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INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
Springer International Handbooks of Education
Volume 11
A list of titles in this series can be found at the end of this volume.
International Handbook of English Language Teaching
Parti
Edited by
Jim Cummins The University of Toronto, Canada
and
Chris Davison The University of Hong Kong, China
Springe]
Jim Cummins Ontario Institute for Studies in Education/Canada
Chris Davison The University of Hong Kong/China
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006932383
ISBN-13: 978-0-387-46300-1 ISBN-10: 0-387-46300-3
e-ISBN-13: 978-0-387-46301-8 e-ISBN-10: 0-387-46301-1
Printed on acid-&ee paper.
© 2007 Springer Sciences-Business Media, LLC. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.
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Table of Contents
PARTI
List of Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
xm
xxi
xxvii
SECTION 1. The Global Scope and Politics of ELT: Critiquing Current Policies and Programs
Introduction: The Global Scope and Politics of ELT: Critiquing Current Policies and Programs
Jim Cummins and Chris Davison
1 ELT and Colonialism Alastair Pennycook
2 Ideology, Language Varieties, and ELT James W. Tollefson
3 Tensions Between English and Mother Tongue Teaching in Post-Colonial Africa Margaret Akinyi Obondo
4 A Critical Discussion of the Enghsh-Vernacular Divide in India Vaidehi Ramanathan
13
25
37
51
ELT Pohcy Directions in Multilingual Japan Yasuko Kanno
63
vi Table of Contents
6 English Language Teaching in Korea: Toward Globalization or Glocaljzationl 75 Hyunjung Shin
7 The National Curriculum Changes and Their Effects on English Language Teaching in the People's Republic of China 87 Qiang Wang
8 ELT and Bilingual Education in Argentina 107 Agustina Tocalli-Beller
9 English, No Longer a Foreign Language in Europe? 123 Robert Phillipson
10 Common Property: English as a Lingua Franca in Europe 137 Barbara Seidlhofer
11 Teaching English as a Third Language 155 Ulrike Jessner andJasone Cenoz
Yl Protecting English in an Anglophone Age 169 Joseph Lo Bianco
13 Adult Immigrant ESL Programs in Canada: Emerging Trends in the Contexts of History, Economics, and Identity 185 Douglas Fleming
14 Focus on Literacy: ELT and Educational Attainment in England 199 Jill Bourne
15 Methods, Meanings and Education Policy in the United States 211 Lois M. Meyer
SECTION 2. The Goals and Focus of the ELT Program: Problematizing Content and Pedagogy
Introduction: The Goals and Focus of the ELT Program: Problematizing Content and Pedagogy 231
Chris Davison and Jim Cummins
16 The Goals of ELT: Reproducing Native-Speakers or Promoting Multicompetence Among Second Language Users? 237 Vivian Cook
17 Integrating School-Aged ESL Learners into the Mainstream Curriculxmi 249 Constant Leung
18 Communicative Language Teaching: Current Status and Future Prospects 271 Nina Spada
Table of Contents vii
19 Language Instruction Through Tasks 289 Peter Skehan
20 Knowledge Structures in Social Practices 303 Bernard A. Mohan
21 Accelerating Academic Achievement of English Language Learners: A Synthesis of Five Evaluations of the CALLA Model 317 Anna Uhl Chamot
22 Predicting Second Language Academic Success in English Using the Prism Model 333 Virginia P. Collier and Wayne P. Thomas
23 Four Keys for School Success for Elementary EngUsh Learners 349 Yvonne Freeman and David Freeman
24 Collaborating in ESL Education in Schools 365 Sophie Arkoudis
25 Organization of English Teaching in International Schools 379 Maurice W. Carder
26 EngUsh for Specific Purposes: Some Influences and Impacts 391 Ken Hyland
27 An Interdisciplinary Approach to Teaching Adults English in the Workplace 403 Jane Lockwood
SECTION 3. Assessment and Evaluation in ELT: Shifting Paradigms and Practices
Introduction: Assessment and Evaluation in ELT: Shifting Paradigms and Practices 415
Chris Davison and Jim Cummins
28 Standards-Based Approaches to the Evaluation of ESL Instruction 421 David Nunan
29 The Standards Movement and ELT for School-Aged Learners: Cross-National Perspectives 439 Penny McKay
30 High-Stakes Testing and Assessment: English Language Teacher Benchmarking 457 David Coniam and Peter Falvey
viii Table of Contents
31 New Directions in Testing English Language Proficiency for University Entrance 473 Alister Cumming
32 The hnpact of Testing Practices on Teaching: Ideologies and Alternatives 487 Liz Hamp-Lyons
33 Classroom-Based Assessment: Possibilities and Pitfalls 505 Pauline Rea-Dickins
34 The Power of Language Tests, the Power of the English Language and the Role of ELT 521 Elana Shohamy
3 5 Different Definitions of Language and Language Learning: Implications for Assessment 533 Chris Davison
Author Index 549
Subject Index 575
PARXn
List of Authors xiii
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxvii
SECTION 1. The Learner and the Learning Environment: Creating New Communities
Introduction: The Learner and the Learning Environment: Creating New Communities 615
Jim Cummins and Chris Davison
36 ESL Learners in the Early School Years: Identity and Mediated Classroom Practices 625 Kelleen Toohey, Elaine Day and Patrick Manyak
37 The Adolescent English Language Learner: Identities Lost and Found 639 Linda Harklau
Table of Contents ix
38 What About the Students? EngHsh Language Learners in Postsecondary Settings 655 Sarah Benesch
39 Imagined Communities, Identity, and EngUsh Language Learning 669 Aneta Pavlenko and Bonny Norton
40 Academic Achievement and Social Identity Among Bilingual Students in the U.S. 681 Shelley Wong and Rachel Grant
41 Sociocultural Theory: A Unified Approach to L2 Learning and Teaching 693 James P. Lantolf
42 Mediating Academic Language Learning Through Classroom Discourse 701 Pauline Gibbons
43 Creating a Motivating Classroom Environment 719 Zoltdn Dornyei
44 Autonomy and Its Role in Learning 733 Philip Benson
45 Creating a Technology-Rich English Language Learning Environment 747 Denise E. Murray
46 The Internet and English Language Learning: Opening Up Spaces for Constructivist and Transformative Pedagogy Through Sister-Class Networks 763 Vasilia Kourtis-Kazoullis andEleni Skourtou
SECTION 2. Constructs of Language in ELT: Breaking the Boundaries
Introduction: Constructs of Language in ELT: Breaking the Boundaries 777 Chris Davison and Jim Cummins
Al Psycholinguistic Perspectives on Language and Its Acquisition 783 Jan H. Hulstijn
48 Academic Language: What Is It and How Do We Acquire It? 797 Jim Cummins and Evelyn Man Yee-Fun
49 Teaching Implications of L2 Phonology Research 811 John Archibald
50 Current Perspectives on Vocabulary Teaching and Learning 827 Norbert Schmitt
X Table of Contents
51 Changing Approaches to the Conceptualization and Teaching of Grammar 843 Beverly Derewianka
52 Extending Our Understanding of Spoken Discourse 859 Michael McCarthy and Diana Slade
53 New Directions in Student Academic Writing 875 Sue Starfield
54 From Literacy to MuhiUteracies in ELT 891 Heather Lotherington
55 Technology and Writing 907 Mark Warschauer
56 Multimodal Pedagogies, Representation and Identity: Perspectives from Post-Apartheid South Africa 919 Pippa Stein andDenise Newfield
57 Approaches to Genre in ELT 931 Brian Paltridge
58 Researching and Developing Teacher Language Awareness: Developments and Future Directions 945 Stephen Andrews
SECTION 3. Research and Teacher Education in ELT: Meeting New Challenges
Introduction: Research and Teacher Education in ELT: Meeting New Challenges 963
Jim Cummins and Chris Davison
59 Qualitative Approaches to Classroom Research with EngUsh Language Learners 973 Patricia A. Duff
60 Action Research: Contributions and Future Directions in ELT 987 Anne Burns
61 Narrative Inquiry and ELT Research 1003 JoAnn Phillion and Ming Fang He
62 Conversation Analysis: Issues and Problems 1017 Numa Markee
Table of Contents xi
63 Poststructuralism and Applied Linguistics: Complementary Approaches to Identity and Culture in ELT 1033 Brian Morgan
64 What Shapes Teachers'Professional Development? 1053 AmyB.M. Tsui
65 Appropriating Uncertainty: ELT Professional Development in the New Century 1067 Michael P. Breen
66 Teacher Education for Linguistically Diverse Communities, Schools, and Classrooms 1085 Tara Goldstein
67 Challenges and Opportunities for the Teaching Profession: English as an Additional Language in the UK 1101 Charlotte Franson
68 Teachers' Roles in the Global Hypermedia Environment 1113 Chris Corbel
69 Preparing Teachers for Technology-Supported ELT 1125 Michael K. Legutke, Andreas MUller-Hartmann andMarita Schocker V. Ditfurth
Author Index 1139
Subject Index 1165
List of Authors
Stephen Andrews, Faculty of Education, The Universily of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
John Archibald, Department of Linguistics, Language Research Centre, The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada. Email: john.archibald@ ucalgary.ca
Sophie Arkoudis, Faculty of Education, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Sarah Benesch, Department of English, Speech and. World Literature, The City University of New York, College of Staten Island, 2800 Victory Boulevard, Staten Island, New York, USA. Email: [email protected]
Phil Benson, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Jill Bourne, Centre for Research on Pedagogy and the Curriculum, School of Education, The University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, SO 17 IB J, United Kingdom. Email: [email protected]
Michael P. Breen, Sutton House, Auchterarder, Perthshire PH3 lED, Scotland. Email: [email protected]
Anne Burns, Department of Linguistics, Division of Linguistics and Psychology, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Maurice Carder, Vieima Intemational School, Strasse der Menschenrechte 1, A-1220, Vieima, Austria. Email: [email protected]
xiv List of Authors
Jasone Cenoz, Department of Research Methods in Education, FICE, The University of the Basque Country, Avda Tolosa 70, 01006 San Sebastian, Spain. Email: [email protected]
Anna Uhl Chamot, George Washington University, 2121 Bye Street, N.W., Washington, USA. Email: [email protected]
Virginia P. Collier, Graduate School of Education, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive MS4B3, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA. Email: [email protected]
David Coniam, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: coniam@ cuhk.edu.hk
Vivian Cook, School of Education, Commimication and Language Sciences, King George VI Building, The University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, NEl 7RU, England. Email: [email protected]
Chris Corbel, Manager Research and Development, NMIT, 77-91 St Georges Rd, Preston, Victoria 3072. Email: [email protected]
Alister Cumming, Modem Language Centre, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, The University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1V6, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Jim Cummins, Modem Language Centre, 10th Floor, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, The University of Toronto, 252 Bloor St, West Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1V6 Canada. Email: [email protected]
Chris Davison, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfiilam Rd, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Elaine Day, Faculty of Education, Simon Eraser University, 8888 University Drive, Bumaby, BC V5A, 1S6, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Beverly Derewianka, Faculty of Education, The University of WoUongong, NSW 2522, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Zoltan Dornyei, School of English Studies, The University of Nottingham, UK. Email: [email protected]
Patricia A. Duff, Department of Language and Literacy Education The University of British Columbia, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Peter Falvey, University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, 4, Bramcote Lane, Chilwell, Beeston, Nottingham, NG9 SEN, UK. Email: [email protected]
List of Authors xv
Douglas Fleming, The University of British Columbia, 9500 Glenacres Drive Richmond, BC, V7A 1Y7, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Charlotte Franson, Canterbury Christ Church University, North Hohnes Road, Canterbury, CTl IQU, Kent, England. Email: [email protected]
David Freeman, School of Education, The University of Texas at Brownsville, 80 Fort Brown, Brownsville, TX 78520, USA. Email: [email protected]
Yvonne Freeman, School of Education, The University of Texas at Brownsville, 80 Fort Brown, Brownsville, TX 78520, USA. Email: [email protected]
Pauline Gibbons, Faculty of Education, The University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Tara Goldstein, Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, The University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1V6, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Rachel Grant, Center for Language and Culture, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, MS4B3, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA. Email: [email protected]
Liz Hamp-Lyons, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Rd, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Linda Harklau, Department of Language Education, 125 Aderhold Hall, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA. Email: [email protected]
Ming Fang He, Department of Curriculum, Foundations, and Reading, College of Education, Georgia Southern University, Post Office Box 8144, Statesboro, GA, 30460-8144, USA. Email: [email protected]
Jan H. Hulstijn, Faculty of Humanities, The University of Amsterdam, 134 Spuis-fraat, 1012 VB Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Email: [email protected]
Ken Hyland, Institute of Education, The University of London, 20 Bedford Way, London, WCIH OAL, UK. Email: [email protected]
Ulrike Jessner, Department of English, The University of Innsbruck, Innrain 52/III, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria. Email: [email protected]
Yasuko Kanno, The University of Washington, Department of English, Box 354330, Seattle, WA 98195-4330, USA. Email: [email protected]
Vasilia Kourtis Kazoullis, Department of Mediterranean Studies, The University of the Aegean, 1 Demokratias Ave. GR-85100 Rhodes, Greece. Email: kazoullis@ rhodes.aegean.gr
xvi List of Authors
James P. Lantolf, Perm State University, Centre of Language Acquisition, 304 Sparks Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA. Email: [email protected]
Michael K. Legutke, Justus-Liebig-Universitat Giessen, Institut fur Anglistik, Otto-Behaghel-Str, 10, B, IV, 35394 Giessen, Germany. Email: Michael.K.Legutke® anglistik.uni-giessen.de
Constant Leung, Department of Education and Professional Studies, School of Social Science and Public Policy, King's College, The University of London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Waterloo Road, London, SEl 9NH, UK. Email: constant.leung@ kcl.ac.uk
Joseph Lo Bianco, Department of Language and Literacy Education, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010 Australia. Email: j.lobianco@unimelb. edu.au
Jane Lockwood, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Heather Lotherington, Faculty of Education, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, M3J 1P3, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Evelyn Man Yee-fun, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, SAR China. Email: [email protected]
Patrick Manyak, College of Education, Department of Elementary and Early Childhood, The University of Wyoming, P.O. Box 3374 Laramine, WY 82071-3374, USA. Email: pmanyak@u\vyo.edu
Numa Markee, Division of English as an International Language, The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 3070 Foreign Languages Building, 707 South Mathews, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Email: [email protected]
Michael McCarthy, School of Enghsh Studies, The University Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK. Email: [email protected]
Penny McKay, School of Cultural and Language Studies in Education, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove Campus, Brisbane, Queensland 4059, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Lois M. Meyer, College of Education, Department of Language, Literacy & So-ciocultural Studies, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA. Email: [email protected]
Bernard A. Mohan, The University of British Colvmibia, 4640 West 13th Avenue, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6R 2V7. Email: [email protected]
List of Authors xvii
Brian Morgan, Department of Languages, Literatures and Linguistics, York University, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Andreas Miiller-Hartmann, Department of English as a Foreign Language Pada-gogische Hochschule Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 561, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany. Email: [email protected]
Denise E. Murray, National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Denise Newfield, Department of English, School of Literature and Language Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, PO WITS 2050, South Africa. Email: [email protected]
Bonny Norton, Department of Language and Literacy Education, The University of British Columbia, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4. Email: bonny [email protected]
David Nunan, The EngHsh Centre, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Rd, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Margaret Obondo, Rinkeby Institute of Multilingual Research, P.O. Box 5028, 163 05, Spina, Sweden. Email: [email protected]
Brian Paltridge, Faculty of Education, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Aneta Pavlenko, CITE Department, College of Education, Temple University, Philadephia, PA 19122, USA. Email: [email protected]
Alastair Pennycook, The University of Technology Sydney, City Campus Haymar-ket; PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. Email: alastair.peimycook@ uts.edu.au
Jo Ann Phillion, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, BRNG 4144, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2098. USA. Email: [email protected]
Robert Phillipson, Department of English, Copenhagen Business School, Dalgas Have 15,2000 Frederiksberg, Deimiark. Email: [email protected]
Vaidehi Ramanathan, Linguistics Program, The University of California, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA. Email: [email protected]
Pauline Rea-Dickins, Graduate School of Education, The University of Bristol, 35 Berkerley Square, Clifton, Bristol BS8 IJA, UK. Email: [email protected]
Norbert Schmitt, School of EngUsh Studies, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK. Email: [email protected]
xviii List of Authors
Marita Schocker v. Ditfurth, Padagogische Hochschule Freiburg, Institut fur Fremdsprachen/Abteilung Englisch, Kunzenweg 21D-79117 Freiburg, Germany. Email: [email protected]
Barbara Seidlhofer, Institut fur AngUstik, Universitat Wien, Universitaetcampus AAKH/Hof 8, Spitalgasse 2-4, A-1090 Vienna, Austria. Email: barbara.seidlhofer@ univie.ac.at
Hyunjung Shin, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, The University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1V6, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Elana Shohamy, Tel Aviv University, School of Education, Tel Aviv 69978, Isarel. Email: [email protected]
Peter Skehan, English Department, Fung King Hey Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Eleni Skourtou, Department of Primary Education, The University of the Aegean, 1 Demokratias Ave. GR-85100, Rhodes, Greece. Email: [email protected]
Diana Slade, The University of Technology Sydney, Faculty of Education, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Nina Spada, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, The University of Toronto, Modem Language Centre, Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, M5S IV6, Canada. Email: nspada@ oise.utoronto.ca
Sue Starfield, The Learning Centre, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, AustraUa. Email: [email protected]
Pippa Stein, Department of Applied Enghsh Language Studies, School of Literature and Language Studies, University of Witwatersrand, PO WITS 2050, South Africa. Email: [email protected]
Wayne P. Thomas, Graduate School of Education, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive MS4B3, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA. Email: [email protected]
Agustina Tocalli-Beller, El Monticulo 153, La Planicie, La Molina, Lima 12, Peru. Email: [email protected]/[email protected]
James W. Tollefson, The University of Washington, 5307 S. Langley Road, Lang-ley, WA 98260, USA. Email: tollefso@u. washington.edu
Kelleen Toohey, Faculty of Education, 8888 University Drive, Simon Eraser University, Bumaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada. Email: [email protected]
List of Authors xix
Amy B. M. Tsui, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Qiang Wang, Department of Foreign Languages, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China. Email: [email protected]
Mark Warschauer, The University of California, Irvine, UCI Department of Education, 2001 Berkeley Place, Irvine, CA 92697-5500, USA. Email: [email protected]
Shelley Wong, Center for Language and Culture, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive MS4B3, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA. Email: [email protected]
Preface
This two-volume handbook provides a comprehensive examination of policy, practice, research, and theory related to English language teaching (ELT) in international contexts. Nearly 70 chapters highlight the research foundation for the best practices, frameworks for policy decisions, and areas of consensus and controversy in the teaching and development of English as a second and/or additional language for kindergarten through to adult speakers of languages other than English. In doing so it problematizes traditional dichotomies and challenges the very terms that provide the traditional foundations of the field.
A wide range of terms has been used to refer to the key players involved in the teaching and learning of the English language and to the enterprise of English language teaching as a whole. At various times and in different contexts, the following labels have been used in countries where English is the dominant language to describe programs, learners, or teachers of Enghsh: English as a second language (ESL), English as an additional language (EAL), limited English proficient (LEP), and English language learners (ELL). In contexts where EngUsh is not the dominant language, the following terms have been used: English as a foreign language (EFL), English as an international language (EIL), and English as a lingua franca (ELF). The international professional organization that supports and advocates for English language teaching calls itself Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) and the term English to speakers of other languages (ESOL) is also used in some contexts around the world to refer to programs, students, and teachers.
None of these labels is sociopolitically neutral; they each highlight certain features of the phenomenon of EngUsh language teaching and those who engage in it, and de-emphasize other features. For example, all of the labels listed above foreground English as the focus of attention, thereby obscuring the fact that the learners are bilingual or multilingual with fully functioning abilities in their home languages. This risks contributing to a deficit view of the learner, particularly in English-speaking contexts involving immigrant and refugee students. The term limited English proficient used by the US federal government is particularly problematic in this regard. Other terms are problematic for different reasons; for
xxii Preface
example, ESL makes the assumption, rooted in a monolingual perspective, that English is the second language of the student whereas in reality it may be the third, fourth, or fifth language that an individual has learned. ELL is currently the favored term among many professional organizations and educational agencies in North America but it obscures some key differences between programs for EngUsh mother tongue learners and those who are learning English as an additional language.
Attempts to use 'positive' terminology to refer to students and programs can also be problematic. For example, in the United Kingdom students have frequently been referred to as bilingual learners but this label obscures the fact that many of these students are still in great need of English language development (and were usually afforded few opportunities and little encouragement for mother tongue maintenance). In the United States, advocates for bilingual programs and some educational agencies have frequently referred to students as bilingual or bilingual/bicultural; however, it is arguable that this labeling may have contributed to the widespread assumption among the media and some policy-makers and educators that bilinguaUsm represents a linguistic deficit and that the bilingual student is 'limited English proficient.' hi contexts where English is not the dominant language, the label EFL has traditionally been used but EIL and ELF have been promoted as alternatives. The latter is seen as a much more accurate sociolinguistic descriptor to describe many learning and teaching situations outside predominantly English-speaking countries. The problem with adopting all such labels, however, is that by definition they create a single category in which people from many different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, language levels, socio-economic positions, aspirations, and perceived identities are treated as a collectivity.
hi this handbook we have not attempted to reconcile this multiplicity of identities and ideologies; rather, we have generally remained faithfiil to whatever term has been provided by the author of each chapter, assuming that it is an accurate reflection of their context and history, with the exception of the term LEP which we have generally changed to ESL or ELL. The field as a whole, in all its richness and diversity, we have called English language teaching (ELT), despite the limitations of the term, hence the title of this handbook. As this discussion of labels illustrates, language intersects with societal power relations in multiple and complex ways and this reality is reflected in the entire field of English language teaching. Thus, it is not surprising that many of the chapters in this handbook explore the ideological dimensions of ELT and their implications for language policies and classroom practice.
The handbook is intended to provide a unique resource for policy makers, educational administrators, teacher educators and researchers concerned with meeting the increasing demand for effective English language teaching while, at the same time, supporting institutions and communities concerned with the survival and development of languages other than English. Its publication is timely in view of the continuing spread of EngUsh as a global language and the associated expansion of ELT in countries around the world. Policy decisions regarding ELT that will be made during the next five years will influence the lives of individuals and the development of societies for the next 25 years or more. Policies and practices relating to ELT are, unfortunately, just as likely to be motivated by political pressure backed up by plausible but flawed assimiptions as they are by research and careful evaluation of alternative options. For example, many parents and policy makers just assume that earlier and more intensive instruction will result in higher levels of
Preface xxiii
English proficiency. As the research reviewed in this handbook demonstrates, this assumption is not necessarily valid— t̂he issues are considerably more complex than the rush to English would suggest.
Even a cursory examination of the spread of English demonstrates the ecological nature of the phenomenon. The introduction or expansion of EngUsh language teaching in any particular enviroimient exerts multidimensional influences on the status and even prospects for survival of other languages in that environment. Social and linguistic groups within these envirormients are similarly affected—either advantaged or disadvantaged—^by the policies adopted in relation to Enghsh.
To illustrate, it is clear that in countries around the world, English is replacing other languages as the second language taught most fi-equently and intensively in school. The perceived social and economic rewards associated with English have propelled parents to demand earlier and more intensive teaching of English. For example, in Japan, pilot projects have been instituted to start teaching English in the primary grades. In Hong Kong there is spirited public debate about the value of English-mediimi education and the most appropriate age to start learning English. English-medium universities are expanding rapidly in traditionally non-English speaking contexts, not just through the estabUshment of off-shore campuses, but through local universities shifting to English as the main language of instruction. For example, universities in mainland China have been required to teach 10% of their curriculum in English since 2004; in Japan entire degree programs are being offered in English in an attempt to maintain student numbers as the university-age population rapidly dwindles. In Norway and Sweden English is rapidly displacing the national languages as the medixan of teaching and learning in science and engineering faculties. Finland has the largest proportion of higher education courses taught in English outside English-speaking countries. In the European community in general, there are concerns tiiat the drive to teach English is turning it into the de facto official language of the new Europe. Similar developments and debates about the accelerating spread of English are underway in coxmtries around the world. Expansion and intensification of ELT by means of an earlier start, increased time allotment, and experimentation with immersion and bilingual or trilingual programs are evident both in private sector and public sector schools in many countries.
Demand for English has also escalated among adult learners including immigrants to Enghsh-speaking coimtries, business people involved in the global economy, and those who just want to travel as tourists. In many countries, large-scale ELT programs for adult learners have been estabUshed in the commxmity and workplace as a result of the globalization of the workforce, the perceived need to increase economic competitiveness, and a move towards life-long learning.
In some contexts, English has displaced not only competing second languages but also first languages. In many former British colonies and other recently independent countries in Afiica and Asia, for example, English is used almost exclusively as the medium of instruction in schools, thereby constricting the institutional space available for indigenous languages and creating immense challenges for students to learn academic content through a language they do not imderstand. Is this the best policy option? What are the alternatives? Who benefits from these policies and who is disadvantaged? Clearly, policies and practices associated with Enghsh language teaching must be considered not only in relation to effectiveness and efficiency but also with respect to the moral dimensions of decisions and initiatives. Who benefits from particular expenditures of resources and
xxiv Preface
what are the hidden costs with respect to what these resources might have been spent on? Is external aid for language teaching programs promoting the development of home-grown expertise or inducing long-term dependency on external support? hi short, power and status relationships between social groups both within and across societies are intertwined in obvious ways with language teaching policies and practices.
Increased focus on English language teaching has also occurred in countries where English is the dominant language. Many English-speaking countries have experienced dramatic increases in immigration during the past 30 years (e.g. the United States, Australia, and Canada). For example, about 40% of students in California have learned English as a second language and 25% of these are classified as limited English proficient by government agencies. In Canada, about 50% of students in the Toronto and Vancouver urban areas have learned English as an additional language. In Australia, more than 25% of the population use a language other than EngUsh as the main language of communication in the home. The rapid spread of the new knowledge economies and the decline in demand for traditional manual labor are creating even greater pressure for newcomer populations to be highly proficient in English. There is also much more transmigration with people moving to English-speaking countries for temporary periods seeking further education and/or work, a trend accelerated by developments such as the expansion of the European Union. The number of foreign university students in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada has increased steadily during the past 20 years.
Increasing cultural and linguistic diversity in English-dominant countries has given rise to concerns among some groups that EngUsh might be imder threat fi"om competing languages. These concerns have given rise to fierce debates, often with racist overtones, about how English should be taught to immigrant and second generation children as well as adults. In several US states, for example, referenda have mandated that only Enghsh be used in schools for instructional purposes. The goal has been to restrict or eliminate bilingual programs that are seen as conferring status on other languages. Clearly, debates on language policy issues in many countries have been characterized by the confounding of ideological and research-based perspectives. There is considerable research that can inform policy in these areas but it is frequently ignored and/or distorted as a result of entrenched ideological positions.
The International Handbook of English Language Teaching provides authoritative perspectives on these issues from many of the leading researchers, theorists, and policy-makers around the world. The handbook synthesizes the interdisciplinary knowledge base for effective decision making and highlights directions for implementing appropriate language policies at both instructional and societal levels. Each volume is divided into three main sections and chapters are clustered to address common topics and themes. The focus of Volume I is on Policies and Programs in ELT: Changing Demands and Directions while Volume II addresses Language, Learning and Identity in ELT: Reconceptualizing the Field.
Volume I includes a critical examination of current policies and programs in a variety of contexts aroimd the world (Section 1). The chapters in this section identify empirical, theoretical, and ideological foimdations of ELT policies and their effects on learners and organizational structures. Section 2 of this Volume focuses specifically on the development of curriculum content for ELT programs and the
Preface xxv
pedagogical approaches that have been implemented to teach this content, while Section 3 examines policies and practices in assessment and evaluation. All of these dimensions of ELT—curriculum content, pedagogy, assessment, and evaluation— involve complex sets of decisions made by multiple actors (e.g. policy makers, curriculum developers, publishers, teachers, parents, researchers) who interact with each other in dynamic and often unpredictable ways. Increasingly, these actors span the international stage, hiitiatives adopted in one or more contexts (e.g. standards-based curriculum development and high-stakes testing) influence decisions taken elsewhere, often through the mediation of international experts who consult with publishers and government agencies to identify 'best practices.' The chapters in all three sections of Volume I highlight the complex interplay between global and local perspectives and the need for policy decisions that take account of local linguistic contexts rather than just importing formulaic "off-the-shelf solutions that may be highly inappropriate for a particular context.
In Volume II, the focus shifts to the changing conceptions of the learner, the teacher, the learning environment, and the EngUsh language itself that are implied by particular approaches to program development, curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment. Identity has emerged as a key construct in recent research and theory within ELT, reflecting the fact that learners and teachers are engaged in multiple social relationships both with each other and with peers and colleagues. Learning is conceived as a social endeavor rather than simply an individualistic cognitive and linguistic process. Identities are being constantly negotiated as learners learn language and this process of identity negotiation is strongly influenced by patterns of power relationships in the broader society. Language itself is being reconceptualized as a result of this process, with an increasing concern with shifting and emerging gemes and multimodal texts. The final chapters focus on the development of the ELT profession in a broad sense, both in terms of cutting edge research and in terms of teacher growth and change in an increasingly complex and demanding global enviroimient.
The spread of English is often presented as an inexorable and natural expansion, outside the control of government and non-government agencies, similar to the ideology of 'manifest destiny' that rationalized US imperialist expansion in the 19th and 20th centuries. At the same time its teaching is often assumed to be an inherent good, or at the other extreme, vilified as a threat to fi'agile and precarious linguistic ecologies. Our hope is that this handbook will, in some way, contribute to building the knowledge base and capability of various agencies and individuals to direct and control this expansion and shape its impact on complex and multiple linguistic and pedagogic commimities, both local and global. Effectiveness and eflBciency of ELT, and provision of equitable opportunities to all learners to acquire English (and other languages), are clearly important goals embedded throughout the handbook. However, informed and careful planning in ELT needs to focus not only on maximizing such elements in an increasingly complex, shifting and changing environment, but on ensuring balance and harmony among multiple elements. This is also a central goal of this handbook.
Acknowledgements
This two-volume handbook would not have been possible without the cooperation and enthusiasm of a large manber of people. First and foremost we would like to express our appreciation to the 84 authors from all over the world who contributed in such original and insightful ways to the 69 chapters of the handbook. Their attention to detail and responsiveness to our editorial requests and suggestions helped enormously in completing this ambitious project.
A particular debt of gratitude goes to our friends, colleagues, and graduate students in both Hong Kong and Toronto who assisted in multiple ways during the editorial process. Eila Thomas helped estabUsh contacts with prospective authors and was also responsible for the initial formatting and content and reference checking of the chapters. Hyunjung Shin continued this process at a later stage and helped in particular with the final proofreading. Xinmin Zhang and Jane Lockwood played a major role in developing the subject index. Special thanks also to Scarlet Poon for her work on the early formatting of the chapters and to Eunice Jam who took on the daunting task of getting the whole manuscript ready for the printer. We deeply appreciate their contributions, especially since they devoted time, energy, and enthusiasm to the project at demanding times in their professional lives—and even claimed to enjoy it!
We would also like to acknowledge the support (and patience!) of our editors at Kluwer Academic Pubhshers and later at Springer. In the initial stages of the project Joy Carp's encouragement provided a major impetus, and Renee De Boo's help was invaluable in identifying authors and topics and compiling the Table of Contents. Marie Sheldon put the wind back in our sails mid-way through the project and her unflagging support enabled us to bring the project to completion. Mary PanarelU was always available to answer questions about the finer points of style and format and shepherded the manuscript into the final production stages, with Kristina Wiggins offering invaluable support to complete the project. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the anonymous reviewers who made extremely useful suggestions on the initial proposal for the handbook and the copy editors who helped shape the final manuscript in a thousand small ways.
xxviii Acknowledgements
Financial support for the editorial process was provided by the Education Faculty of the University of Hong Kong as well as through support for graduate assistantships from both the University of Hong Kong and the University of Toronto. We would also like to express our deep appreciation to colleagues at the Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, and the Modem Language Centre of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, whose advice and encouragement was invaluable.
Last, but not least, our love and gratitude to our families for their understanding and support. This project has also been a part of their lives over a period of several years and they will no doubt be extremely happy to see it boimd and dispatched so that we can all move on to additional personal opportunities and professional challenges.
In conclusion, as editors, we feel privileged to have had the opportunity to bring together this comprehensive survey of issues and trends in the field of EngUsh language teaching (ELT). The dialogues with authors and between ourselves, and the in-deptii reading and re-reading of chapters, have extended our own appreciation of both the empirical basis for policy and practice, and the theoretical constructs that jostle for position in this still emerging field. However, what stands out as particularly significant for us at this point is the complexity of the moral dimensions of ELT in the context of the unrelenting spread of English. Teachers, policy-makers, and researchers—^we are all implicated in the shaping of social and linguistic spaces where identities are being negotiated and personal and professional opportunities are being constructed or constricted. Our heartfelt thanks once again to all those who have contributed to our own growth in understanding of, and sensitivity to, the complexity of these issues. We hope that the handbook acts as a catalyst for reflection and dialogue aimed not only at increasing the effectiveness of ELT, but also at creating ecologically viable and sustainable multilingual societies.
Jim Cummins Chris Davison
July 2006
INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TEACHING
Springer International Handbooks of Education
Volume 11
A list of titles in this series can be found at the end of this volume.
International Handbook of English
Language Teaching
Part II
Edited by
Jim Cummins
The University of Toronto, Canada
and
Chris Davison
The University of Hong Kong, China
Jim Cummins
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education/Canada
Chris Davison
The University of Hong Kong/China
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006932383
ISBN-13: 978-0-387-46300-1
ISBN-10: 0-387-46300-3
e-ISBN-13: 978-0-387-46301-8
e-ISBN-10: 0-387-46301-1
Printed on acid-free paper.
© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without
the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC., 233
Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with
reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms,
even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to
whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the
date of going to press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any
legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no
warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
springer.com
Table of Contents
PART I
List of Authors xiii
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxvii
SECTION 1. The Global Scope and Politics of ELT: Critiquing Current Policies
and Programs
Introduction: The Global Scope and Politics of ELT: Critiquing Current
Policies and Programs 3
Jim Cummins and Chris Davison
1 ELT and Colonialism 13
Alastair Pennycook
2 Ideology, Language Varieties, and ELT 25
James W. Tollefson
3 Tensions Between English and Mother Tongue Teaching in
Post-Colonial Africa 37
Margaret Akinyi Obondo
4 A Critical Discussion of the English-Vernacular Divide in India 51
Vaidehi Ramanathan
5 ELT Policy Directions in Multilingual Japan 63
Yasuko Kanno
Table of Contents vi
6 English Language Teaching in Korea: Toward Globalization or
Glocalization? 75
Hyunjung Shin
7 The National Curriculum Changes and Their Effects on English
Language Teaching in the People’s Republic of China 87
Qiang Wang
8 ELT and Bilingual Education in Argentina 107
Agustina Tocalli-Beller
9 English, No Longer a Foreign Language in Europe? 123
Robert Phillipson
10 Common Property: English as a Lingua Franca in Europe 137
Barbara Seidlhofer
11 Teaching English as a Third Language 155
Ulrike Jessner and Jasone Cenoz
12 Protecting English in an Anglophone Age 169
Joseph Lo Bianco
13 Adult Immigrant ESL Programs in Canada: Emerging Trends in the
Contexts of History, Economics, and Identity 185
Douglas Fleming
14 Focus on Literacy: ELT and Educational Attainment in England 199
Jill Bourne
15 Methods, Meanings and Education Policy in the United States 211
Lois M. Meyer
SECTION 2. The Goals and Focus of the ELT Program: Problematizing Content
and Pedagogy
Introduction: The Goals and Focus of the ELT Program: Problematizing
Content and Pedagogy 231
Chris Davison and Jim Cummins
16 The Goals of ELT: Reproducing Native-Speakers or Promoting
Multicompetence Among Second Language Users? 237
Vivian Cook
17 Integrating School-Aged ESL Learners into the Mainstream Curriculum 249
Constant Leung
18 Communicative Language Teaching: Current Status and Future Prospects 271
Nina Spada
Table of Contents vii
19 Language Instruction Through Tasks 289
Peter Skehan
20 Knowledge Structures in Social Practices 303
Bernard A. Mohan
21 Accelerating Academic Achievement of English Language Learners:
A Synthesis of Five Evaluations of the CALLA Model 317
Anna Uhl Chamot
22 Predicting Second Language Academic Success in English Using the
Prism Model 333
Virginia P. Collier and Wayne P. Thomas
23 Four Keys for School Success for Elementary English Learners 349
Yvonne Freeman and David Freeman
24 Collaborating in ESL Education in Schools 365
Sophie Arkoudis
25 Organization of English Teaching in International Schools 379
Maurice W. Carder
26 English for Specific Purposes: Some Influences and Impacts 391
Ken Hyland
27 An Interdisciplinary Approach to Teaching Adults English in the
Workplace 403
Jane Lockwood
SECTION 3. Assessment and Evaluation in ELT: Shifting Paradigms and
Practices
Introduction: Assessment and Evaluation in ELT: Shifting Paradigms and
Practices 415
Chris Davison and Jim Cummins
28 Standards-Based Approaches to the Evaluation of ESL Instruction 421
David Nunan
29 The Standards Movement and ELT for School-Aged Learners:
Cross-National Perspectives 439
Penny McKay
30 High-Stakes Testing and Assessment: English Language Teacher
Benchmarking 457
David Coniam and Peter Falvey
Table of Contents viii
31 New Directions in Testing English Language Proficiency for University
Entrance 473
Alister Cumming
32 The Impact of Testing Practices on Teaching: Ideologies and
Alternatives 487
Liz Hamp-Lyons
33 Classroom-Based Assessment: Possibilities and Pitfalls 505
Pauline Rea-Dickins
34 The Power of Language Tests, the Power of the English Language
and the Role of ELT 521
Elana Shohamy
35 Different Definitions of Language and Language Learning:
Implications for Assessment 533
Chris Davison
Author Index 549
Subject Index 575
PART II
List of Authors xiii
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxvii
SECTION 1. The Learner and the Learning Environment: Creating New
Communities
Introduction: The Learner and the Learning Environment: Creating New
Communities 615
Jim Cummins and Chris Davison
36 ESL Learners in the Early School Years: Identity and Mediated
Classroom Practices 625
Kelleen Toohey, Elaine Day and Patrick Manyak
37 The Adolescent English Language Learner: Identities Lost and Found 639
Linda Harklau
Table of Contents ix
38 What About the Students? English Language Learners in Postsecondary
Settings 655
Sarah Benesch
39 Imagined Communities, Identity, and English Language Learning 669
Aneta Pavlenko and Bonny Norton
40 Academic Achievement and Social Identity Among Bilingual Students
in the U.S. 681
Shelley Wong and Rachel Grant
41 Sociocultural Theory: A Unified Approach to L2 Learning and
Teaching 693
James P. Lantolf
42 Mediating Academic Language Learning Through Classroom Discourse 701
Pauline Gibbons
43 Creating a Motivating Classroom Environment 719
Zoltán Dörnyei
44 Autonomy and Its Role in Learning 733
Philip Benson
45 Creating a Technology-Rich English Language Learning Environment 747
Denise E. Murray
46 The Internet and English Language Learning: Opening Up Spaces
for Constructivist and Transformative Pedagogy Through
Sister-Class Networks 763
Vasilia Kourtis-Kazoullis and Eleni Skourtou
SECTION 2. Constructs of Language in ELT: Breaking the Boundaries
Introduction: Constructs of Language in ELT: Breaking the Boundaries 777
Chris Davison and Jim Cummins
47 Psycholinguistic Perspectives on Language and Its Acquisition 783
Jan H. Hulstijn
48 Academic Language: What Is It and How Do We Acquire It? 797
Jim Cummins and Evelyn Man Yee-Fun
49 Teaching Implications of L2 Phonology Research 811
John Archibald
50 Current Perspectives on Vocabulary Teaching and Learning 827
Norbert Schmitt
Table of Contents x
51 Changing Approaches to the Conceptualization and Teaching of
Grammar 843
Beverly Derewianka
52 Extending Our Understanding of Spoken Discourse 859
Michael McCarthy and Diana Slade
53 New Directions in Student Academic Writing 875
Sue Starfield
54 From Literacy to Multiliteracies in ELT 891
Heather Lotherington
55 Technology and Writing 907
Mark Warschauer
56 Multimodal Pedagogies, Representation and Identity: Perspectives
from Post-Apartheid South Africa 919
Pippa Stein and Denise Newfield
57 Approaches to Genre in ELT 931
Brian Paltridge
58 Researching and Developing Teacher Language Awareness:
Developments and Future Directions 945
Stephen Andrews
SECTION 3. Research and Teacher Education in ELT: Meeting New Challenges
Introduction: Research and Teacher Education in ELT: Meeting New
Challenges 963
Jim Cummins and Chris Davison
59 Qualitative Approaches to Classroom Research with English
Language Learners 973
Patricia A. Duff
60 Action Research: Contributions and Future Directions in ELT 987
Anne Burns
61 Narrative Inquiry and ELT Research 1003
JoAnn Phillion and Ming Fang He
62 Conversation Analysis: Issues and Problems 1017
Numa Markee
Table of Contents xi
63 Poststructuralism and Applied Linguistics: Complementary
Approaches to Identity and Culture in ELT 1033
Brian Morgan
64 What Shapes Teachers’ Professional Development? 1053
Amy B.M. Tsui
65 Appropriating Uncertainty: ELT Professional Development
in the New Century 1067
Michael P. Breen
66 Teacher Education for Linguistically Diverse Communities, Schools,
and Classrooms 1085
Tara Goldstein
67 Challenges and Opportunities for the Teaching Profession: English
as an Additional Language in the UK 1101
Charlotte Franson
68 Teachers’ Roles in the Global Hypermedia Environment 1113
Chris Corbel
69 Preparing Teachers for Technology-Supported ELT 1125
Michael K. Legutke, Andreas Müller-Hartmann and Marita Schocker
V. Ditfurth
Author Index 1139
Subject Index 1165
List of Authors
Stephen Andrews, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam
Road, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
John Archibald, Department of Linguistics, Language Research Centre, The Uni-
versity of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada. Email: john.archibald@
ucalgary.ca
Sophie Arkoudis, Faculty of Education, The University of Melbourne, Parkville,
Victoria, 3010, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Sarah Benesch, Department of English, Speech and, World Literature, The City
University of New York, College of Staten Island, 2800 Victory Boulevard, Staten
Island, New York, USA. Email: [email protected]
Phil Benson, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po,
Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Jill Bourne, Centre for Research on Pedagogy and the Curriculum, School of Edu-
cation, The University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, United
Kingdom. Email: [email protected]
Michael P. Breen, Sutton House, Auchterarder, Perthshire PH3 1ED, Scotland.
Email: [email protected]
Anne Burns, Department of Linguistics, Division of Linguistics and Psychology,
Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Maurice Carder, Vienna International School, Strasse der Menschenrechte 1,
A-1220, Vienna, Austria. Email: [email protected]
List of Authors xiv
Jasone Cenoz, Department of Research Methods in Education, FICE, The Univer-
sity of the Basque Country, Avda Tolosa 70, 01006 San Sebastian, Spain. Email:
Anna Uhl Chamot, George Washington University, 2121 Bye Street, N.W., Wash-
ington, USA. Email: [email protected]
Virginia P. Collier, Graduate School of Education, George Mason University, 4400
University Drive MS4B3, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA. Email: [email protected]
David Coniam, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Chinese University
of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: coniam@
cuhk.edu.hk
Vivian Cook, School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences, King
George VI Building, The University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne,
NE1 7RU, England. Email: [email protected]
Chris Corbel, Manager Research and Development, NMIT, 77-91 St Georges Rd,
Preston, Victoria 3072. Email: [email protected]
Alister Cumming, Modern Language Centre, Ontario Institute for Studies in Educa-
tion, The University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1V6,
Canada. Email: [email protected]
Jim Cummins, Modern Language Centre, 10th Floor, Ontario Institute for Studies
in Education, The University of Toronto, 252 Bloor St, West Toronto, Ontario, M5S
1V6 Canada. Email: [email protected]
Chris Davison, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Rd,
Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Elaine Day, Faculty of Education, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive,
Burnaby, BC V5A, 1S6, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Beverly Derewianka, Faculty of Education, The University of Wollongong, NSW
2522, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Zoltán Dörnyei, School of English Studies, The University of Nottingham, UK.
Email: [email protected]
Patricia A. Duff, Department of Language and Literacy Education The University
of British Columbia, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada. Email:
Peter Falvey, University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, 4, Bramcote
Lane, Chilwell, Beeston, Nottingham, NG9 5EN, UK. Email: [email protected]
List of Authors xv
Douglas Fleming, The University of British Columbia, 9500 Glenacres Drive
Richmond, BC, V7A 1Y7, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Charlotte Franson, Canterbury Christ Church University, North Holmes Road,
Canterbury, CT1 1QU, Kent, England. Email: [email protected]
David Freeman, School of Education, The University of Texas at Brownsville, 80
Fort Brown, Brownsville, TX 78520, USA. Email: [email protected]
Yvonne Freeman, School of Education, The University of Texas at Brownsville, 80
Fort Brown, Brownsville, TX 78520, USA. Email: [email protected]
Pauline Gibbons, Faculty of Education, The University of Technology Sydney,
PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Tara Goldstein, Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning, Ontario Insti-
tute for Studies in Education, The University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street, Toronto,
Ontario, M5S 1V6, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Rachel Grant, Center for Language and Culture, College of Education and Human
Development, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, MS4B3, Fairfax,
VA 22030, USA. Email: [email protected]
Liz Hamp-Lyons, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam,
Rd, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Linda Harklau, Department of Language Education, 125 Aderhold Hall, The Uni-
versity of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA. Email: [email protected]
Ming Fang He, Department of Curriculum, Foundations, and Reading, College of
Education, Georgia Southern University, Post Office Box 8144, Statesboro, GA,
30460-8144, USA. Email: [email protected]
Jan H. Hulstijn, Faculty of Humanities, The University of Amsterdam, 134 Spuis-
traat, 1012 VB Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Email: [email protected]
Ken Hyland, Institute of Education, The University of London, 20 Bedford Way,
London, WC1H OAL, UK. Email: [email protected]
Ulrike Jessner, Department of English, The University of Innsbruck, Innrain 52/III,
A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria. Email: [email protected]
Yasuko Kanno, The University of Washington, Department of English, Box
354330, Seattle, WA 98195-4330, USA. Email: [email protected]
Vasilia Kourtis Kazoullis, Department of Mediterranean Studies, The University of
the Aegean, 1 Demokratias Ave. GR-85100 Rhodes, Greece. Email: kazoullis@
rhodes.aegean.gr
List of Authors xvi
James P. Lantolf, Penn State University, Centre of Language Acquisition, 304
Sparks Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA. Email: [email protected]
Michael K. Legutke, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institut für Anglistik, Otto-
Behaghel-Str, 10, B, IV, 35394 Giessen, Germany. Email: Michael.K.Legutke@
anglistik.uni-giessen.de
Constant Leung, Department of Education and Professional Studies, School of So-
cial Science and Public Policy, King’s College, The University of London, Franklin-
Wilkins Building, Waterloo Road, London, SE1 9NH, UK. Email: constant.leung@
kcl.ac.uk
Joseph Lo Bianco, Department of Language and Literacy Education, The Univer-
sity of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010 Australia. Email: j.lobianco@unimelb.
edu.au
Jane Lockwood, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po,
Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Heather Lotherington, Faculty of Education, York University, 4700 Keele Street,
Toronto, Ontario, M3J 1P3, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Evelyn Man Yee-fun, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Chinese
University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, SAR China. Email:
Patrick Manyak, College of Education, Department of Elementary and Early
Childhood, The University of Wyoming, P.O. Box 3374 Laramine, WY 82071-3374,
USA. Email: [email protected]
Numa Markee, Division of English as an International Language, The University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 3070 Foreign Languages Building, 707 South
Mathews, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Email: [email protected]
Michael McCarthy, School of English Studies, The University Nottingham, Uni-
versity Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK. Email: [email protected]
Penny McKay, School of Cultural and Language Studies in Education, Queensland
University of Technology, Kelvin Grove Campus, Brisbane, Queensland 4059, Aus-
tralia. Email: [email protected]
Lois M. Meyer, College of Education, Department of Language, Literacy & So-
ciocultural Studies, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Bernard A. Mohan, The University of British Columbia, 4640 West 13th Avenue,
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6R 2V7. Email: [email protected]
List of Authors xvii
Brian Morgan, Department of Languages, Literatures and Linguistics, York Uni-
versity, Canada. Email: [email protected]
Andreas Müller-Hartmann, Department of English as a Foreign Language Päda-
gogische Hochschule Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 561, D-69120 Heidelberg,
Germany. Email: [email protected]
Denise E. Murray, National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research,
Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Denise Newfield, Department of English, School of Literature and Language
Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, PO WITS 2050, South Africa. Email:
Bonny Norton, Department of Language and Literacy Education, The University of
British Columbia, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4. Email:
David Nunan, The English Centre, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Rd,
Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Margaret Obondo, Rinkeby Institute of Multilingual Research, P.O. Box 5028,
163 05, Spåna, Sweden. Email: [email protected]
Brian Paltridge, Faculty of Education, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Aus-
tralia. Email: [email protected]
Aneta Pavlenko, CITE Department, College of Education, Temple University,
Philadephia, PA 19122, USA. Email: [email protected]
Alastair Pennycook, The University of Technology Sydney, City Campus Haymar-
ket; PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. Email: alastair.pennycook@
uts.edu.au
JoAnn Phillion, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, BRNG 4144, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2098. USA. Email: [email protected]
Robert Phillipson, Department of English, Copenhagen Business School, Dalgas
Have 15, 2000 Frederiksberg, Denmark. Email: [email protected]
Vaidehi Ramanathan, Linguistics Program, The University of California, One
Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA. Email: [email protected]
Pauline Rea-Dickins, Graduate School of Education, The University of Bristol, 35
Berkerley Square, Clifton, Bristol BS8 1JA, UK. Email: [email protected]
Norbert Schmitt, School of English Studies, The University of Nottingham, Not-
tingham NG7 2RD, UK. Email: [email protected]
List of Authors xviii
Marita Schocker v. Ditfurth, Pädagogische Hochschule Freiburg, Institut für
Fremdsprachen/Abteilung Englisch, Kunzenweg 21D-79117 Freiburg, Germany.
Email: [email protected]
Barbara Seidlhofer, Institut für Anglistik, Universität Wien, Universitaetcampus
AAKH/Hof 8, Spitalgasse 2-4, A-1090 Vienna, Austria. Email: barbara.seidlhofer@
univie.ac.at
Hyunjung Shin, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, The University of To-
ronto, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1V6, Canada. Email: shyun-
Elana Shohamy, Tel Aviv University, School of Education, Tel Aviv 69978, Isarel.
Email: [email protected]
Peter Skehan, English Department, Fung King Hey Building, The Chinese Univer-
sity of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email:
Eleni Skourtou, Department of Primary Education, The University of the Aegean, 1
Demokratias Ave. GR-85100, Rhodes, Greece. Email: [email protected]
Diana Slade, The University of Technology Sydney, Faculty of Education, PO Box
123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Nina Spada, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, The University of Toronto,
Modern Language Centre, Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning, 252
Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, M5S IV6, Canada. Email: nspada@
oise.utoronto.ca
Sue Starfield, The Learning Centre, The University of New South Wales, Sydney,
NSW 2052, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Pippa Stein, Department of Applied English Language Studies, School of Literature
and Language Studies, University of Witwatersrand, PO WITS 2050, South Africa.
Email: [email protected]
Wayne P. Thomas, Graduate School of Education, George Mason University, 4400
University Drive MS4B3, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA. Email: [email protected]
Agustina Tocalli-Beller, El Montículo 153, La Planicie, La Molina, Lima 12, Peru.
Email: [email protected]/[email protected]
James W. Tollefson, The University of Washington, 5307 S. Langley Road, Lang-
ley, WA 98260, USA. Email: [email protected]
Kelleen Toohey, Faculty of Education, 8888 University Drive, Simon Fraser Uni-
versity, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada. Email: [email protected]
List of Authors xix
Amy B. M. Tsui, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam
Road, Hong Kong, SAR, China. Email: [email protected]
Qiang Wang, Department of Foreign Languages, Beijing Normal University, Bei-
jing, China. Email: [email protected]
Mark Warschauer, The University of California, Irvine, UCI Department of Edu-
cation, 2001 Berkeley Place, Irvine, CA 92697-5500, USA. Email: [email protected]
Shelley Wong, Center for Language and Culture, College of Education and Human
Development, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive MS4B3, Fairfax,
VA 22030, USA. Email: [email protected]
Preface
This two-volume handbook provides a comprehensive examination of policy,
practice, research, and theory related to English language teaching (ELT) in
international contexts. Nearly 70 chapters highlight the research foundation for the
best practices, frameworks for policy decisions, and areas of consensus and
controversy in the teaching and development of English as a second and/or
additional language for kindergarten through to adult speakers of languages other
than English. In doing so it problematizes traditional dichotomies and challenges the
very terms that provide the traditional foundations of the field.
A wide range of terms has been used to refer to the key players involved in the
teaching and learning of the English language and to the enterprise of English
language teaching as a whole. At various times and in different contexts, the
following labels have been used in countries where English is the dominant
language to describe programs, learners, or teachers of English: English as a second
language (ESL), English as an additional language (EAL), limited English
proficient (LEP), and English language learners (ELL). In contexts where English is
not the dominant language, the following terms have been used: English as a foreign
language (EFL), English as an international language (EIL), and English as a
lingua franca (ELF). The international professional organization that supports and
advocates for English language teaching calls itself Teachers of English to Speakers
of Other Languages (TESOL) and the term English to speakers of other languages
(ESOL) is also used in some contexts around the world to refer to programs,
students, and teachers.
None of these labels is sociopolitically neutral; they each highlight certain
features of the phenomenon of English language teaching and those who engage in
it, and de-emphasize other features. For example, all of the labels listed above
foreground English as the focus of attention, thereby obscuring the fact that the
learners are bilingual or multilingual with fully functioning abilities in their home
languages. This risks contributing to a deficit view of the learner, particularly in
English-speaking contexts involving immigrant and refugee students. The term
limited English proficient used by the US federal government is particularly
problematic in this regard. Other terms are problematic for different reasons; for
Prefacexxii
example, ESL makes the assumption, rooted in a monolingual perspective, that
English is the second language of the student whereas in reality it may be the third,
fourth, or fifth language that an individual has learned. ELL is currently the favored
term among many professional organizations and educational agencies in North
America but it obscures some key differences between programs for English mother
tongue learners and those who are learning English as an additional language.
Attempts to use ‘positive’ terminology to refer to students and programs can also
be problematic. For example, in the United Kingdom students have frequently been
referred to as bilingual learners but this label obscures the fact that many of these
students are still in great need of English language development (and were usually
afforded few opportunities and little encouragement for mother tongue
maintenance). In the United States, advocates for bilingual programs and some
educational agencies have frequently referred to students as bilingual or
bilingual/bicultural; however, it is arguable that this labeling may have contributed
to the widespread assumption among the media and some policy-makers and
educators that bilingualism represents a linguistic deficit and that the bilingual
student is ‘limited English proficient.’ In contexts where English is not the dominant
language, the label EFL has traditionally been used but EIL and ELF have been
promoted as alternatives. The latter is seen as a much more accurate sociolinguistic
descriptor to describe many learning and teaching situations outside predominantly
English–speaking countries. The problem with adopting all such labels, however, is
that by definition they create a single category in which people from many different
linguistic and cultural backgrounds, language levels, socio-economic positions,
aspirations, and perceived identities are treated as a collectivity.
In this handbook we have not attempted to reconcile this multiplicity of identities
and ideologies; rather, we have generally remained faithful to whatever term has
been provided by the author of each chapter, assuming that it is an accurate
reflection of their context and history, with the exception of the term LEP which we
have generally changed to ESL or ELL. The field as a whole, in all its richness and
diversity, we have called English language teaching (ELT), despite the limitations
of the term, hence the title of this handbook. As this discussion of labels illustrates,
language intersects with societal power relations in multiple and complex ways and
this reality is reflected in the entire field of English language teaching. Thus, it is not
surprising that many of the chapters in this handbook explore the ideological
dimensions of ELT and their implications for language policies and classroom
practice.
The handbook is intended to provide a unique resource for policy makers,
educational administrators, teacher educators and researchers concerned with
meeting the increasing demand for effective English language teaching while, at the
same time, supporting institutions and communities concerned with the survival and
development of languages other than English. Its publication is timely in view of the
continuing spread of English as a global language and the associated expansion of
ELT in countries around the world. Policy decisions regarding ELT that will be
made during the next five years will influence the lives of individuals and the
development of societies for the next 25 years or more. Policies and practices
relating to ELT are, unfortunately, just as likely to be motivated by political pressure
backed up by plausible but flawed assumptions as they are by research and careful
evaluation of alternative options. For example, many parents and policy makers just
assume that earlier and more intensive instruction will result in higher levels of
Preface xxiii
English proficiency. As the research reviewed in this handbook demonstrates, this
assumption is not necessarily valid—the issues are considerably more complex than
the rush to English would suggest.
Even a cursory examination of the spread of English demonstrates the ecological
nature of the phenomenon. The introduction or expansion of English language
teaching in any particular environment exerts multidimensional influences on the
status and even prospects for survival of other languages in that environment. Social
and linguistic groups within these environments are similarly affected—either
advantaged or disadvantaged—by the policies adopted in relation to English.
To illustrate, it is clear that in countries around the world, English is replacing
other languages as the second language taught most frequently and intensively in
school. The perceived social and economic rewards associated with English have
propelled parents to demand earlier and more intensive teaching of English. For
example, in Japan, pilot projects have been instituted to start teaching English in the
primary grades. In Hong Kong there is spirited public debate about the value of
English–medium education and the most appropriate age to start learning English.
English-medium universities are expanding rapidly in traditionally non-English
speaking contexts, not just through the establishment of off-shore campuses, but
through local universities shifting to English as the main language of instruction.
For example, universities in mainland China have been required to teach 10% of
their curriculum in English since 2004; in Japan entire degree programs are being
offered in English in an attempt to maintain student numbers as the university–age
population rapidly dwindles. In Norway and Sweden English is rapidly displacing
the national languages as the medium of teaching and learning in science and
engineering faculties. Finland has the largest proportion of higher education courses
taught in English outside English-speaking countries. In the European community in
general, there are concerns that the drive to teach English is turning it into the de
facto official language of the new Europe. Similar developments and debates about
the accelerating spread of English are underway in countries around the world.
Expansion and intensification of ELT by means of an earlier start, increased time
allotment, and experimentation with immersion and bilingual or trilingual programs
are evident both in private sector and public sector schools in many countries.
Demand for English has also escalated among adult learners including
immigrants to English-speaking countries, business people involved in the global
economy, and those who just want to travel as tourists. In many countries, large-
scale ELT programs for adult learners have been established in the community and
workplace as a result of the globalization of the workforce, the perceived need to
increase economic competitiveness, and a move towards life-long learning.
In some contexts, English has displaced not only competing second languages
but also first languages. In many former British colonies and other recently
independent countries in Africa and Asia, for example, English is used almost
exclusively as the medium of instruction in schools, thereby constricting the
institutional space available for indigenous languages and creating immense
challenges for students to learn academic content through a language they do not
understand. Is this the best policy option? What are the alternatives? Who benefits
from these policies and who is disadvantaged? Clearly, policies and practices
associated with English language teaching must be considered not only in relation to
effectiveness and efficiency but also with respect to the moral dimensions of
decisions and initiatives. Who benefits from particular expenditures of resources and
Prefacexxiv
what are the hidden costs with respect to what these resources might have been spent
on? Is external aid for language teaching programs promoting the development of
home-grown expertise or inducing long-term dependency on external support? In
short, power and status relationships between social groups both within and across
societies are intertwined in obvious ways with language teaching policies and
practices.
Increased focus on English language teaching has also occurred in countries
where English is the dominant language. Many English-speaking countries have
experienced dramatic increases in immigration during the past 30 years (e.g. the
United States, Australia, and Canada). For example, about 40% of students in
California have learned English as a second language and 25% of these are classified
as limited English proficient by government agencies. In Canada, about 50% of
students in the Toronto and Vancouver urban areas have learned English as an
additional language. In Australia, more than 25% of the population use a language
other than English as the main language of communication in the home. The rapid
spread of the new knowledge economies and the decline in demand for traditional
manual labor are creating even greater pressure for newcomer populations to be
highly proficient in English. There is also much more transmigration with people
moving to English-speaking countries for temporary periods seeking further
education and/or work, a trend accelerated by developments such as the expansion
of the European Union. The number of foreign university students in the United
Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada has increased
steadily during the past 20 years.
Increasing cultural and linguistic diversity in English-dominant countries has
given rise to concerns among some groups that English might be under threat from
competing languages. These concerns have given rise to fierce debates, often with
racist overtones, about how English should be taught to immigrant and second
generation children as well as adults. In several US states, for example, referenda
have mandated that only English be used in schools for instructional purposes. The
goal has been to restrict or eliminate bilingual programs that are seen as conferring
status on other languages. Clearly, debates on language policy issues in many
countries have been characterized by the confounding of ideological and research-
based perspectives. There is considerable research that can inform policy in these
areas but it is frequently ignored and/or distorted as a result of entrenched
ideological positions.
The International Handbook of English Language Teaching provides
authoritative perspectives on these issues from many of the leading researchers,
theorists, and policy-makers around the world. The handbook synthesizes the inter-
disciplinary knowledge base for effective decision making and highlights directions
for implementing appropriate language policies at both instructional and societal
levels. Each volume is divided into three main sections and chapters are clustered to
address common topics and themes. The focus of Volume I is on Policies and
Programs in ELT: Changing Demands and Directions while Volume II addresses
Language, Learning and Identity in ELT: Reconceptualizing the Field.
Volume I includes a critical examination of current policies and programs in a
variety of contexts around the world (Section 1). The chapters in this section identify
empirical, theoretical, and ideological foundations of ELT policies and their effects
on learners and organizational structures. Section 2 of this Volume focuses
specifically on the development of curriculum content for ELT programs and the
Preface xxv
pedagogical approaches that have been implemented to teach this content, while
Section 3 examines policies and practices in assessment and evaluation. All of these
dimensions of ELT—curriculum content, pedagogy, assessment, and evaluation—
involve complex sets of decisions made by multiple actors (e.g. policy makers,
curriculum developers, publishers, teachers, parents, researchers) who interact with
each other in dynamic and often unpredictable ways. Increasingly, these actors span
the international stage. Initiatives adopted in one or more contexts (e.g. standards-
based curriculum development and high-stakes testing) influence decisions taken
elsewhere, often through the mediation of international experts who consult with
publishers and government agencies to identify ‘best practices.’ The chapters in all
three sections of Volume I highlight the complex interplay between global and local
perspectives and the need for policy decisions that take account of local linguistic
contexts rather than just importing formulaic “off-the-shelf” solutions that may be
highly inappropriate for a particular context.
In Volume II, the focus shifts to the changing conceptions of the learner, the
teacher, the learning environment, and the English language itself that are implied by
particular approaches to program development, curriculum, pedagogy, and
assessment. Identity has emerged as a key construct in recent research and theory
within ELT, reflecting the fact that learners and teachers are engaged in multiple
social relationships both with each other and with peers and colleagues. Learning is
conceived as a social endeavor rather than simply an individualistic cognitive and
linguistic process. Identities are being constantly negotiated as learners learn
language and this process of identity negotiation is strongly influenced by patterns
of power relationships in the broader society. Language itself is being
reconceptualized as a result of this process, with an increasing concern with shifting
and emerging genres and multimodal texts. The final chapters focus on the
development of the ELT profession in a broad sense, both in terms of cutting edge
research and in terms of teacher growth and change in an increasingly complex and
demanding global environment.
The spread of English is often presented as an inexorable and natural expansion,
outside the control of government and non-government agencies, similar to the
ideology of ‘manifest destiny’ that rationalized US imperialist expansion in the 19th
and 20th centuries. At the same time its teaching is often assumed to be an inherent
good, or at the other extreme, vilified as a threat to fragile and precarious linguistic
ecologies. Our hope is that this handbook will, in some way, contribute to building
the knowledge base and capability of various agencies and individuals to direct and
control this expansion and shape its impact on complex and multiple linguistic and
pedagogic communities, both local and global. Effectiveness and efficiency of ELT,
and provision of equitable opportunities to all learners to acquire English (and other
languages), are clearly important goals embedded throughout the handbook.
However, informed and careful planning in ELT needs to focus not only on
maximizing such elements in an increasingly complex, shifting and changing
environment, but on ensuring balance and harmony among multiple elements. This
is also a central goal of this handbook.
Acknowledgements
This two-volume handbook would not have been possible without the cooperation
and enthusiasm of a large number of people. First and foremost we would like to
express our appreciation to the 84 authors from all over the world who contributed
in such original and insightful ways to the 69 chapters of the handbook. Their
attention to detail and responsiveness to our editorial requests and suggestions
helped enormously in completing this ambitious project.
A particular debt of gratitude goes to our friends, colleagues, and graduate
students in both Hong Kong and Toronto who assisted in multiple ways during the
editorial process. Eila Thomas helped establish contacts with prospective authors
and was also responsible for the initial formatting and content and reference
checking of the chapters. Hyunjung Shin continued this process at a later stage and
helped in particular with the final proofreading. Xinmin Zhang and Jane Lockwood
played a major role in developing the subject index. Special thanks also to Scarlet
Poon for her work on the early formatting of the chapters and to Eunice Jam who
took on the daunting task of getting the whole manuscript ready for the printer. We
deeply appreciate their contributions, especially since they devoted time, energy, and
enthusiasm to the project at demanding times in their professional lives—and even
claimed to enjoy it!
We would also like to acknowledge the support (and patience!) of our editors at
Kluwer Academic Publishers and later at Springer. In the initial stages of the project
Joy Carp’s encouragement provided a major impetus, and Renée De Boo’s help was
invaluable in identifying authors and topics and compiling the Table of Contents.
Marie Sheldon put the wind back in our sails mid-way through the project and her
unflagging support enabled us to bring the project to completion. Mary Panarelli was
always available to answer questions about the finer points of style and format and
shepherded the manuscript into the final production stages, with Kristina Wiggins
offering invaluable support to complete the project. Finally, we would like to
acknowledge the anonymous reviewers who made extremely useful suggestions on
the initial proposal for the handbook and the copy editors who helped shape the final
manuscript in a thousand small ways.
Acknowledgements xxviii
Financial support for the editorial process was provided by the Education Faculty
of the University of Hong Kong as well as through support for graduate
assistantships from both the University of Hong Kong and the University of
Toronto. We would also like to express our deep appreciation to colleagues at the
Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, and the Modern Language Centre
of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, whose
advice and encouragement was invaluable.
Last, but not least, our love and gratitude to our families for their understanding
and support. This project has also been a part of their lives over a period of several
years and they will no doubt be extremely happy to see it bound and dispatched so
that we can all move on to additional personal opportunities and professional
challenges.
In conclusion, as editors, we feel privileged to have had the opportunity to bring
together this comprehensive survey of issues and trends in the field of English
language teaching (ELT). The dialogues with authors and between ourselves, and the
in-depth reading and re-reading of chapters, have extended our own appreciation of
both the empirical basis for policy and practice, and the theoretical constructs that
jostle for position in this still emerging field. However, what stands out as
particularly significant for us at this point is the complexity of the moral dimensions
of ELT in the context of the unrelenting spread of English. Teachers, policy-makers,
and researchers—we are all implicated in the shaping of social and linguistic spaces
where identities are being negotiated and personal and professional opportunities are
being constructed or constricted. Our heartfelt thanks once again to all those who
have contributed to our own growth in understanding of, and sensitivity to, the
complexity of these issues. We hope that the handbook acts as a catalyst for
reflection and dialogue aimed not only at increasing the effectiveness of ELT, but
also at creating ecologically viable and sustainable multilingual societies.
Jim Cummins
Chris Davison
July 2006
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