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ISSN 2520-0003
International Journal of Innovation in
Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
Department of Education
International Islamic University Islamabad-Pakistan
ii
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATION IN
TEACHING & LEARNING (IJITL)
IJITL is an online open access, peer reviewed and bi-annual journal. There is
dearth of quality research journals in Pakistan. Therefore, for the encouragement of
research activities and publication of research work by the faculty members and
research students, the Department of Education, International Islamic University
Islamabad has started the research journal.The aim of the Research journal is to
promote research activities and publish original and quality research work in
different fields of education.
SCOPE OF THE JOURNAL
Scope includes but is not limited to innovation in the fields of: Curriculum,
Curriculum design, Evaluation, Assessment, Educational Psychology, Teacher
Education, ICT in Education E-Learning, Science Education, Women Education,
Gender Studies, Religious Education, Mathematics Education, Economics of
Education, Educational Administration, Philosophy of Education, Innovation in
teaching methodology etc.
EDITORIAL CHARTER OF IJITL
Patron in Chief Professor Dr. Ahmad Yousif Al Daraweish
President, International Islamic University,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Chief Editor Professor Dr. N.B. Jumani
Professor of Education /Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences/ Director, Directorate of
Distance Education, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Editor Dr. Samina Malik, Associate Professor
Chairperson, Department of Education /Director (Female Campus)
International Islamic University, Islamabad
Associate Editors Dr. Muhammad Munir Kayani, Assistant Professor/ Additional Director,
Directorate of Distance Education, Department of Education (M)
International Islamic University, Islamabad
Dr. Shamsa Aziz
Assistant Professor
Department of Education (F)
International Islamic University, Islamabad
Coordinators Ms. Fouzia Ajmal & Ms.Humaira Akram
Teaching &Research Associates
Department of Education, International Islamic University, Islamabad
iii
Abstracting & Indexing
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATION IN TEACHING &
LEARNING (IJITL) is indexed in following international databases.
SIS Database
Scientific Indexing Services (SIS) was founded by renowned scientists. A group
of 70 scientist from various countries in different disciplines are started SIS with
specific objective of providing quality information to the researcher. SIS offering
academic database services to researcher. Its mainly: citation indexing, analysis,
and maintains citation databases covering thousands of academic journals, books,
proceedings and any approved documents SIS maintains academic database
services to researchers, journal editors and publishers. SIS focuses on: citation
indexing, citation analysis, and maintains citation databases covering thousands of
academic journals.
Ulrichs Web
Ulrichsweb™ is the authoritative source of bibliographic and publisher
information on more than 300,000 periodicals of all types–academic and
scholarly journals, Open Access publications, peer-reviewed titles, popular
magazines, newspapers, newsletters, and more from around the world. And, it's
easy to use !
iv
EDITORIAL BOARD
International members
1. Prof. Dr. Marilyn Leask, Dean. Faculty of Education. Bedfordshire University. UK
2. Prof. Dr. James Omeara , A&M International University, Texas, USA
3. Prof. Dr. Asha Kanwar,President & CEO of Commonwealth of Learning, Canada
4. Prof. Dr. Martin Valcke, University of Ghent, Belgium
5. Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, President, Open Education Network, Japan
6. Prof. Dr. David Morris, Coventry University, Coventry. UK
7. Prof. Dr. Terry Evans, Faculty of Education. Deakin University, Australia
8. Dr. Adit Gupta, Curtin University, Perth Australia
9. Dr. Peter Charles Taylor, Curtin University of Technology
10. Prof. Dr. Carolyn M. Shields, The University of Illinois
11. Dr. Ramesh Sharma, Director, , CEMCA, Commonwealth of Learning
12. Dr. Patrick J. (Pat) Fahy, Athabasca University, Canada
13. Dr. Muhammad Ahsan, FRSA, Academic Research Consultant, UK
14. Dr. Sarah Younie, De Montfort University, Leicester
15. Dr. David Roof, Ball State University, Indiana, USA
16. Dr. Patricia E. Reynolds, University of Mary Washington, USA
17. Dr. Karen Bjerg Petersen, Aarhus University, Denmark
18. Dr. Colum Foley, University of Dublin, Ireland
19. Dr. Kathleen Norris, Plymouth State University, USA.
20. Prof. Dr. Joel Pace, University of Winconsin-Eau Claire, USA
21. Dr. Christie Sweeney, Plymouth State University, USA
22. Dr. Yasmin Sharif, University of Rio Grande, USA
23. Dr. Steve Warner, University of the Southern Caribbean, West Indies
Nation National members 1. Prof. Dr. M. Aslam Asghar, Mohy-Din Islamic University, Islamabad
2. Prof. Col (R) Dr. ManzoorArif, Foundation University, Rawalpindi
3. Prof. Dr. Aisha Akbar, Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad
4. Prof. Dr. M. Javed Iqbal, Sarhad University, Islamabad
5. Prof. Dr. ParveenMunshi, University of Sindh, Jamshoro
6. Prof. Dr. WasimQazi,Vice President, Iqra University, Karachi
7. Prof. Dr Ahmad Farooq Mashhadi, BahauddinZakria University, Multan
8. Prof. Dr.Munawer Mirza,Pro-Vice Chancellor, Leads University Lahore
9. Prof. Dr. Hafiz Muhammad InamUllah, University of Peshawar
10. Prof. Dr. Umar Ali Khan, Gomal University-DI Khan
11. Prof. Dr. Aslam Adeeb, Islamic University Bahawalpur
12. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ramzan, Karakorum International University- Gilgit
13. Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad
14. Dr. Irshad Hussain, Islamia University Bahawalpur
15. Department of Education Members
1. Prof. Dr. N. B. Jumani, Dr. Samina Malik, Dr. Muhammad Munir Kayani, Dr.
Shamsa Aziz, Dr. Azhar Mahmood, Dr. Asad Abbas Rizvi, Dr. Munazza
Mahmood, Dr. Zarina Akhtar, Dr. Sh. Tariq Mahmood, Dr. Zafar Iqbal Choudhry,
Dr. Nasir Khan
v
MESSAGE FROM RECTOR
We, in the International Islamic University, Islamabad, consider
ourselves privileged to be associated with this unique centre of
learning in the Muslim world which strives to combine the
essentials of the Islamic faith with the best of modern knowledge. I
believe that quality of teaching is the most important factor which
promotes academic excellence of any educational institution. I am
really excited on the launch of International Journal for Innovation
in Teaching and Learning (IJITL). IJITL will provide a forum to
the academicians, professionals and researchers to re-shape their
knowledge about teaching and learning along with an intellectual
and international linkage atmosphere. It is focusing on the latest
trends, issues and innovations in teaching and learning. I do hope
that the innovations in teaching and learning will be highlighted in
the journal for improved practice.
Prof. Dr. Masoom Yasinzai
Rector, International Islamic University Islamabad
vi
MESSAGE FROM PRESIDENT
International Islamic University, Islamabad, is in the process of
embarking on a new phase in the history of the University. We
are busy in making preparations for an expansion plan both in
terms of education as well as in terms of physical development.
The main task of the educational institutions is to provide
quality education (teaching and research). The Department of
Education is striving hard to achieve academic excellence. This
department is one of the most important departments of the
university. This Department has established its credibility in
offering regular programs and recently launched a variety of
programs through dual mode of learning. Launching an
International Journal is a big challenge and I appreciate the
efforts made by the Department of Education for it. This journal
is expected to address the expectations of the academic
community and I am confident that the Department of
Education will maintain the quality of International Journal of
Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL). I value the
insightful contribution made by all in making IJITL a renowned
journal of its kind.
Prof. Dr. Ahmad Yousif A. Al-Draiweesh
President, International Islamic University Islamabad
vii
Table of Content
1. Effect of In-Service Teacher Training Opportunities on Proactive Behavior of the
Teachers at Higher Level ................................................................................................ 1
Dr. Quratulain Hina (Principal Author), Dr. Saira Nudrat ............................................. 1
2. Teaching of Science at Secondary Level: An Analysis of Teachers’ Classroom
Practices ........................................................................................................................ 18
Muhammad Naqeeb ul Khalil Shaheen, Dr. Muhammad Munir Kayani, Nazir Haider
Shah............................................................................................................................... 18
3. Relationship between Class Size and Academic Achievement .................................... 27
Laraib, Saira Ijaz Ahmad, Mobeen-ul-Islam ................................................................ 27
4. A Comparative Study of Quality Education of Private Public Schools of Markaz
Mandra, Tehsil Gujar Khan, District Rawalpindi ......................................................... 38
Maria Kanwal, Fouzia Ajmal ........................................................................................ 38
5. Use of Social Media (Face book) to Promote Health Education: Content Analysis of
Health Pages and User’s Perceptions ............................................................................ 51
Adeela Rehman, Nurazzura Mohamad Diah ................................................................ 51
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
1
EFFECT OF IN-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES
ON PROACTIVE BEHAVIOR OF THE TEACHERS AT HIGHER
LEVEL
1Dr. Quratulain Hina (Principal Author), 2Dr. Saira Nudrat
Abstract
To meet with the new challenges related to the teachers and teaching
system, we need to develop an effective training system for the teachers. So
keeping the situation in focus the research was designed to achieve the
objective to compare the perception of male and female faculty members
towards the teacher training opportunities and the employee’s proactive
behavior. Further to assess the effect of teacher training on proactive
behavior of the teachers. The design of the study was descriptive. 11,092
teachers serving as the faculty members at higher level educational
institutions were considered as the population of the study.
Disproportionate stratified sampling technique was used to select the
respondents for the purpose of data collection. 154 employees were
selected as the sample of the study. The data was collected with the help of
two sets of questionnaires designed to assess the in-service teacher training
(IV) and proactive behavior (DV) of the respondents. The collected data
was analyzed with the help of Statistical Package of Social Sciences 21
Edition. The t test and regression analysis were used in the process of
analysis. It was found that the there was no statistical difference between
the male and the female employees regarding in-service training and
proactive behavior. However in-service training had the significant effect
on the development of proactive behavior of the employees as well. Further
it was found out that the professional competence had the strongest effect
on the development of proactive behavior. On the basis of findings it is
recommended that training has to be linked with the daily routine problems
and issues so that the employees may find it useful in their own situations.
Key Words: Teacher Training, In-Service Training, Proactive Behavior
and Higher Education
1. Introduction
Teachers are known as the builders of a nation. In that perspective they have to
deal with a responsible and sensitive position in any country. The civilized nations always
pay respect to their teachers and empower the profession of teaching with all needed
facilities to face the challenges of the every new day. Teacher training programs are an
example of such facilities. Training programs are very important in all the organizations.
Institutions and organization use such teacher trainings to develop their human resource
according to the current needs. Teaching as the most dynamic profession also needs the
1 [email protected], Assistant Professor, Department of Education; National University of Modern
Languages, Islamabad 2 [email protected], Assistant Professor, Department of Education; National University of Modern
Languages, Islamabad
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
2
trained and skilled manpower to provide quality production. With every new day
researches, concepts and theories are emerging and we need to equip our teachers with
these new concepts and theories of learning. In order to do so teacher training programs
are organized. There are two types of such trainings, one is pre service and the other is in
service. Pre service is a part of job requirement to be attained before coming to the
profession.
For the provision of the pre-service teacher education, there are a number of
universities which are offering the courses related to B. Ed, M.Ed, BS. Ed etc. In Pakistan;
at the time of the teacher selection at public sector for schools and colleges it is one of the
requirements that the teacher must have completed the required pre service course. On the
other hand in-service training is the helping tool provided by the management of the
organization in order to keep the employees well equipped with the latest skills. Keeping
in view the available resources and time every educational institution arranges to offer
such in service training programs within their institutions. In this regard the higher
education commission has developed a separate division that is solely responsible for the
training of the faculty members during their service. This division is known as “learning
innovation division” (LID). LID is arranging continuous long and short term courses for
the fresh faculty members to create a hub for the training. However higher level there is
need for more efforts because the teachers at higher level are appointed by the universities
according to their rules and regulation. Most of the time it is observed that highly qualified
teachers with specified skills in their areas is not aware of the teaching skills and its
complexities. So to train qualified teachers in the teaching field along with the in-service
training is arranged by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) and periodically by the
universities collectively. According to Kahn (1990) the In-service training gives you an
opportunity to improve and develop your practical teaching, coaching, and counseling
and/or management skills with the professional support of experts. The provision of in-
service training is the job of the human development departments in the institution.
Teacher training is equally important and essential for all the levels of education, however
when it is related to the higher level of education it becomes more significant. The higher
level education is an imperative stage that provides the skilled manpower for the different
phases of life. The quality teaching at this stage directly affects the quality of manpower in
the country. Developing countries need to provide special attention to this above
mentioned areas in order to develop their skilled manpower. Thus the research is specially
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
3
designed to assess the in-service teacher training opportunities provided to the teachers
serving at the higher level of education. Further the researcher is also interested to check
the effect of in-service teacher training opportunities on the development of proactive
behavior of the teachers.
1.1 Research Objectives
The research was based on the achievement of the following objectives:
1. To compare the perception of male and female faculty members towards the
teacher training opportunities.
2. To compare proactive behavior of the male and female faculty members.
3. To assess the effects of teacher training opportunities on proactive behavior of the
teachers.
1.2 Research Hypotheses
1. There is no difference in the perception of male and female faculty members
towards the teacher training opportunities.
2. There is no difference in the proactive behavior of the male and female faculty
members.
3. There is a positive effect of teacher training on proactive behavior of the teachers.
1.3 Significance of the Study
The research has addressed the most important issue of the field of education.
Teachers and their competence is the back bone of any education system. The quality of
teachers is the assurance for the quality education. The teacher training system is a
continuous need of the time. The world is changing with every new day and it is the
professional responsibility of the teachers and the educational institution to upgrade their
skills and competencies. Thus the teacher training programs need special focus at all levels
of education. However at higher level it becomes more important. As the higher level
education is the stage that produces the refined manpower for the country. Here the in-
service training is needed to keep the system alive and able to meet the new challenges of
the time. Thus the research would be significant as it will highlight the importance of such
trainings. It would also help to understand the areas of these trainings that need to be
focused by the organization in order to get desired results. Further it would let us know
about the impact of such trainings on the behaviors of the teachers and the change in their
pro active behavior. The study would suggest the improved way of planning these in-
service training so that maximum results can be obtained.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
4
2. Literature Review
In every system of education, teacher is one of the substantial components.
Excellence of plans, success of process executed, and surety of desired outcomes greatly
depend on teacher. Teacher is in fact, operator of the teaching-learning process. Keeping
in view this imperative role of a teacher in almost all of countries of the world, teachers
are provided both pre-service and in-service training packages by educational
management. These kinds of trainings equipped teachers with theoretical aspects of
teaching profession and practical implications of the theory into the profession
intelligently. Quality of education in the country lies mainly in the quality of teachers
available (Iqbal, 1996). Self-efficacy of a teacher is reflected through their perceptions,
actions, and behavior which serve like indicators for their performance in classroom
situation (Bandura, 1994). In the words of Jerald (2007) people with higher level of self-
efficacy incorporate their best ideas, show a realistic planning and establish a close
connection with their students. Bockerts, Pitrich & Zeidner (2000) deduced from their
study that effective teaching strategies could only be implemented by effective and
experienced teachers in class. Kazmi, Pervez and Mumtaz (2011) recommended the in-
service teacher training as a condition for getting logical and innovative teachers in
education system of Pakistan. Effective teacher training is unavoidable for producing a
good teacher who is well-trained in respective domain and capable of achieving
educational and organizational goals (Pintrich& Schunk, 2002).
With reference to Pakistan, the need for a professional and trained teacher was
realized first time in the report of National Commission on Education, in 1959 that quality
in education can never be achieved without making teachers an essential component.
Teacher education should be an integral and regular feature of the education system of
Pakistan (NCE, 1959). The Pakistani system of education can only be flawless through
resetting, and re-evaluating with critical approach (Education Policy 1972-80). For the
sake of recruitment and selection of well-qualified and skillful teachers “education cadre”
was suggested and along with that importance of selected teachers’ regular in-service
trainings was recommended by the National Education Policy 1992. Higher Education
Commission (HEC) been proposing, offering and organizing number of teacher training
programs aimed at various themes like development of classroom management skills,
communication skills, and general behavioral aspects like intrinsic motivation of teachers,
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
5
teacher-students relationship and assessment parameters in education. For the sake of
training of teachers at higher education level, the department of learning innovations has
been specifically directed by HEC to launch such kinds of platforms. More importantly
three months residential teaching training program is being offered by Learning
Innovation department (LI) since 2004. Similarly, Management Unit for System and
Training (MUST) was also launched for this purpose by the University of Peshawar in
1985. In 1987, this institute was recognized and renamed as “Staff Training Institute”
(STI). Main theme announced by the head of STI was to provide in-service training for a
year to knowledge the teachers consisting largely on practical activities like knowledge
delivery, assessment of students and computer competencies.
There is no homogeneity among teachers at all levels of institutes. They come up
with their unique biographies to the class. In this perspective obviously they need to have
different training during these jobs. Kahn (1990) reviewed teachers of university of
Botswana and got to know about their opinion regarding teacher education provided.
According to the data collected by the Kahn (1990) teachers discussed their concerns with
problems like classroom control, lesson presentation, establishing targets for work, dealing
with slow learners and coping with latest innovations in field of science and technology.
On the other hand they pointed out major areas of in-service training such as lesson
planning, setting of work schemes assessment of students and answering skills to
questions in the class etc.
Duquette (1993) defined education as a combination of positive approach, mature
reasoning, insight, immensity and professionalism. Providing firsthand knowledge in in-
service teacher training programs is more effective way of quality education (Duffy,
1993). An experimental research was conducted by Sudanse and reported by Shommo
(1995) aimed at development of critical thinking in Home Economics teachers. The
purpose of the study was to modify and enable human behavior for resolving day to day
issues with multiple approaches. Training focused on specific approaches for the sake of
change in human values (Harber, 1987). It is an open fact nowadays that in teacher
training programs practical strategies had magical effects for skill development and value
establishment. In light of various studies, in-service training should focus on improving
teacher’s attitudes and styles rather than theoretical content of teacher education.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
6
2.1 Theoretical Framework
The reflective practice has become a dominant paradigm in language teacher
education research and programs worldwide. But it is not an innovation in teaching. It has
its roots in the work of a number of educational theorists and practitioners. Most
definitions on reflective thinking found in the literature of teacher education are based
on Dewey’s inquiry oriented concepts. In the 1980s, Dewey’s foundational aspects on
reflection were further extended by the American sociologist Donald A. Schön. Later on,
in 1991 Michael J. Wallace described Schön’s critique in a more explicit way (Wallace,
1991).
Wallace (1991) presented the “Reflective Model” for the in-service training of the
teachers. It is a cyclical process. It is a continuous process that is interlinked with different
elements. These elements are “Received knowledge, previous experiential knowledge,
Practice, Reflection, Professional competence”. This model is effective for pre service and
in services both types of programs. However in the present research we have used it as a
theoretical frame work for the assessment of in service teacher training. The base line of
the model is the knowledge of the employees. This knowledge is divided into two parts.
One is the received knowledge and the other is the previous experiential knowledge. It
indicates the process of learning through assimilation and accommodation. The employees
bring their own skills to the work place than certain skills they learn from their work
environment. The both sources of knowledge develop a combine system of knowledge that
leads to the practice and reflection. Practice is the application of learned knowledge and
reflection is the further stage of practice that also includes understanding. All these things
lead to the professional competence. Thus the same five elements were taken for the
theoretical framework of the research and the tool was developed according the same five
sections.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
7
Fig. 1 Reflective Model by Wallace (1991)
2.2 Operational Definitions
a. In service training
In service training refers to the training program that is offered to the employees
after joining the organization as an effort to train the employees related to their job skills.
It focuses on development of job related skills, competencies and awareness related to the
new technologies and researches in the field.
b. Received Knowledge
“Received knowledge is the vocabulary of the subject and the matching concepts,
research findings, theories and skills which are widely accepted as being part of the
necessary intellectual content of the profession” (Wallace, 1991).
c. Previous experiential knowledge
“The knowledge in action through practice of the profession is known as previous
experiential knowledge” (Wallace, 1991).
d. Practice
“Implementation of the learned theories and skills is known as practice in
reflective model” (Wallace, 1991).
e. Reflection
“Reflection is the feedback on the practice of profession as a way of developing
expertise in it” (Wallace, 1991).
Received
Knowledge
Previous
Experiential
Knowledge
Practice Reflection
Professional
Competence
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
8
f. Professional competence
“The term, professional competencies, refers to all the knowledge, skills, and
dispositions that teachers need to develop and master. It may also include the development
of self-evaluation and self-improvement ability in professionals” (Wallace, 1991).
g. Proactive behavior
Pro active behavior refers to act before the activity. It is action in advance to
control the situation. It is a result oriented behavior instead of waiting for the situation and
adjusting according to it.
3.Methodology
3.1 Research Design
The research was based on the quantitative analysis approach. The research
focused on the collection of data through questionnaires and its analysis with the help of
statistical tests. By nature it was a survey based descriptive research.
3.2 Population
All the teachers serving at the higher level of education in Islamabad were
considered as the population of the research. There were 11,092 faculty members serving
in the different higher education institutions in Islamabad. Among which 7,640 were male
and 3,452 were female employees.
3.3 Sample
By considering the male and female employees as the two major strata,
disproportional stratified random sampling technique was selected to draw the sample for
the research. 154 teachers were selected as the sample of the research. It was specially
considered to maintain an almost equal number of male and female respondents to avoid
gender biasness. Thus 75 respondents were male while 79 respondents were female faculty
members.
3.4 Instrument
Two sets of questionnaires were used by the researcher in order to collect data. The
questionnaire related to the independent variable (In-Service teacher training) was based
on five sections related to the five sub variables related to the in-service teacher training.
These sub variables were received knowledge, previous experiential knowledge, practice,
reflection and professional competence. In total there were 25 items in the research
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
9
questionnaire and it was rated on 5 point scale. To address the Dependent variable
(Proactive Behavior) another questionnaire was developed that was based on 8 items.
3.5 Data Collection
The data was collected by the researcher personally and it was analyzed with the
help of Statistical package of social sciences (SPSS). The t test and regression analysis
were majorly used in order to analyze the data. Thus on the basis of the findings of the
study the recommendation were suggested.
4. Data Analysis
Research Objectives Research Hypothesis Analysis
To compare the perception of
male and female faculty
members towards the teacher
training opportunities.
There is no difference in the
perception of male and female
faculty members towards the
teacher training opportunities.
Quantitative
t test
To compare proactive behavior
of the male and female faculty
members.
There is no difference in the pro
active behavior of the male and
female faculty members.
Quantitative
t test
To assess the effect of teacher
training opportunities on
proactive behavior of the
teachers.
There is a positive effect of teacher
training on proactive behavior of
the teachers.
Quantitative
Regression
4.1 Findings/ Results
Table No 4.1. Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability of the Scales
In-Service Training
Assessment
N of items Cronbach’s Alpha
25 .87
Proactive Behavior 8 .82
It has been found from the Table No. 4.1 that the Cronbach’s Alpha reliability of
the In-Service training assessment scale was .87 and the Cronbach’s Alpha reliability of
the scale developed to assess proactive behavior was .82. That shows that the both scales
were reliable and can be used in the future researches with a fair amount of confidence.
Table 4.2. Correlation between In-Service Training Assessment Scale and Proactive
Behavior
In-Service
Training
Assessment
Proactive
Behavior
Total
In-Service Training
Assessment
1 .174* .935
**
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
10
Proactive Behavior .174* 1 .513
**
Total .935**
.513**
1
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table, 4. 2 shows that the both scales were correlated at 0.05 level of significance as well.
Table No. 4.3 Comparison between male and female employees (t test)
Variable N Mean t value Df Sig.
Received Knowledge Male 75
17.56 1.54 152 .12
Female 79 16.59
Variable N Mean t value Df Sig.
Experiential
Knowledge
Male 75
13.16 -.38 152 .70
Female 79 13.37
Variable N Mean t value Df Sig.
Practice Male 75
15.85 .24 152 .80
Female 79 15.73
Variable N Mean t value Df Sig.
Reflection Male 75
22.15 -.83 152 .40
Female 79 22.65
Variable N Mean t value Df Sig.
Professional
Competence
Male 75
24.57 -.67 152 .50
Female 79 25.00
*P<0.05**P<0.01
Table No 4. 4Comparison between male and female employees (t test)
Variable N Mean t value Df Sig.
In-Service Training
Assessment
Male 75
93.29 -.02 152 .98
Female 79 93.34
*P<0.05**P<0.01
Table No. 3 and 4 revealed that there was statistically no significant difference
between male and female respondents with reference to all five sub variables (Received
Knowledge, Experiential Knowledge, Practice, Reflection and Professional Competence)
of in-service training assessment. Thus it proves that the male and the female respondents
were equally responding towards the opportunities available for in-service training. Thus
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
11
the hypothesis “There is no difference in the perception of male and female faculty
members towards the teacher training opportunities” is approved.
Table No. 4.5 Comparison between male and female employees (t test)
Variable N Mean t value Df Sig.
Proactive Behavior Male 75
28.33 -.21 152 .83
Female 79 28.52
*P<0.05**P<0.01
Similarly the proactive behavior (Table 4.5) of the male and female respondents
was also same and there was no significant difference (t= -.21) between them in this
regard. So in that case the hypothesis “There is no difference in the pro active behavior of
the male and female faculty members” is approved as well.
Table No 4.6 Effect of In-Service Training on Proactive Behavior
(Regression Analysis)
Independent
Variable
Dependent
Variable
β
(Coefficients)
t value Sig. R
Square
In-Service
Training
Proactive
Behavior
.174 2.182 .03 .03
The Table 4.6 represents that the R2
value is 0.03. It explains that the independent
variable (In-Service Training) describes 03 percent variation in developing the proactive
behavior. The rest is due to other factors. While the coefficient (B= .174) was significant
at 0.05 level. It indicates that in-service training and proactive behavior are positively
related with each other. Thus the hypothesis “There is a positive relationship between
teacher training and proactive behavior of the teachers” is approved.
Table No 4.7 Relationship between In-Service Training and Proactive Behavior
(Regression Analysis)
Model Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
T Sig. R
Square
Independent
Variable
Dependant
Variable
1. Received
knowledge
Proactive
Behavior
.141 1.75 .08 .020
2. Experiential
knowledge
.075 .93 .35 .006
3. Practice .096 1.19 .23 .009
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4. Reflection .103 1.27 .20 .011
5. Professional
competence
.204 2.56 .01 .042
It was also revealed (Table 4.7) that the five sub independent variables (Received
Knowledge, Experiential Knowledge, Practice, Reflection and Professional Competence)
were having different levels of effect on the dependant variable (Proactive Behavior).
I. R2
value (0.02) explains that the received knowledge (independent sub variable) describes
02 percent variation in proactive behavior. The rest is due to other factors. The value of p
= .08 > 0.05, which means that there is no significant effect. (Table No. 7).
II. R2
value (0.006) explains that the experiential knowledge (independent sub variable)
describes only 0.6 percent variation in proactive behavior. It explains No Variation,
because the effect is not significant (Table No. 7).
III. R2
value (0.009) explains that the practice (independent sub variable) describes only 0.9
percent variation in proactive behavior. It shows No Variation, because the effect is not
significant (Table No. 7).
IV. R2
value (0.011) explains that the reflection (independent sub variable) describes only 1.1
percent variation in proactive behavior. It describes No Variation, because the effect is not
significant (Table No. 7).
V. R2value (0.042) explains that the professional competence (independent sub variable)
describes only 4.2 percent variation in proactive behavior. The rest is due to other factors.
While the coefficient (B= .204) was significant at 0.01 level (Table No. 7).
Thus it shows that Received Knowledge, Experiential Knowledge, Practice and
Reflection were not having any statistically significant effect on the development of
proactive behavior of the employees, while Professional Competence was found having
4.2 percent effect on proactive behavior and it was statistically significant at 0.01 level.
5. Discussion
In service teacher training is the most important aspect of the teaching profession.
However, opportunities to train the teachers according to the current needs are inadequate and
insufficient (Britt, Irwin & Ritchie, 2001; Ottevanger, Macfarlane & Clegg, 2005). Further there is
a gap between the theory and the practice (Krainer, 1999; Even, 1999). According to Krainer,
1999; Even, 1999 “teacher training programs are facing a number of challenges such as less
resources, unavailability of trained trainers, lack of serious attitude and inadequate feedback
channels”. However all these issues can be solved with proper planning. Keeping in view the fact
that such training programs can reflect in the better performance of the teachers in future, there is a
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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need to adopt quick and valid measures to organize and improve teacher training all over the
country. Thus the current research also focused the same area. The study focused the three major
objectives.
The first objective was “To compare the perception of male and female faculty members
towards the teacher training opportunities”. The research findings revealed no significant
difference between male and female respondents with reference to the teacher training. Similarly
in response to the second research objective “To compare proactive behavior of the male and
female faculty members”, no statistically significant difference was found between proactive
behavior of male and female teachers. While “To assess the effect of teacher training opportunities
on proactive behavior of the teachers” regression analysis was used and it was found that in-
service training effects the development of proactive behavior of the employees up to 3 percent
only. While professional competency was the strongest variable that was responsible to affect the
proactive behavior of the employees. Thus it is also worth mentioning that the future researchers
may lead the research in the direction to find out the other factors that are affecting the proactive
behavior of the employees.
6. Recommendations
1. In the light of the findings/ results of the research it is recommended that the male
and female employees serving as the faculty members at the higher level of education in
Pakistan may have the equal opportunities related to the in-service training. As the results
show that there was no difference between male and female respondents towards the
Received Knowledge, Experiential Knowledge, Practice, Reflection and Professional
Competence. Similarly the proactive behavior of the both genders was also same.
2. As the results revealed that in-service training and the proactive behavior of the
employees was found positively related with each other. Thus it is worth to recommend
that there is a need to pay special attention to the arrangement of in-service training
programs frequently. Such programs can be of short duration but it has to be link with the
current needed job related skills. It has also to be ensured that each and every employee
has to get an equal chance of participating in such trainings.
3. It is suggested that the different higher level institutions and universities can join
their hand to organize teacher in-service training programs according to the available
human resources and skills. In this way there would be a chance of the sharing of
knowledge and skills between the universities.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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4. University management needs to pay attention to the professional competence of
the employees. In order to learn new methods and techniques related to the field of
teaching on line workshops and video conferences can also be arranged.
5. In-service training has to be linked with the performance benefits and promotions
to attract the employees to take part in such activities.
6. It is recommended that training has to be linked with the daily routine problems
and issues so that the employees may find it useful in their own situations.
7. As a part of recommendations a model has been suggested by the researcher to
regulate the teacher training program at university level. The model suggests focusing on
the following basic teacher training areas (Fig. 2).Further the model also provides the
explanation of the process of training programs (Fig. 3). The suggested process is based on
the six steps with the purpose that each cycle of the training will focus on the one selected
area of training need.
Teacher Training Areas
KNOWLEDGE DEMANDS
a. Awareness of self and surroundings
b. Subject knowledge with specialization
c. Understanding professional requirements
d. Good perception of social and moral values
e. Understanding students potentials and needs
SKILL DEMANDS
a. Learning art of teaching
b. Designing interactive activities
c. Learning teaching methods and strategies
d. Measuring learning achievement
PLANNING DEMANDS
a. Learning course planning
b. Learning sessions planning
c. Learning academic planning
d. Learning assessment planning
MANAGEMENT DEMANDS
a. Learning administrative skills
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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b. Learning management skills
c. Learning official correspondence
d. Learning record keeping skills
RESEARCH DEMANDS
a. Planning research
b. Conducting research
c. Supervising research
d. Report writing
e. Paper writing
PERSONAL DEMAND
a. Respect for administrative hierarchy
b. Cooperation with individuals and groups
c. Developing acceptable behavior
d. Respect for others ideas and care
e. Following the ethical codes
f. Positive social interaction
Fig. No. 2 Teacher Training Areas
Teacher Training Areas
Personal Demands
Knowledge Demands
Skill Demands Planning Demands
Management Demands
Research Demands
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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Fig No. 3 Process of Training
References
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human
behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71–81). New York: Academic Press.
Bockerts, M., Pitrich, p., & Zeidner, M. (2000). Handbook of self regulation. San Diego:
Academic press.
Britt, M. S., Irwin, K. C. & Ritchie, G. (2001). Professional conversations and professional
growth. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education,4(1), 29–43.
Duffy, A. (1993). Steps towards new horizons. International Journal of Early Childhood,
25(1): 49-53.
Duquette,C.(1993). A School-Based Teacher Education Program: Perceptions and
Attitudes. Journal of Educational Research, 39,(4), 419-32.
Even, R. (1999). The development of teacher leaders and in-service teacher educators.
Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 2(1), 3–24.
Govt of Pakistan (1959). National Commission on Education 1959. Ministry of Education,
p-265
Govt of Pakistan (1972). The Education policy 1972-80. Islamabad: Ministry of
Education, p-23
Govt of Pakistan (1979). National Education Policy and Implementation Programme
1979. Islamabad: Ministry of Education, p-16
Govt of Pakistan (1992). National Education Policy 1992-2002. Islamabad: Ministry of
Education. pp.26-62
Harber, C. (1987) The West Midlands-West Africa Project. British Journal of In-Service
Education, 13(2): 86-90.
Iqbal, M. Z. (1996). Teachers Training: The Islamic perspective. Islamabad: Institute of
Policy Studies, p-107
1.
Assess the Need
2.
Select the Skill
(Area)
3.
Plan the Session
4.
Conduct Training
5.
Evaluate Training
6.
Repeat the Process
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Jerald, C. D. (2007). Believing and achieving. Washington DC: Center for Comprehensive
School Reform and Improvement.
Kahn, Michael. (1990). Teachers, tutors and inspectors: views of pre-service teacher
education in Botswana. Educational Review, 42(1): 3-12.
Kazmi,S.F., Pervez,T., Mumtaz,S. (2011). In-Service Teacher Training in Pakistani
Schools and Total Quality Management (TQM). Interdisciplinary Journal Of
Contemporary Research In Business, March Edition 2011, 2, 238-248. ISSN 2073
7122
Krainer, K. (1999). Theory and practice: Facilitating teachers’ investigation of their own
practice. A panel paper presented at the Third Conference of European Society for
Research in Mathematics Education. Osnabruck: [Electronic Version, 17th July,
2005]
Ottevanger, W., Macfarlane, I., and Clegg, A. (2005). Science and mathematics
education development in Namibia after independence: The INSTANT Project.
Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 8(1), 35–44.
Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (2002). Motivation in education (2nd ED.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Printice Hall.
Shommo, M.I. (1995). Teaching home economics by a problem-solving approach in
Sudanese secondary schools for girls. British Journal of In-service Education,
21(3): 319-329.
Wallace, M. (1991). Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach . New
York: Cambridge University Press.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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TEACHING OF SCIENCE AT SECONDARY LEVEL: AN ANALYSIS
OF TEACHERS’ CLASSROOM PRACTICES
1Muhammad Naqeeb ul Khalil Shaheen, 2Dr. Muhammad Munir Kayani, 3Nazir
Haider Shah
Abstract
The attempt is done to analyze the science teachers’ classroom practices at
Secondary level in Rawalpindi-a district of the Punjab (Pakistan). The
objectives of the study were to analyze and compare pedagogical practices
of teachers with respect to their gender, qualification and experience. Six
null hypotheses were developed. A cross-sectional survey was conducted
for the study. Random sampling technique was used for the selection of
male (120) and female (120) teachers. The questionnaire was used for the
science teachers to analyze their classroom practices. Data was collected
by visiting the sample secondary schools of the District Rawalpindi
personally. Data of questionnaire was analyzed by using an independent
sample t-test and two-way ANOVA. It was found that there were significant
differences between classroom practices with respect to their gender and
qualification; moreover, there were interaction effects of teachers'
qualification and gender; gender and experience and qualification and
experience on their practices in the classrooms. It was recommended to
train and encourage male and female teachers equally.
Key Terms: Pedagogical practices, classroom practices, Quality teaching,
Science teachers
1. Introduction
“Science and technology” is what best describes the contemporary age. Scientific
discoveries and inventions have become fashion. In fact, every walk of life is getting the
benefits of scientific knowledge. In 2011, Faize & Dahar observed, people whether living
in countryside or city are equally engaged in making the best use of the available scientific
conceptions. Moreover, Reeves (2002) finds that the use of the available scientific
knowledge is seen in a unique manner i.e. intuition in spite of diversion. Similarly, the
field of education is no exception. In 2002, Cooper asserts that the quality assurance of an
educational program is the reflection of academic standards and attempt to maintain them.
Pedagogy is an art of education. Its aim ranges from the full progress of the human
being to skills attainment. For example, Paulo Freire referred to his method of coaching
people as critical pedagogy. Learning is a process and it takes time for children to learn.
Teacher should develop such a safe and thoughtful learning environment in which all
1 Teacher Educator (Monitoring and Evaluation), District Training and Support Center, Attock; Email:
[email protected] 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Education, International Islamic University Islamabad
3 Lecturer, Department of Education, Mohi-ud-Din Islamic University, Nerian Sharif, AJK
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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students can learn. It requires such teaching activities and strategies that all students have
active participation in the learning process. These efforts of a teacher are called
Pedagogical styles of teaching. By using a variety of interactive activities in class rooms,
student interests and active participation in learning can be enhanced. Such activities
enable students to construct their own knowledge. While designing these activities, teacher
must ensure that all students are participating. Knowing about learning style can help
teacher plan lessons, assignments and activities. The word pedagogy is taken from the
Greek in which genitive “paidos” shows "child" and “ago” means "lead"; so, “It literally
means to lead the child. It is observed that pedagogy is helpful in recognizing, recalling,
analyzing, reflecting, applying, creating, understanding and evaluating. It is the
development of the human being to skills acquisition (Mundhe & Herkal, 2013).
In developing countries, Most of the teaching in class room is done in a traditional
way. The children sit quietly in rows in the classroom, the teacher does all the talking and
the students passively listen to the teacher not following a psychological procedure.
Whereas when the students are taught in this way, they get very little of the knowledge.
Many researches show that the learning of students improves a lot when their active
participation is ensured. Student-oriented applies and cognitive activation is related with
student motivation and conceptual understanding. In traditional classroom the learning
capabilities of more students are limited and they tries to copy what is written on the board
by the teacher. However, empirical research proposes that these factors are not sufficient
to adoptive learning. Cognitive outcomes may also require clear constructing of lessons
e.g. students learn more by actively participating in observing, speaking, writing, listening,
thinking, drawing and doing (Baumert, et al. 2009; Klieme, Pauli, and Reusser, 2009;
Creemers and Kyriakides, 2008).
Studies done in the past, unfolded the reality that whatever the views a teacher
keeps about science; scientific based knowledge; and how students absorb and retain
scientific notions , all prove their decisive role in the modification and application of the
curricula designed, specifically, to promote science education (Fang, 1996; Crawford,
2000; Keys, 2005; Johnson, 2004). Hence a notable number of educationists admitted that
teachers’ views play back of the practices which they carry during instructions (Johnson,
2004; Brownlee, Boulton-Lewis & Purdie, 2002).
So, every step which is taken to bring a change in the fashion, researchers, found it
requisite to have complete knowledge. For instance, what the teacher thinks of, is of
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sublime importance when curriculum is tried to model; when guidance is provided for
effective modification; and when skillful learning is provided which ultimately benefits
the educators to reconstruct the earlier beliefs and thoughts according to the needs and
demands of curriculum (Keys, 2005; Feldman, 2000; van Driel, Beijaard, & Verloop,
2001). Previously, the attempts were made to explore the classroom practices of male and
female teachers by studying them separately whereas the current study made a difference
for here no segregation was carried out and both the genders went through observation
simultaneously.
1.1 Objectives of the study
Following were the objectives of the study:
1. To compare practices of male and female teachers to teaching science subjects.
2. To find out the effect of teachers’ experience on their classroom practices.
3. To discover the impact of teachers’ qualification on their classroom practices.
1.2 Research Hypotheses
Research hypotheses were:
H01: There is no significant difference between practices of male and female teachers to
teaching science subjects.
H02: There is no impact of teachers' qualification on their classroom practices.
H03: There is no impact of teachers' experience on their classroom practices.
H04: There is no interaction effect of teachers’ gender and qualification on their classroom
practices.
H05: There is no interaction effect of teachers’ gender and experience on their classroom
practices.
H06: There is no interaction effect of teachers’ qualification and experience on their
classroom practices.
2. Literature Review
Humans have always been curious about the world around them. The inquiring
and imaginative human mind has responded to the wonder and awe of nature in different
ways. One kind of response from the earliest times has been to observe the physical and
biological environment carefully, look for any meaningful patterns and relations, make
and use new tools to interact with nature, and build conceptual models to understand the
world. This human Endeavour is science (Creemers and Kyriakides, 2008).When such
type of citizens are desired who are well aware of the importance and application of
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science imparted through a system of education, the importance of teaching standard, is
inevitable. In order to improve the students’ learning outcomes and building community
confidence, the role of quality teaching is crucial (Darling-Hammond, 1999). A number of
subsequent reports and investigations also established the similar facts, for it helped to
attain a prolific level of understanding (Darling-Hammond, 1999; NCMST, 2000;
National Research Council, 1997).
While the quality teaching addresses two major issues i.e. teachers’ knowledge
of subject matter and pedagogy. Verily, these are the vital components of quality teaching
in science (Darling-Hammond, 1997). Studies done in the past, unfolded the reality that
whatever the views a teacher keeps about science; scientific based knowledge; and how
students absorb and retain scientific notions , all prove their decisive role in the
modification and application of the curricula designed, specifically, to promote science
education (Fang, 1996; Crawford, 2000; Keys, 2005; Johnson, 2004). At the secondary
stage the students should be engaged in learning science as a composite discipline, in
working with hands and tools to design more advanced technological modules than at the
upper primary stage, and in activities and analysis on issues surrounding environment and
health. Systematic experimentation as a tool to discover/verify theoretical principles, and
working on locally significant projects involving science and technology are to be
important parts of the curriculum at this stage (Johnson, 2004).
Quality teaching and learning of science that includes: 1. students learning of
science is greatly determined by how they are taught by teachers; 2. teachers’ perceptions
of science as a discipline and as a school subject to be learned by the students greatly
influenced their actions and its teach-ability; 3. students’ understanding of science is
achieved through their engagement and active construction and social processing of
information; and 4. teachers’ understanding of and relationship with their students have a
great influence on their actions (Keys, 2005).
3. Methodology
3.1 Nature of the study
It was a descriptive study. Cross-sectional survey was used for the study.
3.2 Population
The population included all male and female science teachers of Government High
Schools of district Rawalpindi.
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3.3 Sample
There were 2728 male and 3573 female High School Teachers in the district
Rawalpindi. 240 science teachers (120 male and 120 female) were selected randomly as
the sample of the study.
3.4 Research Instrument
A questionnaire was prepared for the science teachers to find out their practicesfor
teaching science. Cronbach Alpha was applied for calculating reliability of the instrument
i.e. 0.977 and considered acceptable.
3.5 Data Collection Procedure
Data was collected through personal visit to the sample schools. A cross sectional
survey was conducted for the collection of data.
4. Data Analysis
Data was analyzed by using an independent sample t-test for comparing
pedagogical practices of male and female teachers. An independent sample t-test was used
to analyze the null hypothesis i.e. there is no significant difference between the
pedagogical practices of male and female teachers. Two-way ANOVA was used to
analyze the rest of null hypotheses. Post-hoc tukey test was applied to find whether there
was any significant difference between the groups.
Table 4.1 Showing results of t-test
Respondents N df Mean SD t-value p
Male 120 238 87.51 5.036 33.046 0.000
Female 120 238 52.45 10.474
Total 240
An independent sample t-test was conducted to compare practices of male and
female teachers to teaching the science subjects. A hypothesis was formulated for this
purpose i.e. H01: There is no significant difference between practices of male and female
teachers to teaching science subjects.
There was a significant difference between male (M=87.51, SD= 5.036) and
female (M= 52.45, SD= 10.474), t (238) = 33.046, p = 0.000 teachers’ classroom
practices. This showed that null hypothesis was rejected as there was a significant
difference between practices of male and female teachers to teach the science subjects.
Moreover, male teachers (N=120, M=87.51, SD= 5.036) were statistically using more
practices than female teachers (N=120, = M= 52.45, SD= 10.474) (Table 4.1).
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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A two-way between groups analysis of variance was conducted to analyze the
hypotheses No. 2 to 6. Before running two-way ANOVA the assumptions of ANOVA
were tested and met.
Table 4.2 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Source Df F Sig.
Gender 1 488.385 .000
Qualification 2 11.787 .000
Experience 3 1.415 .239
Gender * Experience 2 81.960 .000
Experience * Qualification 4 22.399 .000
Gender * Qualification 2 4.114 .018
Error 225
The second hypothesis stated that there is no impact of teachers’ qualification on
their classroom practices. Subjects related to teaching qualification were divided into three
groups (qualification of; BSc, BS/MSc, MS/M. Phil.). A two-way ANOVA was applied to
test this hypothesis. The effect of teachers’ qualification on their classroom practices was
statistically significant as F (2, 225) = 11.787, p = 0.000 (Table 2). So, the null hypothesis
i.e. H02: There is no impact of teachers' qualification on their classroom practices, was not
accepted. As there was statistically significant difference between teachers’ classroom
practices with respect to their qualification, hence, Post Hoc tucky test was applied.
Table 4.3 Results of Post Hoc Tucky Test
(I) qualification (J) qualification Mean Difference (I-J) Sig.
BSc BS/MSc -4.79 .000
MS/MPhil 3.82 .004
BS/MSc BSc 4.79 .000
MS/MPhil 8.61 .000
MS/MPhil BSc -3.82 .004
BS/MSc -8.61 .000
Results in Table 4.3 showed that there were statistical differences present in all the
groups related to teachers’ qualification. This implied that the teachers with different
qualifications i.e. BSc, BS/MSc, MS/M. Phil. used strategies that were different from each
other. Table 3 also found that the minimum mean difference i.e. 3.82 found between
practices used by the teachers with the qualification of BSc and MS/M. Phil, while, this
mean difference reached to 4.79 in case of the teachers with the qualification of BSc and
BS/MSc. It was also found that the teachers with the qualification of BS/M. Sc. and
MS/M. Phil. showed maximum mean difference i.e. 8.61.
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Third hypothesis stated that there is no impact of teachers’ experience on their
classroom practices. Subjects related to teachers’ experience were divided into four groups
(experience of; less than 1 year, 2 to 5 years, 6 to 9 years and above 10 years). A two-way
ANOVA was applied to test this hypothesis. The effect of teachers’ experience on their
classroom practices was not statistically significant, F (3, 225) = 1.415, p = .239 (Table 2).
So, the null hypothesis i.e. H03: There is no impact of teachers’ experience on their
practices, was accepted.
Fourth hypothesis stated that there is no interaction effect of teachers’ gender and
qualification on their classroom practices. A two-way ANOVA was applied to test this
hypothesis. The interaction effect of teachers’ gender and qualification on their classroom
practices was statistically significant, F (2, 225) = 4.114, p = .018 (Table 2). So, the null
hypothesis i.e. H04: There is no interaction effect of teachers’ gender and qualification on
their classroom practices was not accepted.
Fifth hypothesis stated that there is no interaction effect of teachers’ gender and
experience on their classroom practices. A two-way ANOVA was applied to test this
hypothesis. The interaction effect of teachers’ gender and experience on their classroom
practices was statistically significant, F (2, 225) = 81.960, p = .000 (Table 2). So, the null
hypothesis i.e. H05: There is no interaction effect of teachers’ gender and experience on
their classroom practices was not accepted.
Sixth hypothesis stated that there is no interaction effect of teachers’ qualification
and experience on their classroom practices. A two-way ANOVA was applied to test this
hypothesis. The interaction effect of teachers’ qualification and experience on their
classroom practices was statistically significant, F (4, 225) = 22.399, p = .000 (Table 2).
So, the null hypothesis i.e. H06: There is no interaction effect of teachers’ qualification and
experience on their classroom practices was not accepted.
5. Conclusion
The findings of the study concluded that the null hypothesis i.e. there is no
significant difference between pedagogical practices of male and female teachers was
rejected as there was a significant difference between practices of male and female
teachers. Moreover, male teachers were statistically using more practices than female
teachers. The results of the study also concluded that the null hypothesis i.e. there is no
impact of teachers' qualification on their classroom practices was rejected as there was
statistically significant difference between teachers’ qualification with respect to their
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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classroom practices. Post-hoc comparison using Tukey HSD also showed that the teachers
with the qualification of BS/M. Sc. and MS/M. Phil. showed maximum mean difference.
The results of the study also concluded that the null hypotheses i.e. there is no interaction
effect of teachers’ gender and qualification on their classroom practices; there is no
interaction effect of teachers’ gender and experience on their classroom practices and there
is no interaction effects of teachers’ qualification and experience on their classroom
practices were rejected. While the null hypothesis H03: There is no impact of teachers'
experience on their classroom practices was accepted.
6. Recommendations
It was recommended that all the teachers with different qualifications might be
trained by the latest pedagogical practices and techniques for the classrooms. Special
training material might be developed for the purpose to remove the differences between
their practices. Male and female teachers might also be encouraged to use practices in the
classrooms equally, so that the statistical difference between them might be removed.
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Orr, B. (1999). Pre-service Teachers Perceived Success of Classroom Management
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Reeves, T. (2002). Mass education and quality. Paper presented at the HERDSA
Conference: Keynote address: Edith Cowan University, Perth.
Shaheen, F. (2003). A Study of the Problems of the Overcrowded Schools at Secondary
Level in District Attock. Thesis: Master in Education, Department of
Education, Islamabad: International Islamic University.
Van Driel, J. H., Beijaard, D. & Verloop, N. (2001). Professional development and reform
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Research in Technology Education, 37(3), 221-244.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
27
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLASS SIZE AND ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT 1Laraib, 2Saira Ijaz Ahmad, 3Mobeen-ul-Islam
Abstract
Class Size can be defined as the total number of students’ in a course or
classroom, taught by an instructor throughout the year (Blatchford, 2003)
and it is one of the major indicator that influence the Students’ Academic
Achievement (Adunola, 2013; Vandenberg, 2012; Kornfeld, 2010). The
main objective of the study was to find out “The Relationship between
Class Size and Students’ Academic Achievement”. The nature of the study
was co-relational and population of the study was students’ of 5th
Grade.
The study was delimited to the District Gujrat and twenty five public
schools were randomly selected. A check list was developed by reviewing
the literature then it was validated through expert’s opinion. The data were
collected from the Heads of the selected schools. Data were analyzed
through SPSS version 21. Findings of the study revealed that Class Size of
5th
Graders at Elementary Schools were more than the average Class Size
determined by Tomlisnson (1988). Moreover, it revealed, negative and
strong correlation between class Size and Academic Achievement scores in
general at both boys and girls Elementary Schools.
Key Words: Class Size; 5th
Grader; Academic Achievement
1. Introduction
Class Size is characterized as the number of Students’ in a class with one
instructor. Tomlisnson (1988) identified that there are four different types of class: a) Ideal
Classes (10-12 pupils for each instructor), b) Small Classes (13-17 pupils’ for each
instructor), c) Standard Classes (22-25 pupils’ for each instructor), d) and General Classes
(22-25 pupils’ with an instructor and a full-time guest instructor). Class size affects the
performance of both the teacher and the students’ by the number of ways. Finn et al.
(2003) exposed that the teacher can easily engage pupils in small classes and the pupils
can also minimize their disturbing attitude in small classes as compared to the class where
the number of the Students’ are extended.
According to the Caplin’s Dictionary of Psychology (1965) Academic
Achievement has been characterized as the level of fulfillment of proficiency in
scholastic act as assessed by instructor or through institutionalized accomplishment tests.
Academic Achievement is essential because it makes pupil or person ready for future
1 M.Phil Scholar, Department of Education, University of Gujrat.
2 (Corresponding Author) Lecturer, Department of Education, University of Gujrat. Email:
[email protected] 3 Assistant Professor, Department of Education, University of Gujrat.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
28
professions. Academic Achievement helps the teachers to shape the minds of the pupils
and promote them in next grade. In this study the researcher studied the relationship
between the Class Size and Students’ Academic Achievement and the difference between
the Academic Achievement of boys and girls students of grade 5th
. There are many factors
that affect the students’ Academic Achievement for example Gender (Chambers and
Schreiber, 2004); Socio Economic Status of the Students(Capraro& Wiggins, 2000),
Parental Education (Ceballo, McLoyd & Toyokawa, 2004), and Home Environment
(Barnard, 2004; Henderson, 1988; Shumox & Lomax, 2001) and Class Size (Blatchford,
2003).
Class Size plays a major role in the academic career of the pupil as well as the
teacher and school also. It is an important variable that directly and indirectly affects the
students’ Academic Achievement. If the number of the pupils would be increased in the
class then the Achievement level of Students’ will be decreased (Biddle, B. J., & Berliner,
D. C. 2002). There are many researches on An Analysis of The Relationship between
Class Size and Academic Performance of Students (ADUNOLA, 2013),Class Size and
students’ Academic Achievement (Vandenberg, 2012) and The Effects of Class Size on
Student Academic Achievement in a Rural State (Kornfeld, 2010).
This study would be helpful for the heads of the schools, teachers, Students,
curriculum developer and also for the policy makers. Head of the school would divide the
class into the small groups according to the average Class Size. The teacher would plan
different activities in the class for the Students related to his/her topic. He/she can easily
give the feedback and proper guidance for the students. Students would easily ask the
questions from their teacher and the relation between the teachers to student and student to
student would be stronger as compared to the large class size. The curriculum experts
would plan and design different activities, It would be helpful for policy maker to refine
the existing educational policies.
1.1 Objectives of Study
Major objectives of the study were:
1 Find the class size of 5th
graders in Elementary Schools.
2 Determine the achievement level of 5th
graders in Elementary Schools.
3 Compare the class size of 5th
graders between the boys and girls in Elementary Schools.
4 Compare the mean achievement score of 5th
graders between the boys and girls in
Elementary Schools.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
29
5 Determine the relationship between class size and achievement of 5th
graders in
Elementary Schools.
1.2 Research Questions
1. What is the class size of 5th
grade in Elementary Schools?
2. What is the class size of 5th
grade in boys Elementary Schools?
3. What is the class size of 5th
grade in girls Elementary Schools?
4. What is the mean achievement score of 5th
grade in Elementary Schools?
5. What is the mean achievement score of boys 5th grade in Elementary Schools?
6. What is the mean achievement score of girls 5th grade in Elementary Schools?
7. Do 5th grade class size differ between boys and girls in Elementary School?
8. Do 5th grade academic achievement differs between boys and girls in Elementary
Schools?
9. Do class size and achievement scores of 5th graders in Elementary Schools correlated
significantly?
2. Literature Review
Hanushek (1999) suggested that in the established elementary school level class
size can be defined as classroom is the duty of one Instructor/Teacher in an independent
class room, number of pupils is the main duty of one teacher in a class within a year. The
small number of Students e.g. 11 will be considered a small Class Size as well as large
number of Students e.g. 20 or additional Students will be considered as large Class Size.
The size of class influences the teaching. If a class is small in size then teacher may spend
extra time with each student as compare to large Class Size. In smaller classes the teacher
may face less challenge as compare to the large classes as: a) to organize the class, b) to
direct and evaluate and, c) to plan activities. Teachers feel more stress in large Class Size.
And in smaller classes teacher can easily judge the challenges and provide better
suggestions and guideline to his/her Students. A teacher can be well aware about his/her
Students needs and can maintain good relations with them.
Classroom administration is an issue of that class in which the number of Students’
is large. The absence of suitable physical space is a component influencing guideline, and
as indicated by Blatchford et al. (2007), having pupils’ closer to one another in physical
vicinity escorts classroom administration issues because of the instructor’s failure to face
the challenging Students large size class.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
30
To maintain a methodical and safe learning situation, instructors of a large number
of pupils’ are less inclined to utilize inquiry-based study facilities (Deutsch, 2003). A
deficiency of physical space deprive continue the teachers from having the capacity to
utilize a different types of instructional methods and to adjust the learning environment to
tackle in a better way the issues of the pupils’ (Deutsch, 2003; Blatchford et al., 2007).
Need for using class time for the treatment of the pupils’ misbehavior could
influence on pupils’ Achievement also be a reason aligned with ever-increasing number of
Students’ (Blatchford et al., 2007). Cakmak (2009) indicated that large size classes have
more cases of pupils’ bad behavior and less Academic Achievement because of
instructional time being utilized for classroom administration. Adding to this study with
respect to Class Size with classroom administration were investigated that how the
collaborations between the instructors and the pupils’ are influenced by larger number
Students. North Carolina recommended that Small Classes (15 or less pupils) helped
instructors to resolve discipline issues through the individual connections they found
themselves able to build up with their pupils.
Instructors expressed that in small classes, they found themselves able to interact
more with pupils’ and maintain discipline issues from happening (Egelson et al., 1996).
Increased the number of the pupils’ in the classroom influences the instructors associations
towards pupils and also disturb pupil to pupil communications (Blatchford et al., 2003a;
Blatchford et. al., 2007).
Small Classes enhance teacher and Students’ collaborations. Instructors in small
classes have the capacity to give learners more instructional criticism (Blatchford et al.,
2003a; Pedder, 2006). Day after day interaction with student allowed instructors to
evaluate the instructional and necessities of their students’. Having the capacity to have
quality associations with their pupils is a vital part of small Size classes as this encourages
the instructor to arrange and execute instructional exercises (Blatchford et al., 2003a). The
utilization of direct guideline of an individual is an effect instructor and Students
connections that absolutely influences the instructional exercises. Blatchford et al., 2005;
Cakmak, 2009; Blatchford et al., 2003 studied that instructors give additional time for
immediate direction of individual student in small classes.
Hedges and Stock (1983) proposed that: a. Small Classes are critical for extended
Student Achievement. b. Students with inferior pedagogic have a more learning
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
31
ability/capacity as compare to larger classes c. Lesser classes can emphatically influence
the Academic Achievement of financially or socially burdened Students.
Black and William (1998) explained that Achievement is the definite body of
information. This gives remedial information of students. Achievement is able to expose
capability of Students as well as the results may be used to predict the future action.
There were several factors effecting on the students’ Academic Achievement.
Goddard (2003) defined that the atmosphere as well as the individual qualities of the
learner’s one assumed a vital part in their Achievement. This societal help is an essential
part for the achievement of completing objectives of pupils in school. Furstenberg and
Hughes (1995) explained that society, social structure and association of children’s extend
the rate of Academic Achievement. Gender, orientation, plus father’s profession are
important contributors to pupils accomplishment (McCoy, 2005; Peng and Hall, 1995).
Parental education has an important impact on the pupil’s Academic Achievement.
The gender of the Students’ emphatically influences their Academic execution. The girls
do better as compare to the boys, normally hard work to get good marks at school
(Ceballo, McLoyd & Toyokawa, 2004). Home environment of pupils’ also influences the
student’s Academic Achievement of the pupils (Marzano, 2003).
Other demographic elements, the impacts of Socio Economic Status are salient
predominant on the level of Achievement (Capraro, R., Capraro, M., and Wiggins, 2000).
This can be considered in a variety of techniques. It is frequently figured by taking a
parental instruction, occupation, wage, and offices utilized by people independently or all
in all.
3. Research Methodology
3.1 Population and Sample
Researcher targeted the 5th
graders enrolled in elementary schools situated in the
jurisdiction of Tehsil Gujrat. Reason of selecting the 5th
graders was that 5th
grader is the
terminal stage of primary education. It is significant in the sense as the learner at this stage
must learn the basic literacy and numeracy skills. It is necessary to ensure the learning of
these desired skills by the teacher and the larger no. of students in a class may suffer from
effective learning. Accessible population for the researcher was those elementary schools
situated in the jurisdiction of four Marakaz i.e. Markaz East (Boys’& Girls’) and Markaz
West (Boys’&Girls’) in Tehsil Gujrat. Sample of the study was selected using two stage
random sampling technique. Firstly four Cluster Training and Support Centers (CTSCs)
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
32
out of five CTSCs situated from four above mentioned Marakaz. Secondly twenty five
elementary schools were selected randomly from three selected CTSCs. List of the schools
were taken from District Training and Support Centre (DTSC) Gujrat. Each Markaz has
65 schools and researcher selected 20% schools from each Markaz.
3.2 Research Instrument
Two main variable of the study were the Class Size and Academic Achievement.
To check the Class Size the check list was developed by the researcher. The indicators of
the checklist were (a) school type, (b) sections, (c) strength of the Students’ and (d)
gender. For the Academic Achievement the result of the Students’ of 5th
grade was taken
by the Pec annual results 2014.
3.2.1 Validation of Research Instrument
Checklist items were validated through expert’s opinion. In the light of feedback received
from the experts, the check list was finalized.
3.3 Data Collection
The researcher personally visited the selected schools and a meeting was organized
with the head of the school. Head teacher was informed about the visit. He/she was asked
to fill in the checklist. Direction was given to the head about the filling of the checklist.
They were asked that the information provided was kept in confidential and just used for
researcher purpose.
4.Data Analysis
Data were tabulated in SPSS (version21). Mean and standard deviation was
calculated to describe the sample of the study. Pearson-r was calculated to find out the
relationship between the Class Size and Students’ academic achievement. Independent
Sample t-test was used to find out the differences of Class Size and Academic
Achievement between boys and girls of elementary schools.
4.1 Results of Study
What is the Class Size of 5th
Grade at Elementary Schools?
Table 4.1Mean Class Size of 5th
Grade at Elementary Schools
N Mean SD
Class Size 25 37.15 19.55
Table 4.1 shows that Class Size of 5th
grade in elementary schools is (M=37.15,
SD=19.55) where as average Class Size should be 25 (Tomlisnson, 1988)). It is concluded
that existing Class Size of 5th
grade in elementary schools greater than average Class Size.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
33
What is the Class Size of 5th
Grade of Boys at Elementary Schools?
Table 4.2 Class Size of 5th
Grade of Boys at Elementary Schools
N Mean SD
Class Size 9 45.44 22.55
Table 4.2 shows that Class Size o f 5th
grade in boys’ elementary schools is
(M=37.15, SD=22.55) where as average Class Size should be 25. It is concluded that
existing Class Size of 5th
grade in boys elementary schools greater than average Class
Size.
What is the Class Size of 5th
Grade at Girls Elementary Schools?
Table 4.3 Class Size of 5th
Grade at Girls’ Elementary Schools
N Mean SD
Class Size 16 32.48 16.66
Table 4.3 shows that Class Size of 5th
grade in girls’ elementary schools is
(M=32.48, SD=16.66) whereas average Class Size should be 25. It is concluded that
existing Class Size of 5th
grade in girls elementary schools greater than average Class Size.
What is the Mean Achievement Score of 5th
Grade at Elementary Schools?
Table 4.4 Mean Achievement Score of 5th
Grade at Elementary Schools
N Mean SD
Academic Achievement 25 186.88 70.30
Table 4.4 shows that Mean Achievement Score (M=186.88, SD=70.30) of 5th
grade in elementary schools. The mean achievement score was obtained from 500. It
shows that 5th
graders from elementary schools of Tehsil Gujrat are below average.
What is the Mean Achievement score Boys’ of 5th
Grade at Elementary schools?
Table 4.5 Mean Achievement Score Boys’ of 5th
Grade at Elementary Schools
N Mean SD
Academic Achievement 9 132.11 58.84
Table 4.5 shows that Mean Achievement Score of boys’ (M=132.11, SD=58.84) of
5th grade in elementary schools. The mean achievement score was obtained from 500. It
shows that 5th graders from elementary schools of Tehsil Gujrat are below average.
What is the Mean Achievement Score Girls’ of 5th Grade at Elementary Schools?
Table 4.6 Mean Achievement Score Girls’ of 5th
Grade at Elementary Schools
N Mean SD
Academic Achievement 16 217.96 57.00
Table 4.6 shows that Mean Achievement Score of girls’ (M=217.96, SD=57.00) of
5th grade in elementary schools. The mean achievement score was obtained from 500. It
shows that 5th graders from elementary schools’ of Tehsil Gujrat are below average.
Does 5th Grade Class Size differ between boys’ and girls’ at Elementary Schools?
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
34
Table 4.7 Comparison of 5th
Graders Class Size between Boys’ and Girls’
Elementary Schools
Variables N Mean SD Df t-value Sig.
values
Boys 9 45.44 22.55 23
1.64 0.114
Girls 16 32.48 16.66
Table 4.7 shows that t-value (23) =1.64 is not significant because p=0.114>α=0.05.
This shows that boys’ (M=45.44, SD=22.55) and girls’ (M=32.48, SD=16.66) 5th
classes
in elementary schools do not differ in class size.
Does 5th
Grade Academic Achievement differ between Boys’ and Girls’ at Elementary
Schools?
Table 4.8 Comparison of 5th
Grader’s Academic Achievement between Boys’ and
Girls’ Elementary Schools
Variables N Mean SD df t-value Sig.
values
Boys 9 132.11 58.84 23
-3.56 .002
Girls 16 217.96 57.00
Table 4.8 shows that t-value (23) =-3.56 is not significant because p=.002<α=0.05.
Table 4.6 shows that t-value=1.64 is not significant because p=0.114>α=0.05. This shows
that boys’ and girls’ 5th
classes in elementary schools differ in Academic Achievement
.Girls’ Academic Achievement (M=217.96, S.D. =57.00) is better than boys’ Academic
Achievement (M=132.11, S.D. =58.84).
Do Class Size and Achievement Scores of 5th
graders at Elementary Schools correlated
significantly?
Table 4.9 Correlation between Class Size and Mean Achievement Scores of 5th
at
Elementary schools
Variables N Mean SD R Sig. values
Mean 25 186.88 70.30 -0.542 0.005**
Class Size 25 19.58 19.58
*P<.05, **p<.01
Table 4.9 shows that value of Pearson r= -0.542 is significant because
p=0.005<α=0.01. This shows that there exist strong and negative correlation between class
size and Academic Achievement of 5th
grader’s in elementary schools.
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
35
5. Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Discussions
Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach (2014) reviewed the literature and reported that
class size is significant predictor of students Cognition, Affective and Psychomotor
outcomes. The study analyzed the relationship between class size and students’ academic
achievement. Strong and negative correlation was found between class size and academic
achievement of elementary schools. The results of the study were similar to the research
studies conducting to find out the relationship between class size and students’ academic
achievement (Mersch, 2012, ADUNOLA, 2013 and BAKASA, 2011).The results of the
study were contradicted to the study as reported by linnerbrink (2013) in which no
significant relationship was found between class size and students’ academic achievement
in elementary grades in LOWA.
5.2 Conclusion
1. More crowdie 5th
classes were found both boys’ and girls’ in elementary schools.
2. Academic Achievement of both boys’ and girls’ 5thgraders in elementary schools
were found below to average.
3. No difference was found in class size between boys’ and girls’ elementary schools.
4. Negative and strong correlation was found between class and Academic
Achievement of elementary schools.
5.3 Recommendations
1. Class size may be settled up to the average class size at elementary schools.
2. Employers should be recruited the teachers keeping in mind Class Size or
Students’ teachers ratio.
3. More teachers training institutions should be established for the production of
trained elementary teachers.
4. More studies should be conducted at various levels elementary, secondary as well
as higher level.
5. Teachers should be trained in both pedagogy as well as content to make the
Students’ performance better.
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Adunola, O. (2013). An Analysis of the Relationship between Class Size and Academic
Performance of Students’’, EgoBooster Books, Ogun State, Nigeria.ISBN: 978-1-
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Biddle, B. J., & Berliner, D. C. (2002, February). Small class size and its
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Blatchford, P., Edmonds, S., & Martin, C. (2003b). Class size, pupil attentiveness and peer
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Blatchford, P., Bassett, P., Goldstein, H., & Martin, C. (2003a). Are class sizedifferences
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International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
38
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF QUALITY EDUCATION OF
PRIVATE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MARKAZ MANDRA, TEHSIL
GUJAR KHAN, DISTRICT RAWALPINDI 1Maria Kanwal,
2Fouzia Ajmal
Abstract
Objective of this research was to comparatively assess the effectiveness of
public and private institutions regarding equipping the teachers with
requisite practical teaching skills. This research also helps to know what is
actually meant by ‘quality education’. In this work, questionnaire is used as
an instrument to evaluate quality of education in private and public
schools. Evaluation was done to get to know which sector provides better
education to the students and what kind of opportunities are available for
faculty and students. This assessment is helpful to find out the factors which
can play a vital role in raising the differences of education system in both
sectors. This work particularly illustrates the education system of schools
of Mandra region. This research makes the readers know about the quality
education and its importance in our society. It also proposes the effective
strategies to improve education in the schools of concerned area.
Keywords: Education, Quality education, Private school, Public school
1. Introduction
Through education we bring change in behavior of an individual. Education
influences overall development of society. It helps in character building of human beings
as well. Islam has also laid great importance on seeking education. In Holy Quran, Allah
says: “Are those equal, those who are known, and those who, do not know”. Education
is best source to bring society on right path. Holy Prophet (SAW) said: “Seek knowledge
from cradle to grave” Education builds up a nation. Without education, no nation can
prosper.
"You know that importance of education and the right type of education cannot be
over emphasized... If we are to make real, speedy and substantial progress, we must
earnestly tackle this question ... having regard to the modem conditions and vast
developments that have taken place all over the world", says Quaid-e-Azam. The Quran
has emphasized greatly on education for both male and female. The Quaid has quoted its
importance for the new nation. Education remained the most neglected feature of national
life during the last half century. Literacy rate of females is very low in world and also
lowest in Muslim countries. The teachers are low paid, under-trained and discouraged and
1 [email protected], International Islamic University Islamabad
2 [email protected], Department of Education, International Islamic University Islamabad
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
39
the quality of education is very low. The quick progress of East Asian Countries is mostly
attributed to their excellent system of education. For primary education, insufficient
resources are allocated in Pakistan by planners; furthermore, the money allocated was not
successfully spent. Pakistan and government of Pakistan defined different areas for
achievement in education in all policies and reports. They put great emphasis on gaining
vocational education and on the improvement of quality of education at different levels.
All Education Conference 1947 made three basic recommendations, one is
education should be encouraged by Islam, second free and compulsory elementary
education and third is emphasis on technical education. When an effective system of
education starts in a country then it makes the person leader of the world both socially and
economically. Education develops the roots of any nation. Every nation prepares their
generation according to their ideological, cultural, social and religious norms
through education but in Pakistan education system is useless. Western countries have
made huge advancement towards science and technology in 21stcentury but we are still
lagging behind in respective fields. Our education systems do not convey qualitative
knowledge neither make people much aware about moral values. Our education system
does not protect our religious and political norms. Therefore, there is a need to have a very
well established and advanced education system so that we can compete with this world.
School principals and teachers play a critical role in school improvement and students’
academic success. Teachers have a direct impact on students’ performance and on their
classroom activities. Schools greatly influence teacher quality by recruiting, developing
and retaining excellent teachers while also removing less effective ones and by ensuring
all students have a good understanding about all concepts.
1.1 Research Objectives
Following were the research questions:
1 To study the perception of head teachers and teachers about teaching problems and
their solutions.
2 To comparatively assess the effectiveness of both the institutions public and private as
regarding equipping the teachers with requisite practical skills for teaching.
3 To explore the assessment system of public and private educational institutions.
1.2 Significance of the Study
The findings of this research would have deep significance for the enhancement of
Primary schools and performance of teachers; specifically the result of this research has
the following importance for the schools principals, teachers, students and others. It may
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
40
help the school leaders to be aware about the problems faced by teachers and principals
and solution for their problems. It may give the clear picture of teaching method followed
by teachers of private and public sector. After this research readers will be able to know
what types of opportunities should be provided to teachers and students and which type of
steps should be taken to make a successful efficient education system in target area.
It may serve as the reference and may call for further in-depth researchers on the topic,
mainly improving quality education in Primary Schools of Pakistan.
1.3 Research Questions
Research had following questions:
1 What are the observation of head teachers and teachers about problems and their
solution?
2 How evaluate the effectiveness of both public and private institutions as regarding
preparing the teachers with obligatory practical skill for teaching?
3 What type of evaluation system exists in both sectors?
4 Which factors can affect a quality education in private and public schools?
5 What are the effective & efficient factors which can help in practicing a good
education system in remote areas?
6 What steps should be taken for decreasing this difference between both sectors if their?
1.4 Delimitation
This study is delimited to private and public schools of region Mandra.Researchis
conducted in seven private and seven government schools. This research collects data
from teachers of private and public schools on the basis of their feasibility and
accessibility.
1.5 Validity and reliability
The main purpose is to be able to consider information about necessary
amendments, to remove the weaknesses and to minimize the misconception in the
instrument that would result from analysis of the pilot study results. Principle of
NPSC/APS school system was requested to examine and evaluate the instrument in order
to discover its validity. The questionnaire was discussed with her in the content area and
their expert opinions were used to determine and improve the validity of the instruments.
2. Literature Review
This paper discusses the time of independence when Muhammad Ali Jannah was
founder of Pakistan. He wanted and struggled for developed Pakistan. He recognized the
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
41
importance of education for nation. In 1947 conference of Education, he considered the
education is base of any nation development. The Education system was divided in
different levels i.e. elementary education, secondary education, higher secondary
education and university level. Different sectors play a vital role in education development
e.g. private sector, public sector and madrassa. Each sector follows its own curriculum
methodology. In policy of 1972 it is decided to nationalize all private schools as well as in
policy of 1979 private sector was considered as back bone in delivery of education.
The lack of quality education has been observed in private sector due to few
numbers of qualified staff and trained teachers. Private schools lack many facilities. On
the other hand private sector exercises better education system different areas. But overall
private sector contributes much in the development of Education.
Researcher gave some suggestions like government of Pakistan encouraged the
installment of private sector for establishing school in rural areas. He gave motivation to
NGOs for establishing female institutions in rural areas. Researcher concluded that private
sector is power of country. Pakistan is still trying to achieve the goals of Education for all
(EFA) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Due to incomplete resources
government couldn’t solve educational problems. According to this research, 50% of
population is illiterate in our country. Furthermore, this research reveals that private sector
not only improves educational system in our country but also develops new culture and
develops respect of our values and norms in our new generation. The national education
policy emphasized on establishment of private institution in our country. Both sectors
improve quality education by working together (Qaisrani, 2011).
2.1 Quality Education
Dakar defined different features for achieving excellence in education i.e. healthy
and motivated students, active teaching learning environment, appropriate curriculum and
good resource allocation. An access of quality education is right of every child. Cognitive
development is a major purpose of education. Then the next element of education is
development of student inventive and emotional abilities.
Every nation has always showed up considerations on quality education. They
stressed on child centered approach for teaching learning process. They always
emphasized on curriculum that respond to social and cultural need of learners. (EFA
Global Monitering repot, 2005).
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2.2 Teaching Aids
Technology benefits us in every aspect of life especially in field of Education. We
provide quality education to student by helping them in better concept formation, concept
elaboration and improving reading skills by making the use of advanced technology in
teaching process. A concept of smart classes is new method of teaching that was
introduced in India by EDUCOM in 2004.In it teacher uses instructional material, 3D
animated modules and visuals. The concept of smart class room makes education
interesting as well as provides a chance to the students to enhance their performances.
Smart class room is equipped with computer and audio-visual aids, white board, DVD’s,
PPT’s and all displayed through data projector. Due to this type of class’s teachers keep
the students engaged in all learning processes successfully. Teachers try their best to make
student’s concept clear and sound by showing various videos and at the end of class
precise assessment of learning outcomes can be achieved. This also assists teachers in
improving their teaching skills. (Selvam, 2014)
In 1986 national policy on education has paid great stress on using of teaching
aids. Teaching aids make process of teaching- learning process more effective. Teacher
requires teaching aids to transmit maximum quality of knowledge with a lesser amount of
time and efforts. Basically adjustment of behavior is learning. Students learn through
experience and senses.
We learn 1.0% through taste, 1.5% through touch, 3.5% through smell, 11.0%
through hearing, and 83.0% through sight. We remember 20% when we hear something,
30% when we see, 50 % when we see and hear, 80% when we say and 90 % when we say
and do. Some important audio visual aids like black board, diagrams, tables, graphics,
charts, models, film, strip and computers are mostly used in teaching-learning processes.
In 1996 a comparative research is conducted by Syed Kamal-ud-Deen. The
objective of this research is use of teaching Kit. This research compares the use of
teaching Kit in private and government schools of Baluchistan. Later, this research
concluded that 15% government schools and 50% private school were used teaching Kit.
As a result student performance was good in private school as compare to government
school student. Many other studies have been conducted in other areas and on national
level. The findings of studies can be summarized as teaching kit is necessary for better
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teaching-learning process. Implementation of teaching kit or teaching aids while teaching
creates interest in students in learning new things (Mirza, 2003).
2.3 Teacher’s Qualification
Quality of education mostly depends on quality of the teacher. Teaching not only
presents textbook information and later also assess the ability of a student to repeat it.
There is no magic formula for transmitting knowledge from teacher mind to student mind.
It is a complicated and challenging job. Emphasizing the learner, guiding the learner and
promoting leaner development are basic fundamentals that are important in the modern
teaching. Child learns when he/she participates and involves in learning situation and
teacher provides them chance to participate in different experiences. Teacher creates
learning situation and motivates student to learn that’s why teacher is respectable
personality but unfortunately teacher is poorly paid and there is little reward in teaching
profession (Kochhhar, 1985).
2.4 Class Strength
The researcher discusses that group size effects on individual learning as well as it
has an impact on nature of interaction and development of an individual children.
Physical, emotional, social and cognitive domains of individual development were
observed in term group size. In small group teacher easily develops activities and grouping
of children is helpful in making daily schedule and program resolutions. It makes easier
for staff to guide student in better way and familiarize them with behavior pattern, issues
and concern of children and resolve conflicts. Grouping creates more positive relationship
between students and teacher. Group size does not produce quality automatically but also
require qualified staff and qualified staff cannot help to produce quality without having
interaction and individual relationship with the students. (Wilson)
This paper defines effects of class strength on student performance. In past three
decades, student-teachers ratio decrease intensely. In this paper data is collected
internationally and discuses extraordinary large differences in student achievements.
Researcher point of view in some time in term of specific teacher, specific group of
student and subject–where class size is important and small strength is effective
(Hanushek, 1998).
Class room behavior and result of test were great stimulus in student strength.
When student learn in small strength they will learn more or learn effectively. Researcher
suggests that resource should provide to students. When strength is more! than difficult
Teaching
Aids
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teach effectively. Improve the monitory system in schools and offered opportunity to
teacher to share raised difficulties. Teachers tech more effectively and spend more time on
active teaching rather in managing on classroom. In small classes student face less
problems in learning process. Student engagement is increased in learning activities (class
size reduction in K3).
Research shows that early grades of student produce good result in small size. In
small classes teacher teaches in better way rather than large classes because in large class
interaction of students and teachers become difficult. In recent times some policymakers
and education specialists have discussed that influencing other educational contributions
would be more effective or more cost-effective than class-size reduction. Recent studies
have found that teachers with high value added on consistent test scores also have an
impact on such successive outcomes for their students. Strength of class directly influence
on teacher or student performance.
2.5 Facilities Make Difference between Both Sectors
In 2010 a survey was conducted by ASER on 120 schools of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
and 390 from Punjab. The information was collected from children of the age 6-13 years.
Related information was collected from government and private schools. According to
report 15% children were out of school in the province,34% children were enrolled in
private schools and 65% children’s were in government schools and 1% were in madrassa
and other type of institutes in KPK. 67% were enrolled in government schools and 31% in
private schools of Punjab. This survey checks the learning level of students in both
sectors. The percentage of private schools is better than the government schools. Students
of private school are better learners.
This was conducted in Punjab, Sindh, and Baluchistan and was concluded that the
private sector plays a very important role to sport government in education sector but
learning level of KPK student’s rate was high as compare to Punjab. Punjab was among
the low literacy ranking districts and KPK was selected as higher literacy ranking districts.
One reason is physical facilities that make the big difference between private and
public sector. In private schools quality teacher is available. More room sexist for teaching
and have many other accessible facilities e.g. toilet, drinking water and boundary wall. In
Public schools there are playgrounds unlike the private schools. Attendance is major
quality indicator. Attendance of teachers and students more effects on learning process. In
this survey it is concluded that in private school, teachers and students attendance is more
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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than public school teachers and students. Government should increase the quality and
physical facilities. Government is responsible to provide at least primary education to the
citizens without any discrimination because it is necessary for all (Amjad, 2012).
In national education policy 1998-2010 importance of teachers has also discussed.
The quality of education depends on numbers of teachers available and their qualification.
It is considered that the teacher is major factor to implement all educational requirements.
According to Dakar framework for EFA the qualification of teacher is very low and they
are generally matriculate. No opportunity to in-service training and monitoring
(Mirza, 2003).
2.6 Evaluation of Teachers
Performance appraisal is used to enhance the teaching process. Performance
appraisal measures level of motivation in teachers, knowledge, lesson planning,
preparation, class room environment, teaching methodology and student behavior. This
study analyzes preparation of class, class room environment and teacher appraisal is good
in private schools as compared to public schools. Researcher concluded that private
institutes are producing better results than government schools however government
schools have more facilities than private. It might be because of better monitoring system
in private school. In public schools appraisal system is not good. There is a need to
develop good and foolproof appraisal system in public sector (Farooqi, 2011).This
research discusses Discipline as factor of learning process. Discipline in class room is
affected byclass size, participation of students in class activities, parent teacher interaction
and individual attention. Teacher has to be fair with all students and has to solve problems
of students. Biasness of teachers creates disruptive behavior in students and develops lack
of respect in students for teacher. In class teacher must provide friendly environment to
students where student can feel comfortable to learn. Teacher may be apprehension about
individual difference and take care about every learner. It is also necessary to arrange the
parents and teacher meeting to solve problems related behavior. Meeting between teachers
and administration should be arranged to discuss student difficulties. In order to generate
student interest in learning process teacher should use A.V aids in class. They should use
modern techniques to avoid indiscipline. To enhance teachers’ quality they provide
refresher courses. Some important techniques should be used to improve classroom
discipline e.g. facial expression, eye contact and body language. When teachers guide to
students then students get motivated to complete work and behave properly. If teacher
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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gives home assignments regularly then he/she should check it properly to create
discipline.(Haider, 2012).
2.7 Attendance as Indicator
In this research, there is a main focus on school attendance effects. Researcher
defines student attendance as a great influential factor on student achievement. Increasing
the rate of attendance becomes tool for achievement. Due to level of absence result
become low and poor performance of student leads him to educational failure.
Improvement in attendance can reduce achievement gaps. Socioeconomic and ethnic
background is one factor of low attendance. This research was conducted in New York
and researcher found that 20 percent students were absent. Poor attendance reflects the
lack of high quality. Improvement in curriculum is not possible if student is not present in
classroom. The researcher suggests that if attendance is good then student gains more
knowledge. Good attendance not only brings good results for student as well as produces
good results for school. This research recommends checking school policies and making
presents aware about importance of attendance. Create a climate in which staff, student
and parents know the bad effects of attendance.
School should identify the barrier’s that’s responsible for low attendance and
interact with parents and community to address them. School must have proper record for
monthly attendance. Currently New York has five states that do not contain any
attendance record. Improvement of the rate of attendance is necessary to provide standard
curriculum and better learning environment (Philbeck, 2011).
In this paper Dories Jean Jones discusses school attendance is an important factor
in school success. Academic achievement directly related to student attendance. This
shows direct relationship between student success and good attendance. Socio-economic
status and its impact on dependent variable of student achievement has been identified in
this study. This research provides a complex picture of poor or minority children who are
at risk in our institutions. Educators need to find out the flaws of education system and
analyze where and why education breakdown begins and what strategies should be
adopted for development and should resolved the issue related academic achievement
(Jones, 2006).
Attendance is linked to all type of outcomes of students. Poverty, unemployment
and negative health outcome are some factors that can lead to low level of attendance. Due
to poor rate of attendance especially unauthorized absentees influence an academic
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
47
achievement of students. There are three categories of absence; first is authorized, second
is unauthorized and third is unexplained.
3. Methodology
The survey design was adopted in this research study it involves the collection of
data to precise. In this research researcher prefers to collect qualitative data. Schools of
Mandra city were selected as population in this study. The sample of the study was
comprised of randomly selected 100 teachers from randomly selected 14 schools 7 was
government and 7 was private schools. For collection of data, researchers developed a
questionnaire one for head teacher and other for teacher.
Each questionnaire consists of twenty items that are constructed by researcher. The
questionnaire has parameters and indicators to identify the quality education. Include:
Satisfaction with Job helps in achieving Effective teaching, Teaching Aids, Teacher’s
Qualification, Class strength, Facilities make difference between both sectors, Evaluation
of teachers, Attendance of teachers as well students.
Researcher found government sector have more qualified and trained heads and
teachers to manage their institute in sound method than the private sector. Private sector has
best admission criteria than the government which is merit based selection of students.
Required qualification for teachers is respectable in government sector than the private
sector schools which is starting with B.A/BSc. Frequency of meeting of head with staff on
daily base is better indicator for effective learning that exists in both sectors. In government
sector, generally schools class strength is below 30 that is better for noble teacher student
interaction. The evaluation of teacher’s performance is not satisfactory in both sector
schools.
Fewer leaves allowed is good indicator for effective teaching that is found in private
schools only. Charts and boards are the basic need of any school which is sufficient in both
sectors while in present era, computer and advanced AV aids is the most significant and
emerging tool which is not sufficiently available in both sectors. Co-curricular activities are
regularly arranged in private schools while government schools do not give much
importance for arranging such activities for students.
4. Data Analysis
Research has revealed that discipline is good in schools of both sectors. Workshops
for teachers are arranged frequently by government in public sector on the other side in
private schools teacher have not this type of opportunity. The student monthly attendance is
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
48
worthy in both sectors. In both sectors tests are taken but private schools take more oral as
well as written test than the public sector. In government schools, heads have more good and
co-operative attitude with their teacher’s staff.
Fig. 4.1. Graphical comparison analysis of Quality Education in Private and Public
Sector
The above bar chart is showing percentage verse quality indicators. It shows
comparison analysis of quality education for both private and public sectors, carried out by
questionnaire survey in the target area. Comparison is made using different indicators
which best distinguish quality education in both sectors. Merit based admission, teacher’s
weekly evaluation, use of effective A.V aids and co-curricular activities are some essential
factors, play a significant role in the setting a good education standard. In this regard,
private sector outperforms public sector in the target area.
5. Conclusion
The results show that in government sector head teachers are more qualified and
skillful. While students selection criteria is best in private institution which is based on
merit. Qualification with professional qualification is made compulsory in public sector
teachers. Both sectors organize meetings on daily basis. Monthly teacher’s attendance lies
in range 80-90 percent in both sectors.
Both sectors do not evaluate their teacher’s performance on regular basis.
Moreover, parent’s teacher meetings do not held on need basis in any of two sectors.
Further, both sector schools have insufficient AV aids which have become a basic need for
acquiring quality education. Government sectors do not conduct co-curricular activities for
students while private sector does. On other hand workshops for teachers are arranged
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Qualfication (M.A/Msc)
Admission ceritera (Merit based)
Strength of class (Below 30)
Teachers Attendence (80%-90%)
Teachers weekly Evaluation
use of A.V aids
co-curricular activities
Monthly teachers workshop
Government sector Private sector
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
49
regularly by government which is lacked in private sector. Overall discipline in both
sectors is good. The reason for a teacher of selecting a particular institution depends on
his/her satisfaction; in government schools mostly teacher’s reason is in having good
salary while in private schools mostly teacher’s reason lies in good reputation of the
institution in the community.
Therefore, overall analysis concludes the education quality in private sector is far
better than in public sector.
6. Recommendations
Education quality would be improved by qualification of teachers. Conduct teacher
parents meeting on need base. Launch workshop or in-service training program regularly
to enhance teacher’s professional skills. Evaluate performance of teachers regularly by
formal and informal approach. Organize co-curricular activities for students regularly for
construction their noble personality. Provide modern A.V aids to teacher for effective
teaching learning process.
References
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Amjad, R. (2012). A comparative analysis of the role of the private sector as education
provider in improving issues of access and quality. DPRC working paper.
Connolly, F., & Olson, L. S. (2012). Early Elementary Performance and Attendance in
Baltimore City Schools' Pre-Kindergarten and Kindergarten. Baltimore Education
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Dar, H. (2012, june). Private schools quality of education in Pakistan, The express tribune.
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Farooqi, D. M. T. K., Khan, D. H. M. A., & Arsalan, M. (2012). Comparison Of
Performance Appraisal System In Public And Private Sectors Higher Secondary
Schools. The Sindh University Journal of Education-SUJE, 41. 148-166.
Haider, Z., Khan, H., Munir, F., Latif, F., & Bari, S. Analysis and Evaluation of Discipline
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Hanushek, E. A., Mayer, S. E., & Peterson, P. (1999). The evidence on class size. Earning
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Iqbal, M. (2012). Public versus private secondary schools: A qualitative comparison.
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Jones, D. J. (2006). The impact of student attendance, socio-economic status and mobility
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Musser, M. P. (2011). Taking attendance seriously: How school absences undermine
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Nasir, Z. M., & Ali, S. Z. (1999). Do Private Schools Produce More Productive
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Understanding Role of Private Sector in the Development of School Education in
Pakistan. International Journal of Learning and Development, 1(2), 38-45.
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a-challenge-to-third-world-countries/
Rehman, H., & Khan, N. (2011). Flaws in Pakistan's Educational System. Abasyn
University Journal of Social Sciences, 4(1).
S.mirza, D. (2003). Quality of primary education. Islamabad: UNCO office, Islamabad.
Selvam, D. (2014). Digital Teaching and Learning. New Delhi (India): Random
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USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA (FACE BOOK) TO PROMOTE HEALTH
EDUCATION: CONTENT ANALYSIS OF HEALTH PAGES AND
USER’S PERCEPTIONS 1Adeela Rehman,
2Nurazzura Mohamad Diah
Abstract
In today’s world of technological advancements, social media is very
popular among people of all age group due to its easy and fast access of
getting and disseminating all type of information and knowledge. With this
consideration, social media is also contributing to promote health
education which is very crucial part of every one’s life. The present study
encompasses the content analysis of the face book pages on health
education to explore how and what types of health education benefiting to
the users. Ten different face book pages were selected which is promoting
health education with different names and contents. The discussion with the
followers of these pages was also generated on facebook to know their
opinion regarding the health pages. The analysis depicted that number of
face book pages related to health education are based on physical and
mental health by focusing providing information related to health habits of
eating, and life style. Few pages are also providing spiritual and
environmental health to enhance health seeking behaviors. As these
facebook pages develops as community and public groups, therefore,
numbers of likes and followers shows popularity among the people of all
ages who are not only getting benefits but also share more information on
health matters. In this way, everyone can get access to various health
matters to upgrade their knowledge in terms of health related research
articles, books and health related website. The followers who like these
pages are having the opinion of getting benefits from these pages in terms
of attaining knowledge about healthy living. It is concluded that besides
providing the general information to the audience, the health related
facebook pages are also promoting research horizon to explore the
different avenues of health issues. Based on some discussant’s opinion it is
recommended to verify the authenticity of the information given before
following it as health is very crucial and sensitive matters for the
individuals.
Keywords: Social Media, Health Education, Facebook
1. Introduction
In today’s world of technology, social media is playing a significance role in
promoting health education. Through easy access, interaction with largest audience and
cheaper accessibility of information, it is getting popularity among people of all ages
1 PhD Student, Department of Sociology & Anthropology KIRKHS, International Islamic University,
Malaysia; Lecturer, Department of Gender Studies, Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi Pakistan 2 Associate Professor, Head, Department of Sociology & Anthropology KIRKHS, International Islamic
University, Malaysia
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
52
across the world. Beside only giving information about health matters, social media also
enables to interact with health care providers, inter-professional communication in
emergency management (Levac & Sullivan, 2010)
Pew Research Center Publications (2009) estimated that that 61% youth in USA
use social media for health information. Neuhauser & Kreps (2003) mentioned the reason
of relying on social media is due to of its easy availability and frequent usage of internet.
Similarly, Farhi (2009) also reported that as the internet is available 24/7 which makes the
life easy and accessible to get health education through social media.
It is necessary to expand the appropriate use of social media for health promotion
(Brad et al 2014). There must be performance measure indictors to evaluate the
authenticity of different pages and sites posted health information. Health organization
needs to monitor the growth and progress of such social media to promote healthy
environment and accurate information (Judy, 2012).
With the advancement of technology, numerous forms of social media are
available and easily accessible. Among all, face book is widely spread and in use of larger
population. It is using as largest platform to create awareness on health matters among
global population. Park (2011) conducted content analysis of face book pages of health
organizations and illustrated the basic information; guidelines, suggestion and planning
regarding health life styles are present on health pages. Number of likes and comments
indicated that users take interest and fallow the health information and want to know more
about it. The suggestion and comments by the users and followers helps the health
organization for strategic planning to disseminate more accurate and precise health
information.
Social media has varied distinguishing features participation, directness,
discussion, as well as making group of people. Feedback mechanisms, such as likes,
comments, share, facilitate more participation from users of social media and encourage a
discussion among users (Mayfield 2008; Trusoy et al, 2009). Participation enables
consumers to interact and understand the health matters by networking with the users to
improve their knowledge and familiarize themselves with health matters (Nutbeam, 2000;
Kalichman et al., 2002; Guedelman et al 2002). Generally the information posted or
shared on the pages is operated by the users of that particular face book page
(Gangadharbatla 2011). By considering the importance and growth of social media
particularly face book, healthcare organization also utilizing its services to promote health
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
53
matters and invite larger audience to be a part of healthcare decision and planning (Chou
et al. 2009).
Currently face book has more than 750 million users and 30 billion pieces of
content such as web links, new stories, photo albums, and blog posts etc. It also enables
health organizations to use face book applications and allow users to get more information
on their health and diet habits (Donohue 2009; Dugan 2010). Beside this, it is also
facilitating health insurance agencies to market their products and health programs and to
interact with the customers (Terry, 2011).
2. Significance of the study
On the basis of above evidence of fastest growing and accepting medium of social
media, facebook is popular among all age groups who performed different activities on it
according to their interest and need. Among all the activities, health education is an
important concern which information is frequently shared on facebook through different
pages. As health is very critical matter, therefore it is necessary to understand what types
of information facebook pages are providing and how users are getting this knowledge for
their own health concerns. The study is intended to explore health related facebook pages,
their information on types of health concerns, and follower’s opinion about these pages.
3. Methodology
This section comprises of research objectives, research design and procedure adopted to
conduct the study.
3.1 Objectives:
1. To conduct content analysis of the face book pages disseminating different types of
health education.
2. To explore how and what types of health education benefiting to the users.
3.2 Research Design
Using qualitative research paradigm, the present study encompasses the content
analysis of the face book pages on health education to explore how and what types of
health education benefiting to the users. Online group discussion was also generated on
facebook to explore the user’s perception about the usefulness of health related pages on
facebook which they have followed.
3.3 Sample Size
Ten different face book pages were randomly selected which is promoting health
education with different names and contents. Only those pages were selected which have
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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at least 1000 likes. About 25 followers of health pages participated in discussion and
shared their views about using these pages for attaining health equation. All of the
followers who took part in the discussion were belong to youth age group.
3.4 Procedure
At first stage of starting the research, number of health pages on face book was searched
by using the researcher’s own face book account. Initially 15 pages were downloaded
from which 10 were selected having at least 100 likes. In second phase the pages were
thoroughly studied to know what type of health information they are sharing, how many
people are following these pages and what are their general comments to any information
shared on the page. At last stage, the discussion was generated among the followers of the
selected page to know their perception about the benefits of these pages for them.
4. Data Analysis
The collected data from the content of the pages and from the discussants is described
under different themes. Themes were generated according the objective of the study. So
the study included thematic analysis to describe and interpret the data.
4.1 Theme 1: Types of Health Education
The content analysis of ten face book pages with different names on health matters
indicated that majority of the pages disseminating the information on general health
education. This includes, eating habits, patterns for health living, exercise practices,
necessary food groups etc. Some of health pages also provide information on medication
for general and epidemic diseases and precautionary measures to overcome the illness.
Regarding information on food, health eating habits such as time to eat, types of food and
nutrition required to body and how to balance the dietary practices. The focus of
information was particularly those audience who want to lose their weight in health way.
It was also beneficial for youth which usually neglect their health eating habits and prefer
junk food as compare to regular organic diet.
The pages named “Health Choices”, “Healthy and Natural world”, “Health and
Fitness Tips”, “Health Life body”, “Health Eats” and “Health Tips & Advice” providing
bulk of information on food patterns, food choices and food preparation for maintain the
health bodies. The basic purpose of providing information through these sites is to create
health awareness among the larger audience through these sites
Another facebook page titles “Health Digest” providing blend of health related
information such as health diet, and common diseases break through and remedies for
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treatment. The page also provides research articles on prevalence of different diseases, and
physicians’ recommendation and guidance to get relief from the disease. The articles on
avoiding certain types of food in specific health condition, how to lose weight without
medication, beauty tips, necessary food to intake etc are the part of this page which are
written by health factionaries and researchers. The page mentioned its description as:
“We believe health is wealth, we provide informational health and wellness tips”
The page health life body is also providing research based articles on different
matters of maintaining healthy body and preventing illness by adopting healthy food. As
the pages given it introduction as:
“Health Life Body is place where we want to create atmosphere full with information’s.
Our goal is bringing new and original posts about Health Life and Body. Health is one of
the most important things. We bring you articles with all information’s you need to know
about how to stay health, prevent illnesses, cure illnesses. And yes, you will see that in our
attempts to keep you informed we always put some twist, making your experience with us
more educative and fun”.
The content and information of the pages also shows that some health organization
prompting their organization website and marketing their products through these face book
pages. As almost all of the pages were given the websites links for more details on
particular health matters. They also mentioned the website link in the description sheet of
the page as shown in below figure:
4.2 Theme 2: Pictographically Presentation
By adding images to face book pages attract the audience as well as clarify the
content. All the studies pages were glorified with real images of food, exercise patterns
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and steps, and drinks etc. The pictures explain the contents and make it easier to remember
as visual representation keeps in mind for longer period of time. The images also help the
audience to be familiar with specific foods in case they have not seen such type of food.
Number of food mentioned at face book pages were new to known for the researcher as
never heard about that. The name of some items like vegetables, dry fruits, and folk
medicines were known but not seen that which helps to identify the required items. The
health tips and suggestion were also presented with warning signs and symbols which
were eye are catching and kept in mind for long due to amusing and colorful signs and
images used. The cover page of the face book pages also presented with certain food and
eating items to attract the audience, such as depicted in the following page:
4.3 Theme 3: Followers
All of the studied health pages had more than 6000 likes, an average 1000
comments on different posts and more than 2000 shares. Some of the pages had more than
one lack likes and shares. More the likes and shares enhance the marketing of the page, as
most of the face book pages on health were designed by health organization which need to
promote their company and products. These pages are also using for marking as well as
research purpose. Number of content was supported with the research based articles by
giving the article links on the post and comments. Hence, the post is become more
International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) Volume I- Issue I (June 2015)
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authentic by attaching external links and some additional information which also attracts
the audience.
The users who liked the pages, posted different comments and shared the pages
were representing the entire world. The users from both the developed and
underdeveloped countries as well belongs to any age group, gender, religion and ethnicity
were following these pages to gain information on different health matters. Most of the
comments are related to extending the information provided at page and also ask the
details of the specific food and its usage. The users who had specific knowledge on any
topic also added the information in comments.
4.4 Theme 4: User’s Perception and Experience
Regarding the usefulness and authenticity of the health information given on
different face book pages, a discussion was generated on my own face book page and get
feedback from all those friends and their friends who are following health pages on face
book. Number of respondents mentioned that the information provided is very useful and
they follow it. One of the respondents mentioned as:
“Few reliable ones are highly informative; thus, allowing the right amount of knowledge
to flow around us. Additionally, I believe, the traditional way of healing i.e “Totakey”
(Folk remedy) which is remarkably making its place in today’s scientific era, that seems
strange sometime that still face book is providing traditional knowledge”
Another respondent stated;
“Yes I do like these pages, I want to be aware of health issues and these pages are
informative and in easy access”.
The information provided on health pages are very informative and related to our
daily life activities but most of us do not pay much attention to as feel not so important.
Likewise mentioned by one of the respondents as:
“Some of the information is very informative such as nutrients. In fact some of the tips are
really useful in daily life, I am in the favor of these pages. These pages are really very
helpful as I got information on new techniques that are improving our health. These pages
also provides up to date information about current new trends occurring around the world
so it is very much useful to follow health pages”
Hence the comments on such pages also illustrated that users are following the
instruction and applying into their daily life. Yet, the truthfulness and authenticity of the
information is required before using any remedy. Because all bodies are not same, so the
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information given as general but with specific health problems need to consider it by
consultation with their physicians. Similarly, one respondent stated that:
“These pages are good for just getting awareness but I believe that very few are useful as
mostly are not authentic”.
Likewise another respondent also mentioned as:
“For me I don’t follow these pages because they are not authentic. To just see and like is
another matter, but we cannot blindly rely on the information given specially medicines,
beauty products, fitness and beauty creams and tablets etc”.
So, the responses of the users of health pages are combination of thoughts about
the reliability and usefulness of these pages. The users are satisfied with the information
and general knowledge of the health concerns available but feel hesitate to follow due to
their trustworthiness.
5. Findings, Discussion and Recommendations
5.1 Findings and Discussion
The study reflects the usage of social media (face book) for disseminating the
information and knowledge to promote health education. Due to it easy and cheap access
via internet the largest audience is getting benefit from it. As Farhi (2009) also reported
that as the internet is available 24/7 which makes the life easy and accessible to get health
education through social media.
Currently face book is the rapidly growing and wider medium of communication to
promote health education. Most the content of these pages were based on general
information related to food and dietary habits for health living. They focused on natural
remedies and food for keeping the body health and not be over or under weight. The
benefits of having certain food are also mentioned with the details of its effects on body.
Many of the pages also highlighted the beautification of body by using food, Vegetables
and all other natural ingredients taken from milk and dairy products. It seems to be good
for the users to avoid over medication to reduce its side effects as the natural ingredients
are more beneficial for maintain the body health and curing for any illness.
It seems larger audience fallow this page to get up to date and authentic
information and also like to share the information with their own friends which increases
the diverse audience across the globe. The arguments also supported by the earliest study
by park (2011) that number of likes and comments indicated that users take interest and
fallow the health information and want to know more about it. At this matter, the
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marketing of health products by different companies is so much competitive to reach the
largest customers which also put some questions on its reliability and authenticity. As
supported by Terry, (2011) that face book also facilitating health insurance agencies to
market their products and health programs and to interact with the customers.
5.2 Conclusion
Health related face book pages are providing health education based on physical
and mental health by focusing providing information related to health habits of eating, and
life style. Few pages are also providing spiritual and environmental health to enhance
health seeking behaviors. Numbers of likes and followers shows the popularity of pages
among the people of all ages who are not only getting benefits but also share more
information on health matters. In this way, everyone can get access to various health
matters to upgrade their knowledge in terms of health related research articles, books and
health related website. It is also promoting research horizon to explore the different
avenues of health issues.
References
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application-fit-ify-health-and-fitness-tracker (accessed October 25, 2010).
Downes, Edward J. and Sally J. McMillan (2000), "Defining Interactivity," New Media &
Society, 2 (2), 157-79.
Dugan, Lauren (2010). Healthy Face book Applications You Should Use to Stay.
Farhi, P. The Twitter Explosion. American Journalism Review, 31(3), 26-31, 2009
Freeman, B., & Chapman, S. (2008). Gone viral? Heard the buzz? A guide for public
health practitioners and researchers on how Web 2.0 can subvert advertising
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community health, 62(9), 778-782.
Gangadharbatla, Harsha (2011), "Social Media and Advertising Theory," in Advertising
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Gold, J., Pedrana, A. E., Stoove, M. A., Chang, S., Howard, S., Asselin, J., ... & Hellard,
M. E. (2012). Developing health promotion interventions on social networking
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Levac, J., & O’SULLIVAN, T. (2010). Social Media And Its Use In Health
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Mayfield, A. (2008). What is social media? iCrossing. http://www. icrossing. co.
uk/fileadmin/uploads/eBooks/What_is_Social_Media_ Crossing_ebook. pdf.
Acesso em, 3(11), 2011.
Neiger, B. L., Thackeray, R., Van Wagenen, S. A., Hanson, C. L., West, J. H., Barnes, M.
D., & Fagen, M. C. (2012). Use of social media in health promotion purposes, key
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performance indicators, and evaluation metrics.Health promotion practice, 13(2),
159-164.
Neuhauser, L., & Kreps, G. L. (2003). Rethinking communication in the e-health
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Contemporary Health Education and Communication Strategies into the 21st
Century," Health Promotion International, 15 (3), 259-67.
Park, H., Rodgers, S., & Stemmle, J. (2011). Health organizations’ use of Facebook for
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SUBMISSION GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH PAPER
The editors welcome submissions of research papers based on original and new research
ideas in proper English language that have not been submitted elsewhere for publication.
The manuscripts would only be considered that follow the journal’s format. Instructions
for authors are given on the journal website. Only the electronic submissions in MS-
Word format are accepted and should be sent only to the journal’s e-mail address
through two file attachments:
Title Page
It must contain the following information:
Title of research paper (Type the title centered, capitalize key words, double-spaced)
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The research paper contains the following:
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Abstract is a brief (150-250 words) comprehensive summary of the research. The word
“Abstract” is centered as the first line of type on this page. Type the abstract as a single
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Write a list of keywords from your research paper at the end of abstract. Type Keywords:
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ii) Introduction (1-3 pages)
Introduction is level one heading of research paper. The introduction of the topic will set
the stage for explaining the research. It should clearly present the purpose of study and
give general overview of main research question and kind of proposed study.
Introduction may include following level two headings:
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Significance of the Study
Delimitations of the study (if any)
iii)Literature Review (4-7 pages)
The review of literature should generally begin on a new page. Discuss the literature
related to your proposed study. This section is designed to inform readers about past
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interest. The review should include a brief discussion of any “classical studies” in this
area, if appropriate, but the major portion of the content should focus on the past decade
of research. It should close with a logical summary of past research and transition to a
statement about what should be studied next. After you present what is already known,
make your case for your research either answering a new question, getting a new answer
to an old question, answering a question about a new population, etc. After you have
made your case that your research is going to give new information, you will summarize
the major points. Remember that the Introduction discusses the problem. The review of
literature should concentrate on solutions (those that exist, those that are still required.
iv) Research Methodology (1-3 pages)
Introduce the general methodology that was used for your study. You should ensure that
your research methodology has been designed properly and that all the elements required
have been considered.
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Research Methodology may include following subheadings
Research Design
Population
Sample and sampling Techniques
Instrumentation
Data collection
v) Data Analysis and Interpretation
Mention the data analysis technique and interpret the data accordingly.
vi)Discussion and Conclusion In this section discuss the findings of data in light of other studies.
vii) Recommendations Give practical recommendations based on data analysis.
viii) References Follow APA 6th Edition for referencing style.
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2. The text is typed in font size 12, Times New Roman.
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GUIDELINE FOR BOOK REVIEW
A book review is a description, critical analysis, and an evaluation on the quality,
meaning, and significance of a book. It should focus on the book’s purpose, content, and
authority. It is a reaction paper in which strengths and weaknesses of the material are
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The following may be included in book review:
1.Write a statement giving essential information about the book: title, author, first
copyright date, type of book, general subject matter, special features (maps, color plates,
etc.), price and ISBN.
2. State the author’s purpose in writing the book. Sometimes authors state their purpose
in the preface or the first chapter. When they do not, you may arrive at an understanding of
the book’s purpose by asking yourself these questions:
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a. Why did the author write on this subject rather than on some other subject?
b. From what point of view is the work written?
c. Was the author trying to give information, to explain something technical, to convince
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4. Evaluate the book for interest, accuracy, objectivity, importance, thoroughness, and
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Respond to the author’s opinions. What do you agree or disagree with? And why?
Illustrate whether or not any conclusions drawn are derived logically from the evidence.
Explore issues the book raises. What possibilities does the book suggest? What has the
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6. Summarize, analyze, and comment on the book’s content. State your general
conclusions. List the principal topics, and briefly summarize the author’s ideas about these
topics, main points, and conclusions. Use specific references and quotations to support
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your statements.
SUBMISSION PROCESS
Only the electronic submissions in MS-Word format are accepted and should be sent to
the journal’s e-mail address through file attachment. ([email protected] and cc to
Submission Deadline: Authors can send their papers throughout the year and these will
be considered for the publication in subsequent issues of the journal.
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION,
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
ISLAMABAD This is a fact that the world renowned universities are devoted to promote excellence in
education through the establishment of distance education centers. Distance Education
mode has been growing rapidly worldwide in the present era. The basic purpose of
distance education is to provide greater access to large number of students within limited
financial budget. We feel proud to announce that International Islamic University,
Islamabad has launched Directorate of Distance Education. This has become possible due
to vision & commitment of the leadership of the university. The support of HEC has
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education through distance education programs. Directorate of Distance Education has
started of the first academic session in the fall semester 2015 with MA Education, MA
Pakistan Studies and M.ED Programs. Our main objective is to provide a great opportunity
to the students who could not achieve their educational targets for several socio-economic,
cultural and geographic constraints. Our team consists of well trained and professionally
qualified people with a wide experience of teaching and research. Directorate of Distance
Education is distinguished with the quality of teaching and learning by utilizing modern
instructional materials. We induce and inculcate high moral values and sense of civic
responsibility among students. For Details Contact: Directorate of Distance Education
For Male Students Room # A 107, Faculty
Block I(Abu Hanifa Block), International
Islamic University, H-10 Islamabad Contact
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