Saechtling International

Plastics Handbook

for the Technologist, Engineer and User

Third Edition by Wilbrand Woebcken

Translated and edited by John Haim and David Hyatt

Hanser Publishers, Munich Vienna New York

Hanser/Gardner Publications, Inc., Cincinnati

Contents III

Contents

Abbreviations XI A. Country of origin of trade names XI B. Abbreviations for homopolymers, copolymers, intermediates and rubbers. XI C. Abbreviations for rubbers XVI D. Abbreviations for plasticizers XVI Conversion formulae XVI

1. Plastics Technology 1

1.1. General Concepts 1

Thermoplastics, thermosets, reactive resins - Rigid, semirigid, nonrigid plastics

1.2. Polymers for Plastics 3

1.3. Polymer Modifikation 5 Inter- and intra-molecular combined polymers - Polymer composites

1.4. Polymer Flow and Elasticity 7

1.5. Molecular Arrangements and Service Temperatures 9 The glassy State of rigid plastics made from amorphous polymers - Partially cry-stalline thermoplastics - The rubber-like State - Viscous melts

1.6. Properties of Plastics 13 Range of strength and stiffness - Density - Insulating and construction materials for electrical and electronics engineering - Environmental corrosion resistance -Thermal conductivity and thermal expansion - Combustibility - Design of plastics products - Mass production

1.7. Types of Plastics 15

1.8. Development Trends 18 World production and consumption - Materials developments

2. Literature on Plastics Technology 27 Journals (English and other languages) - Books on plastics technology (Reference books, handbooks, encyclopedias, polymer science textbooks, engineering, pro-cessing, material properties, design, polymer science, polymer analysis, dictiona-ries)

3. Polymer Syntheses; Plastics Processing and Finishing 42

3.1. Polymers and Compounds 42 3.1.1. Polymerization 42

Double-bond polymerization - Condensation polymerization - Rearrange-ment polymerization

3.1.2. Characteristic Values for Polymers and Plastics 45 3.1.3. Auxiliaries and Additives for Plastics 47

Lubricants or parting agents - Stabilizers - Antistatic agents and conduc-ting additives - Flame retardants - Colorants - Flexibilizers - Coupling agents - Fillers, enhancers and reinforcements - Blowing agents

3.1.4. Plastics Compounding 54 Thermoplastic Compounds - Thermosetting Compounds 55

3.1.5. Expanded Plastics 55 Some generalities on cellular plastics

3.1.6. Foam-plastic Manufacturing 56 High and low pressure blowing - Physical and chemical blowing agents -Nucleating agents and pore size regulators - Manufacturing Information

IV Contents

3.2. No-Pressure and Low-Pressure Molding Processes 60 3.2.1. Dipped and Powder-Coated Articles 60 3.2.2. Casting and Spraying of Preproducts 61 3.2.3. Rotation Molding and Centrifugal Casting 63 3.2.4. Low-Pressure Processes for GRP Moldings 65

3.3. Compression, Injection and Blow Molding 71 3.3.1. Introduction 71

High-pressure molding techniques - Designing plastics parts - Shrinkage and tolerances

3.3.2. Injection-Molding Machines 76 Assembly and working cycle - Elements of the injection unit - Elements of the locking unit - The injection-molding process - Ejection of moldings and their aftertreatment - Automation of the injection molding factory

3.3.3. Presses and Ancillary Equipment 85 Types of molding presses - Metering and preheating equipment - Arrange­ments for finishing moldings

3.3.4. Automated and Large Area Presses 87 3.3.5. Molding Tools 89

Materials and production process - Injection molds and gating Systems -Compression and transfer molding tools

3.3.6. Molding Techniques for Thermoplastic Materials 95 General injection technique - Injection molding of filled Compounds -Multi-component injection molding - Structural foam and controlled in­ternal pressure molding - Transfer-injection Stretch molding - Resistance sintering of extremely viscous melts - Blow molding

3.3.7. Molding Techniques for Thermosets and Elastomers 114

3.4. Production of Semifinished Thermosets 119 3.4.1. Casting 119 3.4.2. Laminating 119 3.4.3. Extrusion and Pultrusion 121

3.5. Semifinished Thermoplastics: Older Processes 121 3.5.1. „Celluloid" Process 121 3.5.2. „Astralon" Process 121 3.5.3. Pressing Sheets and Blocks 122 3.5.4. Casting Films 122

3.6. Extrusion of Semifinished Thermoplastics 122 3.6.1. General 122 3.6.2. Construction and Operation of Screw Extruders 123

Types and sizes - Extruder Components - Auxiliary parts between clamp and die - Extruder operating parameters - Processing faults and their cau-ses

3.6.3. Single-Screw Extruders 125 General - Extruders with a forced conveying feed section - Special types of construction

3.6.4. Multi-screw Extruders 129 3.6.5. Extrusion Plant for Various Products 132

Pipes and hollow sections - Solid profiles - Foamed profiles - Bristles, fi-laments and nets - Wire and cable covering - Blown films from annular dies - Sheets, films and coatings with slot dies - Stretch process for flat films - Multi-layer and multi-colored extrusion - Filaments and fibers from films

3.7. Webs Made of Thermoplastics 141 3.7.1. Films made from Solutions 141 3.7.2. Extrusion of Webs 141

Contents V

3.7.3. Calendering of Plastic Film 141 3.7.4. Multilayered Webs 142

Bonding several layers - Spreading, coating and laminating

3.8. Forming and Joining Semifinished Plastics 144 3.8.1. Forming Techniques for Thermoplastics 144

Temperature ranges - Embossing, stretching, roll mill pressing, shrinking, annealing

3.8.2. Cold-Forming Thermoplastics 146 3.8.3. Hand-Fabricating Thermoforming 146 3.8.4. Industrial Stretch Thermoforming 148

Principles of thermoforming by machines - Areas of application - Ther­moforming machines - Laminating, skin packaging and blister packaging

3.8.5. Forming Materials Other Than Thermoplastics 151 3.8.6. Welding of Thermoplastics 151

Shop and field welding techniques - Industrial welding techniques 3.8.7. Bonding of Plastics 155 3.8.8. Screw, Rivet, Snap-in joints 158

3.9. Other Fabrication Processes 161 3.9.1. Cutting, Punching and Separating 161 3.9.2. Machining 161 3.9.3. Surface Treatment 162

4. The Individual Plastics 165

4.1. Thermoplastics: Raw Materials and Molding Compounds 165 4.1.1. Preproducts and Special Products 165

4.1.1.1. Monomer reaction resins 165 Styrene - Vinyl carbazole - Methacrylates - Caprolactam -Methyl-2-cyano acrylate - Triallyl cyanurate

4.1.1.2. Olefin polymers 167 Ethylene (co-)polymers and chlorinated products - Atactic polypropylene (APP) and other a-olefin polymers - Polyiso-butylene (PIB) - Ethylene copolymer + Bitumen blends (ECB)

4.1.1.3. Styrene copolymers 169 4.1.1.4. Vinyl Chloride (co-)polymers 170 4.1.1.5. Vinyl acetate (co-)polymers and their derivatives 170

PVAC and copolymers - PVAL - Butyral PVB, Formal PVFM

4.1.1.6. Polyvinyl ethers 171 4.1.1.7. Polyacrylate resins 171 4.1.1.8. Polyamide copolymers and polyamine products 172 4.1.1.9. Natural product derivatives 172

Rubber conversion products - Cellulose conversion products 4.1.1.10. Dispersions 174 4.1.1.11. Water-soluble polymers 175

(4.1.2.-4.1.12. Thermoplastics for Molding, Extrusion and Calendering) 4.1.2. Polyolefins 176

4.1.2.1. Polyethylene 176 Product groups - Processes for synthesis - Commercial types and trade names - Properties - Processing and application

4.1.2.2. Cross-linked Polyethylene (PE-X) 190 4.1.2.3. PE-C and chlorinated thermoplastic elastomers 191 4.1.2.4. Ethylene copolymers 191

VI Contents

E/VA, E/VAC; E/VOH, E/VAL - (E/EA, E/MA, E/AA etc. -Ionomer resins - Copolymers with tetrafluoroethylene

4.1.2.5. Olefinic thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) 196 4.1.2.6. Polypropylene (PP) and copolymers 196 4.1.2.7. Polybut- l -ene(PB) 201 4.1.2.8. Polymethylpentene (PMP) 202

4.1.3. Styrene-Based Polymers 202 4.1.3.1. Homopolymers, copolymers and alloys 202

Structures, properties and polymerization techniques - Pro­ducts and trade names - General properties - Processing tech­niques - Fields of application

4.1.3.2. Styrene polymers for foam processes 209 4.1.4. Vinyl Chloride Polymers 211

(4.1.4.1.-4.1.4.4. VC-polymer raw materials) 4.1.4.1. Syntheses and delivery forms 211 4.1.4.2. Molecular weight and field of application 213 4.1.4.3. Homopolymers, copolymers and blends 215 4.1.4.4. Stabilizer Systems and fillers 218 4.1.4.5. PVC-U Compounds 219 4.1.4.6. PVC primary and secondary plasticizers 226 4.1.4.7. PVC-P Compounds 226 4.1.4.8. Special grades for insulation and coverings 232 4.1.4.9. PVC pastes (plastisols) ' 232 4.1.4.10. Foamable rigid and plasticized PVC 233

4.1.5. Fluorine-Containing Polymers 234 PTFE - FEP - PFA, TFA, EPE, TFB - ETFE - PVDF - PVF - E/CTFE -Cross-linkable fluoroelastomers

4.1.6. Methylmethacrylate Polymers 240 4.1.6.1. MMA polymers 240 4.1.6.2. PMMA Standard molding Compounds 240 4.1.6.3. Copolymers and blends 243 4.1.6.4. Polymethacrylimide (PMI) molding Compounds 246

4.1.7. Polyacetals or Polyoxymethylenes (POM) 247 4.1.8. Polyamides (PA, Nylons) and Thermoplastic Polyurethanes (TPU) . . 251

4.1.8.1. Crystallizing PA molding Compounds 252 4.1.8.2. Amorphous polyamides 259 4.1.8.3. Flexible and thermoplastic elastomeric PA copolymers

andPEBA 260 PA 12 copolymers - Polyethyer-block amides (PEBA)

4.1.8.4. Thermoplastic polyurethane elastomers (TPU) 262 4.1.9. Linear (Semi-)Aromatic Polyesters 265

4.1.9.1. Polycarbonates (PC) 266 4.1.9.2. Polycarbonate + styrene component blends 271 4.1.9.3. Polyalkylene terephthalates (PTP) 272 4.1.9.4. Thermoplastic po!y(ether)ester elastomers 275 4.1.9.5. Amorphous polyarylates 277 4.1.9.6. Self-reinforced crystalline polyarylates (LCP) 278 4.1.10. Linear Polyarylene Ethers (Oxides), Ether ketones,

Sulfides and Sulfones 278 PPE or „PPO" - PEK and PAEK - PPS - PSU, PES

4.1.11. Linear Modified Polyimides 284 PMMI - PAI - PEI - PI-PPS - Malecca

4.1.12. Cellulosics 287 4.1.12.1. Cellulose esters (CA, CAB, CP) 287

Contents VII

4.1.12.2. Ethyl cellulose 288 4.1.13. Thermoplastic Composites 290

4.1.13.1. Molding materials 290 4.1.13.2. Glass mat reinforced thermoplastic prepregs (GMT) . . . . 290

4.1.14. Reclaiming, Reprocessing, Recycling 291 4.1.14.1. Mechanical Separation 292 4.1.14.2. Chemical and thermal process 293 4.1.14.3. Processing of mixed plastics 294

4.1.15. Degradable Plastics 295 4.1.15.1. Photodegradable plastics 295 4.1.15.2. Biodegradable plastics 295

Semi-finished Thermoplastic Material 296 4.2.1. Standardized and Hallmarked Piping Material 296 4.2.2. Polyolefins 300

4.2.2.1. Pipes 300 4.2.2.2. Sheets and sheeting 301 4.2.2.3 Films 301 4.2.2.4. Fleeces and Hat filaments 303 4.2.2.5. Foams 304

4.2.3. Styrene Polymers 304 Standard polystyrene - SAN, SB and ABS sheet - ABS pipe - EPS boards and sheeting

4.2.4. Vinyl Chloride Polymers 306 4.2.4.1. Rigid PVC, unplasticized (PVC-U) 306

Pipes - Chemical engineering - Structural engineering - Con-sumables, office, drawing, measuring and graphics equip-ment - Other applications of thermoformable sheet materials - Packaging sheeting and film - Thermally treated PVC-E film - Furniture foils - Blown film

4.2.4.2. Plasticized PVC (PVC-P) 308 Tubes and profiles - Sheets, webs and band for technical and packaging applications - Flooring, wall and table coverings -Artificial leather and films for welded articles

4.2.4.3. PVC foams 311 4.2.4.4. PVC-coated metal sheets 311

4.2.5. Fluoropolymers 311 4.2.6. Methylmethacrylate polymers, PMI foams 314

4.2.6.1. Manufacture of acrylic sheet 314 4.2.6.2. Properties of PMMA semi-finished products 315 4.2.6.3. Forms of delivery and applications of acrylic sheet 316 4.2.6.4. Acrylic foil, manufacture, forms of delivery, applications 316 4.2.6.5. Polymethacrylimide (PMI) rigid foam 319

4.2.7. Engineering Thermoplastics 321 4.2.8. Thermoplastic Polyesters 323

4.2.8.1. Polycarbonate (PC) 323 4.2.8.2. Polyethylene glycol terephthalate (PETP) 324 4.2.8.3. Mixed terephthalate-isophthalate polyesters 325

4.2.9. Cellulose Esters 326 4.2.9.1. Celluloid and related semi-finished goods 326 4.2.9.2. Extruded products from cellulose ester Compounds 326 4.2.9.3. Cast films for electrotechnical applications 326

Electrical Insulation Films and Packaging Materials 329 4.3.1. Characteristics and Properties 329 4.3.2. Multilayer Packaging Film and Packages 329

VIII Contents

4.3.2.1. Extruded multilayer composite materials 329 4.3.2.2. Coatings, laminates 330 4.3.2.3. Special products 330

4.4. Regenerated Cellulose 331 4.4.1. Cellophane 331 4.4.2. Foamed Products 331 4.4.3. Vulcanized Fiber (VF) 331

4.5. Artificial Hörn Casein Plastics (CS) 333 4.6. Thermosetting Plastics; Raw Materials, Molding Compounds and

Semi-finished Products 333 4.6.1. Curable Engineering Resins 333

4.6.1.1. Phenol (PF), cresol (CF), xylenol and resorcinol formaldehyde resins 333

4.6.1.2. Urea (UF) and melamine (MF) resins 336 4.6.1.3. Furane resins 341 4.6.1.4. Reactive resins and reactants for casting and low-

pressure processing 341 4.6.1.5. Unsaturated polyesters (UP) 348 4.6.1.6. Epoxy resins (Epoxies, EP) 352 4.6.1.7. Special casting resins 356 4.6.1.8. Polyurethanes (PU): preproducts and products 356

Chemistry of the polyisocyanates - Processing and applica-tion, product-systems - Semi-rigid large RIM moldings - Ri­gid integral foam RIM-systems - Semi-flexible integral foam RIM Systems - PU casting resins - Polymer binder resins - Ri­gid PU and PU-PIR foams - Flexible molded and block foams

4.6.2. Thermosetting Molding Compounds 369 4.6.2.1. General characteristics 369 4.6.2.2. Phenolic (PF) molding Compounds 370 4.6.2.3. Aminoplastic molding Compounds 374 4.6.2.4. Polyester (UP) resin Compounds 375 4.6.2.5. Epoxy resin Compounds 379 4.6.2.6. Diallyl phthalate (DAP) molding Compounds 380 4.6.2.7. Silicone resin molding Compounds 381 4.6.2.8. Further high-temperature-resistant thermoset molding

Compounds 381 4.6.3. Semifinisheds from Thermosetting Plastics 381

4.6.3.1. Cast resin products 381 4.6.3.2. Extruded profiles from PF Compounds 381 4.6.3.3. Drawn fiber reinforced profiles 382 4.6.3.4. Wound fiber reinforded profiles 384 4.6.3.5. Laminates 384

Industrial and decorative laminates 4.6.3.6. GRP sheets and Sandwiches 393 4.6.3.7. Reinforced thermosetting resin pipes (RTRP) 393

4.7. Foams (Summary) 395 4.7.1. Concepts 395 4.7.2. Foam Principles 396 4.7.3. Blowing Agents 396 4.7.4. Properties 397

4.8. Advanced High-Temperture Plastics 397 4.8.1. General Limits to Heat Resistance 397 4.8.2. New Routes to High-Temperature Polymers 402

Contents IX

4.8.3. Linear Polyarylenes 403 4.8.4. Polyarylene Amides, Aryl Esters and Ethers 403 4.8.5. Bismaleimide-triazine Resins 404 4.8.6. Polyimides 404 4.8.7. Advanced Heterocyclic Aromatic Polymers 406 4.8.8. Highly Temperature-Resistant and Carbonized Fibers 408

5. Related Topics 411 5.1. Natural and Synthetic Rubber 411 5.2. Silanes and Silicones (SI) 415

6. Standardization 418 6.1. International and National Organizations for Standardization 418

6.1.1. The International Standardization Organisation ISO 418 6.1.2. National Standards Institutes 418

6.2. Fields of Standardization 420 6.2.1. Terminology 420 6.2.2. Standardized Test Methods 422 6.2.3. The Standardization of Plastics Raw and Molding Materials 422 6.2.4. National and International Standardization of Semi-finished Products 429

7. Tests and Their Signiflcance 430 Testing areas - Computer aided data bases

7.1. Fundamental and Processing Data 433 7.1.1. Analytical Chemical Methods 433 7.1.2. Data on Flow Behavior of Thermoplastics That Are Dependent of

Degree of Polymerization 434 7.1.3. Processing Data 435

7.2. General Physical Properties 437 7.3. Test Methods for Measuring the Influence of Temperature 439

7.3.1. The Torsional Pendulum Test 439 7.3.2. Thermal Analytical Methods (DIN 51005) 443 7.3.3. Conventional Single-Value Tests 443 7.3.4. Temperature-Time Limits 443 7.3.5. Reaction to Fire Tests 444

7.4. Resistance to Environmental Effects 448 7.4.1. General Environmental Conditions . . 448 7.4.2. Water Absorption 448 7.4.3. Light and Weathering Resistance 449 7.4.4. Resistance to Fungi, Bacteria and Animals 449 7.4.5. Resistance to Chemicals 450 7.4.6. Resistance to High-Energy Radiation 453 7.4.7. Resistance to Mechanical Wear, Friction and Sliding 453

7.5. Migration and Permeation 456 7.5.1. General Remarks 456 7.5.2. Gas Transmission 457 7.5.3. Water Vapor Transmission 458 7.6. Mechanical Properties 458 7.6.1. Specimen Preparation 458 7.6.2. Stress-Strain Properties under Static Load 460

7.6.2.1. Short-term tests 460

X Contents

7.6.2.2. Creep rupture tests 462 7.6.3. Long-Term Behavior under Dynamic Stress (Fatigue Tests) 466 7.6.4. Impact Resistance Tests 470 7.6.5. Hardness Tests 473

7.7. Some Formulas for the Calculation of Strength 474 7.8. Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) 476

8. Trade Names for Plastics as Raw Materials and Semifinished Goods . . . . 479 8.1. Characteristics of the Register 479 8.2. Arrangement of the Register 479

8.2.1. Ist Category: Resins 481 8.2.2. 2nd Category: Forms of Delivery 484

8.3. Trade Names 487

Subject Index 635