International Management Typology

8/8/2019 International Management Typology

1/29

Journal of Management 2002 28(3) 277305

Recent Developments in InternationalManagement Research: A Review of

20 Top Management Journals

Steve Werner

Department of Management, University of Houston, C.T. Bauer College of Business,

334 Melcher Hall, Room 315, Houston, TX 77204-6021, USA

Received 26 April 2001; received in revised form 20 October 2001; accepted 29 October 2001

This review analyzes recent trends in the international management (IM) literature from 1996

to 2000. The 271 articles located in 20 top management (and management related) journals

are categorized into 12 distinct topics: (1) the global business environment; (2) international-

ization; (3) entry mode decisions; (4) international joint ventures; (5) foreign direct investment

(FDI); (6) international exchange; (7) transfer of knowledge; (8) strategic alliances and net-works; (9) multinational enterprises; (10) subsidiary-headquarters relations; (11) subsidiary

and multinational team management; and (12) expatriate management. Research in each of

these areas is presented and linkages between the areas are reviewed. Concluding thoughts

are offered relating to the pervasiveness, methodologies, and levels of analysis of IM research,

as well as potential areas for future research. 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

As business becomes more global and international management (IM) issues play a more

central role in business practice, the importance and relevance of IM research increases. IM

research may be divided into three categories. The first category is comprised of studiesthat look at the management of firms in a multinational context. Stated differently, this

research emphasizes the international aspects of management that do not exist in domestic

firms (Ricks, 1991). This includes studies looking at the internationalization process, entry

mode decisions, foreign subsidiary management, expatriate management, etc. For a lack of

a better term, I call these studies pure IM research. The second category consists of studies

that compare the management practices of different cultures (cross-cultural studies) and

nations (cross-national studies) (Ricks, Toyne & Martinez, 1990). These studies are known

as comparative management studies (Ricks, 1985). The third and final category consists of

Tel.: +1-713-743-4672; fax: +1-713-743-4652.

E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Werner).

0149-2063/02/$ see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

PII: S 0 1 4 9 - 2 0 6 3 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 2 9 - 0


2/29

278 S. Werner / Journal of Management 2002 28(3) 277305

studies that look at management in a specific nation outside of North America. Because

most research has a North-American bias, management studies done in other countries are

sometimes considered within the domain of IM (Pierce & Garven, 1995). These studies are

known as foreign domestic studies (Ricks, 1985).This review of IM research follows Ricks et al.s (1990) objective of identifying the

recent literature on the basic issues so that the reader can be brought up to date and guided

towards what can be read in order to obtain the depth of understanding desired. A systematic

review of the mass of IM and comparative management research within the length of a

journal article is not possible (Schollhammer, 1994). Thus, I have narrowed the scope

of this review in three ways. First, this review will focus on pure IM research, and not

address comparative management research or foreign domestic studies. Second, this review

will focus on relatively recent research, specifically from 1996 to 2000 inclusive. Third,

this review will focus on research that was published in top management journals. This

research is grouped into 12 categories developed from reading the literature. The review

focuses primarily on the research within and across each of these categories, but descriptive

information about IM research in the top journals first will be discussed.

IM Research in 20 Top Journals

The first step in reviewing the IM research in top journals from 1996 to 2000 was to

identify top journals. I used the list established by Gomez-Mejia and Balkin (1992), which

is comprehensive in that it includes journals from related organizational sciences. This listwas developed using previous published rankings and surveying management department

chairpersons. This list has been consistently cited in articles on journal quality (e.g., Johnson

& Podsakoff, 1994; Kacmar & Whitfield, 2000; Van Fleet, McWilliams & Siegel, 2000)

and includes all academic journals reported in a more recent list (Tahai & Meyer, 1999).

Gomez-Mejia and Balkins (1992) list included 21 journals (because the 20th and 21st were

tied). Because this review focuses on academic research, I eliminated the Harvard Business

Review from the list leaving a total of 20 top journals.

It should be noted that of these 20 journals only one, The Journal of International Busi-

ness Studies, is an international research journal. Thus, this review is primarily of articles in

mainstream management journals, rather than international journals, per se. This is a con-sequence of focusing on top quality management journals and is consistent with research

showing that the quality of the Journal of International Business Studies is substantially

greater than any other international journal (Dubois & Reeb, 2000). The list, along with

the number of pure international articles published in each journal from 1996 to 2000, is

reported in Table 1.

All the articles in these 20 top journals from 1996 to 2000 were examined for IM content.

Articles were considered within the domain of IM if they related to the management of firms

with a multi-national perspective. Following Ricks et al. (1990) comparative management

(comparisons between countries) and cross-cultural management (comparison between cul-

tures) studies were not included because of the great variety in those studies. Of course,cross-national/cultural studies were included if the comparison was of some aspect of man-

aging abroad (e.g., a comparison of Japanese and US expatriate training methods). Articles


3/29

S. Werner / Journal of Management 2002 28(3) 277305 279

Table 1

Top 20 management and management related academic journalsa and the numberof pure international management

articles from 1996 to 2000

Journals Number of studies

Academy of Management Journal 24

Academy of Management Review 6

Administrative Science Quarterly 2

Decision Sciences 5

Human Relations 4

Industrial and Labor Relations Review 6

Industrial Relations 2

Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences 1

Journal of Applied Psychology 3

Journal of International Business Studies 128Journal of Management 5

Journal of Management Studies 19

Journal of Occupational Psychology 0

Journal of Organizational Behavior 5

Journal of Vocational Behavior 0

Management Science 6

Organizational Behavior and Human Dec. Processes 0

Personnel Psychology 2

Psychology Bulletin 0

Strategic Management Journal 53

a

From Gomez-Mejia and Balkin (1992).

from multi-disciplinary journals such as Journal of International Business Studies were not

included if they clearly fell outside of the management domain (e.g., international finance

articles, international accounting articles, etc.).

Of the 4884 articles examined (book reviews and editorials were not included), 271 or

5.5% were categorizedas within the domainof pure IM. To see if the increasing globalization

of business is reflected in academic research, I also looked at the articles in the 20 journals

from 20 years earlier, 19761980. In the 20 years prior, the number of total articles was

relatively similar at 4877, but the number of IM articles was only 90. Thus, the percentageof articles on IM topics in the top 20 journals has gone from 1.8% to 5.5% over the last 20

years. In other words, over 20 years the percentage of management articles covering pure

IM has more than tripled. Clearly, IM topics are more prevalent in our top journals today

than 20 years ago, although they still play a minor role compared to the relevance of IM to

businesses today.

Research Areas of IM

The 271 articles from 1996 to 2000 in the 20 top journals were then grouped into 12naturally occurring categories. These categories were created post hoc, based on my initial

reading of the 271 articles. Because no formal content coding method was used, these


4/29


5/29


categories should be treated as an organizing tool rather than a definitive classification of

the body of research. Table 2 lists the categories, dominant topics included in the category,

and the number of articles within each category. Of the 12 areas, foreign direct investment

(FDI) had the most articles with 37, while International Exchange had the least with 15.Figure 1 provides a graphical representation of the 12 categories. Figures 26 report the

topic, sub-topic, and focus of each of the 271 studies.

Global Business Environment

This area of IM includes studies on the global economy, market structure, political and

regulatory environments, and international risk (see Figure 2). Studies on the global econ-

omy have examined likely future changes in the international business environment, factors

influencing CEOs perceptions of the environment, and resulting social conflict. Several

studies have looked at causes and consequences of global market structures, showing that

greater competition appears to force better management practices. Studies have considered

the effects of government type and environmental regulations, as well as the effects of trade

policies on firms and vice versa. The remaining studies on the global business environment

looked at environmental risk (including measurement issues), risk rating agencies, and the

management of international and exchange rate risk. Overall, the regulatory environment

appears to be the current dominant focus of global environmental research, but interestingly

these papers are usually theoretical, suggesting a need for more empirical research in this

area.

Internationalization

This area of IM includes studies on the descriptions and measurement of international-

ization, antecedents of internationalization, and consequences of internationalization (see

Figure 2). A few studies have attempted to describe or refine the measure of a firms in-

ternationalization. Some researchers on the antecedents of internationalization have looked

at firm and management team variables, while others have focused on the level and speed

of internationalization. Most research looking at the consequences of internationalization

relate it to firm performance, suggesting that internationalization interacts with other vari-

ables (e.g., product diversity, technological investment, managerial incentive alignment,CEO international experience, time-based experience, cultural distance, timing of entry or

withdrawal, psychic distance, and cultural diversity) in predicting performance. Although

consequences of internationalization is the most heavily researched sub-topic, studies have

focused exclusively on firm performance and top management variables, suggesting that

cross-level (employee, industry, and country) and firm consequences other than performance

(i.e., growth, survival, etc.) appear to be potential research areas not currently addressed in

top management journals.

Entry Mode Decisions

This area of IM includes the predictors of entry mode choices, predictors of interna-

tional equity ownership levels, and consequences of entry mode decisions (see Figure 3).


6/29


Figure 1. Current themes in pure international management research.

Predictors of a firms entry mode choice or level of equity ownership include host country

factors (such as restrictiveness, cultural distance, market structure, location costs, and expro-

priation hazards), multinational enterprise (MNE) factors (such as firm specific advantages,strategies, strategic options, experience, structure, financial factors, visual identity, and or-

ganizational capabilities), transaction costs, home country factors, and industry. Similar


7/29


Figure 2. Research on the global business environment and internationalization.

to internationalization, most research looking at the consequences of entry mode choices

relates it to firm performance (with some looking at longevity). Performance was directlyrelated to entry mode, as well as its fit with strategy, firm capabilities, entry mode order,

and ownership, locational, and internalization variables. With most research focusing on


8/29


Figure 3. Research on entry mode decisions and international joint ventures.


9/29


predictors, and the remaining looking at consequences, topics such as the measurement,

description, and processes of entry mode appear to be potential research areas not currently

addressed in top management journals.

International Joint Ventures

This area of IM includes motivations of international joint ventures (IJV) partner selec-

tion, IJV partner relations, and consequences of IJVs (see Figure 3). Both national (e.g.,

geographical proximity, risk conditions) and firm factors (e.g., strategic motivation, size)

appear to affect partner selection. Studies looking at IJV partner relations have primarily

focused on the stability of the relationship. Much of the IJV research looks at outcomes

of IJVs and factors that affect those outcomes. IJV survival (failure and longevity) is the

most common outcome investigated, but a number of studies also have looked at economic

performance. Survival and economic performance appear to be affected by numerous firm(e.g., experience, size), partner (e.g., business relatedness), venture (e.g., equity, timing),

and country (e.g., cultural distance) factors. As with internationalization, consequences are

the most researched area, with employee, industry, and firm consequences (other than sur-

vival or performance) appearing to be potential research areas not currently addressed in

top management journals.

Foreign Direct Investment

This area of IM includes timing of FDI, motivations of FDI, location of FDI, and firm

and host country consequences of FDI (see Figure 4). Timing of FDI appears to be relatedto reversibility or delayability of decisions, business strength, market opportunities, firm

capabilities, strategic assets, and size. The motivations of FDI include the preservation of

export established foreign markets, the gaining of country-specific advantages, and domes-

tic inter-firm rivalry. Motivations are an important factor in cross-national FDI location,

as well as firm (specific assets, experience, firm size, and dependence) and country factors

(location characteristics, network linkages, political risk, culture, trade policies, education

level, union penetration, and workplace regulations). Intra-national location factors include

agglomeration economies, coastal locations, labor factors, and trade missions. The research

on the consequences of FDI has focused on the host country (spillover effects, imports

and exports, industry agglomeration, productivity), the firm (performance, top manage-ment turnover, competitive advantage, organizational form and resource deployment), the

acquisition (survival, performance, management style, profit variance, and value creation),

and moderator variables (country type, experience, effective integration, product diversifi-

cation, cultural compatibility, and autonomy). Again consequences is the most researched

sub-topic, with timing the least researched. Thus, timing of FDI (such as the nature of

firm/industry/national FDI life cycles), appears to be a potential research area infrequently

addressed in top management journals.

International Exchange

This area of IM includes exchange overviews, determinants of exporting, export inter-

mediaries, and consequences of exporting (see Figure 4). The determinants of exporting


10/29


Figure 4. Research on foreign direct investment and international exchange.

behaviors include firm (export marketing orientation, intermediate imports, size, owner-

ship advantages, level of cross-national production, interpersonal links), and home and hostlocation (market size, income level) factors. The use, performance, and service offerings

of export intermediaries also have been explored. Several studies have looked at factors


11/29


affecting export performance including keiretsu membership, the fit between export strat-

egy and economic level of host country, gray market activity, firm market share, and relative

size of firms. The research in this area has largely focused on exports, suggesting that other

exchange mechanisms (e.g., imports, franchising) are potential research areas not frequentlyaddressed in top management journals.

Transfer of Knowledge

This area of IM includes antecedents of knowledge transfer, processes of knowledge trans-

fer, and consequences of knowledge transfer (see Figure 5). The antecedents of the various

types of knowledge transfer include various firm, partner, and venture factors. Transaction

cost models, organizational forms, and the use of experts have been shown to relate to the

processes of knowledge transfer. The consequences of knowledge transfer include general,business, and HR performance, information processing, cycle times, efficiency, venture

outcomes, firm value, relationship commitment, and customer satisfaction. Again, conse-

quences are the most studied sub-topic. However, a wide range of firm level consequences

has been explored. International barriers to knowledge transfer is a potential research area

not frequently addressed in top management journals.

Strategic Alliances and Networks

This area of IM includes strategic alliance relationships, business networks, and out-

comes of strategic alliances (see Figure 5). A number of environmental, firm and alliancefactors have been found to affect various aspects (e.g., trust, reciprocity, negotiation tactics,

compensation structures, relationship stability) of the strategic alliance relationship. Net-

works of strategic alliances have been found to relate to value creation, greater profits,

price and cost fluctuations, and negotiation outcomes. Strategic alliances have been found

to affect firms technological position, innovative capabilities, performance through social

monitoring mechanisms, information exchange, continuity expectations, and reflexivity.

Interestingly, the area of strategic alliance relationships are the most researched sub-topic,

while the area of consequences is the least researched sub-topic. Specifically, the impact of

foreign partners on firm performance is a potential research area not frequently addressed

in top management journals.

Multinational Enterprises

This area of IM includes MNE policies, MNE strategies, and models and descriptions

of the MNEs (see Figure 5). MNE policy research generally has explored the relationship

between environmental policies and firm performance. Research on MNE strategies, the

most researched sub-topic, has looked at strategic processes (e.g., flexibility, change), out-

comes (e.g., performance), and factors that moderate the strategy/performance relationship

(e.g., national stereotypes). Models and descriptors of MNEs have focused on classifica-tions, flexibility, legitimacy, and structural changes. Unlike most other topics, this area has

a substantial percentage of theoretical papers (25%) and case studies (25%).


12/29


Figure 5. Research on transfer of knowledge, strategic alliances and networks, and multinational enterprises.

Subsidiary-Headquarters Relations

This area of IM includes subsidiary role, subsidiary control, and subsidiary performance

(see Figure 6). Subsidiary roles, mandates, and initiatives have been found to be affected by


13/29


Figure 6. Research on subsidiary-HQ relations, subsidiary and multinational team management, and expatriate

management.


14/29


subsidiary (leadership, entrepreneurial culture), MNE (capabilities, specialized resources),

and environmental (industry globalization) factors. The degree and type of control MNEs

exert on their subsidiaries is related to subsidiary (unit role, interdependence, functional area,

level of ownership, and profitability) and MNE (sales, commitment, and nationality) factors.Subsidiary performance and survival is related to the intensity and diversity of the MNCs

host country experience, having few foreign competitors, and the fit between compensation

strategy and subsidiary factors. Subsidiary role is the most researched sub-topic, while

performance is the least researched sub-topic.

Subsidiary and Multinational Team Management

This area of IM includes subsidiary human resource management practices, subsidiary

behaviors, multinational negotiations, and multinational team management (see Figure 6).

Most studies of foreign subsidiary human resource management (HRM) practices and other

subsidiary behaviors compare them to the practices of domestic firms. Differences between

foreign owned firms and domestic firms include the use of high-commitment HR practices,

pension and welfare benefits, gender discrimination, work values, high performance work-

place practices, management succession, management styles, and product introductions.

Studies of cross-national negotiations have looked at negotiators affect, negotiation mod-

els, and differences in inter- and intranational negotiations. Studies of managing cross-

national teams have looked at patterns of relationships in multinational teams, business

relationships, multinational group conflict resolution, team performance and team hetero-

geneity. Interestingly this is the only area that includes non-case study qualitative research.

Expatriate Management

This area of IM includes expatriate HRM,issuesfor expatriates, andexpatriate andrepatri-

ate reactions (see Figure 6). Studies looking at the HRM aspects of expatriates have focused

on assignment acceptance, identifying expatriate potential, expatriate trainability, and expa-

triate performance appraisals. Other expatriate issues studied include expatriates influence

strategies, expatriate mentoring, conflicts involving expatriates, and the over-qualification

of expatriates. Most studies looked at various expatriate reactions, which included con-

cerns and expectations of dual-career expatriates, adjustment, psychological withdrawal,pre-departure thoughts, commitment, and perceptions of justice of local workers. While

expatriate and repatriate reactions is the most researched sub-topic, unlike other topics, few

studies have looked at expatriate performance or other behavioral consequences.

Linkages between IM Areas

Although much of the research reviewed fits neatly within one of the areas described

earlier, numerous studies explore linkages between areas. A number of the areas can be

thought of as inclusive within others (for example, internationalization involves entry modeschoices, which are FDI, joint ventures, or exchange) and thus are substantially linked.

Similarly, transfer of knowledge is closely associated with strategic alliances and networks.


15/29


Most non-inclusive areas are linked to others by some research (as represented with solid

arrows in Figure 1), but some have received considerably less attention (as represented with

dashed arrows). Examining these linkages will help integrate this large body of research

and hopefully provide a framework to help future researchers identify potential researchareas not currently addressed in top management journals.

Global Business Environment& Internationalization

As would be expected, the global business environment appears to be pervasive in its

influence across areas. Numerous studies on environmental factors have linked with other

topics including internationalization (e.g., Sarkar, Cavusgil & Aulakh, 1999), MNEs (e.g.,

Denison, Dutton, Kahn & Hart, 1996), and subsidiary management (Yahya-Zadeh, 1998).

Interestingly, two areas with less research related to the global business environment appear

to be transfer of knowledge and expatriate management. One would expect environmental

variables such as economic factors, government regulations, exchange rate risk, and political

risk to affect the use, processes, and effectiveness of knowledge transfer as well as the

management and reactions of expatriates. These appear to be potential research areas not

currently addressed in top management journals.

Much of the internationalization research and its inclusive topics relate to firm char-

acteristics and how they affect internationalization (e.g., Hitt, Hoskisson & Kim, 1997),

entry modes (e.g., Davis, Desai & Francis, 2000), and mode outcomes (e.g., Brouthers,

Brouthers & Werner, 1999). A number of the mode studies (particularly IJV studies) are

related to strategic alliances and networks (e.g., Pan, 1997), knowledge transfer (e.g.,Park & Ungson, 1997), and to a lesser extent subsidiary-HQ relations (e.g., Inkpen &

Beamish, 1997). However, little research appears to link internationalization and its inclu-

sive areas with subsidiary or expatriate management. How the level and speed of interna-

tionalization, choice of entry modes, levels of ownership, and nature of JV partners relate

to subsidiary HRM practices and behaviors, team management, and the management and

reactions of expatriates also appear to be potential areas for future research.

Other Linkages

A number of studies involving the two related areas of knowledge transfer and strate-gic alliances also have included MNE characteristics (e.g., Grosse, 1996), and aspects of

subsidiary-HQ relations (e.g., Aulakh, Kotabe & Sahay, 1996), but few have focused on

subsidiary or expatriate management. How subsidiary and expatriate management can affect

knowledge transfer and strategic alliances and vice versa also appear to be potential areas

for future research. Expatriate reactions have been linked with both MNE (e.g., Gregersen

& Black, 1996) and subsidiary factors (e.g., Bolino & Feldman, 2000), but less so with

subsidiary-HQ relations. How expatriates relate to subsidiary control, performance, and

roles also appears to be a potential area for future research.

In this brief exploration of the research between topics in Figure 1, I have pointed out a

number of linkages that have received little recent attention in the top management journals.Of course, this does not mean that those that have received considerable attention do not

deserve further exploration. There are likely numerous unexplored relationships between


16/29


various sub-topics across linked and inclusive areas that warrant research, but exploring

these is beyond the scope of this review. Also, to simplify the analysis of linkages, I have

focused exclusively on the relationships between two different topics. Further interesting

and fruitful areas of research might involve three or more of these areas and the variousinteractions between them. For example, how does the global environment interact with

MNE factors and entry mode choice to predict consequences of knowledge transfers? I

leave it to the future researchers to explore the ways many of the topic areas can interact to

affect other topics, processes, and consequences.

Concluding Thoughts

While writing this review a number of thoughts about the current state of research in IM

came to mind. These thoughts concern the pervasiveness of IM, the methodologies of IMresearch, levels of analysis of IM research, and additional potential areas for future research.

Pervasiveness of IM

As shown earlier, the percentage of articles in the top management journals that can be

classified as pure IM research has tripled over the last 20 years. Nonetheless, the percentage

of articles over the last 5 years that are pure IM (5.5%) is still small. This is particularly

surprising when one considers that every sub-area within the domain of management has

the potential to have an international aspect to it. For example, analyzing how multinational

corporations differ from domestic firms on any aspect of management is a viable IM topic.Yet, we find that only about one out of twenty studies focuses on such international aspects.

Clearly, as the business environment becomes more global, we would expect management

research to do the same.

Methodologies of IM Research

A number of scholars have suggested that because the field of IM (and international

business) is relatively young, more qualitative methodologies are necessary because they

facilitate grounded theory building (Mendenhall, Beaty & Oddou, 1993; Schollhammer,

1994; Wright, Lane & Beamish, 1988). Several years ago, Mendenhall et al. (1993) foundthat very little research was qualitative or joint method (qualitative and empirical). In the

last 5 years in 20 top journals, 13% of the studies were theoretical, 2.5% used mathematical

modeling, 6.3% used case study methodology, and 2.2% used other qualitative methods

exclusively. Thus, case studies and other qualitative methodologies are still not frequently

used. It is not clear whether this is because of the inherent difficulties of qualitative research

(Wright et al., 1988), because of the dominant philosophical position of the superiority of

the quantitative method, or because of some other reason.

Levels of Analysis of IM Research

Levels of analysis in IM research include countries, states, industry clusters, industries,

firms, strategic business units, subsidiaries, teams, and individuals. After reviewing this


17/29


research, it is apparent that most IM research over the last 5 years has been at the macro

rather than micro level. Specifically, the firm appears to be the dominant level of analysis,

while only a small minority of studies is at the individual level. Further, very few seem to

be cross-level or meso studies (see Klein, Tosi & Cannella, 1999). Of the 12 categories,only two (subsidiary and multinational team management and expatriate management) are

predominantly researched at the micro level. Numerous micro and cross-level international

topics appear to be potential research areas not currently addressed in top management

journals.

Additional Areas for Future Research

Numerous scholars have in the recent past provided suggestions for areas in IM that are

ripe for more extensive research (Caves, 1998; Schollhammer, 1994; Spivey & Thomas,

1990; Wright & Ricks, 1994). In looking at their suggestions, it is clear that many of the

recommendations have been followed. For example, several mentioned the need for more

research in knowledge transfer, strategic alliances, market structures, and environmental

policies, areas that received considerable research attention over the last 5 years. However,

some areas have still not received much attention in top management journals, and while

acknowledging Caves (1998) warning that attempting to point out fruitful areas for future

research is a fools errand, there are a number of broad themes not addressed earlier that

appear to be worthy of more concentrated research efforts for publication in the leading

management journals. They include multinational micro level research, societal factors of

the global environment, and multinational enterprise strategies.

Multinational micro level research. As previously mentioned, international micro level

research seems to be overlooked in the leading management journals. Although some re-

search has looked at multinational teams and multinational negotiation, very little has fo-

cused on international issues such as leadership of multinational employees, multinational

communication, multinational motivation, multinational conflict resolution, or multina-

tional team-building. As organizations become comprised of more multinational employees

and form more multinational partnerships, we need to know more about how to effectively

manage multinational employees, teams, and divisions.

Societal factors of the global environment. Although a few studies in this review focused

on environmental policies, almost no research considered other aspects of a multinationals

influence on societal issues and vice versa. Although Schollhammer (1994) and Wright and

Ricks (1994) called for more of this research, little has been published in the leading man-

agement journals. Research looking at topics such as the ethics, societal effects, stakeholder

implications, and performance implications of MNC labor policies, MNC discrimination,

MNC legal compliance or MNC political actions would be welcome.

MNC strategies. As evident from this review, other than the areas of strategic al-

liances and entry mode strategies there is very little research on MNC strategies. Pastreviews have called for more research on determining optimum MNC strategies, MNC de-

cision making strategies, strategic options, strategy formation, and competitive processes


18/29


(Caves, 1998;Schollhammer, 1994; Spivey & Thomas, 1990 Wright & Ricks, 1994). Based

on the lack of current research in the leading management journals in these areas, it appears

they are still deserving of a more concentrated research focus.

Conclusion

The organizing framework presented here was not meant to be the definitive classification

system of IM research. Numerous studies provide linkages between different topics, and

some sub-topics could stand on their own. This framework was presented to assist the reader

in organizing the considerable number of studies reviewed and to aid readers in identifying

potential areas for future research and areas where considerable progress has been made.

Over the last 20 years the top management journal space devoted to IM has substantially

increased; however, it is still only a small percentage. Numerous questions remain. Although

the field of IM has advanced considerably, it has raised as many questions as it has answered.

The challenge remains to continue answering the emerging questions.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Lance Brouthers, Robert Konopaske, Keith Brouthers, and Michael

Dutch for their helpful comments and assistance on previous drafts of this manuscript. I

would also like to thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive andinsightful comments.

References

Adler, P. S., Goldoftas, B., & Levine, D. I. 1997. Ergonomics, employee involvement, and the Toyota production

system: A case study of NUMMIS 1993 model introduction. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 50:

416437.

Almeida, P. 1996. Knowledge sourcing by foreign multinationals: Patent citation analysis in the US semiconductor

industry. Strategic Management Journal, 17: 155165.

Anand, J., & Delios, A. 1997. Location specificity and the transferability of downstream assets to foreign

subsidiaries. Journal of International Business Studies, 28: 579603.

Anand, J., & Kogut, B. 1997. Technological capabilities of countries, firm rivalry and foreign direct investment.

Journal of International Business Studies, 28: 445465.

Andersson, T., & Fredriksson, T. 1996. International organization of production and variation in exportation from

affiliates. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 249263.

Appold, S. J., Siengthai, S., & Kasarda, J. D. 1998. The employment of women managers and professionals in

an emerging economy: Gender inequality as an organizational practice. Administrative Science Quarterly, 43:

538565.

Aram, J. D. 1997. Challenges to the social foundations of capitalism in an age of global economics. Human

Relations, 50: 967986.

Arora, A., & Fosfuri, A. 2000. Wholly owned subsidiary vs. technology licensing in the worldwide chemical

industry. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 555572.

Arora, A., & Gambardella, A. 1997. Domestic markets and international competitiveness: Generic and

product-specific competencies in the engineering sector. Strategic Management Journal, 18: 5374.


19/29


Aryee, S., Chay, Y. W., & Chew, J. 1996. An investigation of the willingness of managerial employees to accept

an expatriate assignment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17: 267283.

Athanassiou, N., & Nigh, D. 1999. The impact of US company Internationalization on top management team

advice networks: A tacit knowledge perspective. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 8392.Athanassiou, N., & Nigh, D. 2000. Internationalization, tacit knowledge and the top management team of MNCs.


Aulakh, P. S., Cavusgil, S. T., & Sarkar, M. B. 1998. Compensation in international licensing agreements. Journal

of International Business Studies, 29: 409420.

Aulakh, P. S., Kotabe, M., & Sahay, A. 1996. Trust and performance in cross-border marketing partnerships: A

behavioral approach. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 10051032.

Aulakh, P. S., Kotabe, M., & Teegen, H. 2000. Export strategies and performance of firms from emerging

economies: Evidence from Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 342361.

Autio, E., Sapienza, H. J., & Almeida, J. G. 2000. Effects of age at entry, knowledge intensity and imitability on

international growth. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 909942.

Balabanis, G. I. 2000. Factors affecting export intermediaries service offerings: The British example. Journal of

International Business Studies, 31: 8399.Banerji, K., & Sambharya, R. B. 1996. Vertical keiretsu and international market entry: The case of the Japanese

automobile ancillary industry. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 89113.

Barkema, H. G., Bell, J. H. J., & Pennings, J. M. 1996. Foreign entry, cultural barriers, and learning. Strategic

Management Journal, 17: 151166.

Barkema, H. G., Shenkar, O., Vermeulen, F., & Bell, J. H. 1997. Working abroad, working with others: How firms

learn to operate international joint ventures. Academy of Management Journal, 40: 426442.

Barkema, H. G., & Vermeulen, F. 1997. What differences in the cultural backgrounds of partners are detrimental

for international joint ventures? Journal of International Business Studies, 28: 845864.

Barkema, H. G., & Vermeulen, F. 1998. International expansion through start-up or acquisition: A learning

perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 41: 726.

Birkinshaw, J. 1996. How multinational subsidiary mandates are gained and lost.Journal of International BusinessStudies, 27: 467495.

Birkinshaw, J. 1997. Entrepreneurship in multinational corporations: The characteristics of subsidiary initiatives.

Strategic Management Journal, 18: 207229.

Birkinshaw, J., Bresman, H., & Hkanson, L. 2000. Managing the post-acquisition integration process: How the

human integration and task integration processes interact to foster value creation. Journal of Management

Studies, 37: 395425.

Birkinshaw, J., & Hood, N. 1998. Multinational subsidiary evolution: Capability and charter change in

foreign-owned subsidiary companies. Academy of Management Review, 23: 773795.

Birkinshaw, J., & Hood, N. 2000. Characteristics of foreign subsidiaries in industry clusters. Journal of

International Business Studies, 31: 141154.

Birkinshaw, J., Hood, N., & Jonsson, S. 1998. Building firm-specific advantages in multinational corporations:

The role of subsidiary initiative. Strategic Management Journal, 19: 221241.Bogner, W. C., Thomas, H., & McGee, J. 1996. A longitudinal study of the competitive positions and entry paths

of European firms in the US pharmaceutical market. Strategic Management Journal, 17: 85107.

Bolino, M. C., & Feldman, D. C. 2000. The antecedents and consequences of underemployment among expatriates.

Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21: 889911.

Borkowski, S. C. 1999. International managerial performance evaluation: A five country comparison. Journal of


Brannen, M. Y., & Salk, J. E. 2000. Partnering across borders: Negotiating organizational culture in a

German-Japanese joint venture. Human Relations, 53: 451487.

Bresman, H., Birkinshaw, J., & Nobel, R. 1999. Knowledge transfer in international acquisitions. Journal of


Brett, J. M., & Okumura, T. 1998. Inter- and intracultural negotiation: US and Japanese negotiators. Academy of


Brouthers, K. D., & Bamossy, G. J. 1997. The role of key stakeholders in international joint venture negotiations:

Case studies from Eastern Europe. Journal of International Business Studies, 28: 285308.


20/29


Brouthers, K. D., & Brouthers, L. E. 2000. Acquisition or Greenfield start-up?Institutional, cultural andtransaction

cost influences. Strategic Management Journal, 21: 8997.

Brouthers, L. E., Brouthers, K. D., & Werner, S. 1999. Is Dunnings eclectic framework descriptive or normative?

Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 831844.Brouthers, L. E., Werner, S., & Matulich, E. 2000. The influence of triad nations environments on price-quality

product strategies and MNC performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 3962.

Brouthers, L. E., Werner, S., & Wilkinson, T. J. 1996. The aggregate impact of firms FDI strategies on the trade

balances of host countries. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 359373.

Buckley, P. J., & Casson, M. C. 1996. An economic model of international joint venture strategy. Journal of


Buckley, P. J., & Casson, M. C. 1998a. Analyzing foreign market entry strategies: Extending the internalization

approach. Journal of International Business Studies, 29: 539562.

Buckley, P. J., & Casson, M. C. 1998. Models of the multinational enterprise. Journal of International Business

Studies, 29: 2144.

Busija, E. C., ONeil, H. M., & Zeithaml, C. P. 1997. Diversification strategy, entry mode, and performance:

Evidence of choice and constraints. Strategic Management Journal, 18: 321327.Butler, K. C., & Joaquin, D. C. 1998. A note on political risk and the required return on foreign direct investment.


Cadogan, J. W., Diamantopoulos, A., & De Mortanges, C. P. 1999. A measurement of export market orientation:

Scale development and cross-cultural validation. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 689707.

Caligiuri, P. M., Hyland, M. M., Joshi, A., & Bross, A. S. 1998. Testing a theoretical model for examining the

relationship between family adjustment and expatriates work adjustment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83:

598614.

Campa, J. M., & Guillen, M.F. 1999. The internalization of exports: Firm- and location-specific factors in a

middle-income country. Management Science, 45: 14631478.

Capron, L. 1999. The long-term performance of horizontal acquisitions. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 987

1018.Capron, L., Dussauge, P., & Mitchell, W. 1998. Resource redevelopment following horizontal acquisitions in

Europe and North America, 19881992. Strategic Management Journal, 19: 631661.

Caves, R. E. 1998. Research on international business: Problems and prospects. Journal of International Business

Studies, 29: 519.

Celly, K. S., Spekman, R. E., & Kamauff, J. W. 1999. Technological uncertainty, buyer preferences and supplier

assurances: An examination of Pacific Rim purchasing arrangements.Journal of International Business Studies,

30: 297316.

Chang, S., & Rosenzweig, P. M. 1998. Industry and regional patterns in sequential foreign market entry. Journal

of Management Studies, 35: 797822.

Chang,E., & Taylor, M. S. 1999.Control in multinational corporations (MNCS): Thecase of Korean manufacturing

subsidiaries. Journal of Management, 25: 541565.

Chen, H., & Chen, T. J. 1998. Network linkages and location choice in foreign direct investment. Journal of International Business studies, 29: 445468.

Chi, T., & McGuire, D. J. 1996. Collaborative ventures and value of learning: Integrating the transaction cost and

strategic option perspectives on the choice of market entry modes. Journal of International Business Studies,

27: 285307.

Chikudate, N. 1999. Generating reflexivityfrom partnership formation. The Journalof Applied Behavioral Science,

35: 287305.

Child, J., Faulkner, D., & Pitkethly, R. 2000. Foreign direct investment in the UK, 19851994: The impact on

domestic management practice. Journal of Management Studies, 37: 141166.

Choi, C. J., Lee, S. H., & Kim, J. B. 1999. A note on countertrade: Contractual uncertainty and transaction

governance in emerging economies. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 189202.

Contractor, F. J., & Kundu, S. K. 1998. Modal choice in a world of alliances: Analyzing organizational forms in

the international hotel sector. Journal of International Business Studies, 29: 325358.

Cooke, W. N. 1997. The influence of industrial relations factors on US foreign direct investment abroad.Industrial

and Labor Relations Review, 51: 317.


21/29


Czaban, L., & Whitley, R. 2000. Incremental organizational changein a transformingsociety: Managing turbulence

in Hungary in the 1900s. Journal of Management, 37: 371393.

Czinkota, M. R., & Ronkainen, I. A. 1997. International business and trade in the next decade: Report from a

Delphi study. Journal of International Business Studies, 28: 244287.Daily, C. M., Certo, S. T., & Dalton, D. R. 2000. International experience in the executive suite: Path to prosperity?


Das, A., Handfield, R. B., Calantone, R. J., & Ghosh, S. 2000. A contingent view of quality management: The

impact of international competition on quality. Decision Sciences, 31: 649689.

Davis, P. S., Desai, A. B., & Francis, J. D. 2000. Mode of international entry: An isomorphism perspective.Journal


Delios, A., & Beamish, P. W. 1999a. Geographic scope, product diversification, and the corporate performance of

Japanese firms. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 711727.

Delios, A., & Beamish, P. W. 1999. Ownership strategy of Japanese firms: Transactional, institutional, and

experience influences. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 915933.

Delios, A., & Henisz, W. J. 2000. Japanese firms investment strategies in emerging economies. Academy of

Management Journal, 43: 305323.Denison, D. R., Dutton, J. E., Kahn, J. A., & Hart, S. L. 1996. Organizational context and the interpretation of

strategic issues: A note on CEOs interpretations of foreign investment. Journal of Management Studies, 33:

453474.

Doeringer, P. B., Evans-Klock, C., & Terkla, D. G. 1998.Hybrids or hodgepodges? Workplace practices of Japanese

and domestic startups in the Unites States. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 51: 171186.

Doh, J. P. 2000. Entrepreneurial privatization Strategies: Order of entry and local partner collaboration as source

of competitive advantage. Academy of Management Review, 25: 551571.

Doucet, L., & Jehn, K. A. 1997. Analyzing harsh words in a sensitive setting: American expatriates in communist

china. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18: 559582.

Dowell, G., Hart, S., & Yeung, B. 2000. Do corporate global environmental standards create or destroy market

value? Management Science, 46: 10591074.

Doz, Y. L. 1996. The evolution for cooperation in strategic alliances: Initial conditions or learning processes.Strategic Management Studies, 17: 5583.

Driffield, N., & Munday, M. 2000. Industrial performance, agglomeration, and foreign manufacturing investment

in the UK. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 2137.

Dubois, F. L., & Reeb, D. M. 2000. Ranking the International Business Journals.Journal of International Business

Studies, 31: 689704.

Dunning, J. H. 1998. Location and the multinational enterprise: A neglected factor? Journal of International

Business Studies, 29: 4566.

Dussauge, P., Garrette, B., & Mitchell, W. 2000. Learning from competing partners: Outcomes and durations of

scale and link alliances in Europe. Strategic Management Journal, 21: 99126.

Dyer, J. H., & Chu, W. 2000. The determinants of trust in supplier-automaker relationships in the US, Japan, and

Korea. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 259285.

Dyer, J. H., & Nobeoka, K. 2000. Creating and managing a high-performance knowledge-sharing network: The

Toyota case. Strategic Management, 21: 345367.

Earley, P. C., & Mosakowski, E. 2000. Creating hybrid teams cultures: An empirical test of transnational team

functioning. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 2649.

Edwards, C. T., & Samimi, R. 1997. Japanese interfirm networks: Exploring the seminal sources of their success.

Journal of Management Studies, 34: 489510.

Elg, U. 2000. Firms home-market relationships: Their role when selecting international alliance partners. Journal


Ellis, P. 2000. Social ties and Foreign market entry. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 443469.

Eriksson, K., Johanson, J., Majkgrd, A., & Sharma, D. D. 1997. Experiential knowledge and cost in the

internationalization process. Journal of International Business Studies, 28: 337360.

Erramilli, M. K. 1996. Nationality and subsidiary ownership patterns in multinational corporations.Journal of

International Business, 27: 225248.

Erramilli, M. K., Agarwal, S., & Kim, S. 1997. Are firm-specific advantages location-specific too? Journal of



22/29


Feldman, D. C., Folks, W. R., & Turnley, W. H. 1999. Mentor-protg diversity and its impact on international

internship experience. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20: 597611.

Ferner, A. 2000. The underpinnings of bureaucratic control systems: HRM in European multinationals. Journal

of Management Studies, 37: 321539.Fiegenbaum, A., Shaver, J. M., & Yeung, B. 1997. Which firms expand to the Middle East: The experience of US

multinationals. Strategic Management Journal, 18: 141148.

Gamble, P. R., & Gibson, D. A. 1999. Executive values and decision making: The relationship of cultural and

information flows. Journal of Management Studies, 36: 217240.

Garonzik, R., Brockner, J., & Siegel, P. A. 2000. Identifying international assignees at risk for premature departure:

The interactive effect of outcome favorability and procedural fairness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85: 13

20.

George, J. M., Jones, G. R., & Gonzalez, J. A. 1998. The role of affect in cross-culture negotiations. Journal of


Geringer, J. M., Tallman, S., & Olsen, D. M. 2000. Product and international diversification among Japanese

multinational firms. Strategic Management Journal, 21: 5180.

Glaister, K. W., & Buckley, P. J. 1996. Strategic motives for international alliance formation. Journal of Management Studies, 33: 301332.

Globerman, S., & Shapiro, D. M. 1999. The Impact of government policies on foreign direct investment: The

Canadian experience. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 513532.

Gomes, L., & Ramaswamy, K. 1999. An empirical examination of the form of the relationship between

multinationality and performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 173188.

Gomez-Mejia, L. R., & Balkin, D. B. 1992. Determinants of faculty pay: An agency theory perspective. Academy

of Management Journal, 35: 921955.

Gomez-Mejia, L. R., & Palich, L. E. 1997. Cultural diversity and the performance of multinational firms. Journal

of International Studies, 28: 309335.

Graham, E. M. 1998. Market structure and the multinational enterprise: A game-theoretic approach. Journal of

International Business Studies, 29: 6783.Gregersen, H. B., & Black, J. S. 1996. Multiple commitments upon repatriation: The Japanese experience.Journal

of Management, 22: 209229.

Gregersen, H. B., Hite, J. M., & Black, J. S. 1996. Expatriate performance appraisal in US multinational firms.


Gregersen, H. B., & Stroh, L. K. 1997. Coming home to the arctic cold: Antecedents to Finnish expatriate and

spouse repatriation adjustment. Personnel Psychology, 50: 635654.

Griffith, D. A., Hu, M. Y., & Ryans, J. K., Jr. 2000. Process standardization across intra- and inter-cultural

relationships. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 303324.

Grosse, R. 1996. International technology transfer in services. Journal of International Business Studies, 27:

781800.

Grosse, R., & Trevino, L. J. 1996. Foreign direct investment in the United States: An analysis by country of origin.

Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 139155.Guilln, M.F. 2000a. Organizedlabors imagesof multinational enterprise: Divergent foreign investment ideologies

in Argentina, South Korea, and Spain. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 53: 419442.

Guilln, M.F. 2000. Business groups in emerging economies: A resource-base view. Academy of Management

Journal, 43: 362380.

Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. 2000. Knowledge flows within multinational corporations. Strategic Management

Journal, 21: 473496.

Gupta, A., Govindarajan, V., & Malhotra, A. 1999. Feedback-seeking behavior within multinational corporations.


Hagedoorn, J., & Narula, R. 1996. Choosing organizational modes of strategic technology partnering: International

and sectoral differences. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 265284.

Hanson, G. H., & Harrison, A. 1999. Trade liberalization and wage inequality in Mexico. Industrial and Labor

Relations Review, 52: 271288.

Harvey, M. 1997. Dual-career expatriates: Expectations, adjustment and satisfaction with international relocation.



23/29


Harzing, A. 2000. An empirical analysis and extension of the Bartlett and Ghoshal typology of multinational

companies. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 101120.

Hejazi, W., & Safarian, A. E. 1999. Trade, foreign direct investment, and R&D spillovers. Journal of International

Business Studies, 30: 491511.Hendry, C. 1996. Continuities in human resource processes in internationalization and domestic business

management. Journal of Management Studies, 33: 475494.

Hennart, J., & Larimo, J. 1998. The impact of culture on the strategy of multinational enterprises: Does national

origin affect ownership decisions? Journal of International Business Studies, 29: 515538.

Hennart, J., & Reddy, S. 1997. The choice between mergers/acquisitions and joint ventures: The case of Japanese

investors in the United States. Strategic Management Journal, 18: 112.

Hennart, J., & Reddy, S. 2000. Digestibility and asymmetric information in the choice between acquisitions and

joint ventures: Wheres the beef? Strategic Management Journal, 21: 191193.

Hennart, J., Roehl, T., & Zietlow, D. S. 1999. Trojan horse or workhorse? The evolution of USJapanese joint

ventures in the United States. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 1529.

Hitt, M. A., Dacin, M. T., Levitas, E., Arregle, J., & Borza, A. 2000. Partner selection in emerging and developed

market contexts: Resource-based and organizational learning perspectives. Academy of Management Journal,43: 449467.

Hitt, M. A., Hoskisson, R. E., & Kim, H. 1997. International diversification: Effects on innovation and firm

performance in product-diversified firms. Academy of Management Journal, 40: 767798.

Holm, D. B., Eriksson, K., & Johanson, J. 1996. Business networks and cooperation in international business

relationships. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 10331053.

Holm, D. B., Eriksson, K., & Johanson, J. 1999. Creating value through mutual commitment to business network

relationships. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 467486.

Hooley, G., Cox, T., Shipley, D., Fahy, J., Beracs, J., & Kolos, K. 1996. Foreign direct investment in Hungary:

Resource acquisition and domestic competitive advantage. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 682

709.

Hubbard, A. S. 1999. Cultural and status differences in intergroup conflict resolution: A longitudinal study of aMiddle East dialogue group in the United States. Human Relations, 52: 303325.

Hult, G. T. M. 1998. Managing the international strategic sourcing process as a market-driven organizational

learning system. Decision Sciences, 29: 193216.

Hult, G. T. M., Hurley, R. F., Giunipero, L. C., & Nicholas, E. L., Jr. 2000. Organizational learning in global

purchasing: A model and test of internal user and corporate buyers. Decision Sciences, 31: 293325.

Hundley, G., & Jacobson, C. K. 1998. The effects of the keiretsu on the export performance of Japanese companies:

Help or Hindrance? Strategic Management Journal, 19: 927937.

Inkpen, A. C., & Beamish, P. W. 1997. Knowledge, bargaining power, and the instability of international joint

ventures. Academy of Management Journal, 22: 177202.

Isobe, T., Makino, S., & Montgomery, D. B. 2000. Resource commitment, entry timing, and market performance

of foreign direct investments in emerging economies: The case of Japanese international joint ventures in China.

Academy of Management Journal, 43: 468484.Ito, K. 1997. Domestic competitive position and export strategy of Japanese manufacturing firms: 19711985.

Management science, 43: 610622.

Johnson, J. L., Cullen, J. B., Sakano, T., & Takenouchi, H. 1996. Setting the stage for trust and strategic integration

in Japanese-US cooperative alliances. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 9811004.

Johnson, J. L., & Podsakoff, P. M. 1994. Journal influence in the field of management: An analysis using Salanciks

index in a dependency network. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 13921407.

Kacmar, K. M., & Whitfield, J. M. 2000. An additional ratingmethod forjournal articles in the field of management.

Organizational Research Methods, 3: 392406.

Kashlak, R. J., Chandran, R., & Di Benedetto, C. A. 1998. Reciprocity in international business: A study of

telecommunications alliances and contracts. Journal of International Business Studies, 29: 281304.

Katrishen, F. A., & Scordis, N. A. 1998. Economies of scale in services: A study of multinational insurers. Journal


Kim, W. C., & Mauborgne, R. A. 1996. procedural justice and managers in-role and extra-role behavior: The case

of the multinational. Management Science, 42: 499515.


24/29


Klein, K. J., Tosi, H., & Cannella, A. A., Jr. 1999. Multilevel theory building: Benefits, barriers, and new

developments. Academy of Management Review, 24: 243248.

Kogut, B. 2000. Thenetwork as knowledge: Generative rules andthe emergence of structure. Strategic Management

Journal, 21: 405425.Kostova, T., & Zaheer, S. 1999. Organizational legitimacy under conditions of complexity: The case of the

multinational enterprise. Academy of Management Review, 24: 6481.

Krug, J. A., & Hegarty, W. H. 1997. Post acquisition turnover among U.S. top management teams: An analysis of

the effect of foreign vs. domestic acquisitions of US targets. Strategic Management Journal, 18: 667675.

Kuemmerle, W. 1999. The drivers of foreign direct investment into research and development: An empirical

investigation. Journal International Business Studies, 30: 124.

Kuruvilla, S. 1996. Linkages between industrialization strategies and industrial relations/human resource policies:

Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and India. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 49: 635657.

Kwok, C. C. K., & Reeb, D. M. 2000. Internationalization and firm risk: An upstream-downstream hypothesis.


Langfield-Smith, K., & Greenwood, M. R. 1998. Developing co-operative buyer-supplier relationships: A case

study of Toyota. Journal of Management Studies, 35: 331353.Lawler, J. J., & Bae, J. 1998. Overt employment discrimination by multinational firms: Cultural and economic

influences in a developing country. Industrial Relations, 37: 126149.

Lee, T., & Caves, R. E. 1998. Uncertain outcomes of foreign investment: Determinants of the dispersion of profits

after large acquisitions. Journal of International Business Studies, 29: 563582.

Leiba-OSullivan, S. 1999. The distinction between stable and dynamic cross-cultural competencies: Implications

for expatriate trainability. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 709725.

Leonidou, L. C., & Katsikeas, C. S. 1996. The export development process: An integrative review of empirical

models. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 517551.

Lessard, D. R., & Zaheer, S. 1996. Breaking the silos: Distributed knowledge and strategic responses to volatile

exchange rates. Strategic Management Journal, 17: 513533.

Leung, K., Smith, P. B., Wang, Z., & Sun, H. 1996. Job satisfaction in joint venture hotels in China: An

organizational justice analysis. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 947962.Liang, N., & Parkhe, A. 1997. Importer behavior: The neglected counterpart of international exchange. Journal


Liesch, P. W., & Knight, G. A. 1999. Information internationalization and hurdle rates in small and medium

enterprise internationalization. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 383394.

Lin, X., & Germain, R. 1998. Sustaining satisfactory joint venture relationships: The role of conflict resolution

strategy. Journal of International Business Studies, 29: 179196.

Liu, X., Siler, P., Wang, C., & Wei, Y. 2000. Productivity spillover from foreign direct investment: Evidence from

UK industry level panel data. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 407425.

Lord, M. D., & Ranft, A. L. 2000. Organizational learning about new international markets: Exploring the internal

transfer of local market knowledge. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 573589.

Luo, Y. 1998. Timing of investment and international expansion performance in China. Journal of International


Luo, Y. 1999. Time-based experience and international expansion: The case of an emerging economy. Journal of

Management Studies, 36: 505534.

Luo, Y., & Peng, M. W. 1999. Learning to compete in a transition economy: Experience, environment, and

performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 269296.

Lyles, M. A., & Salk, J. E. 1996. Knowledge acquisition from foreign parents in international joint ventures: An

empirical examination in the Hungarian context. Journal of International Business Studies, 26: 877903.

Madhok, A. 1997. Cost, value and foreign market entry mode: The transaction and the firm. Strategic Management

Journal, 18: 3961.

Madhok, A., & Osegowitsch, T. 2000. The international biotechnology industry: A dynamic capabilities

perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 325335.

Mair, A. 1999. Learning from Honda.Journal of Management Studies

, 36: 2544.Makhija, M. V., Kim, K., & Williamson, S. D. 1997. Measuring globalizationof industries using a national industry

approach: Empirical evidence across five countries and over time. Journal of International Business Studies,

28: 679710.


25/29


Makino, S., & Beamish, P. W. 1998. Performance and survival of joint ventures with non-conventional ownership

structures. Journal of International Business Studies, 29: 797818.

Makino, S., & Delios, A. 1996. Local knowledge transfer and performance: Implications for alliance formation

in Asia. Journal of International Business Studies, 26: 905927.Makino, S., & Neupert, K. E. 2000. National culture, transaction costs, and the choice between joint venture and

wholly owned subsidiary. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 705713.

Malnight, T. W. 1996. The transition from decentralized to network-based MNC structures: An evolutionary

perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 4365.

Markoczy, L. 2000. National culture and strategic change in belief formation. Journal of International Business

Studies, 31: 427442.

Martin, X., Swaminathan, A., & Mitchell, W. 1998. Organizational evolution in the interorganizational

environment: Incentives and constraints on international expansion strategy. Administrative Science Quarterly,

43: 566601.

Mascarenhas, B. 1996. The founding of specialist firms in a global fragmenting industry. Journal of International

Business Studies, 27(1): 2742.

Mata, J., & Portugal, P. 2000. Closure and divestiture by foreign entrants: The impact of entry and post-entrystrategies. Strategic Management Journal, 21: 549562.

McDougall, P. P., & Oviatt, B. M. 2000. International entrepreneurship: The intersection of two research paths.

Academy of Management Journal, 43: 902906.

McGee, J. 1998. Commentary on Corporate strategies and environmental regulations: An organizing framework

by A.M. Rugman and A. Verbeke. Strategic Management Journal, 19: 377387.

McNamara, G., & Vaaler, P. M. 2000. The influence of competitive positioning and rivalry on emerging market

risk assessment. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 337347.

Melewar, T. C., & Saunders, J. 1999. International corporate visual identity: Standardization or localization?


Mendenhall, M., Beaty, D., & Oddou, G. R. 1993. Where have all the theorists gone? An archival review of the

international management literature. International Journal of Management, 10: 146153.Merchant, H., & Schendel, D. 2000. How do international joint ventures create shareholder value? Strategic


Meschi, P. 1997. Longevity and cultural differences of international joint ventures: Toward time-based cultural

management. Human Relations, 50: 211226.

Meznar, M. B., Nigh, D., & Kwok, C. C. Y. 1998. Announcements of withdrawal from South Africa revisited:

Marking sense of contradictory event study findings. Academy of Management Journal, 41: 715730.

Miller, S. R., & Parkhe, A. 1998. Patterns in the expansion of US banksforeign operations.Journal of International


Miller, K. D., & Reuer, J. J. 1998. Asymmetric corporate exposure to foreign exchange rate changes. Strategic


Mishra, C. S., & Gobeli, D. H. 1998. Managerial incentives, internalization and market valuation of multinational

firms. Journal of International Business Studies, 29: 583598.Money, R. B. 1998. International multilateral negotiations and social networks. Journal of International Business

Studies, 29: 695710.

Moon, C. W., & Lado, A. A. 2000. MNC-host government bargaining power relationship: A critique and extension

within the resource-based view. Journal of Management, 26: 85117.

Morosini, P., Shane, S., & Singh, H. 1998. National culture distance and cross-border acquisition performance.


Murtha, T. P., Lenway, S. A., & Bagozzi, R. P. 1998. Global mind-sets andcognitive shift in a complex multinational

corporation. Strategic Management Journal, 19: 97114.

Myers, M. B. 1999. Incidents of gray market activity among US exporters: Occurrences, characteristics, and

consequences. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 105126.

Nachum, L. 2000. Economic geography and the location of TNCS: Financial and professional service FDI to the

USA. Journal of International Studies, 31: 367385.

Nehrt, C. 1996. Timing and intensity effects of environmental investments. Strategic Management Journal, 17:

535547.


26/29


Nehrt, C. 1998. Maintainability of first mover advantages when environmental regulations differ between countries.

Academy of Management Review, 23: 7797.

Newburry, W., & Zeira, Y. 1999. Autonomy and effectiveness of equity international joint ventures (EIJVs): An

analysis based on EIJVs in Hungary and Britain. Journal of Management Studies, 36: 263285.Newman, K. L., & Nollen, S. D. 1996. Culture and congruence: The fit between management practices and national

culture. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 753779.

Nobel, R., & Birkinshaw, J. 1998. Innovation in multinational corporations: Control and communication patterns

in international R&D operations. Strategic management Journal, 19: 479496.

Nordberg, M., Campbell, A. J., & Verbeke, A. 1996. Can market-based contracts substitute for alliances in high

technology markets? Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 963979.

ODonnell, S. W. 2000. Managing foreign subsidiaries: Agent of headquarters, or an interdependent network?


OGrady, S., & Lane, H. W. 1996. The psychic distance paradox. Journal of International Business Studies, 27:

309333.

Oliver, E. G., & Cravens, K. S. 1999. Cultural influences on managerial choice: An empirical study of employee

benefit plans in the United States. Journal of International Management, 30: 745762.Ostry, S. 1998. Technology, productivity and the multinational enterprise. Journal of International Business

Studies, 29: 8599.

Padmanabhan, P., & Cho, K. R. 1999. Decision specific experience in foreign ownership and establishment

strategies: Evidence from Japanese firms. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 2544.

Palich, L. E., & Gomez-Mejia, L. E. 1999. A theory of global strategy and firm efficiencies: Considering the effects

of cultural diversity. Journal of Management, 25: 587606.

Pan, Y. 1996. Influences on foreign equity ownership level in joint ventures in China. Journal of International


Pan, Y. 1997. The formation of Japanese and US equity joint ventures in China. Strategic Management Journal,

18: 247254.

Pan, Y., & Chi, P. K. 1999. Financial performance and survival of multinational corporations in China. Strategic

Management Journal, 20: 359374.Pan, Y., & Li, X. 2000. Joint venture formation of very large multinational firms.Journal of International Business

Studies, 31: 179189.

Pan, Y., Li, S., & Tse, D. K. 1999. The impact of order and mode of market entry on profitability and market share.


Pan, Y., & Tse, D. K. 1996. Cooperative strategies between foreign firms in an overseas country. Journal of


Pan, Y., & Tse, D. K. 2000. The hierarchical model of market entry modes. Journal of International Business

Studies, 31: 535554.

Park, S. H., & Ungson, G. R. 1997. The effect of national culture, organizational complementarily, and economic

motivation on joint venture dissolution. Academy of Management Journal, 40: 279307.

Peng, M. W., Hill, C. W., & Wang, D. Y. L. 2000. Schumpeterian dynamics vs. Williamsonian considerations: A

test of export intermediary performance. Journal of Management Studies, 37: 167184.

Peng, M. W., & Ilinitch, A. Y. 1998. Export intermediary firms: A note on export development research. Journal


Penner-Hahn, J. D. 1998. Firm and environmental influences on the mode and sequence of foreign research and

development activities. Strategic Management Journal, 19: 149168.

Pierce, B., & Garven, G. 1995. Publishing international business research: A survey of leading journals. Journal


Pornpitakpan, C. 1999. The effects of cultural adaptation on business relationships: Americans selling to Japanese

and Thais. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 317338.

Punnett, B. J., & Shenkar, O. 1994. International management research: Toward a contingency approach.Advances

in International Comparative Management, 9: 3955.

Ramaswamy, K., Kroeck, K. G., & Renforth, W. 1996. Measuring the degree of internationalization of a firm: Acomment. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 167177.

Rangan, S. 1998. Do multinationals operate flexibly? Theory and evidence. Journal of International Business

Studies, 29: 217237.


27/29


Rangan, S. 2000. Search and deliberation in international exchange: Microfoundations to some macro patterns.


Rao, A., & Hashimoto, K. 1996. Intercultural influence: A study of Japanese expatriate managers in Canada.

Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 443466.Rao, A., & Schmidt, S. M. 1998. A behavioral perspective on negotiating international alliances. Journal of


Reuber, A. R., & Fischer, E. 1997. The influence of the management teams international experience on the

internationalization behavior of SMES. Journal of International Business Studies, 28: 807825.

Reuer, J. J. 2000. Parent firm performance across international joint venture life-cycle stages. Journal of


Reuer, J. J., & Koza, M. P. 2000a. Asymmetric information and joint venture performance: Theory and evidence

for domestic and international joint ventures. Strategic Management Journal, 21: 8188.

Reuer, J. J., & Koza, M. P. 2000. On lemonsand indigestibility: Resource assembly through joint ventures. Strategic


Reuer, J. J., & Leiblein, M. J. 2000. Downside risk implications of multinationality and international joint ventures.

Academy of Management Journal, 43: 203214.Reuer, J. J., & Miller, K. D. 1997. Agency costs and the performance implications of international joint venture

internationalization. Strategic Management Journal, 18: 425438.

Ricks, D. A. 1985. International business research: Past, present, and future. Journal of International Business

Studies, 16: 14.

Ricks, D. A. 1991. Letter from the Editor-in-Chief. Journal of International Business Studies, 22: 14.

Ricks, D. A., Toyne, B., & Martinez, Z. 1990. Recent developments in international management research.Journal

of Management, 16: 219253.

Rivoli, P., & Salorio, E. 1996. Foreign direct investment and investment under uncertainty.Journal of International


Roth, K., & ODonnell, S. W. 1996. Foreign subsidiary compensation strategy: An agency theory perspective.

Academy of management Journal, 39: 678703.

Rugman, A. M., & Verbeke, A. 1998a. Corporate strategies and environmental regulations: An organizingframework. Strategic Management Journal, 19: 363375.

Rugman, A. M., & Verbeke, A. 1998. Multinational enterprises andpublic policy.Journal of International Business

Studies, 29: 115136.

Rugman, A. M., & Verbeke, A. 1998. Corporate strategy and international environmental policy. Journal of


Salk, J. E., & Brannen, M. Y. 2000. National culture, networks, and individual influence in a multinational

management team. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 191202.

Sambharya, R. B. 1996. Foreign experience of top management teams and international diversification strategies

of U.S. multinational corporations. Strategic Management Journal, 17: 739746.

Sanders, W. G., & Carpenter, M. A. 1998. Internationalization and firm governance: The roles of CEO

compensation, top team composition, and board structure. Academy of Management Journal, 41: 158178.

Sarkar, M. B., Cavusgil, S. T., & Aulakh, P. S. 1999. International expansion of telecommunication carriers:

The influence of market structure, network characteristics, and entry imperfections. Journal of International


Schollhammer, H. 1994. Strategies and methodologies in international business and comparative management

research. Management International Review, 34: 520.

Schuler, D. A. 1996. Corporate political strategy and foreign competition: The case of the steel industry. Academy

of Management Journal, 39: 720737.

Selmer, J., & De Leon, C. 1996. Parent culture control though organizational acculturation: HCN employees

learning new work values in foreign business subsidiaries. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17: 557572.

Seth, A., Song, K. P., & Pettit, R. 2000. managerialism or hubris? An empirical examination of motives for foreign

acquisitions of U.S. firms. Journal of International Business Studies, 31: 387405.

Shaffer, M. A., & Harrison, D. A. 1998. Expatriates psychological withdrawal from international assignments:Work, nonwork, and family influences. Personnel Psychology, 51: 87118.

Shaffer, M. A., Harrison, D. A., & Gilley, K. M. 1999. Dimension, determinants, and differences in the expatriate

adjustment process. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 557581.


28/29


Shan, W., & Song, J. 1997. Foreign direct investment and the sourcing of technological advantage: Evidence form

the biotechnology industry. Journal of International Business Studies, 28: 267284.

Shaver, J. M. 1998. Do foreign-owned and U.S.-owned establishments exhibit the same location pattern in U.S.

manufacturing industries? Journal of International Business Studies, 29: 469492.Shaver, J. M., & Flyer, F. 2000. Agglomeration economies, firm heterogeneity, and foreign direct investment in

the United States. Strategic Management Journal, 21: 11751193.

Shaver, J. M., Mitchell, W., & Yeung, B. 1997. The effect of own-firm and other-firm experience on foreign direct

investment survival in the United States, 19871992. Strategic Management Journal, 18: 811824.

Shrader, R. C., Oviatt, M. B., & McDougall, P. P. 2000. How new ventures exploit trade-offs among international

risk factors: Lessons for the accelerated internationalization of the 21st century. Academy of Management

Journal, 43: 12271247.

Simonin, B. L. 1999. Transfer of marketing know-how in international strategic alliances: An empirical

investigation of the role and antecedents of knowledge ambiguity. Journal of International Business Studies,

30: 463490.

Soutar, G. N., Grainger, R., & Hedges, P. 1999. Australian and Japanese stereotypes: A two country study. Journal

of International Business Studies, 30: 203216.Spivey, W. A., & Thomas, L. D. 1990. Global management: Concepts, themes, problems, and research issues.

Human Resource Management, 29: 8597.

Spreitzer, G. M., McCall, M. W., & Mahoney, J. D. 1997. Early identification of international executive potential.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 82: 629.

Steensma, H. K., & Lyles, M. A. 2000. Explaining IJV survival in a transitional economy through social exchange

and knowledge-based perspectives. Strategic Management Journal, 21: 831851.

Stuart, T. E., & Podolny, J. M. 1996. Local search and the evolution of technological capabilities. Strategic


Sullivan, D. 1996. Measuring the degree of internationalization of a firm: A reply.Journal of International Business

Studies, 27: 179192.

Swan, P. F., & Ettlie, J. E. 1997. U.S.-Japanese manufacturing equity relationships. Academy of Management

Journal, 40: 462479.Syam, S. S. 2000. Multiperiod capacity expansion in globally dispersed regions. Decision Sciences, 31: 173196.

Taggart, J. H. 1997. Autonomy and procedural justice a framework for evaluating subsidiary strategy. Journal of

International Business Strategies, 28: 5176.

Taggart, J. H. 1998. Strategy shifts in MNC subsidiaries. Strategic Management Journal, 19: 663681.

Tahai, A., & Meyer, M. J. 1999. A revealed preference study of management journals direct influences. Strategic


Tallman, S., & Li, J. 1996. Effects of international diversity and product diversity on the performance of

multinational firms. Academy of Management Journal, 39: 179196.

Tan, B., & Vertinsky, I. 1996. Foreign direct investment by Japanese electronics firms in the United States and

Canada: Modeling the timing of entry. Journal of International Business Studies, 27: 655681.

Taylor, B. 1999. Patterns of control within Japanese manufacturing plants in China: Doubts about Japanization in

Asia. Journal of Management Studies, 36: 853873.

Taylor, S., Beechler, S., & Napier, N. 1996. Toward an integrative model of strategic international human resource

management. Academy of Management Review, 21: 959985.

Thompson, A. G. 1996. Compliance with agreements in cross-culture transactions: Some analytical issues.Journal


Tihanyi, L., Ellstrand, A. E., Daily, C. M., & Dalton, D. R. 2000. Composition of the top management team and

firm international diversification. Journal of Management, 26: 11571177.

Tolich, M., Kenney, M., & Biggart, N. 1999. Managing the managers: Japanese management strategies in the

USA. Journal of Management Studies, 36: 587607.

Tse, D. K., Pan, Y., & Au, K. Y. 1997. How MNCS choose entry modes and form alliances: The China experience.


Tsurumi, Y., & Tsurumi, H. 1999. F

Documents

International Management Typology