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INTERNAL SECURITY
An initiative of Group
B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY
Civil Services Examination
Internal Security© Copyright, by MADE EASY Publications.
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Internal SecurityContents
Chapter - 1Internal Security: An Overview ......................11.1 Introduction ..........................................................1
1.2 Definition ..............................................................1
1.3 Constituents of Internal Security ...........................2
1.4 Factors Contributing to Internal Security Challenges ...........................................................2
Governance Deficit ..............................................2
Criminal Justice System .......................................3
Geographical Factors ..........................................4
Social Factors ......................................................5
1.5 Internal Security Challenges of India....................5
External Challenges .............................................5
Developmental Deficit Related Challenges ..........6
Geographical Challenges ....................................7
Social Challenges ................................................8
Technological Challenges ....................................9
1.6 Aspects of Internal Security Policy .......................9
Political .................................................................9
Socio-Economic .................................................10
Law Enforcement Agencies ...............................10
Governance........................................................10
Coordination between Centre and States...........10
Cyber-Security ...................................................11
Intelligence .........................................................11
Border Area Management ..................................11
1.7 India’s Internal Security Policy ...........................12
Security Interests and Objectives ......................12
Present Security Scenario ..................................12
Limitations in Present Policy ...............................13
Suggestions and Recommendations..................13
1.8 Constituents of Internal Security Policy Doctrine 14
Physical ..............................................................14
Governance........................................................15
Economic ...........................................................15
Technological .....................................................15
Psychological .....................................................16
1.9 Conclusion .........................................................17
Chapter - 2Terrorism ........................................................182.1 Introduction ........................................................18
2.2 Definition ............................................................18
2.3 Types .................................................................18
Terrorism by External State ................................18
Terrorism by Non-State Actors ...........................19
Ideology Oriented Terrorism ..............................19
Religious Terrorism ............................................19
Ethno-Nationalist Terrorism ................................19
2.4 Causes ...............................................................19
Historical Factors ...............................................19
Religion ..............................................................19
Ethnicity..............................................................20
Political ...............................................................20
Human Rights .....................................................20
Economic ...........................................................20
2.5 Methods .............................................................20
Environmental Terrorism .....................................20
Weapons of Mass Destruction............................20
Chemical Weapons ............................................20
Nuclear Weapons ...............................................20
Biological Weapons ...........................................20
Cyber-Terrorism .................................................21
2.6 Terrorism in India ...............................................21
Jammu and Kashmir Militancy ...........................21
Insurgency in North-Eastern States ....................22
Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) ................................24
Terrorism in Hinterland .......................................25
2.7 Terror Funding....................................................26
2.8 Response to Terror Financing ............................27
2.9 Effects of Terrorism ............................................28
Economic ...........................................................28
Psychological .....................................................28
Political ...............................................................28
Governance........................................................29
Social .................................................................29
2.10 Anti-Terror Laws in India ....................................29
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 ..........29
(iv)
National Security Act, 1980 ................................29
Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act or TADA, 1985 and 1987 .........29
Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 (POTA)..........29
2.11 Changes After 26/11 ..........................................29
National Investigating Agency Act, 2008 ...........30
National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID) ................30
Four New National Security Guard Hubs ............30
Counter-Insurgency and Anti-Terrorism Schools 30
Amendments to Unlawful Activities Act (UAPA) .30
Multi Agency Centre: Galvanised and Reorganised .......................................................30
Stronger Coastal and Maritime Security .............30
National Police Mission ......................................31
Better Equipment for Security Forces .................31
ATS Team to Deradicalise Youth ........................31
2.12 National Counter Terrorism Centre (NCTC): A Critical Analysis .........................................................31
2.13 Preparedness Against Terrorism ........................31
Intelligence Gathering ........................................31
Training ..............................................................32
Mock Security Drills ............................................32
Securing Key Installations ..................................32
Counter Terrorism Operations ............................32
Investigations .....................................................32
Prosecution ........................................................32
Convictions ........................................................32
2.14 Strategy to Counter Terrorism ............................32
Political Consensus ............................................32
Good Governance and Socio-Economic Development ......................................................32
Respect for Rule of Law .....................................32
Countering Subversive Activities of Terrorists ....32
Providing Appropriate Legal Framework ............32
Capacity Building ...............................................33
2.15 Other Institutions in Fight Against Terrorism ......33
Education ...........................................................33
Civil Society ........................................................33
Media .................................................................33
2.16 Conclusion .........................................................34
Chapter - 3Insurgency in North-East ..............................353.1 Introduction ........................................................35
3.2 Historical Background ........................................35
3.3 Geography .........................................................35
3.4 Interdependence ................................................35
3.5 Political Unrest ...................................................36
3.6 Status of Insurgency in States ............................36
Arunachal Pradesh .............................................36
Assam ................................................................36
Meghalaya .........................................................38
Mizoram .............................................................38
Manipur ..............................................................39
Nagaland ...........................................................39
Tripura ................................................................40
3.7 Factors Causing Insurgency ..............................41
Historical ............................................................41
Geographical .....................................................41
Cultural ...............................................................42
Social .................................................................42
Economical ........................................................43
Political ...............................................................43
Governance........................................................43
3.8 Reasons for Survival of Insurgency ....................43
Political Motivations ............................................43
Availability of Arms .............................................44
Popular Support Base ........................................44
Geography and Terrain ......................................44
External Support .................................................44
3.9 State’s Response to Armed Ethnic Insurgency ..44
Proportionate use of Force .................................44
Use of Dialogues and Negotiations ....................44
Structural Changes ............................................44
3.10 Counter Insurgency Steps ..................................45
3.11 AFSPA ................................................................45
Salient Features..................................................45
Provisions Opposed by Activists ........................46
Supreme Court’s Observation ............................46
AFSPA: A Critical Analysis .................................46
Chapter - 4Left-Wing Extremism .....................................484.1 Introduction ........................................................48
Maoism ...............................................................48
Indian Maoist ......................................................48
Maoism and Naxalism: Difference ......................48
4.2 Evolution of Left-Wing Extremism .......................49
4.3 Factors Responsible for Rise of Naxalism ..........49
Governance........................................................49
Socio-Economic and Cultural .............................49
Land Related ......................................................49
Legislative ..........................................................49
4.4 Objectives of Naxalites ......................................50
4.5 Government’s Approach to Counter Naxalism ...50
Police Modernisation ..........................................50
(v)
Security Related Expenditure Scheme ...............50
Development ......................................................51
Ensuring Rights and Entitlements of Local Communities ......................................................51
Perception Management ....................................51
4.6 Government’s Response Against Naxalism .......51
Anti-Naxal Operation ..........................................51
Creation of Left Wing Extremism Division ...........51
Surrender Policies ..............................................52
Initiatives by Individual States ............................52
Samadhan Doctrine 2017 ...................................53
4.7 Challenges in Dealing With Naxalism .................53
Economic Efficiency ...........................................53
Social Justice .....................................................53
Security ..............................................................53
4.8 Schemes for Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) Affected States ....................................................... 53
Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme .....53
Installation of Mobile Towers ..............................53
Scheme for Fortification of Police Station ...........53
Special Infrastructure Scheme ...........................53
Road Connectivity Project Plan for Left Wing Extremism Areas .......................................54
Civic Action Programme .....................................54
Panchayats Act, 1996 ........................................54
Unified Command ..............................................54
4.9 Evaluation of Government’s Action to Control Naxalism ................................................54
4.10 Future Strategy to Eliminate Left-Wing Extremism 54
Socio-Economic Development ...........................54
Dialogue .............................................................54
Governance........................................................55
Psychological Initiatives .....................................55
4.11 Conclusion .........................................................55
Chapter - 5Development and Extremism .......................565.1 Introduction ........................................................56
5.2 Development ......................................................56
5.3 Factors Responsible for Spread of Extremism ...56
Historical ............................................................56
Geographical .....................................................57
Jal Jangal Zameen .............................................57
Economic ...........................................................58
Social .................................................................58
Political ...............................................................58
Governance Deficit ............................................59
Ethnic .................................................................60
5.4 Development Challenges in Extremism Affected Areas ...................................................60
High Poverty .......................................................60
Low Education ....................................................60
Limited Employment Opportunities ....................60
Political Marginalisation ......................................60
Social Discrimination ..........................................60
Human Rights Violations ....................................60
5.5 Role of Economic Development in Fueling Extremism .....................................................................61
Lack of Access to Basic Resources ...................61
Protest due to Special Economic Zones (SEZ) ...61
Shrinkage of Common Property Resources .......61
Issues related to Labour, Unemployment, and Wages .........................................................62
Displacement and Rehabilitation........................62
Environmental Degradation ................................62
Political Marginalisation of SCs and STs ............62
Indebtedness .....................................................62
Suggestions to Improve the Situation .................63
5.6 Role of Economic Development in Containing Extremism ........................................65
5.7 Safeguards for SCs and STs ..............................66
5.8 Conclusion .........................................................67
Chapter - 6Communal and Mob Violence ......................686.1 Communal Violence ...........................................68
6.2 Communalism ....................................................68
6.3 Features of Communalism ..................................69
6.4 Causes of Communal Violence ..........................69
6.5 Incidents of Communal Violence ........................73
6.6 Consequences: Communal Violence .................73
6.7 Solutions to Communalism .................................74
6.8 Measures to Counter Communal Violence .........75
Long-Term ..........................................................76
Immediate Measures ..........................................76
Other Measures ..................................................76
Conclusion .........................................................76
6.9 Mob Violence .....................................................76
Mob and Crowd: A Comparison .........................76
Mob Mentality .....................................................77
6.10 Causes of Mob Violence ....................................77
6.11 Consequences of Mob Violence ........................81
6.12 Measures to Avoid Mob Violence .......................82
Taking pre-emptive Measures ............................82
Standard Operating Procedures ........................83
Strengthening Social Harmony ...........................83
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Educating Communities Against Violence ..........83
Prosecuting the Offenders .................................83
Supreme Court’s Prescription to end Mob Lynching ............................................................83
Chapter - 7External State and Non-State Actors ...........857.1 State and Non-State Actors ................................85
7.2 Threats from External State Actors .....................85
7.3 Threats from External Non-State Actors .............95
Terrorism ............................................................95
Human Trafficking Cartels ..................................96
Drug Cartels .......................................................98
Trade Wars .......................................................100
Fake Currency Rackets ....................................101
Cyber Attacks...................................................101
Maoists and Naxalites ......................................103
Insurgents and Cross Border Ethnic Groups ...103
Illegal Immigrants .............................................104
Consequences of Illegal Migration ...................104
Transnational and Multi-National Corporations 105
Sea Piracy ........................................................105
Bookies and Cricket Mafias ..............................106
International Antiquities Smuggling Rackets ....106
7.4 Way Forward ....................................................107
Chapter - 8Coastal and Maritime Security ...................1088.1 Importance .......................................................108
8.2 Various Threats to Coastal Security of India .....109
Maritime Terrorism ...........................................109
Piracy ...............................................................109
Armed Robbery ................................................109
Smuggling ........................................................109
Trafficking ........................................................110
Infiltration..........................................................110
Illegal Migration ................................................110
Refugee Influx ..................................................110
Straying of Fishermen beyond Maritime Boundary ..........................................................110
Conclusion .......................................................111
8.3 Evolution of Coastal Security Architecture of India .............................................................111
Measures After 1960’s .....................................111
Measures in 1990’s ..........................................112
Measures Post Kargil War ..........................112Measures Post ‘26/11’ ......................................112
Conclusion .......................................................114
8.4 Lacunae in Coastal Security Framework ..........114
Lack of Coordination ........................................114
Inadequate Resources .....................................115
Differing Perceptions ........................................115
Poor Training ....................................................115
Absence of a Comprehensive Policy Formulation Mechanism ...................................115
Discontent in Fishermen Communities .............115
Miscellaneous Factors .....................................115
Conclusion .......................................................116
8.5 Initiatives by Government to Strengthen Coastal Security ...............................................116
8.6 Conclusion .......................................................117
Chapter - 9Cyber Security and Social Media ...............1189.1 Introduction ......................................................118
9.2 Types of Cyber Threat ......................................118
Cyber Crime .....................................................118
Cyber Terrorism ...............................................119
Cyber Warfare ..................................................119
Cyber Espionage .............................................120
9.3 Methods of Cyber Crime and Cyber Terrorism 120
Hacking ............................................................120
Viruses .............................................................120
Trojans .............................................................120
Computer Worms .............................................120
Denial of Service ..............................................120
Phishing ...........................................................120
Email Related Attacks ......................................120
Social Engineering Attacks ..............................120
Whaling ............................................................120
Encrypted Messages .......................................120
IP Spoofing .......................................................121
Skimming .........................................................121
Ransomware ....................................................121
9.4 Challenges to India’s Cyber Security ...............122
Critical Infrastructure ........................................122
Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) .............123
9.5 Cyber Security Measures .................................123
Information Technology Act, 2000 ....................123
Information Technology Amendment Act, 2008 123
Cyber Appellate Tribunal .................................125
Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) ................................................125
Cyber Security in Financial Sector (CERT-Fin) .125
National Information Board (NIB) .....................126
11Internal Security: An Overview1.1 IntroductionThe concept of internal security may seem a modern
construct but, unlike the common wisdom, it is as
old as the construct of states. The earliest treatise of
statecraft – Arthashashta by Kautilya – had references
to management of security of state from internal as well
as external threats. Kautilya in his Arthashahtra places
threats into four categories:
• Internal
• External
• Internally aided external
• Externally aided internal
The most serious one arises from internal originators and internal abettors and is like the “fear from a lurking snake”.
In modern times, the form and number of threats to
a country’s security internal as well as external – has
become more challenging than ever. It has become
very important for a country to maintain its sovereignty
in international statecraft as well as to ensure free will
of the citizens. A country has to employ a suitable mix
of policies with respect to economic, strategic, military
and diplomatic powers at its disposal in order to secure
the interest of the country and its citizens.
Challenges to internal security of India are numerous. The extent and scope of threats are complex, varied and vast. No other country in the world confronts so many threats, with so much intensity, at the same time. Overall, more than 50 per cent of India is said to be affected by one or the other of these threats, which are not just ‘law and order’ problems. They have external dimension falsifying conventional wisdom that internal security threats are caused mainly by internal sources.
Difference between Internal and External Security ThreatsThe aspects of internal and external security threats
are so inter-twinned that it is difficult to differentiate
between the two. However, some broad difference
could be considered.
Security Threats
External Internal
Threat originates from foreign soil
Threat originates from within country’s territory
Aggression by foreign country
Internal disturbances and law and order problems
These impact the sovereignty of the country
Impact credibility of the government
These affect international relations
Affect relationship of the citizens with government
Mainly dealt by Armed forces and Diplomats
Dealt by Ministry of Home Affairs and State Police
1.2 DefinitionToday’s definition of security acknowledges the political, economic, environmental, social and human thread, among other strands that impact the concept of security. It is the concern for security of the lowest common denominator of every society, namely the ‘human being’, which has resulted in the development of the concept of ‘human security’, with a focus on the individual and the people. Therefore, the definition of security is related to the ability of the state to perform the function of protecting the well-being of its people.
Internal security has been defined as the process of keeping peace and maintaining safety within a nation or state.
The former Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh, in 2005 identified – terrorism, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, low intensity conflicts, and threats to the security of sea-lanes as threats to national security.
A close examination of the threats to national security
will reveal that each one of them is connected to one or
more other threats. For example, the threat of terrorism
is connected to the threat of proliferation of arms
including weapons of mass destruction. The threat to
the security of our sea-lanes is connected to the threat
to energy security.
The government of the day is duty bound to protect
its boundaries as well as maintain law and order. Safe
internal security scenario is very important for growth
and development of the country. This aspect was
highlighted by the former PM of India, Dr. Manmohan
Singh, who said: “…Without effective law and order,
economic development would be impossible. We must
not, therefore, neglect this aspect.”
The challenges posed by Internal Security scenario are
priority for the nation as emphasised many a times by
Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Addressing the Inter-
State Council meeting, in 2016, the Prime Minister
Narendra Modi told the Chief Ministers that “we should
focus on how we can make our country prepared to
counter challenges to our internal security”. He asked
states to focus on intelligence sharing which will help
the country stay “alert” and “updated” in countering
internal security challenges.
1.3 Constituents of Internal SecurityThere are myriad attributes that constitute internal security of the country. These could be enumerated as:
• Maintenance of Law and Order: Ensuring law and
order is the prime responsibility of any government
to make sure ‘Rule of law’ prevails and law-abiding
citizens are not aggrieved in anyway.
• Safeguarding Sovereignty of the Nation: The
challenges posed by the state and non-state actors
in the form of terrorism, naxalism etc, need to be
neutralised in order to protect the sovereignty of the
nation.
• Ensuring Domestic Peace and Tranquillity: Incidents such as Communal violence, Ethnic
clashes, Mob violence etc. need to be checked to
ensure peace and tranquillity in the nation.
• Equality: Article 14 of the Constitution of India
entails a responsibility on the state to ensure
equality before law and equal protection of law,
state should ensure such rights are protected.
• Freedom from Fear: There should be an
environment where people can express their views
and thoughts without fear. Dissent is important in
democracy and differences between sections of
people could be resolved through dialogues.
• Non-discrimination: There should be no
discrimination (which includes exploitation and
oppression) of any strata of citizens at the hands
of State or society at large. The weak needs to be
protected and should enjoy freedom and rights.
• Social Harmony and Fraternity: Social harmony
between various castes, communities, regions
etc. is imperative to prevent and resolve internal
security threats.
1.4 Factors Contributing to Internal Security ChallengesFormer Prime minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh once said: “India is unique and a land of contradictions”. These contradictions interact and give rise to factors that contribute to the internal security problems in India. These factors could be enumerated in the diagram below.
GovernanceDeficitPovertyThere is a positive correlation between poverty and law and order problems. Numerous studies demonstrate that declining national income, low GDP per capita, primary commodity or natural resource dependence, and slow economic growth increase the risk and length of civil conflict.
Widespread poverty may also weaken state capacity to provide essential human services, and thereby, render states more vulnerable to predation by terrorist networks.
Citizens living in deprived environments become disenchanted with the political and administrative systems. There is no surprise that the some of the most backward and poor districts in India are grappling with the menace of Naxal violence.
2An initiative of Group
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Internal Security: An Overview
UnemploymentUnemployment leads to energy of the work-force go unutilised which could have been used for the economic development instead. In India, unemployment rate hover around 3.5%. The more worrying sign is the quality of jobs on offer to graduates, about 60 per cent of 8 lakh engineering graduates remain unemployed. When the aspirations of the youth are not met, they get disgruntled, lose faith in the Government and may turn to use disruptive tendencies. The volatile nature of the youth may lead to expression of anger, frustration and may cause social unrest.
Inequitable Growth
Income of Indians is becoming more and more
inequitable. The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
has warned that both India and China face the social
risk of growing inequality. India’s Gini coefficient rose
to 0.51 by 2013, from 0.45 in 1990, mainly on account
of rising inequality between urban and rural areas as
well as within urban areas. The richest 1% of Indians
now own 58.4% of wealth, shows a Credit Suisse report.
These indicators highlight that growing inequality is a
reality in India and it is a cause of concern, as citizens’
discontent may become challenge to the Government
vis-à-vis internal security.
Resource Distribution
Resource distribution is based on the principle of
common good. Fruits of economic growth when
distributed unevenly, only selected few reaping the
benefits, and a large population gets left behind in
the process. India has chosen the policy of increasing
the economic growth after independence. It was
envisioned that the increased development will uplift
the poor and destitute from the lower pedestal to
higher through equitable development. While India has
seen development of industries in mineral rich areas
in central India, the economic development in these
areas is not akin to rest of the country. These areas
have now become what is called as the ‘Red Corridor’
because here, local population is involved in Left wing
Extremism, primarily owing to lack of socio-economic
development of the people.
Corruption
Corruption is widely recognised as a threat to peace
and security in the nation. When corruption becomes
entrenched, it undermines the development of state
authority and its institutions, leaving a weak state with
potentially more space for insurgents to operate.
While the poor often suffer the most, this cycle of
impunity leaves ordinary people disempowered, unable
to seek justice in courts or hold politicians to account.
This makes them further impoverished, but also sows
the seeds of conflict by dissolving any ties of loyalty
between people and a state seemingly captured by
private interests. In contrast, people with a stake in
society are more likely to reject those who preach
violence to achieve their ends. It is not surprising
therefore, that we see a constant and sad correlation
between corruption and conflict.
The pervasive misuse of public office for private gain
is an evil eating into the vitals of the state, sapping
India’s strength. When important decisions, from arms
procurement to policy changes, are often tainted by
corrupt considerations, it is inevitable that internal
security will get compromised.
Ultra Left forces were thriving in rural areas because
of the vacuum created by politicians and social
activists. The corrupt state machinery has contributed
to the weakening of the state. It is when the system is
subverted that certain elements step in and intervene
in favour of the people and win their support, leading to
spread to Maoism.
Criminal Justice SystemThe Malimath Committee on Criminal Justice System
Reforms noted: “It is common knowledge that the two
major problems besieging the Criminal Justice System
are huge pendency of criminal cases and the inordinate
delay in disposal of criminal cases.”
Prolonged Judicial SystemAbout 33 million cases are pending in various courts across the country, thus huge pendency of criminal cases and the inordinate delay in disposal of criminal cases are major problems. People get disenchanted when they do not get quick and affordable justice. Such pendency of cases is detrimental to the national security as criminals acquire notion of impunity.
Low Conviction Rate
With lot of pendency of cases in courts, on an average
the judges have 2 to 6 minutes to hear the case.
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Consequently, there is very low rate of conviction in
cases involving serious crimes (only 47% in 2015).
This has encouraged crime. Violence and organised
crimes have become the order of the day. As chances
of convictions are low, crime has become a profitable
business. Law and order situation has deteriorated
over the years and citizens have lost confidence in the
Criminal Justice System.
Geographical Factors
Hostile NeighboursIndia shares a significant part of its border with Pakistan and China, and have had strained relationship with its eastern as well as western neighbours.
India and Pakistan have been at loggerheads ever since they got independence from British Rule. The neighbours even entered four times into war since partition of India in 1947. Control over Kashmir has been a major bone of contention between the two countries. Pakistan is involved in a proxy-war with India through cross border terrorism, pumping fake Indian currency notes (FICN), drug trafficking etc.
India and China relations have been contentious owing to unsettled boundary dispute between them. China disputes validity of treaty signed between British India and Tibet in 1914. A war was also fought to settle the boundary dispute in 1962. In present times, Maoists in India look towards China for ideological support, China has been following a policy of “String of Pearls” – acquiring rights to use ports for naval operations in Indian Ocean - encircling India. In addition, China and Pakistan have a nexus and proposed China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passes through Pakistan occupied Kashmir and India has reservations
with that.
DifficultterraininSomeRegions
Difficult terrain in border areas in the North East and Northern region of India makes management of border a challenging task. The presence of insurgents in North East region, militants in Jammu and Kashmir region and Maoist in hilly tract of central India make the task of security agencies more complex and challenging as they have to deal with twin challenges of the hostilities of these groups and difficult terrain.
4An initiative of Group
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Internal Security: An Overview
22Terrorism
“Terrorism exploits the freedom our open societies provide to destroy our freedoms”
—Dr. Manmohan Singh
2.1 IntroductionTerrorism is as old as the Roman Empire and it existed in some form or the other, be it the Zealots in Judea or the Assassins in the 11th to 13th century with religion being a strong motivating factor behind terrorist activities until the French Revolution. In fact, the term “terrorism” originated from the Reign of Terror (Regime de la Terreur) of 1793-94.
Following the Second World War, the focus of terrorist activities shifted from Europe to the Middle East, Africa and Asia with the emergence of various nationalistic and anti-colonial groups in these regions.
Left wing extremism, based on the belief that terrorism is the only strategy of revolutionary movement for the weak in the Third World (e.g. in Malaysia, Vietnam etc.), surfaced in Europe and elsewhere as well, especially since the late 1950s.
International terrorism today is marked by the large number of transnational terrorist groups, mostly motivated by the Islamist fundamentalist ideology with Al-Qaeda, ISIS at the forefront.
2.2 DefinitionIt is somewhat surprising that despite terrorism being recognised as a global phenomenon, attempts in the past for arriving at an internationally accepted definition of terrorism have proved futile. According to some observers, this ambivalence is primarily due to two reasons:
• Firstly, a ‘terrorist’ in one country may be viewed as a ‘freedom fighter’ in another;
• Secondly, some States resort to or encourage various kinds of criminal acts, clandestinely, through their own agencies or hired agents to subvert or to otherwise destabilize another lawfully established government or in extreme cases get important political or governmental personalities of another State assassinated.
Terrorism is the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective. 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (2nd ARC) suggests that following points should be included in the definition of terrorism:
• Use of firearms, explosives or any other lethal substance to cause or likely to cause damage to life and property and essential infrastructure including installations/establishments having military significance.
• Assassination of (including attempt thereof) public functionaries. The intent should be to threaten the integrity, security and sovereignty of India or overawe public functionaries or to terrorise people or sections of people.
• Detention of any person or threat to kill or injure any person to force the government to act or abstain from acting in a particular manner.
• Providing/facilitating material support, including finances, for the aforesaid activities.
• Commission of certain acts or possession of certain arms etc. by members or supporters of terrorist organizations which cause or are likely to cause loss of life, injury to a person or damage to any property.
2.3 TypesDepending on the various goals and objectives of the terrorist group/groups, the nature of terrorism also differs. Various kinds of terrorism are as hereunder:
Terrorism by External State (State Sponsored Terrorism)State-sponsored terrorism or warfare by proxy is government support to violent non-state actors engaged in terrorism. State sponsored terrorism on a massive scale appeared in international politics in the 1960s and 1970s. In recent times, some countries have embraced terrorism as a deliberate instrument of foreign policy.
One distinction of state sponsored terrorism from other forms of terrorist activity is that it is initiated to obtain certain clearly defined foreign policy objectives rather than grabbing media attention or targeting the potential audience. As noted by 2nd ARC, state-sponsored terrorism is the most effective means of terrorism from the perspective of the perpetrator. Example – Pakistan sponsored terrorism in India, especially in Jammu & Kashmir.
Terrorism by Non-State ActorsIt involves individuals or organizations involved in terrorist activities to influence politics at a national and, sometimes, international level but do not belong to or ally themselves to any particular country or state. For example, Naxalites, LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam), LET (Lashkar – e-Taiba) etc.
Further, the use of non-state actors is essentially the employment of a proxy element, which gives the state of Pakistan a degree of deniability. However, there is no doubt that none of the so called non-state actors like the Lashkar-e-Toiba (LeT) could have operated with impunity without the active funding, logistical and military support of Pakistan. The close linkages of the ISI and such groups are well documented as is their direct involvement in attacks like 26/11.
Ideology Oriented Terrorism• Left-Wing Terrorism Violence against the ruling elite mostly by the
peasant class motivated by what are called leftist ideologies have occurred time and again in history. The ideological basis for the left and subsequent violent movements was provided by the writings of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Mao Zedong. Leftist ideologies believe that all the existing social relations and state structures in the capitalist society are exploitative in character and a revolutionary change through violent means is essential. Example – Maoists in India and Nepal.
• Right-Wing Terrorism: Right-wing groups generally seek to maintain the
status-quo or to return to some past situation that they feel should have been conserved. Sometimes, groups espousing rightist ideologies might assume ethnic/racist character too. They may force the government to acquire a territory or to intervene to protect the rights of an ‘oppressed’ minority in a neighbouring country (i.e., the Nazi Party in Germany).
Violence against migrant communities also comes under this category of terrorist violence. It is to be noted here that religion can play a supportive role to rightist violence. Examples of these are: Nazism in Germany, Fascists in Italy, white supremacy movements in the US known as Ku Klux Klan (KKK).
Religious TerrorismPresent-day terrorist activities around the world are motivated largely by religious imperatives. According to Hoffman, the practitioners of terrorism motivated either in whole or in part by a religious imperative consider violence as a divine duty or a sacramental act. It embraces different means of legitimisation and justification compared to other terrorist groups, and these distinguishing factors make religious terrorism more destructive in nature. Example: ISIS and radicalisation of youths, Taliban etc.
Ethno-Nationalist TerrorismEthnic terrorism can be defined as deliberate violence by a subnational ethnic group to advance its cause. Such violence usually focuses either on the creation of a separate State or on the elevation of the status of one ethnic group over others. Various examples are activities by Tamil Nationalist groups in Sri Lanka and insurgent groups in North East India.
2.4 CausesHistorical FactorsThese factors include injustice of the past and distortion of history at times. For example, terrorism in Kashmir and North east.
The Kashmir issue is a result of different interpretation of instrument of Accession by India, Pakistan and Kashmiri separatists.
North-East insurgency is a result of historical policy of British colonialists to keep the region away from mainstream Nationalist movement.
ReligionThere have been several terrorist incidents in India which were motivated by religious fundamentalism. Religion in itself is not the root cause of terrorism. However certain agencies exploit religion to promote terrorism. For example: The ISI launched an initiative in 1991, even before the Babri Masjid demolition to forge an alliance between Khalistani terrorism that prevailed in Punjab and the terrorist groups in Jammu & Kashmir.
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EthnicityAn ethnic group refers to a social group that shares a common and distinctive culture, religion, language, or the like. The States in India’s North East region have a long history of conflict and violence among the tribal groups within the same State, and also neighbouring States. In this region, ethno-nationalism is quite often expressed through violence. Various examples of ethnicity based terrorism include Naga insurgency, Mizo insurgency etc.
PoliticalPolitical causes of terrorism emanate from lack of effective redressal of grievances and lack of political representation. For example, a major part of north eastern region of India was under the state of Assam. However political aspirations of different ethnic groups could not be satisfied. This led to insurgencies like Mizo insurgency which was effectively controlled after the Mizo Accord.
Human RightsHuman rights violation by majority or the security forces have always added fuel to the fire. This has been the case in almost all insurgency affected areas. Some of the examples include – abuse of (Armed Forces Special Powers Act) AFSPA in Kashmir and North East. Similarly, in Myanmar the human rights abuse by majority and the armed forces have led to the Rohingya crisis.
EconomicEconomic causes of terrorism include unequal distribution of resources, lack of development, poor socio-economic conditions among others.
Often, the lack of development and the lack of any prospect for improving one’s living standards provide a fertile ground for extremist ideologies to flourish. Large proportion of the recruits to extremist groups are from deprived or marginalized backgrounds or from regions which somehow seem untouched by the vibrant growth in other parts of the country.
The unevenness of our development process leads to differences and divisions in the country. For example: the inter-regional divide, the rural-urban divide and the inter-sectoral divide, are leading to disaffection and large-scale migration.
An example of this is the rise of Maoism in central Indian tribal areas which have generally lagged behind in terms of development.
2.5 MethodsThe traditional tactics used by terrorists are attacks on persons and property using weapons, bombs, IEDs, grenades, landmines etc, apart from hostage-taking, hijacking and forcible take-over of buildings, especially Government/public buildings. These could be classified as conventional means of terrorism.
In addition, there is increasing resort to suicide attacks and kidnapping. Besides, there are looming threats of terrorists acquiring Weapons of Mass Destruction (nuclear, chemical or biological) and of cyber terrorism as well as environmental terrorism.
Environmental TerrorismWhile eco-terrorism is in protest against the destruction of the natural environment, environmental terrorism is the premeditated damage caused to the natural world for example during the Gulf War of 1991 when Saddam Hussein ordered the detonation of more than 700 oil wells which engulfed Kuwait in smoke.
Weapons of Mass DestructionWeapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) are weapons that can inflict heavy and indiscriminate damage on a given target. Nuclear, chemical and biological weapons are the commonly identified weapons of mass destruction.
Chemical WeaponsA chemical attack could be the release of toxic gas caused by attacking an industrial facility, or releasing a chemical that has been stolen from its legitimate users to inflict heavy damage on the enemy. Chemical weapons are different from conventional weapons or nuclear weapons as the destructive effect of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any explosive force. Example: nerve agent VX.
Nuclear WeaponsNuclear weapons are devices designed to release energy in an explosive manner as a result of nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, or a combination of the two processes. Example – the atomic bomb ‘Little Boy’ dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima in 1945.
Biological WeaponsBio-terrorism is a relatively new form of terrorist activity that has emerged as a result of the advancements in biotechnology being accessible to terrorist groups. The American Center for Disease Control and Prevention, (CDC) defines bio-terrorism attack as “the
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deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, or other germs (agents) used to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants”. These natural agents are changed to “increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment.” These are spread though air, water or food. Terrorists use biological agents “because they can be extremely difficult to detect and do not cause illness for several hours to several days.” Examples of biological weapons agent include anthrax, botulinum etc.
Cyber-TerrorismThe term ‘cyber-terrorism’ is of very recent origin in comparison to other forms of terrorist activities. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), cyber-terrorism is a criminal act perpetrated by the use of computers and telecommunications capabilities, resulting in violence, destruction and/or disruption of services to create fear by causing confusion and uncertainty within a given population, with the goal of influencing governments or people to conform to a particular political, social, or ideological agenda. Thus, cyber-terrorism is the most advanced means of terrorist strategy developed with the advancement in information and communication technologies that enables terrorists to carry out their operations with minimum physical threat to themselves.
As per The Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) until June 2017, India witnessed more than 27,000 cyber security threats. Recent ransomware attacks using Wanna Cry and Petya viruses have amply confirmed cyber attacks as a “Weapon of Mass Disruption” with more than 300,000 computers affected across different sectors: health, finance, transport, ports and so on in 150 countries.
One of the biggest cyber-attack in the history of India’s banking sector was the hacking of 32 lakh debit cards in 2016.
Lone Wolf AttacksA “lone wolf” is a terrorist who carry out attacks alone without having any direct contact with any organization. Lone Wolf Attacks, i.e. actors acting allegedly by themselves without any tactical or financial support from an established insurgent group or international terrorist organization. (For Example, Orlando nightclub shooting in 2016)
2.6 Terrorism in IndiaTerrorism as an offence does not figure in the Indian Penal Code of 1860 as amended from time to time. In India, the first special law which attempted to define terrorism was the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, 1987, which was followed by the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 (POTA). With the repeal of the latter in 2004, the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 was amended to include the definition of a ‘terrorist act’. Terrorism in India can be studied under various heads:
Jammu and Kashmir MilitancyThe roots of insurgency in Jammu & Kashmir (J&K) can be traced to the later part of the 1940s when Pakistan attacked India with a view to capture Jammu & Kashmir. Ever since, there has been a section of population which believes in secession from India. These groups aided and abetted from across the border have often indulged in insurgent activities. Following the 1971 India-Pakistan war, there was a lull in the secessionist activities. However, the eighties witnessed large scale infiltration across the border and a sudden increase in insurgency. Innocent persons, were targeted and forced to flee from the State. The decade of the 1990s saw large scale deployment of security forces in the State.
The rise of Islamist fundamentalism and emergence of Al-Qaeda has added another dimension to the insurgency in Jammu & Kashmir. The Pakistan-based terrorist organisation called Laskar-e-Taiba (LeT) is supposed to be inspired from the philosophy and outlook of Al-Qaeda. Other affiliates of Al-Qaeda which continue to pose a serious threat to peace and security in India are the Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM), HUM, HUJI and Al-Badr. The trends of terrorist violence in J&K during the last few years and current year are shown in the table given below.
Trends of Terrorist Activity
Year IncidentsNo. of Deaths
SFs* Civilians Terrorists2013 170 53 15 67
2014 222 47 28 110
2015 208 39 17 108
2016 322 82 15 150
2017 342 80 40 213*SFs (Security Forces)
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33Insurgency in North-East3.1 IntroductionLanguage/ethnicity, tribal rivalry, migration, control over local resources and a widespread feeling of exploitation and alienation have resulted in violence and diverse demands by various Indian Insurgent Groups (IIGs). The demands vary from sovereignty in some cases to independent State or Homeland or simply better conditions for ethnic groups they claim to represent. The underground outfits indulge in violent and terror activities and intimidate people with arms in order to achieve their objectives/demands. They maintain cross-border links, procure arms, recruit and train their cadres, and indulge in unlawful activities such as damaging of public properties, bomb explosions, extortions, killing of innocent civilians, Security Forces Personnel, attacks on/abduction of Government employees, politicians, and businessmen.
3.2 Historical BackgroundAt the commencement of the Constitution, the present States of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram constituted as part of Assam, whereas Arunachal Pradesh, (then NEFA), consisted of several ‘frontier tracts’ administered by the Governor of Assam. The States of Manipur and Tripura were princely States which, after merger with India in 1948, became “Part C” States, the earlier name for Union Territories. The Constitution-makers, recognising the diverse way of life and administrative set up, provided for special institutional arrangements for the tribal areas in the region, giving them a high degree of self governance through autonomous District Councils under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution.
3.3 GeographyArunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim are eight states located in the North-East of the country and command special importance to India, not only because of their location but also their cultural and
historical uniqueness. The landscape, the range of communities and geographical and ecological diversity make these states quite different from other parts of the country. They are known as eight siblings and referred to as ‘eight sisters’ or ‘seven sisters and one brother’. These states cover an area of 2,63,179 sq. km, approximately eight per cent of the country’s total geographical area and house around 3.76 per cent of the total population the country. Around 98 per cent of the boundary of these states has international borders.
The states have distinct cultures and multiple ethnic groups and are a fine example of unity in diversity. The variety of ethnic groups, languages and religions reflect the multi-cultural character of the states. The region houses over 220 of the 705 tribal groups in the country, speaking a variety of Tibeto-Burman languages and dialects. States like, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland are predominantly inhabited by tribals with a certain degree of diversity among the tribes. States like, Assam, Manipur, Tripura and Sikkim are inhabited by people of various religious denominations like, Hindus, Christians, Muslims and a combination of local tribes and communities.
3.4 InterdependenceThe North East India is commonly described as “Land of Seven Sisters” because of their interdependence on each other. All the seven states are isolated from India and only way to reach there is via Siliguri Corridor (also called Chicken’s Neck) in West Bengal. Tripura is like an enclave surrounded by Bangladesh and depends on Assam for transportation. Most of the rivers that floods the plain in Assam originates in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Mizoram and Manipur are connected to rest of India through Barak Valley in Assam. Due to this interdependence, they were given sobriquet “The Land of Seven Sisters” by Jyoti Prasad Saikia (A civil servant from Assam).
3.5 Political UnrestNortheast India has been facing political unrest for nearly a century. The state of Arunachal Pradesh was claimed by China as South Tibet, which led to the Sino-India war in 1962. However, unrest in Northeast India began even before the Sino-Indian War. More recently, insurgence in Northeast India have further isolated the region from the rest of India. This political unrest has made it more difficult for people to travel in and out of the region, constricting the flow of culture and language in a similar way with which the Indian Independence and the Sino-Indian War did.
3.6 Status of Insurgency in StatesCurrently, numerous insurgents groups are active in different North-Eastern states, particularly in Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura. Some of these are: Assam – United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) and National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB); Manipur – People’s Liberation Army (PLA), United Liberation Front (UNLF), People’s Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), Kangleipak Communist Party, Kanglei Yaol Kanba Lup (KYKL), Manipur People’s Liberation Front (MPLF) and Revolutionary People’s Front (RPF); Meghalaya – Achik National Volunteer Council (ANVC) and Hynniewtrep National Liberation Council (HNLC); Tripura – All Tripura Tiger Force (ATTF) and National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT); Nagaland – Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (Khaplang)-[NSCN(K)].
Arunachal Pradesh
• History: Arunachal Pradesh literally means land of dawn-lit mountains. Carved as a full-fledged state in 1987, the evolution and formation of Arunachal is a testimony to the idea of federalism in modern India. Arunachal has a diverse culture,
mountainous terrain and scenic beauty. It is an enthralling place and a perfect example of micro-India representing the idea of unity in diversity. Arunachal is comparatively a new state. Before it got its statehood on 20 February 1987, it was a Union Territory (UT) for 15 years since 1972. The name Arunachal Pradesh was first given then. Prior to that, it was known as the North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) and was under the direct administration of the Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India.
• Insurgency: Insurgency in Tirap and Changlang district of Aunachal Pradesh started in early 2000s, due to rivalry between two factions of NSCN. The insurgency in Tirap is not indigenous and the locals do not identify with the Naga cause.
Arunachal Pradesh has also been used as a transit route by the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA). Tirap, Changlang and Longding districts and a 20 Kilometer belt having a common border with Assam has been declared as a disturbed area under the AFSPA-1958.
• Current Situation:1. It was lack of governance which had led to
the rise of insurgency in Tirap and Changlang. Administration over the years has played along with the local politics and the insurgents.
2. The warring groups of NSCN (IM) and NSCN (K) have been in ceasefire agreements with the union government, but the terms of the ceasefire apply only to the territory of Nagaland, a loophole that the insurgents are exploiting to engage in continuous armed activities.
3. Another major concern is the ready procurement of arms by the insurgents from China while local industry has become a source of extortion.
Assam
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