training have the advantage over the rural guerrilla units. But adverse is the case when the rural terrorists take the initiative either in an ambush or in a surprise attack. The problem however is to predict the movements of the terrorists which requires god intelligence and the best source of it is human sources. Security forces in the rural areas must build up the confidence of the rural people in their own security and convince them of the final defeat of the terrorists so that they cooperate in providing information. If such confidence is build up that their standard of life will steadily improve if stable government is maintained, the villages and other rural folk will be less likely to be aroused by political activists to use or support violence.

22.4.2 Rural Terrorist Activities in Asia and Africa

The rural terrorists in Asia and Africa follow the Maoist revolution and strategy of deploying cadres to organise popular support in the remote areas and thereafter terrorizing anyone who do not cooperate with them. It most cases these terrorists have close linkages with big criminal gangs usually financed by drug trafficking. One important aspect of the rural terrorist heritage is that refugees from internal conflict or oppression are often frained in the neighbouring countries to go back and serve as terrorists. The Indians did this to train a guerrilla force to assist their invasion of Bangladesh in 1971. Some notable instances of countries where rural terrorism has been widespread are in Asia and Africa.

During the latter part of 1970's Cambodia was subjected to the most vicious regime of government terrorism ever recorded. A Chinese oriented Communist Party forcibly established its rule in 1975 and let loose a reign of terror. A million people were killed and all manifestation of urban civilization were gutted. In 1978 the Vietnamese invaded Cambodia and subjected the people with a threat of insurgency. Cambodia suffered thirteen years of civil war till the year 1991. Similarly in Philippines two main guerrilla groups have been operated since 1970s the Maoist New People's Army (NPA) and the Muslim secessionist group (MNLF) and are fighting for an independent Islamic state in the Southern islands of the country. MNLF have thousands of armed guerrillas and is supported by Iran, Libya and sometimes by sympathetic Muslims in the neighbouring territory of east Malaysia facing strong resistance from the Christian majority in the areas of their operation their strength has declined. The NPA continues to spread terror by assassinating local officials, police officers and soldiers. They are financed nearly by extortions from big businesses and their cadres are in rural areas, are organised, and exercise discipline by terror in the villages. Over the years NPA has fragmented but many of its members continue to operate as armed criminal gangs.

Issues in Development Sri Lanka has also been plagued by insurgencies since 1983. Commercial massacres in the North were initiated by the Tamil Tigers ( L m ) and insurgency in the south was begun by a radical Sinhalese nationalist movement, the people's Liberation Front (JVP). By 1989 the government forces captured or killed the entire JVP leadership by mounting a ruthless offensive though the Tigers have lost their initial strength because of heavy casualties in the course of encounters with the government forces, their fanatical members continue to thrive, as such terrorism in Sri Lanka continues. Terrorism in India is seen in the context of communal violence including that between Hindus and Muslims, separatist violence by Gurkhas, Nagas and others. Sikh violences and terrorism is mainly concentrated in the urban areas but it extends to massacres of Hindus in the villages and buses. That terrorism has flourished during communal frenzies is borne by the explosion of violence in Uttar Pradesh in 1992 December. In Bombay Hindus looted Muslim shops and the horrible process of ethnic cleansing went on in hundred. Afghanistan, Central Asia and Kurdistan have also been experiencing the scourge of rural terrorism. Terrorism in these areas is dependent on their rocky mountainous terrain and their tribal structure. Tribesmen engage themselves in terrorist activities as they want to free themselves from the regular armies of governments. As such the war remain focused on the control of rural roads from which the regular armies pass. However, a more serious threat in this region comes from the ambitions of the big neighbowing powers who in order to extend their influence support terrorist group in these areas. The process of ethnic cleansing in these areas also continues.

Sudan, Somalia and Southern Africa also has been experiencing terrorist movements, The Sudanese People's Liberation Army, a terrorist organisation dominates half of Sudan particularly in the southern part of the country. Though formed in 1983, it split into two factions, one seeking independence for southern Sudan and the other seeking a federal Sudanese government. Continuing terrorist warfare is suppressed by the army and police. Somalia has also been experiencing chms since 1991. After twenty one years of dictatorial Communist rule, a coup was organised by General Mohamed Aideed on behalf of the United Somali Congress (USC). This was followed by an immediate split between Aideed and Ali Mahdi whom the USC had appointed Resident of Somalia. These two groups had their own private armies which consisted gangs of young men, in vehicles mounted with machine-guns and rocket launchers who looted food supplies in the countryside. Though intervention by US troops and UN troops have made attempts to solve the problem but the warlords continue to fight and they have expressed . contempt for the peace maker. Angola and Mozambique achieved independence from Portugal in 1975 but their new governments were opposed by terrorist movements - UNITA and RENAMO who controlled substantial amounts of temtory and engaged in intimidating the villagers or tribesmen. Irrespective of attempts made by the ANC to improve the situation in South Africa violence and terrorism continues to hold their way thereby hampering political progress.

22.4.3 Rural Terrorist Activities in Latin America

The ongoing violence and terrorism in the Latin American countries like Colombia and Peru is because of the drug cartels who finance terrorist activities. Sendero Luminoso's (SL) rural guemlla organisation and techniques in Peru operate in the shanty towns and has basis in the rural areas where coca is grown. It is a violent body and engages in terroridng the people with public mutilations and executions. Colombia, one of the most politically stable democratic systems in Latin America has been constantly plagued by violence, financed by the international drug trade. The two main terrorist organisations of Colombia are Armed Revolutionary Forces of Colombia and the National Liberation Army.

The f@rmer is a nation wide rural group and has an open political front. The latter mainly operates in the oil-producing areas in North-East Colombia and its aim is mainly to drive out the foreign oil companies. Even today drug money continue to flow into the countty and there is no sign of the violence subsiding. E l Sa;lvador has also suffered from immense casualties because of terrorists who have resorted to the business of kidnaping for extorting money and from time to time terrorist bodies have tried to bring down governments as well. Violent conflict for years have weakened the economy but no respite seems to be in sight for the people of E l Salvador because the ex-terrorists and members of terrurist bodies always resort to the use of gun to resolve any dispute. It is significant to note that the financiers of terrorism in Colombia and Peru particularly

are the drug addicts of the US and other European countries. As such these countries should make serious attempts to prevent their own drug addicts from buying it so that farmers are discouraged to grow coca in the Latin American countries and thus save itself from the menace of terrorism.




1) Name some urban terrorist bodies and related some of their techniques.

...................................................... k . .............................................. 2) What is rural terrorism?

...................................................................................................... 3) Name some countries in Latin America where terrorists are still active.

22.5 FIGHTING GLOBAL TERRORISM *

Terrorism seeks to disrupt the smooth functioning of democratic societies by dqmonstrating that governments are not in a position to provide basic security measures. It is a normal human urge to oppose terrorism but' on some occasions nothing productive can be done. A government should take various steps to ensure the safety of its people and property within its jurisdiction. What can be done is that as a first step a police force of the highest quality should be created to counter terrorist activities or to combat bombings, kidnappings hijacking, etc. Terrorists generally operate in a discreet manner and they use covers to protect themselves from being detected. As such another requirement for fighting terrorism is to bring about improvements in the technique of intelligence, collections, infiltration and surveillance and the like. Through a concerted programme of public information and education, public assistance against terrorism should be sought for. People should be made more security conscious.

Freeing a hostage is a risky job. As such the main goal of the police should be to arrange the release of a hostage unharmed and to apprehend the offender. If apprehending the offender seems more important an attack may be launched. If release of the hostage seems very important and if demands cannot be met, the police should attempt to kill the offender. Thus hostage seizure is a complicated process. Different tactics may be followed for different incidents as each situation is an unique one.

22.5.1 Preventing the Process of People Killing Each Other

With every passing generation new forms of terrorism are being thrown up. To meet the challenge a more positive attitude towards peace making process should be developed so that people at large can be protected from terrorism. Technological development especially in the detection of explosives, access control surveillance and intelligence should be relied upon as a means of preventing the terrorist from abusing people's civil liberties and at extreme cases taking their lives as well. The world cannot hope to do

Issues in Development away with its armed forces because there will always be men with unwarranted ambitions to grab territory or resources. As such present day armed forces should be particularly designed to adopt to a peace keeping role or peacemaking role. The latter involves more casualties. Wherever possible every country should make its forces available for its neighbours on a regional basis because it would gain the most by preventing the conflict from taking a dangerous turn. But in cases where solutions on a regional basis is not possible it becomes the duty of the world to contain such conflicts and provide humanitarian aid. This calls for a unity of the permanent members of the UN Security Council as was the case during the gulf crisis of 1990. In case of terrorism in any part of the globe these countries should pull their full weight together and provide armed forces. Mass casualties can be prevented if governments make adequate contributions to fund the UN peacekeeping forces. Peacekeeping is an activity which has come to stay, as such countries must be induced to submit themselves to high subscriptions with a substantial reserve so that the UN can always play an active and positive role in times of crisis.

22.5.2 Laws to Prevent Terrorist Practices

Growing number of terrorist violence has over the years engaged the attention of the entire global community. The US has taken a lead to promote international efforts to tackle with their menace. Nations around the world has been taking serious steps to protect diplomats and embassies. This has lessened the incidence of embassies seizures. Similarly since 1910 the world has been seriously considering to promote air safety measures when a convention relating to the regulation of Aerial Navigation had taken place. But the most formidable obstacle hindering the prosecution of hijackers thereby putting at stake the international attempts to soil illegal aircraft seizure attempts, is the asylum phenomenon. As the term 'political offence' remains unclarified, nations always find justification for granting asylum to political refugees or political groups. Giving shelter to the fugitives under the guise of political crimes poses a serious threat to international aviation because unlawful aricraft seizures involves many serious crimes.

Considering the seriousness of such cases European countries have taken steps to curb terrorism. Their efforts though primarily aimed at unlawful interference with civil aviation also covers offences involving the use of bombs, grenades, rockets, etc. An informal international agreement on hijacking between these countries (17 July 1978) have not only taken a decision to extradite or prosecute hijackers but also to boycott the airports and airlines of those countries which failed to do so. Moreover regular meetings are being held to improve cooperation between each others intelligence and police. These agreements did not have a positive effect because most governments continue to be guided by their national self interest. The United Nations has also not been doing enough because countries like those of the Arab, African and Latin American ones openly sponsor and support terrorism. Infact they regard terrorism as a legitimate weapon to promote their political and economic goals.

One of the main aim of the terrorists is to make the legal system unoperative by intimidating witnesses and juries, thereby creating credible grounds for accusing the government of repression and torture. This calls for incentives to be given to informers for providing evidence and extending protection to them when required. If desired and if feasible adequate funds should also be made available to the informers to enable them to start a few life at a new place. It is but true that the costs involved in granting rewards and protection is negligible when compared to the cost of damage inflicted by the terrorists. Still other forms of intimidation like demands for protection, money and racketeering should also be tackled firmly.

The legal process should also be strengthened for exercising stxict control on the possession and movements of explosives, armies and ammunition. Civilized nations should arrive at an agreement to tag all explosives with a colour code system which would detect their source and enable their progress to be recorded. Laws which not only help to track the criminal suspects and supporters but also detect houses which provide shelter to them should also be initiated to curb terrorism. The extent of duration of . detention for questioning should be made relaxable in case a concerted attempt is made by the terrorists to circumvent the existing procedures and increase the degree of crime. Significantly enough all laws which seek to combat terrorism should also cover the lawyers as that they are not in position to abuse their rights and disrupt legal '

proceedings thereby supporting terrorist acts.

One of the biggest sponsors of terrorism and criminal violence in the world is the profit International Terrorism

ensuing from narcotics trade. Drug trafficking not only generates illegal money but also encourages fraud, extortion and counterfeiting. Thus, narcotics consumption should not only be tackled but the laundering of money from all these sources should also be tackled. To make this possible, banks should be legally obliged and willing to make customer's accounts available to the police and judiciary so that illegal money can be easily detected and seized. Governments particularly in western countries should pass legislations to prevent their banks from undertaking transactions with foreign banks which do not have proper records. Prevention of terrorism also requires improved technological research in some urgent areas like detection of explosives, developing anti impersonation systems and equipments in aid of intelligence.

Over the years the nature of weapons have not changed much. The hand held missilies which were recently made available to terrorists was developed in 1984. However, one positive feature is that advancement in security technology have been far greater especially in explosive detection techniques. Nevertheless the terrorists groups are always on the look out of possessing all kinds of weapons and explosives. But what is creating a dangerous situation is the fact that with the entry of criminals in the sphere of terrorism, the very nature of terrorism has changed from a politically motivated one to a criminally motivated terrorism. What is also important to note is that it is only a small number of people who resort to terrorist techniques to force a democratic government to accept their views. Dissent should always be encouraged if it is constructive in nature but no matter how severe it may be prove to be it can never justify killing bombing or wounding. Crime arrogantly deprives a civil society of its liberty. Over the ages and throughout history every civilised majority has accepted a rule of law which places restrictions on the freedom to assault or harm others. Every society irrespective of its political, inclinations deserved the right to protection from terrorism. Every democratic government should uphold the rule of law and strike a proper balance between the presentation of the civil libqties of the public inclusive of the minorities and the essential measures required to protect the lives of the people from terrorists attacks. Under to circumstances the claim of a militant minority to kidnap and kill should ovemde the ultimate right of a majority to live in peace and enjoy all civil liberties. Prevention of terrorism ultimately depends on the nature of government policy and on the efficiency of its law-enforcing agencies which are required to operate in non political contexts.




1) , Suggest one measure as to how terr~rism can be checked.

2) How can civilians be encouraged to provide evidence against the terrorists.

Issues in Development 22.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have defined the term 'terrorism" a strategy of violence, used by people who do not understand reason, against the government or the state to achieve their objectives. When international linkages development between terrorist groups of various countries, international terrorism emerges. Terrorism, be it at the national or international level are of such types - (a) Discriminate and indiscriminate Terrorism, (b) Right wing and left wing Terrorism (c) Nationalists and Separatists. Having dealt with these, the diverse patterns of global terrorism has been taken into account. 'Contemporary global terrorism emerged in the Middle East and gradually spread its wings in such countries as the U.S. and western Europe. T,echnological upgradation of the weapons used by te-rrorists have increased their mobility and lethality. Terrorism has assumed different forms in different countries and the response of the government have also been different. Having done this, international terrorism has been studied from an urban and rural point of view. An assessment of these two facets of terrorism the modes of combating them follow as obvious sequence. Finally suggestions have put forth as to how terrorism on a global scale can be checked. With new forms of terrorism emerging with every .passing generation steps should be taken to prevent mass casualties and developing positive contact between civilians and state authorities. Peacekeeping is a role in which the United Nations can play a detenninant role. Countries of the world should join hands to make this body an economically viable one so that it can play positive role in times of crisis. Besides this, leading nations of the world particularly the U.S. should make effective laws and regulations to check the menace of terrorism because ultimately they are the ones to be effected. The legal process should strengthened at the global level and control resources should be implemented stringently.

- - - -

2 2 . 7 KEY WORDS

Intimidate: To frighten one into submission. Terrorists use intimidation as a technique to threat the government or the civilians and make them submit before their unlawful demands.

Surveillance: It means a close watch. It is also used as an alternative to supervision.

Guerrilla: It is a member of an irregular armed force which engages itself in fighting an established force, in other words the government.

Lethal: Deadly or dangerous. It is generally'associated with weapon whose use is destructive in character, particularly the nuclear weapons.

22.8 . SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Clutterbuck, Richard, 'Terrorism in an Unstable World' (Routledge, London and New York, 1994).

Ghosh, S.K., 'Terrorism : WorM Under Seize' (Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi, 1995).

Quarles, C.L., 'Terrorism - Avoidance Md Survival' (Butter Worth-Heinemann, US, 1991).

Rao, N.P., 'Terrorism - Violence and Human Destruction - Causes Effects and Control Measures' (Anmol Publishers, New Delhi, 1992).

Wardlac, G., 'Political Terrorism' (Combridge University Press, 1982).

-


Internalional Terrorism


1) International terrorism involves international linkages between terrorist organisations and'groups. These groups extends support to each other and avail benefits from each others country. They have no regard for the national boundaries and'intend to publicise their demands globally.

2) The different forces of terrorism are:

i) Discriminate and Indiscriminate terrorism

ii) Right Wing terrorism and Left Wing terrorism

iii) Nationalists and Separatists.


1) Some urban terrorist bodies are Irgun Zvai Leumi of Palestine, the fundamentalist groups of Iran, Sadam Hussain and his supporters, etc.

Some of the techniques used by the urban terrorist bodies are the use of bombs, violent devices to damage property, murder to individual targets by shooting. kidnapping, etc.

2) Rural terrorism involves activities of these terrorists who operates from the jungles . or forests and have a rural background mainly.

3) Some countries in Latin America where terrorists are still active are Colombia, Peru, E l Salvador, etc.


1) One important measure which can be taken to check terrorism is to improve the techniques used by intelligence agencies.

2) Civilians can be encouraged to provide evidence against terrorism by extending protection to them and by granting adequate rewards.

UNIT 23 REVOLUTION IN COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Structure Objectives Introduction Channels of Communication New Communication Technologies Issues in Communication Technology 23.4.1 Communication and National Sovereignty 23.4.2 Disparities in Communication 23.4.3 New International Information Order The Present Information and Communication Order 23.5.1 The Impact of Communication Revolution on International Politics Let Us Sum Up Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

23.0 OBJECTIVES

In this unit we will examine some of the key issues that arise from the present communication and information revolution. After going through this unit you should be able to:

identify the channels of international communications,

discuss the issues that arise from the rapid advances in communication technologies,

explain the position of the developing countries on some key issues in communications, and

identify the important features of the present communications and informations order.

23.1 INTRODUCTION

Dramatic changes are sweeping our world. Many have their causes or effects which can be traced to developments in the information and communication sectors. With the advent of satellites and digital technologies the speed and capacity of communication has outpaced our wildest expectations. Satellites in orbit have transformed communications both within and between nations. The cost of communication services in no longer related to distance and terrain. The ongoing digital revolution in communication has virtually eliminated traditional technical limitations in the provision of services. There is no longer a technological distinction between voice, text, data, and video services. As electronic networks spread, there is no longer a clear demarcation between many national and international networks.

The diffusion of these new technologies began in the 1980s and they are yet to have their full impact felt. Their impact is primarily being felt in the economic activities within and between nations, hasteing the process of interdependence. But they have also widened the gulf between the information rich and the information poor. Developing countries of the South attempted to remove the imbalances in the flow of information and improve the coverage of news but the imbalances and distortions in the flow on information has not diminished. The new communication technologies that are beginning to have their impact on economic, social and political process are the focus of this unit. The focus is on some issues that arise from the diffusion of new communication

technologies such as the question of national sovereignty, the imbalances in the flow of Revolution in Communication

information and the distortions in the coverage of news. Technology

23.2 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Broadly speaking the communication channels that link people around the world can be divided into non technological and technological. Language, tourism, migration and international organisations are some of the non-technological channels of communication. Some of the major technological channels of global communications are print materials, postal services, radio and television broadcasting, telecommunications and computer communications.

The print media has been the most durable communication channel across nations. Ever since the printing press was invented in the 16th Century, the volume of books, newspapers, and periodicals that carry ideas to foreign audiences has increased. In the very recent past, the introduction of new technologies has increased the reach of this media. For a long time, transportation of printed material across national borders depended on transportation media. Today however, print media are less limited by the weight of the paper. Satellites are now distributing images of many newspapers and periodicals to publishing houses and printing plants around the world. Traditional print publishers are adapting or creating materials for new electronic publishing formats and the once 'printed' pages are now being distributed through computers or television sets via telephone lines, TV cables, video discs.

Postal communication began in the latter half of the 19th Century, and has become a near universal medium of global communication. Advances in transport and communication technologies are having an impact on this medium as well. In many countries today and private and public companies are companies are competing for express mail services that can deliver a package to any place in the world in about two days. Electronic mail can now be transmitted for post office to post office, where it is reproduced in original for and them placed into physical mail. Fax machines are fast replacing postal service for personal mail.

Since its inception in the early 20th Century, international radio broadcasting has '

become one of the most significant channels of international communication. About a hundred countries broadcast news, opinion and entertainment to foreign listeners providing a major source of information. Some radio stations like BBC and Voice of America today command huge audiences across the globe.

Satellite telecommunications began in the early 1960s. The first true communication satellite was the Syncom III which broadcast the 1964 Tokyo Olympic games. The following year, INTELSAT, a global consortium was established to serve the global communication needs. Although a number of nations and private firms have launched communication satellites into orbit, INTELSAT system carries about 80 per cent of the world long-distance international telecommunication traffic.

Closely associated with the current digital revolution, the computer has emerged in the 1980s as a tool of communication. Today the computer to computer communications is world wide. With the dramatic increase in capacity, speed and reliability and fall in the prices, people are acquiring personal computers and joining international computer networks.

23.3 NEW COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES

In the post war period there are two important technical developments that have had a profound impact on the communications. One is the development of communication satellites and the other is the digital revolution. Although the use of communication satellites had begun in the 1960s. it was only in the 1980s that their full potential came to be realised. Combined with the digital telecommunications, satellites have increased the reach of the existing media by enabling the trans-border transfer of data, voice, picture.

Communications based on satellite technology became a reality with the dawn of the space era 1957. Although the former Soviet Union was the first to place satellites in

orbit it was the United States that took the lead in utilizing communication satellites for civilian and military purposes. A communication satellite is located about 36,000 km high in the orbit. From this height its beams can cover one third of the earth's surface. A satellite can interconnect any number of stations that lie under its antenna, known as footprint. All the points under its beam are of the same distances from the satellite. Hence we say that the satellite is insensitive to distance. Since the mid-1960, the International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation (INTELSAT), a satellite consortium, has come to dominate the intercontinental telecommunications. Its counterpart in the former socialist countries was the Internationals Organisation of Space Communications INTERSPUTNIK which was founded in 1971.

Other satellite consortiums have also been established to meet the specific requirements. For instances, there is the International Maritime Satellite Organisation founded in 1979 to meet the aommunication requirements over the seas. There are also regional consortiums to meet the communication requirements of swcific regions wch as the ARABSAT and ASIAVISION. In addition, several countries have launched their own satellites to meet the domestic telecommunication requirements. In the 1980s, private satellite systems have emerged to break the monopoly of the INTELSAT in satellite services.

Advances in electronics and digital devices are the other developments that have lkd to a revolution in communications. Basically information can be transmitted over any telecommunications medium in two ways: analog or digital. The analog transmission uses an electrical signal to represent the voice, picture, or data to be sent. When the voice is loud the signal is strong, and when it is soft, the signal is weak. Virtually all the worlds telecommunications channels started as analog devices. Today they are rapidly being replaced by digital technology. In digital communication, the informatioh is translated into discrete binary digits (zeros and ones) known as bits. These bits can be transmitted unambiguously and saved exactly as transmitted. Computers are connected to . each other ta transfer digital data. Telephone lines that carry analog data are being used to sendadigitJ computer data by attaching a modem to the computer to convert analog

'

information into digital. In the modem telephone system, conversations are converted into digital form and transmitted by wire or optical fibre.

The computer is the driving force behind the current digital revolution. Today there is a worldwide trend towards digital devices. As a result there is a drive to create 'integrated digital network' which will eventually merge previously separate communications network into new, high capacity systems that include telephone, telegraph, tele-text, fax, data, and video.

These new communication technologies, principally the satellite and digital networks have revolutionised communications in the recent years. The speed and capacity of communications technologies has outpaced our wildest expectations. As distance and terrain become meaningless in ,the satellite age and as the digital revolution spurs networking of communication devices, there is no longer a clear demarcation between many national and international networks. These have no doubt profound implications for the international system. In the following section we will examine two issues, national sovereignty and the flow of information, that have a bearing on the international political process. Although these two issues are related they are two distinct issues. On both these issues there are different perception between the advanced nations of the North and the newly emergent developing nations of the South.

23.4 ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

23.4.1 Coknmunication and National Sovereignty

New communication technologies pose several problems for the concept of sovereignty. Sovereignty traditionally refers to a country's right to protect its borders form military aggression; to preserve its natural wealth and resources; and to choose its political, social, economic and cultural systems without interference by another state. From this conception of sovereignty flows the principle of 'information sovereignty' - that nations enjoy the full rights of sovereignty and territorial integrity in the areas of communication and information. However, the new communication and information technologies of

. . message production, dissemination and reception do not respect national boundaries. This ~evolutlon in Communlcatbn

. .. has given rise to a hobt of issues that affect national sovereignty-controlling the flow of Technology

information, development of national communication facilities etc. Let us examine the q

issue of sovereignty generated by satellite technology by taking two types of satellites- direct broadcasting satellites and remote sensing satellites.

From their invention in the early 1960s, direct broadcasting satellites have raised the issues of national sovereignty. As already mentioned, a communication satellite placed in the GSO can cover one third of the earth's surface. In other words, whether intended or not, broadcasting signals from satellite spill over in to the territories of other nations. Its footprint (the geographical area covered by the signal) can never be shaped exactly to fit the intended coverage area. In this context some argue that a country should be protected from unwanted signals. Direct television broadcasting by satellites from one country to another without the prior consent of the receiving state is a violation of national sovereignty, a threat to national economies and national cultures. On the other hand, industrialised countries which lead in satellite technologies have argued that any regulation of direct broadcast satellites is a thereat to the freedom of information. This position is strongly advocated by the United States.

Satellite technologies also gave rise to controversies related to the access of slots in outer space. Air spacf law allow a state to exercise sovereignty over its air space, whereas the prevailing space law doctrines allow countries to explore and use outer space, the moon, and other celestial bodies on a basis of equality without national appropriation by claim sf sovereignty. Outer space law and airspace law are thus diametrically opposed both in principle and practice. Moreover, there has no satisfactory solution to the issue of identifying the point at which the airspace ends and outer space begins. The threshold between airspace and outer space is widely held to be the Van Kannan line - the point to which states traditionally may claim sovereignty; over the air above their territory. Beyond this line according to this view, state sovereignty ends.

This definition has not been without controversy. Geo-stationary communication satellites are ideally located at a height of 36,000 km over the equator. Countries located nearer to the equator are at a vantage point to receive satellite signals through a relatively thin layer of atmosphere. But the geo-stationary orbit (GSO) is limited by the fact that satellites in his orbit cannot be parked close to each other and there are a growing number of countries and corporations interest in satellite services. In 1976, nine c o u k e s located on the equator adopted the Bogota Declaration, which stated that the geo-stationary orbit is a natural resource of the equatorial states and is thereby subject to their sovereignty. These countries insist that no object could be placed in the GSO without their approval. These countries fear that the GSO is limited and may not be available for them by the time they are ready to use it. This position has, however, been disputed by the two leading space faring countries, the United States and the former Soviet Union.

In fact, today there ark four major positions on sovereignty over the GS6. The first advocated primarily by the United States, considers that the GSO should be allocated on a "first-come, first-served" basis. A second position, represented by the then Soviet Union, advocates the 'Van Karman principle', that is that there should be a clear demarcation point between outer space and aerospace, set at a specific altitude above sea level. Airspace below that boundary would be sovereign property. Above that limit it would be outer space to which all would have free access. The third approach, defended mainly by the developing countries, calls for global prior allocation of both orbital positions and frequencies. They favour establishing an international regime to guarantee equal access. Finally, we have the equatorial countries view, which also supports the need for prior allmation; but because of their geographical position claim preferential

* rights.

The quvtion of sovebignty was also raised by another class of satellites -the earth observation or remote sensing satellites. These satellites detect, measure, and analyse substances or objects on earth form orbit. There is little doubt that data gained in this way can increase the political and economic power of the 'sensing' nation over the ' s end ' nation. Knowledge of likely oil-deposits, crop yields or failures, and mineral deposits' can help governments and corporations make better plans for the domestic and make more informed bids on the international markets. Since international law grants absolute sovereignty national governments sovereignty over their natural resources, the issue here is whether a nation should have absolute sovereignty over information regarding those resources. To whom does the information belong when America's

Issues in Development LANDSAT, the French SPOT, India's IRS or some another commercial remote sensing satellite detects oil or important mineral deposits in some parts of Asia or Africa? The

D country whose resources are being sensed is not aware of the existence of these resources or that information. A country or a corporation owing and utilizing the remote-sensing satellite may know more about the country than the country does itself. Data obtained by these method by these methods might provide these countries and private firms with vital economic data which is not available to the local authorities. Some developing countries, such as Brazil have therefore opposed the use of remote sensing techniques or other advanced sensing techniques without prior consent. These countries fears have not been assuaged by a policy of unlimited availability of remote sensing satellite date. These fears have been compounded by the fact that a vast majority of these countries simply do not have the trained personnel to interpret the remotely sensed data even if the data in made available to them.

This debate finally resulted in the United Nations adopting the Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space in 1986, the first internationally recognised principles guiding the conduct of remote sensing satellites. By this treaty, sensed nations have given up the demand for prior consent before data dissemination. But the principles guarantee the sensed access to all data. In recent years, the debate on remote sensing satellites has been enlivened by the use of these systems by the international news agencies and commercial networks. Since the inception of the space age, the two leading space powers, the United States and Soviet Union had utilised . satellites based sensing techniques to monitor the movement and deployment of military weapons by each other. They have also been used to verify the compliance of arms contx'ol agreements. In the 1980s, the monopoly of highly classified satellites of the governments in monitoring nuclear and missile activities was broken when international news agencies and commercial networks began using remotely sensed data. In the United States, television viewers saw LANDSAT pictures of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster nuclear disaster days before the Soviets acknowledged that the accident had even occurred. ABC news used the LANDSAT images to reveal that Iran had deployed Chinese made 'silkworm' missiles. This is bound to have significant bearing on the future trends in international political processes.




1) Some of the non technical means of communications are:

(a) ........................... (b) .............................. (c) ........................... 2) Bogota declaration states that ............................................................... 3) What is the position of different states on the sovereignty over the geo-stationary

orbit?

23.4.2 Disparities in Communication

The communication revolution has not benefited all of human kind equally. There are enormous and ever growing disparities between these who have information and those who lack information. These differences exist within countries and between genders. They exist between cities and the nual side. They exist between the rich countries and the poor countries. In other words, just as there is an economic division between nations, one can identify the division between the information-rich and the information- poor of the world. In fact, information abundance is a reality only for an exclusive club of nations and elite within those nations:

For more than a century, the North Atlantic news agencies divided the world into spheres of influences. Roads, ocean routes, transoceanic cables, telegraph, and radio frequencies followed colonial routes. One of the most persistent criticisms of news flows has been that the leading four transnational news agencies -Associated Press (AP), United Press International (UPI), Agence France Press (AFP) and Routers -control the bulk of the news flow. As we saw even today, with satellites, television, fibre optics, and computer communications, much of the information continues to flow along the North Atlantic axis. There is a one way flow of cinema, television programming from the big exporting countries to the rest of the world. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), whose main purpose is to promote the cause of peace by increasing understanding among nations through education and research, from its inception in 1945 has focused its attention on the development of communication infrastructure in member states. In the early 1950s the United Nations recognised that "independent domestic information enterprise (in developing countries) should be given facilities and assistance in order at they may be member states. In the early 1950s the United Nations recognised that "independent domestic information enterprise (in developing countries) should be given facilities and assistance in order that they may be enabled to contribute to the spread of information, to the development of national culture and to international understanding". It called for the elaboration of a concrete programme and plan of action in this respect. In the 1960s. UNESCO surveyed communication technplogies world wide and concluded that the disparities between the developed and developing countries was widening and that these disparities made free cikulation of news and information a one-way flow rather than a real exchange. In the 1970s the developing countries gathered forces to demand a restructuring of the international information order. The Non-Aligned Movement, consisting of nations and liberation movements in Asia, Africa and Latin America and representing over two- thirds of the humanity, spearheaded the demand for a new international information order.

23.4.3 New International Information Order

The demand for a new information order emerged in the context of the debate on the new international economic order. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), seeking to promote the values of equality interdependence, development oriented towards the people rather than capital and technology, harmony with the environment, respect for human rights, and satisfaction of the basic human needs had developed the concept of New International Economic Order (NIEO).' In order to correct the imbalances and distortions in the prevailing economic relations between the North and South, the NAM called for better terms of trade with the industrialised nations and more local control over productive assets such as capital, labour, and technology. It also called for greater trade among developing nations, greater investments by the industrialised countries, and greater participation of the developing countries in the world economic institutions. T+ issue was debated in .the United Nations which in 1974 passed the Declaration of a International Economic Order.

The demand for a New Information Order was an outgrowth of the values inherent in the NIEO debate. As the non-aligned nations emphasised, one order was meaningless without the other. Communication was an antecedent and engine to economic activity. At the Aligers summit meeting in 1973, the NAM called for the "reorganisation of existing communication channels, which area legacy of the colonial past". Thereafter the demand for a new information order gathered momentum in tandem with the demand for NIEO. The New Delhi Declaration on Decolonisation of Information in 1976 succinctly put forward the case for balanced flow of information thus:

"The present global information flows are marked by seridus inadequacy and imbalance. The means of communication information are concentrated in a few countries. The great majority of countries are reduced to being passive recipients of infomation which is disseminated from a few centres.

This situation perpetuates the colonial era of dependence and domination. It confines judgements and decisions on what should be known, and how it should be made known, into the hands of a few.

Just as political and dependence are legacies of a colonialism, so is the case of dependence in the field of information which in turn retards the achievement of po1,itical and economic growth.

Revolution in Communication Technology

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Issuw In Development 8 In a situation in which the means of information are dominate and monopolised by a few, freedom of information- really comes to mean the freedom of a few to propaBate information in the manner of their choosing and the virtual denial to the rest d the right to inform and be informed objectively and accurately".

Not content with a mere critique, the NAM also launched two concrete efforts aimed at redressing the imbalances in the worlds information flows. In 1975 the Non-aligned News Agencies Pool was initiated to provide news and information not usually found in western neqs services. In 1977, NAM organised the Broadcasting Organisations of the Non-Aligned Countries to ensure dissemination of broadcast information in and from non-aligned countries.

It was at tht Colombo summit meeting that the NAM unequivocally stated for the first time.that "a new international order in the fields of information and mass communicaaions is as vital as a new international economic order". It was largely as a result of the NAMs efforts to obtain the Decolonisation of information that in 1978 UNESCO established an International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, ppularly known as the MacBride Commission after its chairman Sean MacBride. The commission's report, Many Voices, One World, was presented at the '. 1980 Generhl Conference. The MacBride commission strongly advocated the establishmemt of a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) and especially focused on the democratisation of communication. It called for reducing commercialism in communications and emphasised the media's role in aiding oppressed people to gain grater freedom, independence, access to information, and right to exprespion. The commission also envisioned an expanded role for UNESCO in implementing these recommendations.

However, the call for a new international information order encountered strong resistance from the Western governments. The press and publishing lobbying groups in these countries opposed the new information order on the premise that would lead to government control. They particularly objected to the article stating that "States are responsible for the activities in the international sphere of all mass media under their jurisdiction". The United was particularly unhappy that UNESCO's programmes limited the influence and participation of private sector in the development of national communications of the developing nations. The United States withdrew from the UNESCO in 1984 saying that its programmes endangered the free flow of information and free matket. It claimed that the Soviet threat hung over the future operations of the UNESCO and that freedom of press was in danger. A year later, Britain also withdraw from the UNESCO.

The withdrapal of the US resulted in the information and communication issue being shifted to the back burner at the UNESCO. Despite some sparks of activity, the information debate was largely squashed by the US action. The 1985 General Conference in a conciliatory tone declared that the establishment of a new world information and communication order should be 'seen as an evolving and continuous process'. In the following years all important issues of the new information order such as global news, the right to communicate, or national communication policies receded into the background.

23.5 THE PRESENT INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION ORDER

A new information.order has taken shape but not the one envisaged by the non-aligned nations. It is an order of the advanced countries of the No&. While many nations of the South languish in the preelectric age, the developed nations have moved into the post-industrid or information age. The primary orientation of their economies is towards service rather than manufacturing activities. The knowledge industry predominates in these economies. These economies are shifting their manufacturing bases to the less developed countries where the cost of labour is relatively cheap. Economies are getting inextricably intertwined. But this interdependence facilitated by the communication technologies masks the growing divide between the North and South which has widened even more. Consider the following:

Around the world each day, more than 8500 newspapers publish over 575 million copies. The developed countries account for 70 per cent of total newspaper production. Although developing countries, with three quarters of the worlds population own about one-half of the worlds daily newspapers, they can manage only 30 per cent of the worlds newspaper output. On over 60 countries, there are no general interest newspapers or only a single newspaper is published.

Book production has increased dramatically around the world. But more books are published [over six lakhs] and exported by the developed countries than by the developing countries [over two lakhs]. The increasing demand for scientific, technical, and educational books and the shortage of printing paper requires most developing countries to import increasing quantities of books from the countries of the West. However, the flow of books from the developing countries to the developed world remains slight. Essentially, the flow of books between the two groups is a one-way flow of books between the two groups is a one-way flow, with increasing concentration of the publishing industry in a few multinational corporations. The United States, Great Britain and Germany are among the largest exporters of books.

In the production of cinematic films, developing countries produce a little more than the developed countries. India leads the world in the production of films. But United States while not the largest producer is the largest exporter. Along with France, Great Britain and Germany, it accounts for 80 to 90 per cent of all exported films.

There are disparities in the distribution of radio and television receivers. The number of receiver per 1000 inhabitants in the developed world was 1,006 and 485 in 1988 while in the developing countries it was 173 and 44. These statistic do not reflect the fact that hundreds of radio transmitters in the third world are actually repeaters for signals originating in the developed world or the heavy dependence imported television programming, primarily from United States, or to a much'lesser extent, Europe and Japan.

Today there are nearly 200 communications satellit@ in the geo-synchronous orbit. Of these, over 90 per cent are launched by the developed countries. The United States and the Commonwealth of Independent States, have the largest satellite networks, including domestic civilian and world wide military communication network. With only 15 per cent of the worlds population, they use more than 50 per cent of the geo-stationary orbit.

By the end of the 1980s, the number of telephone lines in service in the developed countries was 350 million, as compared to 60 million in the developing world. Ten developed countries, with 20 per cent of the worlds population, accounted for almost three quarters of all telephone lines. The United States had as many telephone lines as all of Asia. More important, the telephone technology in the developing countries is still primitive and expensive when compared with the developed countries.

Over 90 per cent of the worlds computers are found in 15 of the world most economically advanced countries. International computer communications is available in more than one hundred countries. But it requires three basic preconditions: a reliable universal electrical supply, noise-free and interference-free telephone lines, and reliable maintenance services. All these are lacking in most parts of the world. ' In the 1980s nations of th; South experience many improvements in communications,

but the disparity between the North and the South continued to grow. Although some progress has been made in making developing countries concerns heard, the current flow of information is more unbalanced today than it was ever before, Further although some transactional mass media have improved their coverage of the South, images of these

, countries are still distorted. I

1 Market and commercial forces have been the main driving forces behind the current technological developments in the area of communications and information. In the 1970s, commercial interests played an important role in the weakening of institutional and governmental controls in the United States. In the 1980s many European nations have deregulated their communication and information sectors allowing greater

Revolution In Communlcetlon Technology

Lssues in Development participation of the private sector in information production and dissemination. These market forces have their own political power and in many countries complement government policies that view electronic information industries as vital to the nations economic well being. As we noted earlier, these forces have played an important role in scuttling the development of a new information order as envisaged by the developing countries. With the national economies getting intertwined and with the emergence of world-wide communication and information networks, today there are greater pressures on the developing nations to deregulate their economies and information sectors.

Partly as a result of the growing communication among and between people around the world, and partly because of the market forces another ominous development is taking place - the increasing concentration and trans-nationalisation of media. A handful of huge conglomerates have begun to dominate the world's flow of information and communication. If the present trends continue by the end nf the present century less than a dozen corporate giants are expected to control most of the world's important newspapers, magazines, books, broadcast stations, movies, recordings and videocassettes. These corporate giants exert a homogenising influence over ideas, culture, and commerce. This threatens the right to information to the extent that there will be no diverse sources to choose from and further there will be limited access for those citizens who wish to reach others.

23.5.1 Impact of Communication Technologies on International Politics

The impact of communication revolution heralded by communication satellites, digital and computer systems on international politics are just beginning to be felt. While predicting the exact impact of the new communication technologies is tricky, one thing is sure..The familiar ground is rapidly shifting. Almost all societies have become porous. Due to the convergence of key technologies, national governments are losing control over iheir national communications. Satellites make nonsense of traditional geography and notions of distance; cable multiplies the .local delivery systems and sucks in distant signals; and computers process and transfer information to each other. As nations loose control over message production, dissemination, and reception, as a resulr- of the tranfnational character of the communication technologies and processes, nations are faced with new threats - vulnerability to disruption and technical failures.

A new kind of global community is emerging with non-state actors such as transnational corporations and non-governmental organisations (NGO's) playing an important role. Communication revolution had played an important role in the rise of these actors into prominence. Previously isolated from one another, NGO's 'are becoming global actors, with the increase in their power and capacity to communicate. Playing a prominent role at the United Nations and other world forums, NGO's and citizen advocacy groups are taking up issues like environment protection, disarmament, human rights, consumer rights etc. issues and problems whose scale confounds local and national solutions. There is some evidence to suggest the emergence of a fledging global civil society, that is part of our collective lives that is neither market nor government but is so often inundated by them.

Communication technologies are also facilitating the emergence of a world public opinion, another evidence of the emergence of global civil society. World opinion has formed around two types of problems; widespread national problems, such as underdevelopment, hunger, social inequalities, and the energy crisis; and problems that are global in scope, such as development, environment, disarmament, and human rights. Political leaders are increasingly paying attention not only to the traditional home and human rights. Political leaders are increasingly paying attention not only to the traditional home and foreign public opinion but the opinion expressed by the world at large. In the pre electronic ages, political leaders believed they could control home and foreign public opinion. The news media rarely quoted from editorial or opinion pieces that appear abroad. But today improved communication technologies, together with s~phisticated sampling techniques, now make it possible for governments and the news media to know precisely what foreign publics think. Governments often tailor their actions to foreign publics as well as their own.




1) What is the position of the Non-aligned states on the flow of information?

2) The main recommendations of the MacBride Commission are:

..................................................................................................... 3) What promoted the United States to withdraw from UNESCO?

23.6 LET US SUM UP

As result of convergence of several technologies, we are amidst dramatic, developments in communication and information fields. As we saw, the,principal technologies here are communication and remote sensing satellites and the digital systems. Unfortunately the communication technologies have not benefited all the human kind equally. There are enormous and ever growing disparities between those who have information and those who lack information. These differences exist within and between countries.

Since the mid 1970s, developing nations have been seeking to create a international communication order that is more balanced, decolonised and democratic. They have faced strong opposition from commercial interests and from those nations who want to retain their control over the global economic and information orders.

The impact of these technologies on international politics js just beginning to be felt. As we saw national sovereignty is threatened by communication technologies which make geographical distances meaningless. There is a global civil society in the making as a result of the world wide communication revolution. The present international communication and information order is promoting interdependence between nations and contributing to cultural homogenisation or synchronisation of the world. But it is also legitimising the existing economic disparities between and within nations.


Revolution in Communication Technology

Govind Narain Srivastava (1989), NAM and the New Intematioml Information and Communication Order, Indian Institute of Non-aligned Studies, New Delhi.

Howard H Fredrick (1993), Global Communication and International Relations, Wadsworth Publishing Company, California.

Issues In Development Simon Serfaty (ed) (1990), The Media and Foreign Policy, St. Martin Press, New York.

Hamid Mowlana (1986), Global Information and World Communication; New Frontiers International Relations, Longmans, London.



1) Language, tourism, international organisations are some of the non technological. . channels of communication.

2) A declaration adopted by nine countries located on the equator in 1976 stating that the geo-stationary orbit is a natural resource of the equatorial states and is thereby subject to their sovereignty. These countries insist that no object could be placed in the GSO without their approval.

3) See section 23.4.1


1) See Section 23.4.2

2) The MacBride commission strongly advocated the establishment of a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) and especially focused on the democratisation of communication. Some of the important recommendations are that: '

1) Developing countries must take measures to establish or develop the essential elements of their communications systems,

2) Networks should be established to increase new flows,

3) National production of broadcasting materials should be encouraged to help overcome dependence on external sources,

4) Communication components in all development projects should receive adequate financing. ,

5 ) The electromagnetic spectrum and geo-stationary orbit should be more equitably shared as the common property of mankind,

6) Special attention should be devoted to obstacles and restriction that derive from the concentration of media ownership,

7) Effective legal measures should be designed to limit the process of concentration and monopolisation,

8) Conditions for the preservation on the cultural identity of every society s'hould be created.

See sectioni&3.4.2

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