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8/2/2019 Interim Academic Guide Final 2005
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CRICOS Provider Number 00103D
General Guide
for the Presentation of
Revised Edition
January2005
AcademicWork
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Preface
This guide describes acceptable standards for the presentation of academic work and should
be used for all written and oral work unless specified otherwise by the lecturer in charge of
the unit.
As a student at the University of Ballarat, you are required to submit work for assessment as
part of your course. Such work must be submitted at a high standard of presentation and
content.
This guide was first published in 1986. The 1986 edition was compiled by a University-wide
committee and approved by the Academic Board on the 3rd of December 1986. This 2005
edition is an updated version of a revised edition, which was published in 1995.
A subcommittee of the Transition Committee, chaired by Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic
& Research) Professor Wayne Robinson, prepared this edition.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction
1.1 The purpose of this guide1.2 Using this guide1.3 Plagiarism
1.3.1 Definitions1.3.2 Avoiding plagiarism
1.4 Penalties
2. General standards of presentation2.1 Submission
2.1.1 Method and timing2.2 Format
2.2.1 Paper2.2.2 Folders2.2.3 Fastening2.2.4 Word processing, proofreading and spacing2.2.5 Margins and paragraphing2.2.6 Page numbering2.2.7 Length2.2.8 Footnotes
2.3 Elements of content2.3.1 Sequence2.3.2 Title page2.3.3 Abstract, synopsis or summary2.3.4 Table of contents2.3.5 List of illustrations2.3.6 Appendices2.3.7 Acknowledgements
2.4 Particular conventions2.4.1 Illustrations2.4.2 Units of measurement2.4.3 Locality references2.4.4 Scientific terminology
3. General standards of writing3.1 Writing assignments3.2 Organisation
3.2.1 General arrangement3.2.2 Chapters, headings and numbering
3.3 Use of English3.3.1 Vocabulary3.3.2 Sentence structure3.3.3 Spelling3.3.4 Punctuation
3.3.5 Person, tense and voice3.3.6 Subjectivity and objectivity3.3.7 Abbreviations and latinisms
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4. Formats4.1 Essays4.2 Technical or practical reports4.3 Business or management reports
4.4 Papers4.5 Oral presentations4.6 Computer programs4.7 Literature reviews
5. Methods of referencing5.1 General introduction5.2 Quotations
5.2.1 Direct quotations in general5.2.2 Short quotations5.2.3 Longer quotations
5.2.4 Referring to titles5.3 American Psychological Association (APA)
5.3.1 Introduction5.3.2 In-text citation5.3.3 Reference list5.3.4 Constructing entries in a reference list
5.3.4.1 Books5.3.4.2 Journal articles (in print periodical)5.3.4.3 Electronic sources5.3.4.4 Journal articles (in Internet database)5.3.4.5 Web sites
5.4 Australian (formerly AGPS)5.4.1 Introduction5.4.2 In-text citation5.4.3 Reference list
5.5 Chicago5.5.1 Introduction5.5.2 Footnotes5.5.3 Bibliography
5.6 Modern Language Association (MLA)5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 In-text citation5.6.3 List of works cited5.6.4 Constructing entries for a list of works cited
5.6.4.1 Books5.6.4.2 Journal articles (in print periodical)5.6.4.3 Electronic sources5.6.4.4 Journal articles from an Internet database/subscription
service5.6.4.5 Professional or personal Web sites5.6.4.6 Complete scholarly project or information database
Appendices
Appendix I Sample abstractsAppendix II Weights and measuresAppendix III Guidelines for inclusive language
Index
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1. Introduction
1.1 The purpose of this guide
This guide outlines acceptable standards for submission of academic work at the
University of Ballarat. Presenting work according to these standards will enhance the
presentation and organisation of your work, thereby creating a positive impression in the
mind of the marker.
Using the guide will enable you to develop practical and organisational skills that are
transferable to the workplace.
1.2 Using this guide
This guide should be used in conjunction with the unit description for each subject you
undertake. The unit description will specify the requirements for each task, typically
including topic, format, length and submission date. You are advised to read these task
descriptions very closely. It is possible specifications other than those outlined in this
guide may be given. If you are not clear about the specifications, you should check with
your lecturer or tutor. Generally the requirements given in the unit description have
priority.
1.3 Plagiarism
1.3.1 DefinitionsPlagiarism is the presentation of the work of another person as though it is ones
own, without properly acknowledging that person. Plagiarism includes copying from
any source such as a book, journal article, a Web site, and/or another students
assignment, unless the material is presented as a quotation. It also includes
paraphrasing, that is, putting others ideas into your own words, without
acknowledging the source of the material.
The University has a policy on student plagiarism that can be accessed at
.TheUniversitys Statute 6.1 Student Discipline and Regulation 6.1 Student Discipline
make it clear that plagiarising is a breach of student discipline and may incur a
range of penalties.
Intentional plagiarism is plagiarism associated with intent to deceive.
Unintentional plagiarism is plagiarism associated with a lack of understanding of
plagiarism or a lack of skill in referencing.
Plagiarism is unacceptable, whether it is intentional or unintentional.
Collusion is helping someone to plagiarise. Collusion is also unacceptable.
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1.3.2 Avoiding plagiarismPlagiarism can be avoided by complying with the following guidelines.
Cite the source of all ideas and information (including such things as statistics,
graphs and drawings).
Use appropriate referencing methods, which are presented in this guide in section
5. Present direct quotations correctly (see 5.2).
When you paraphrase, fully rewrite the authors idea. Do not just rearrange or
substitute a few words. Acknowledge the source of the idea.
Take all precautions to ensure another student cannot inappropriately copy your
work.
1.4 Penalties
Academic work that is late or otherwise fails to conform to the task description
(usually present in the unit description), or does not meet the standards in this
guide, may be penalised by:
not being accepted (not counted towards final assessment);
being returned for resubmission in an acceptable form, and/or;
a reduction in marks or grades.
The penalty applied is at the discretion of the lecturer or school. These or other
penalties may be applied to plagiarised work.
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2. General standards of presentation
2.1 Submission
2.1.1 Method and timingAcademic work should be submitted in accordance with the methods and dates
prescribed by individual schools, units or lecturers. In some circumstances extensions
of time for completion of work may be granted.
You are strongly advised to keep a copy of all pieces of assessment.
2.2 Format
2.2.1 PaperExcept where stated otherwise, A4 paper should be used, on one side only.
2.2.2 FoldersFolders or covers are not essential. You may wish to check with your lecturer or tutor
on their preferences.
2.2.3 FasteningAll pages should be securely fastened together (and to the folder if one is used) by a
staple or some similar fastening. Paper clips should not be used.
2.2.4 Word processing, proof reading and spacingAll work should be word processed and carefully proofread before submission. Some
schools or some lecturers will require written assessment to be double spaced.
Where this is not specified single spacing is commonly accepted. The following are
frequently single spaced:
footnotes, with a double space between footnotes (see 2.2.8 below);
quotations in the text, of 40 words or more (see 5.2.3 below);
abstracts (see 2.3.3 below);
bibliographies and/or lists of references, with a double space between entries.
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2.2.5 Margins and paragraphingAll written work should have a margin of three to four centimetres on the left hand side
of the page for comments and corrections. An adequate border should be left on the
other three sides.
A paragraph is indicated either by indenting from the margin and/or by using an extraspace.
2.2.6 Page numberingEvery page after the cover or title page should be sequentially numbered.
2.2.7 Length
The prescribed length should be observed. Note carefully such requirements as notless or not more than so many words. Elements such as title page, reference list or
appendices are not included in the word count.
2.2.8 FootnotesThere are two ways footnotes can be used. Footnotes as a referencing style are
discussed in Section 5.5 (Chicago style) of this guide. In some disciplines, footnotes
may also be used for such things as acknowledgements, or providing marginal
comments or supplementary information.
Footnotes should be sequentially numbered through the piece of work with numerals
above the line in the text, and grouped together at the foot of the relevant page. They
should be separated from the body of the text with an extra space and a line ruled
from the left margin. Most word processing packages have a footnote function.
2.3 Elements of content
2.3.1 Sequence
Written work will include some, if not all, of the following elements. In some specificcases you may have reason to vary the outline.
Title page
Abstract/synopsis/summary
Table of contents
List of illustrations
Body of text
Conclusions and/or recommendations
Appendices
AcknowledgementsList of references/works cited/bibliography
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2.3.2 Title pageEach piece of written work should have a separate cover sheet or title page. Some
schools provide assignment cover sheets. Otherwise, create a title page that includes:
title or topic of the piece of work; your name and student number; the unit number and
name of the unit for which the work is to be submitted; the name of the lecturer and/ortutor for whom it is written and the date submitted. If appropriate, add your tutorial
group. In the case of group projects, list the name and student number of each
member of the group. The title page should carry no other text, except where schools
or lecturers require you to place the abstract on the title page.
In most cases the lecturer will have prescribed the title of the piece of work. If
choosing your own title be concise but precise and informative in your choice of words
(for example Content analysis of violence in television cartoon programs for young
children rather than Childrens television).
2.3.3 Abstract, synopsis or summaryEssays, research papers, reports, major studies and some other assignments often
require an abstract. Depending, at least in part, on the format of the assignment, this
may be referred to as an abstract, synopsis, summary or executive summary. For
example, essays and research papers are usually provided with an abstract, while a
report usually calls for a summary. The abstract or summary should be presented on a
separate page (unless you have been instructed to place it on the title page). It should
be approximately 100 to 150 words in length and would normally be in connected
prose (that is, in proper sentences). A variation on some of these requirements is
typical of executive summaries (see below).
An abstract or summary should summarise or prcis the content of the work. It should
not act as a disguised table of contents or de facto introduction. For example, for
research papers or reports the abstract or summary should outline the problem being
investigated, the main argument and the conclusions reached. If appropriate, include
the methods or procedures used.
Business reports that include conclusions or recommendations intended to be acted
upon (or executed) should be provided with an executive summary. Depending on the
length and substance of the report, this may run to one or more pages. The executive
summary includes the actual recommendations made in the body of the report and thereasons (in brief) why these conclusions were made. Executive summaries may be
presented with numbered sections (as recommendations are often presented with the
numbering used in the body of the report).
2.3.4 Table of contentsWhere a report or research paper is organised under section or chapter headings, a
table of contents may be called for. This should be on a separate page, should list
each section or sub-section and appendices, and should show on which page that part
of the work begins.
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2.3.5 List of illustrationsWhere there are several figures, graphs, tables or other illustrations, a list of these
should be provided on a separate page, together with their page numbers.
2.3.6 AppendicesSupporting material that is not appropriate or convenient to include in the body of thetext should be included in your appendix or appendices. This may include samplequestionnaires, raw data, additional tables and diagrams. Material that is central toyour argument should, however, be incorporated in the body of the text wherepossible.
Where there is more than one appendix, they should be lettered or numberedsequentially e.g. A, B, C. Appendices should be arranged in the order in which they
are referred to in the text.
2.3.7 AcknowledgementsPeople who have given personal assistance should have that assistance
acknowledged; a statement of acknowledgement should be specific as to names and
type of assistance, and should be simple and concise.
The statement is usually presented on a separate page after the title page or before
the bibliography or reference list.
2.4 Particular conventions
2.4.1 IllustrationsTables, graphs, diagrams, charts, maps, drawings, photographs or other illustrations
may be included in academic work to support or enhance the text and in some cases
will be specifically required. Illustrations may be included in the body of the work or inan appendix.
An illustration should be fully self-contained or self-explanatory even where it is
discussed in the text. That is, it must have an appropriate descriptive caption, and if
necessary, a legend (giving scale, angle or direction of view, orientation, explanation
of symbols, etc.). Illustrations drawn from other sources must be acknowledged using
the appropriate bibliographic style.
Number illustrations consecutively through the piece of work and, where there areseveral, list them in a list of illustrations (see 2.3.5 above).
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2.4.2 Units of measureUse the International System of Units (SI units) for all data (except where other units
are used in a document you are quoting, or are appropriate for historical reasons).
Appendix II summarises the use of SI units.
Numerals up to ten should be spelt out in the text. Numbers from 11 upwards are
written in Arabic characters. However, always use words rather than figures at the
start of a sentence.
2.4.3 Locality referencesFor scientific work, where possible, indicate locations by reference to a national grid;
otherwise, co-ordinate references on a map accompanying your work are acceptable.
Informal references (such as near the 85 kilometre sign on the Western Highway)
may be useful in the text, but are not an acceptable formal reference for scientificwork.
2.4.4 Scientific terminologyUse of scientific terms should conform to accepted practice in the discipline. Avoid
unnecessary jargon, especially terms from other disciplines where simple English will
do.
Where conventional practice permits abbreviated terms, spell out the term when you
use it the first time with the abbreviation you use in brackets: thus Escherichia coli (E.
coli), Geospiza magnirostris (G. magnirostris), or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) on
first use, E. coli, G. magnirostris or DNA thereafter.
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3. General standards of writing
3.1 Writing assignments
All academic work should be clear, concise, complete and accurate; it should be self-
explanatory and fluent.
All work, unless otherwise specified, should be word processed. The reader must be
able to read it without difficulty. Work should be carefully proofread and, if necessary,
neatly corrected. You are strongly advised to revise and edit your work. Ensure you:
answer the question and/or address the topic;
address the criteria for assessment;
structure and express your work clearly;
check spelling and grammar.
In general, assume that the work is written for an academic reader who has in-depth
understanding of the discipline. However, ensure that your assignment shows your
understanding of the particular topic.
3.2 Organisation
3.2.1 General arrangementGenerally speaking, essays are written in connected prose - that is complete
sentences without headings - and reports are organised under appropriate headings
and sub-headings. Longer pieces of work are usually organised into chapters.
Conventionally, written work has an introduction, main section and conclusion. Theintroduction orients the reader to the content of the main section. It would usually
include information on the scope and purpose of the work, the problems to be
addressed and may place the work in its theoretical context. The conclusion sums up
the discussion, refers it back to the underlying theme, and notes any unresolved
issues. Conclusions or recommendations may sometimes be listed in a separate
section.
The main section of the work should have an appropriate structure. The ideas
presented should flow logically and not be scattered haphazardly throughout the work.
Essays, reports and similar assignments must be presented in structured paragraphs.
Indicate paragraphs clearly by indenting and/or leaving an additional line free of text.
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3.2.2 Chapters, headings and numberingSome disciplines or schools will have specific conventions or requirements, which
should be observed. Some specific requirements are listed in section 4.
The practice of decimal numbering of sections and subsections (as followed in thisguide) is often used in report writing.
3.3 Use of English
Aim for a formal style of expression, but do not be long-winded. Write directly and
precisely. The conventional rules and standards of English grammar should be observed.
There are many useful guides to writing styles available in the library.
3.3.1 VocabularyWord usage should be accurate and appropriate, avoiding tautologies (words or
phrases repeating the same idea), colloquialisms, clichs and slang. Use simple
English rather than big words. Terms relating to your topic must be used precisely,
but otherwise avoid jargon.
Current social values, and University policy, require non-discriminatory language. In
particular avoid sexist or racist terminology. (See Appendix III.)
3.3.2 Sentence structureMost academic work should be presented in complete sentences. Generally keep
sentences fairly short. Break overly long sentences into short sentences. The
number of ideas presented in each sentence should be restricted. If in doubt, one
idea per sentence is a good rule of thumb.
Point form is acceptable in some formats such as report formats. Introduce the points
with a sentence or opening clause and check punctuation. Match the grammar of your
points with the introductory sentence or clause.
3.3.3 SpellingSpelling should be in accordance with accepted formal practice. When in doubt, use a
dictionary. Where English and American spellings differ, the English form should be
preferred. Use the spell check function on your word processor but be aware that it
will not identify all errors.
3.3.4 PunctuationConventionally accepted standards of punctuation should be observed. Commas are
used to break up sections of a sentence where the ideas are related. (Unrelated ideas
are best expressed in separate sentences.)
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A semicolon functions like a weak full stop when the decision is made not to split ideas
into separate sentences. A semicolon is also used to separate items in a list. A colon
is used where what follows is a list or a clarification of the earlier part of the sentence.
3.3.5 Person, tense and voiceIt is conventional in academic writing to write in the third person, past, passive: forinstance, It was determined that the precipitate was neutral, rather than I
determined that the precipitate was neutral. In this convention, the writer refers to
himself/herself as the writer, the author, or by some similar turn of phrase. This
convention, which conforms to traditional scholarly publishing practice, is becoming
less common. However, in general avoid the use of I.
3.3.6 Subjectivity and objectivityMost essay and report writing requires the objective presentation of data and ideas,
with logical argument and conclusions. Except where specifically asked for subjective judgements or impressions, you should be objective, and not allow subjectivity
(including personal beliefs or feelings) to colour your writing. Sometimes you will be
asked for your conclusions or opinions, and these should always be clearly expressed
as such. Avoid such over-generalisations as It is obvious that... or As everybody
knows. Common sense or universal knowledge is not academic evidence.
3.3.7 Abbreviations and latinismsAbbreviations in the text should be avoided. Certainly avoid such shorthand
abbreviations as & (for and), 18C (for eighteenth century), and ditto marks.
Although such abbreviations as e.g. (for for example) and i.e. (for that is) are
widely used, generally opt for the spelt out, English form. (For some exceptions to this
rule, see 2.4.2 and 2.4.4 above.) Where abbreviations are part of normal conversation
(such as ACT, UN or WTO) spell out the term when you use it the first time with
the abbreviation following in brackets; for example: United Nations (UN) on first use,
UN thereafter.
Although some Latin terms such as supra (for above) and infra (for below) are
common on some documents, prefer the English alternatives unless specifically
required otherwise.
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4. Formats
4.1 Essays
Essay format is typically used to discuss an idea or topic. It is written in connected prose.
Generally, headings, point form and illustrations are not used. Usually your lecturer will
be looking for evidence of your ability to select and use sources critically, to formulate
you own views, to argue and draw conclusions in a logical and coherent way, and to write
clearly. Essay format is most commonly used in the humanities, the arts and the social
sciences
4.2 Technical or practical reports
Reports of this type document experimental or other research method. Reports are
usually presented with an abstract or summary. The body of the report should conform to
the IMRAD outline (Introduction, Method, Results and Discussion).
(i) Introduction: clearly states the problem being studied, its scientific context
and/or theoretical background, and the hypothesis or hypotheses being tested.
You may be required to include a review of the literature on the topic (see 4.7
below).
(ii) Method: has two or three sections, depending on the topic:
(a) Subjects: precisely who or what the subjects were, the characteristics of
the sample, and its relationship to the population being studied;
(b) Materials and equipment: a description of the materials, chemicals, tests,
etc., and of the equipment or apparatus used;
(c) Procedures: how the experimental or survey work was carried out, and
how the data was collected and analysed.
These sections should contain sufficient information to permit replication of the
study; protocols, questionnaires or sample survey forms may be included as
appendices (see 2.3.6 above).
(iii) Results: is a factual and concise summary of observations, measurements
and statistical tests if appropriate. It will normally include tables or graphs.
There should be sufficient data to support the Discussion section. Note that the
Results section is purely descriptive: any discussion or conclusions are
reserved for a separate.
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(iv) Discussion: evaluates and interprets data reported in the Results section.
You should not introduce new data here. Indicate whether your data supportthe hypothesis, and relate your findings to those of previous studies (which will
probably have been noted in the Introduction). Note any flaws or special
features of your study which may have influenced your findings; if you cannot
explain your findings, say so. Draw any conclusions and, if appropriate, make
any recommendations, including recommendations for further research. It is
often desirable to list conclusions and recommendations in a separate section.
You may need to check with your lecturer as to whether your task requires
Ethics approval.
4.3 Business or management reports
Reports of this type are used to present information and (usually) make
recommendations on a situation or problem. Typically, business report format requires
you to collect information and analyse it according to one or more theoretical frameworks.
The conventional outline is IBCAR (Introduction, Body, Conclusion and
Recommendations).
(i) Introduction: clearly states the problem being studied, the purpose andscope of the report, and the sources of information used.
(ii) Body: should be organised under headings appropriate to the topic, andshould cover:
a statement, in detail of the problem and its background;
a description of the investigation;
a statement, in detail, of the data or facts collected; and
an analysis of the findings and results.
(iii) Conclusion and Recommendations: may be one or two sections as
appropriate. Conclusions should arise clearly from the data given in the body,
and you should explain why one conclusion is preferred to another; new data
or ideas should not be introduced here.
Note that while the headings Introduction, Recommendations and Conclusion are
typically used, the term Body is never used as a heading.
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4.4 Papers
You may be asked to write in a format that is neither essay nor report format. Examples
include a tutorial or research paper. In these cases headings are frequently used. Pay
particular attention to task requirements and check with your lecturer or tutor if unsure.
4.5 Oral presentations
An oral presentation may be an individual or group task. The following guidelines should
be used.
Consider who your audience will be.
Ensure the talk is audible to everyone in the room.
Ensure the you have appropriate visual material such as overhead transparencies
or PowerPoint slides.
PowerPoint slides and transparencies should be clearly visible to all people in the
room.
Give your audience sufficient time to read visual material.
The talk should not be read word for word from a written page; you should makesome attempt to speak directly to your audience. If the exact text is important,
consider providing it as a handout.
If you provide a handout to accompany your presentation, it should include the
same information that appears on the title page of an assignment (see 2.3.2).
If you use a whiteboard, prepare the board in advance if possible. Avoid talking
with your back to the audience.
Try to avoid distracting mannerisms (such as fiddling with a pen or standing on
one leg).
Normally you will be assessed on standard of presentation as well as content. Take
every opportunity to observe and analyse what makes oral presentations work best, and
apply those observations to your own practice. Pay particular attention to things such as
scheduled date of presentation, and prescribed time limit.
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4.6 Computer programs
Computer programs may be submitted in hard copy or soft copy form. Soft copy
submission will usually be made using removable digital media (floppy disk/CD/DVD) orvia email. Submissions must include available source code. Email submissions should
request that receipt of the submission be acknowledged.
Any hard copy submissions should be submitted on computer printout stationery, but
should have a title page (see 2.3.2 above) and any additional text required. Unless
indicated otherwise, the program should include both a listing, a sample run, and
instructions for use and installation of the program.
4.7 Literature reviews
A review of the literature on a topic may be a separate assignment or part of the
introduction to another piece of written work. A literature review should give a written
overview of the published knowledge on a topic. It should not be merely a series of
annotations on separate books or articles. A literature review should include:
a summary of the arguments or findings of the key thinkers or researchers in the
field;
a comparison and/or reconciliation of these arguments or findings;
your conclusions on the state of knowledge or opinion on the topic;
a note of apparent gaps in the literature with a summary of needs for further
research;
an explanation of how your investigation will contribute to the state of knowledge
where your review is part of a longer piece of work.
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5. Methods of referencing
5.1 General introduction
Generally academic work is heavily dependent on the findings or ideas of others. As a
matter of intellectual honesty and scholarly integrity you must say where ideas,
information, or arguments come from, regardless of whether you are quoting directly,
paraphrasing, or simply mentioning or using data from that source. To do otherwise is
plagiarism, which is a serious academic offence (see 1.3).
The basic principle of bibliographic citation is to provide sufficient detail to permit your
reader to identify and retrieve the item accurately and readily. There are two key
approaches to referencing: notes (footnoting or endnoting) and in-text citation (often
referred to as the author-date or Harvard system).
This guide offers four alternative standards for reference and citation:
APA (American Psychological Association)
Australian (formerly AGPS) (author-date system)
Chicago (footnoting system)
MLA (Modern Language Association)
You should use only one style in any piece of written work. Your school or lecturer is
likely to specify a particular style.
Each of these styles has its own detailed manual, which is available in the University
library. These manuals will specify particular requirements for all elements of
presentation. However, unless otherwise specified, the following general standards of
presentation can be used for quotations.
5.2 Quotations
5.2.1 Direct quotations in generalA quotation is an exact reproduction of an authors words. It should be reproduced as
originally printed, except:
where certain words are omitted (as irrelevant or superfluous), when the
omission should be indicated with three periods (full-stops) at that point in the
quotation;
where certain words are added to clarify or explain a point, when the added
words should be placed in square brackets;
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where you wish to draw attention to an error or to inappropriate expression in
the text, when you may add after the offending word(s) the word sic in
parentheses.
Do not alter or correct spelling and punctuation in quotations.
Examples:
Salaries are computedfrom tables provided by the employing authorities.
Such provisions do not exist in the [Australian] Constitution.
Sampling was carried out on Firday (sic) and Saturdays.
Omissions and interpolations should be made in a way that results in an acceptable
sentence structure.
In quoting poetry, the line structure of the original should be preserved: do not present
poetry in prose form.
All quotations should be fully acknowledged (see 5.3, 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6). Note, you
should not over use quotations.
5.2.2 Short quotationsShort quotations, that is, quotations of fewer than 40 words, should be incorporated
into the body of the text, preserving an acceptable sentence structure, and enclosed in
quotation marks. The following sentence is an example. As Emerson says, by
necessity, by proclivity, and by delight, we all quote.
5.2.3 Longer quotationsQuotations of 40 words or more should be set apart from the main text. All lines of the
quotation are indented approximately five spaces. The quotation is single-spaced in a
font one point smaller than the text. No quotation marks are used.
5.2.4 Referring to titlesWhen a title is referred to in the text, use the exact title, in italics.
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5.3 American Psychological Association (APA) style
The following information is based on guides provided by the University library. For more
information and examples you may refer to the Web based guide at:
. Additional guidelines will begiven in the next edition of this guide.
5.3.1 IntroductionThe APA (American Psychological Association) style is widely accepted in the
physical, natural and social sciences, and more recently in the humanities. APA style
uses the author-date system (otherwise known as the Harvard system) which
comprises brief in-text citations and a comprehensive list of references. The APA style
is detailed in the 5th edition of the Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association(2001). This can be found in each of the University of Ballarat campus
libraries.
5.3.2 In-text citationThe following excerpt illustrates the APA style in practice.
Students making the transition to higher education are known to experience difficulties in
coming to terms with the standard of work required of them (Krause, 2001, p. 156). One problem
that often causes significant feelings of anxiety amongst students is that of plagiarism, which
academics can usually detect quite easily (Salusinszky, 2004), and the correlating emphasis that
they place on correct citing and referencing of information sources. The essence of this problem,
neatly crystallised by Anderson and Poole (2001), is that in scholarly writing, it is nearly always
essential to refer to the work of others (p. 16). Devlin (2004) proffers this advice about paraphrasing:
When you summarise the main ideas . . . from someone else in your own words, you are
also expected to clearly acknowledge that someone else first wrote about the ideas you
have summarised. Giving proper references shows that you have read the appropriate
literature and are well informed. (p. 23)
A recommended solution to the problems that students experience is for academic staff to
provide specific instruction to help them recognise when plagiarism occurs (Landau, Druen, & Arcuri,
2002). There is also a role for librarians to provide guidance that assists students to determine the
appropriate citation style to use, generally in the form of guides and tutorials (Freimer & Perry, 1986).
This excerpt is from a journal article being prepared for publication by R Counsel and M Staley, University of Ballarat.
In practice, highlighting is not used. It is used in the above example to draw your
attention to the in-text citations, which are included in the following reference list.
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5.3.3 Reference listThe reference list is designed to provide information to enable each source that you
have cited in text to be identified. According to the Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association(2001, p. 216), it should: appear on a separate page, under the heading 'References' ;
be double spaced, and entries should have a hanging indent;
contain references listed alphabetically by the surname of the first author/editor,
or by the title if no author/editor is given.
In practice, the highlighted information would not be provided in a reference list.
References
Anderson, J., & Poole, M. (2001).Assignment and thesis writing (4th ed.). Milton, QLD, Australia:
John Wiley & Sons. Book by two authors, later edition, published outside USA
Devlin, M. (2004).Avoiding plagiarism and cheating: A guide for students at Swinburne University
of Technology. Retrieved January 7, 2005, from Swinburne University of Technology Web site:
http://www.swin.edu.au/corporate/Webmanager/plagiarism/plagiarism_guide.pdf
Document published on a universitys Web site
Freimer, G. R., & Perry, M. M. (1986). Student problems with documentation.Journal of Academic
Librarianship, 11, 350-354. Retrieved December 8, 2004, from ERIC database.
Journal article in online database accessed via the WWW
Krause, K. (2001). The university essay writing experience: A pathway for academic integration
during transition.Higher Education Research & Development, 20, 147-168.
Journal article in print periodical/serial held in UB Library
Landau, J. D., Druen, P. B., & Arcuri, J. A. (2002). Methods for helping students avoid plagiarism.
Teaching of Psychology, 29(2), 112-115. Retrieved December 8, 2004, from Academic Search
Premier database. Journal article in online database accessed via the WWW
Salusinszky, I. (2004, April 26). There's nothing novel about faking originality. The Australian, p. 10.
Retrieved January 24, 2005, from Australia/New Zealand Reference Centre database.
Newspaper article in online dbase accessed via the WWW
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5.3.4 Constructing entries in a reference listIn the sections below, the paragraphs in bold give the elements required for each
entry and the order and format in which they appear. Then an example is given in
regular font.
5.3.4.1BooksObtain this information from the title page, exactly as it appears:
Authors Surname, Initials. (Year of Publication). Title (Edition and/orVolume number if relevant). Place of Publication [City and Country ifoutside US]: Name of Publisher.
OShea, R.P. (2000). Writing for psychology: An introductory guide for students(3rd ed.). Sydney, Australia: Harcourt Brace.
If no author listed:
Title (Edition and/or Volume number if relevant). (Year of Publication).Place of Publication [City and State if within US]: Name of Publisher.
Publication manual of the American Psychological Association(5th ed.). (2001).Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
5.3.4.2Journal articles (in print periodical)Authors Surname, Initial. (Year). Title of Periodical, Volume number, Pagenumber/s.
Best, C. J., Cummins, R. A., & Sing, K. L. (2000). The quality of rural andmetropolitan life. Australian Journal of Psychology, 52, 69-74.
5.3.4.3 Electronic sourcesCitation references to electronic sources should follow the format similar to thatfor printed sources (author, title, date, etc.), with the addition of informationabout retrieval. The retrieval statement should identify the date of retrieval(where applicable) and the source / URL.
5.3.4.4Journal articles (in Internet database)The basic retrieval statement for journal articles accessed via the World Wide
Web (WWW) is:
Retrieved [month, day, year] from the [name of] database.
Farr-Wharton, Y. (1997). Translating policy into practice: The teaching andlearning experience. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 22, 211+.Retrieved February 26, 2001, from the Academic Search Elite database.
5.3.4.5 Web sitesThe basic retrieval statement for specific documents on a Web site is:
Retrieved [month, day, year] from [URL]
Electronic references. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2001, from
http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html
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5.4 Australian (formerly AGPS) style
The following information is based on the guide provided by the University library. For
more information and examples you may refer to the Web based guide at:
. Additional guidelines will begiven in the next edition of this guide.
5.4.1 IntroductionThe Australian style manual, previously published by the AGPS (Australian
Government Publishing Service), presents three methods of citation: the
documentary-note system (using footnotes or endnotes), the Vancouver system
(using numerals) and the recommended author-date system (otherwise known as the
Harvard system). The author-date system, also used by both the APA and Chicago
manuals, is widely accepted in the physical, natural and social sciences. It comprises
brief in-text citations and a comprehensive list of references. The Australian style is
detailed in the Style manual for authors, editors and printers6th ed. 2002. This can be
borrowed from each of the UB campus libraries.
5.4.2 In-text citationThe following excerpt illustrates the author-date citation system in practice.
Students making the transition to higher education are known to experience difficulties in coming to
terms with the standard of work required of them (Krause 2001, p. 156). One problem that often
causes significant feelings of anxiety amongst students is that of plagiarism, which academics can
usually detect quite easily (Salusinszky 2004), and the correlating emphasis that they place oncorrect citing and referencing of information sources. The essence of this problem, neatly crystallised
by Anderson and Poole (2001, p. 16), is that in scholarly writing, it is nearly always essential to refer
to the work of others. Furthermore, some advice about paraphrasing indicates that:
When you summarise the main ideas . . . from someone else in your own words, you are
also expected to clearly acknowledge that someone else first wrote about the ideas you
have summarised. Giving proper references shows that you have read the appropriate
literature and are well informed (Devlin 2004, p. 23).
A recommended solution to the problems that students experience is for academic staff to provide
specific instruction to help them recognise when plagiarism occurs (Landau, Druen & Arcuri 2002).
There is also a role for librarians to provide guidance that assists students to determine the
appropriate citation style to use, generally in the form of guides and tutorials (Freimer & Perry 1986).
This excerpt is from a journal article being prepared for publication by R Counsel, Information Services, and M Staley, Student Services,
University of Ballarat.
In practice, highlighting is not used. It is used in the above example to draw your
attention to the in-text citations, which are included in the following reference list.
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5.4.3 Reference listThe reference list is designed to provide information to enable each source that you
have cited in text to be identified. According to the Australian manual (2002, p. 189), it
should:
appear at the end of a work, under the heading 'References' ; contain references listed alphabetically by the surname of the first author/editor,
or by the title if no author/editor is given.
In addition, it can be assumed that the reference list should:
have a space between each entry and entries should be withouta hanging indent.
In practice, the highlighted information would not be provided in a reference list.
References
Anderson, J & Poole, M 2001,Assignment and thesis writing, 4th edn, John Wiley & Sons, Milton,Qld. Book by two authors, later edition
Devlin, M 2004,Avoiding plagiarism and cheating: A guide for students at Swinburne University of
Technology, Higher Education Division, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Vic.,
viewed 7 January 2005, . Document published on a universitys Web site
Freimer, GR & Perry, MM 1986, Student problems with documentation,Journal of Academic
Librarianship, vol. 11, pp. 350-4, ERIC database, viewed 8 December 2004, . Journal article in online database accessed via the WWW
Krause, K 2001, The university essay writing experience: A pathway for academic integration during
transition,Higher Education Research & Development, vol. 20, pp. 147-68.
Journal article in print periodical/serial held in UB Library
Landau, JD, Druen, PB & Arcuri, JA 2002, Methods for helping students avoid plagiarism,
Teaching of Psychology, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 112-15, Academic Search Premier database, viewed 8
December 2004, . Journal article in online database
Salusinszky, I 2004, There's nothing novel about faking originality,Australian, 26 April, p. 10,
Australia/New Zealand Reference Centre database, viewed 24 January 2005, . Newspaper article in online dbase accessed via the WWW
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5.5 Chicago style
The following information is based on the guide provided by the University library. For
more information and examples, you may refer to the Web based guide at:. Additional guidelines
will be given in the next edition of this guide.
5.5.1 IntroductionPublished by the University of Chicago Press, the manual presents two methods of
citation: the author-date system (otherwise known as the Harvard system), and the
notes system using footnotes and/or endnotes. The notes system is widely accepted
in literature, history and the arts. It comprises numbers inserted in the text, referring to
short bibliographic citations, which are fully described in a bibliography. The Chicago
style is detailed in the Chicago manual of style15th ed. 2003. This can be borrowed
from each of the UB campus libraries.
5.5.2 FootnotesThe following excerpt (from a journal article being prepared for publication by R Counsel and
M Staley, University of Ballarat) illustrates the Chicago footnote system in practice.
Students making the transition to higher education are known to experience difficulties in
coming to terms with the standard of work required of them. 1 One problem that often causes
significant feelings of anxiety amongst students is that of plagiarism, which Imre Salusinszky
contends can usually be detected quite easily by academics,2
and the correlating emphasis that theyplace on correct citing and referencing of information sources. The essence of this problem, neatly
crystallised by Anderson and Poole, is that in scholarly writing, it is nearly always essential to refer
to the work of others.3 Furthermore, some advice about paraphrasing indicates that:
When you summarise the main ideas . . . from someone else in your own words, you are
also expected to clearly acknowledge that someone else first wrote about the ideas you
have summarised. Giving proper references shows that you have read the appropriate
literature and are well informed.4
A recommended solution to the problems that students experience is for academic staff to
provide specific instruction to help them recognise when plagiarism occurs.5 There is also a role for
librarians to provide guidance that assists students to determine the appropriate citation style to use,
generally in the form of guides and tutorials.6
1Krause, University Essay Writing Experience, 156.
2
Salusinszky, Faking Originality, 10.3Anderson and Poole,Assignment and Thesis Writing, 16.
4 Devlin, Avoiding Plagiarism and Cheating, 23.5
Landau, Druen and Arcuri, Avoid Plagiarism, 113.6
Freimer and Perry, Student Problems with Documentation, 354.
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In practice, highlighting is not used. It is used in the above example to draw your
attention to the in-text citations, which are included in the following bibliography.
5.5.3 BibliographyThe bibliography is designed to provide information to enable each source you have
cited briefly in footnotes to be identified. According to the Chicago manual (2003), it
should:
appear at the end of a work, under the heading Bibliography;
be double spaced, and entries should have a hanging indent;
contain references listed alphabetically by the surname of the first author/editor,
or by the title if no author/editor is given.
Bibliography
Anderson, Jonathan, and Millicent Poole.Assignment and Thesis Writing. 4th ed. Milton, QLD:
Wiley, 2001. Book by two authors, later edition, published outside USA
Devlin, Marcia. Avoiding Plagiarism and Cheating: A Guide for Students at Swinburne University
of Technology. Higher Education Division, Swinburne University of Technology, 2004.
http://www.swin.edu.au/corporate/Webmanager/plagiarism/plagiarism_guide.pdf (accessed
January 7, 2005). Document published on a universitys Web site
Freimer, Gloria R., and Margaret M. Perry. Student Problems with Documentation.Journal of
Academic Librarianship 11, no. 6 (1986): 350-54. http://www.epnet.com/ (accessed December
8, 2004). Journal article in online database accessed via the WWW
Krause, Kerri-Lee. The University Essay Writing Experience: A Pathway for Academic Integration
During Transition.Higher Education Research & Development20, no. 2 (2001): 147-68.
Journal article in print periodical/serial held in UB Library
Landau, Joshua D., Perri B. Druen, and Jennifer A. Arcuri. Methods for Helping Students Avoid
Plagiarism. Teaching of Psychology 29, no. 2 (2002): 112-15. http://www.epnet.com/
(accessed December 8, 2004). Journal article in online database via the WWW
Salusinszky, Imre. There's Nothing Novel About Faking Originality.Australian, April 26, 2004:
10. http://www.epnet.com/ (accessed January 24, 2005).
Newspaper article in online dbase accessed via the WWW
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5.6 Modern Language Association style (MLA)
The following information is based on the guides provided by the University library. For
more information and examples you may refer to the Web based guide at:. Additional guidelines will be
given in the next edition of this guide.
5.6.1 IntroductionThe MLA (Modern Language Association of America) style is widely used in the
humanities, particularly languages and literature. MLA style comprises brief
parenthetical citations in the text and a comprehensive works-cited list. The MLA style
is detailed in the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers 6th ed. 2003. This
can be borrowed from each of the UB campus libraries.
5.6.2 In-text citationThe following excerpt (from a journal article being prepared for publication by R Counsel and
M Staley, University of Ballarat) illustrates the MLA documentation style in practice, giving the
authors name and page number from where the idea has been quoted or paraphrased.
Students making the transition to higher education are known to experience difficulties in
coming to terms with the standard of work required of them (Krause 156). One problem that often
causes significant feelings of anxiety amongst students is that of plagiarism, which Imre Salusinszky
contends can usually be detected quite easily by academics (10), and the correlating emphasis that
they place on correct citing and referencing of information sources. The essence of this problem,
neatly crystallised by Anderson and Poole, is that in scholarly writing, it is nearly always essential to
refer to the work of others (16). Furthermore, some advice about paraphrasing indicates that:
When you summarise the main ideas . . . from someone else in your own words, you are
also expected to clearly acknowledge that someone else first wrote about the ideas you
have summarised. Giving proper references shows that you have read the appropriate
literature and are well informed (Devlin 23).
A solution to the problems that students experience, recommended by Landau, Druen and
Arcuri (113), is for academic staff to provide specific instruction to help them recognise when
plagiarism occurs. There is also a role for librarians to provide guidance that assists students to
determine the appropriate citation style to use, generally in the form of guides and tutorials (Freimer
and Perry 354).
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In practice, highlighting is not used. It is used in the above example to draw your
attention to the in-text citations, which are included in the following list of work cited.
5.6.3 List of works citedThe list of works cited is designed to provide information to enable each source thatyou have cited in text to be identified. According to the MLA Handbook (145-47), it
should:
appear on a separate page, under the heading 'Works Cited;
be double spaced, and entries should have a hanging indent;
contain references listed alphabetically by the surname of the first author/editor,
or by the title if no author/editor is given.
Works Cited
Anderson, Jonathan, and Millicent Poole. Assignment and Thesis Writing. 4th ed. Milton, QLD:
Wiley, 2001. Book by two authors, later edition, published outside USA
Devlin, Marcia. Avoiding Plagiarism and Cheating: A Guide for Students at Swinburne University
of Technology. Swinburne University of Technology. 2004. 7 Jan. 2005 .
Document published on a universitys Web site
Freimer, Gloria R., and Margaret M. Perry. Student Problems with Documentation. Journal of
Academic Librarianship 11 (1986): 350-54. ERIC. EBSCOhost. U of Ballarat Lib. 8 Dec. 2004.
Journal article in online database accessed via the WWW in UB Library
Krause, Kerri-Lee. The University Essay Writing Experience: A Pathway for Academic Integration
During Transition. Higher Education Research & Development 20 (2001): 147-68.
Journal article in print periodical/serial held in UB Library
Landau, Joshua D., Perri B. Druen, and Jennifer A. Arcuri. Methods for Helping Students Avoid
Plagiarism. Teaching of Psychology 29.2 (2002): 112-15. Academic Search Premier.
EBSCOhost. U of Ballarat Lib. 8 Dec. 2004. Journal article in online database
Salusinszky, Imre. There's Nothing Novel About Faking Originality. The Australian 26 April 2004:
10. Australia/New Zealand Reference Centre. EBSCOhost. U of Ballarat Lib. 24 Jan. 2005.
Newspaper article in online database accessed via the WWW in UB Library
In practice, the highlighted information would not be provided in a list of works cited.
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5.6.4 Constructing entries in a list of works citedIn the sections below, the paragraphs in bold give the elements required for each
entry and the order and format in which they appear. Then an example is given in
regular font.
5.6.4.1BooksObtain this information from the title page, exactly as it appears:
Authors Surname, First names/Initials. Title. Edition and/or Volumenumber if relevant. Place of Publication: Name of Publisher [abbreviated],Year of Publication.
Griffith, Kelley. Writing Essays About Literature: A Guide and Style Sheet 5 th ed.Fort Worth: Harcourt, 1998.
If no author listed:
Title.Edition and/or Volume number if relevant. Place of Publisher, Year ofPublication.
Style manual for authors, editors and printers. 5th ed. Canberra: AGPS, 1994.
5.6.4.2Journal articles (in print periodical)
Authors Surname, First names/Initials. Title of Article. Title of PeriodicalVol number (Year): Page number/s.
Saint-Amour, Paul K. Oscar Wilde: Orality, Literary Property, and Crimes ofWriting. NineteenthCentury Literature 55 (2000): 59-91.
5.6.4.3 Electronic sourcesCitation references to electronic sources should follow the format similar to thatfor printed sources (author, title, date, etc.), with the addition of informationabout retrieval.
The retrieval statement should identify the date of retrieval (where applicable)and the source/URL.
5.6.4.4 Journal article from an Internet database/Subscription
serviceThe retrieval statement for a journal article accessed via the WWW is:
Authors Surname, First names/Initials. Title of Article Title of Journal.Volume number. Issue number (Year of Publication): Number range or totalnumber of pages. Name of Database. Name of Service. Name and City ofLibrary. Date of access .
Hassall, Anthony J. A Tale of Two Countries: Jack Maggs and Peter CareysFiction. Australian Literary Studies. 18.2 (1997): 8 pp. Academic SearchElite. EBSCOhost. U of Ballarat Lib., Ballarat, Vic. 19 April 2001.
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5.6.4.5 Professional or personal Web sitesThe retrieval statement for professional or personal site is:
Authors Surname, First names/Initials. Title [or description such as Homepage]. Name of institution / organisation associated with the site. Date of
access .
Modern Language Association. 19 Apr. 2001 .
5.6.4.6 Complete scholarly project or information databaseThe retrieval statement for a scholarly project is as follows:
Title. Editor. Version number. Date of publication/latest update. Name ofsponsoring institution / organisation. Date of access .
Voice of the Shuttle: Web Page for Humanities Research. Ed. Alan Liu. 18 Apr.2001. U of California, Santa Barbara. 19 April 2001 .
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Appendix I
Sample abstractsPlease note this appendix has not been updated for this revised edition.
Three sample abstracts are reprinted below. They are shown here to give an indication of
expectations of good abstract writing.
Abstract 1
Experiment 1 SC614 - inorganic chemistry
Title: Synthesis of a Copper Complex Followed by Full Characterization.
Abstract:
An intensely royal-blue complex of copper and ammonia was prepared by the action
of excess 2M ammonia solution on a solution of copper sulphate. The solid product
was isolated by filtration.
Qualitative analysis of this solid showed the presence of: copper (tests with NaOH,
NH3, KI, Fe and Cupron Reagent), ammonia (treated with NaOH and test gas by
smell and with litmus) and sulphate (white precipitate with Ba+).
Quantitative analysis gave the following composition:
Cu: 24.09% (electrochemical precipitation on Pt cathode)
NH3: 25.83% (Kjeldahl method)
SO4: 36.42% (gravimetric by BaSO4 precipitation)
H20: 13.66% (by difference)
Conclusion: formula of the complex is [Cu(NH3)4]SO42H20. The synthesis
produced a uniform, free flowing, intensely blue powder shown to be
reasonably pure product by quantitive analysis.
Care should be taken in handling all copper compounds as they are
known to be toxic. The procedure for isolating the product could be
improved by using a smaller volume of more concentrated ammonia
solution in the precipitation step.
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Abstract 2
Experiment 10 SM513 Metallurgy
Title: The Heat Treatment of Steel
Abstract:
The effects of tempering temperature and time on the tensile properties, hardness
and microstructure of a 1040 steel water-quenched after austenitising at 870oC
were investigated. As the tempering was increased from 200 - 400 - 6500C, or
the time at these temperatures increased from 15 - 60 minutes, the tensile strength
and hardness decreased while the ductility increased.
Increasing the tempering temperature and time both increased the tendency for the
as-quenched martensite to transform to the more stable ferrite and spheroidisedcarbide microstructure.
The controlled heat treatment of 1040 steel by quenching and tempering therefore
provides a convenient method of ensuring that the steel will have the correct
microstructure and mechanical properties to meet the job specifications.
Abstract 3
A number of state-registered nurses (163) in two large Melbourne hospitals were
surveyed by questionnaire to obtain data about nurses information-seeking
behaviour.
The results confirmed the findings from the literature: nurses have regular
information needs for (in descending order of importance) clinical reasons
(especially drug information and patient management), continuing education and
keeping up, training others, meeting patients information needs, and other
purposes.
Information sources most used were (in descending order of importance) nursing
and non-nursing professional colleagues, medical records, private collections, and
ward libraries. Only 31% ever used hospital or other libraries even where thosesources could have provided answers to otherwise unanswered questions. Tertiary-
trained nurses were significantly (at 0.25) more likely than hospital-trained nurses to
use libraries. Age and length of experience were not significant variables.
The report concludes with recommendations for nurse educators and
administrators, medical librarians, and researchers.
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Appendix IIWeights and measures
1. General rules
Use of units for weights and measures should be in accordance with the International
System of Units (SI). The final authority is Australian Standard AS1000-1979: The
International System of Units (SI) and its Application, on which this Appendix is based.
SI units should always be used except when:
(i) quoting from a source which uses other units,
(ii) other units are clearly more appropriate (usually for historical reasons), or
(iii) you are instructed otherwise.
2. Some important units
(Note that the following list of standard and derived units is not complete; it includes only
a selection of those most commonly used.)
Quantity Unit Name Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Electric current ampere A
Time second s
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K see note (i) below
Luminous intensity candela cd
Plane angle radian rad see note (ii) below
Frequency hertz Hz
Force newton N
Pressure, stress pascal PaEnergy, work joule J
Power watt W
Potential difference volt V
Note:
(i) For practical purposes the degree Celsius (symbol = 0C) is preferred; the degree
Celsius is equal in magnitude to the kelvin and they may be derived from each
other using the formula: TC = T TK where TC is temperature Celsius, T is
thermodynamic temperature, TK = 273.15K.
(ii) For practical purposes other well-established measures of plane angles may be
preferred: degree, minute, and second (symbols = o, ,).
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The following non-SI units are accepted by the Australian standards as permissible due to
their widespread use and practical importance.
Quality Unit Name Symbol Notes
Area hectare ha 1ha = 10,000 m2
Volume, capacity litre L or l prefer L where l might be
confused with the number 1
Mass tonne t 1 t = 1,000kg
Time day, hour, d, h,
minute min
3. Multiples of SI units
(Prefixes are prescribed for factors from 1018 to 10-18; the following list includes only a
selection of those most commonly used.)
Factor Prefix Symbol Examples
103 kilo k km; kPa
106 mega M MW
109 giga G GHz
10-2 centi c cm see note below
10-3 milli m mg; mV
10-6 micro A
10-9 nano n ns; nm
Note: avoid using centi- where practicable; prefer mm to cm and mL to cm3.
These prefixes are combined with the unit name and the resulting multiple is written as
one word (thus, millimetre, megawatt). The symbols are combined as one symbol (thus,
mm, MW, kJ). Only one prefix should be used in formatting a multiple of a derived unit
(thus, km/s, kilometres per second rather than mm/s, millimetres per microsecond); the
prefix should be attached to the numerator rather than the denominator (thus, mm/s
rather than m/ks).
4. Writing unit names and symbols
In the body of the text you should use the unit name rather than the symbol. Unit names
should always start with a lower-case letter, except for the degree Celsius, or at the
beginning of a sentence. Names of units are written in the plural when the value is
greater than one.
Symbols should be used in tables, graphs, formulae, etc. Symbols are written in lower-
case except for those derived from personal names, which are capitalised: see the
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examples in the table above. Symbols are never pluralised and should be written without
a period (full stop); leave a space between the value and the symbol.
Examples
In text: In tables:
The average current is 0.75 ampere. Current = 0.75 A
seventy millimetres in length . 70 mm
Use a period (full stop) for product of quantities in symbols and a slash for their division
(thus, N.m, m/s). Do not use this method in the text, however (thus, metres per
second).
5. Gross numerals
The use of million (thousand x thousand or 106) is widespread and permitted by the
Australian standard. Because of differences between U.S. and Australian practice avoid
using billion (Aust = 1012; U.S. = 109), trillion (Aust = 1018; U.S. = 1012), etc. In scientific
work prefer the use of exponential notation (for example, 6.022 x 1023).
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Appendix III
Guidelines for inclusive language
Accepted current practice requires that you write in a way that does not appear to reflect bias
or prejudice, on the basis of such characteristics as gender, culture, disability, sexual
orientation, age or religion. Sometimes this requires careful thought, since traditional ways of
writing or speaking in English reflect a deeply-entrenched bias which can be offensive.
The following guidelines are designed to assist in the choice of acceptable language.
1. Where possible, avoid the use of man
The use of man to denote people, or, the human species, can appear to exclude, or
subordinate, women. Rephrasing is usually possible. For example, instead of:
mankind use human beings, people, or society
the average man the average person
chairman chair
Avoid the suffix -man in occupation titles. For example, instead of:
storeman use stores officer
policeman police officer
2. Avoid the pronoun he
Traditionally, the male pronoun was used generically for all people, which implied a
subordinate status for women. Therefore, alternatives to the use of generic he, his and
him should be used. In some cases the pronoun can be omitted: a staff members
seniority can be judged from salary. In some cases the sentence can be written in the
plural: lecturers should display their timetables on the door. In some areas, especially in
more formal writing, sentences can be made impersonal: the holder of an unreturned
library book will not be permitted to borrow further. In some cases, both pronouns can beused: he or she or her or his.
3. Avoid gratuitous mention of specific characteristics
It is not acceptable to draw attention to a persons specific characteristics such as sex,
sexual orientation, religion, race, age, weight or disability if it has no relevance to the
context. For example, it may not be appropriate to refer to a male nurse or a female
judge. These references are appropriate only when such characteristics are a relevant
issue.
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4. Be consistent
Be consistent in the way you refer to people. If you use one form of phrasing when
writing about men, use the same form when writing about women. For example, only usethe word girls if you would use boys in the same context. Inconsistency can be
particularly objectionable when a condescending attitude is implied as when someone
refers to the girls in the office (rather than the staff in the office). Another example is in
the use of title: use titles or first names in all cases.
5. Use Ms for preference
As a general rule, use Ms as the title for women, rather than Miss or Mrs (except
where some other title such as Dr is appropriate). Logically, there is no reason to imply
marital status for women when we do not do so for men. However, some women may
prefer to be known by the more traditional forms.
6. Vary word order
Traditional word order in English follows a conventional pattern that subordinates women:
thus, we are used to reading about he and she, men and women, husbands and
wives, boys and girls. If you find such a pattern developing in your writing, change the
order to provide variety.
7. Take care when quoting
The rules for scholarly quotation elsewhere in this guide should be followed. However, if
direct quotation introduces an unnecessary or inappropriate bias, consider paraphrasing
rather than quoting directly.
In following these guidelines (which are not comprehensive) you should understand that
what is important is not rigid application or a token practice; rather it is the spirit of the
law that is being advocated. Be thoughtful about the language you use to ensure that all
people are treated fairly through the words you use. Equally, still try to avoid convoluted
expressions and strive for clear and simple language.
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Index
Note: This index has not been comprehensively updated for this edition.
Entries in this index refer to paragraph numbers not page numbers.
References to Appendices are shown as A.I, A.II, etc.
A
A4 Paper 2.2.1
APA style 5.3
Abbreviations , scientific terminology 2.4.4
, when to avoid 3.3.7Abstracts 2.3.3
, samples of A. II
Acknowledgements 2.3.7
, in footnotes 2.2.8
, of illustrations 2.4.1
, of sources 5
American Psychological Association (APA) style 5.3
American spelling 3.3.3
American units of size A. II
Ampersand , avoidance of 3.3.7
APA style 5.3
Appendices 2.3.6
Assistance , acknowledgement of 2.3.7
Audibility 4.5
Australian (formerly AGPS) 5.4
Authors , using APA 5.3.2; 5.3.3
, using Australian (formerly AGPS) style 5.4.2; 5.4.3
, using Chicago 5.5.2; 5.5.3
, using MLA 5.6.2; 5.6.3
Avoiding plagiarism 1.3.2
B
Billion , use of A.II
Books ,citing of (APA) 5.3.4.1
,citing of (MLA) 5.6.4.1
Borders 2.2.5
Business reports 4.3
C
Captions 2.4.1Chapters 3.2.2
Charts 2.4.1
Chicago style 5.5
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Citation 5
, using APA 5.3
, using Australian (formerly AGPS) 5.4
, using Chicago 5.5
, using MLA 5.6Clarity of writing 3.1
Cliches 3.3.1
Co-authors APA. 5.3.3
Australian (formerly AGPS) 5.4.3
Chicago 5.5.3
MLA 5.6.3
Colloquialisms 3.3.1
Computer programs 4.6
Conclusion 3.2.1; 4.2; 4.3
Constructing entries in a reference list 5.3.4; 5.6.4
Contents , list of 2.3.4Co-ordinates in map references 2.4.3
Copies , number of 2.1
Copying (plagiarism) 1.3
Correct English 3.3
Corrections 2.2.4
Cover sheets 2.3.2
Covers 2.2.2
D
Data , presentation of 2.3.6; 2.4.1
Date , in citations (APA) 5.3.2
(Australian formerly AGPS) 5.4.2
Dates due 2.1
Decimal numbering of paragraphs 3.2.2
Diagrams 2.4.1
Discussion sections (reports) 4.2
Ditto marks , avoidance of 3.3.7
Documentation , program 4.6
Double spacing 2.2.4
Drawings 2.4.1
E
E.g. , avoidance of 3.3.7
Electronic sources , referencing (APA) 5.3.4.3
, referencing (Australian - formerly AGPS) 5.4.3
, referencing (Chicago) 5.5.3
, referencing (MLA) 5.6.4.3
Elements of content 2.3
, sequence 2.3.1
, title page 2.3.2, abstract, synopsis or summary 2.3.3
, table of contents 2.3.4
, list of illustrations 2.3.5
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, appendices 2.3.6
, acknowledgements 2.3.7
English language 3.3
Equipment section , reports 4.2
Essays 1.2; 3.2.1; 4.1Experimental reports 4.2
Extensions of time 2.1
F
Fastening of pages 2.2.3
First person , use of 3.3.5
Folders 2.2.2
Footnotes , bibliographic 5.5.3
, non-bibliographic 2.2.8
Format 2.2.4
G
Gender neutral language A.III
General introduction to referencing 5.1
Grammar 3.3.4
Graphs 2.4.1
Grid references 2.4.3
H
Handing in work 2.1
Handouts , in oral presentations 4.5
Harvard system of referencing 5.3; 5.4
Headings 3.2.2
I
I , use of 3.3.5
I.e. , avoidance of 3.3.7
IBCAR outline (reports) 4.3Illustrations 2.4.1
, lists of 2.3.5
Imperial weights and measures 2.4.2
IMRAD outline (reports) 4.2
Indentation , in bibliographies 5.5.3
, of paragraphs 2.2.5
Infra , avoidance of 3.3.7
International System of Units 2.4.2; A.II
In-text citation , APA 5.3.2
, Australian (formerly AGPS) 5.4.2
, MLA 5.6.2Introduction 3.2.1; 4.2; 4.3
ISU Units 2.4.2; A.II
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J
Jargon 2.4.4; 3.3.1
Journal articles (in print periodical) , reference list (APA) 5.3.4.2
, reference list (MLA) 5.6.4.2
L
Laboratory reports A.I
Late submission , penalties for 1.4
Latinisms 3.3.7
Layout 2.2
, of bibliographies 5.5.3
Legends (to illustrations) 2.4.1
Legibility 3.1
Length of written work 2.2.7, penalties for 1.4
Line-spacing 2.2.4
Lists , of contents 2.3.4
, of illustrations 2.3.5
, of references 5.3.3; 5.4.3
5.5.3; 5.6.3
Literature reviews 4.2; 4.7
Locality references 2.4.3
Long quotations 5.2.3
M
Management reports 4.3
Maps 2.4.1
, locality references to 2.4.3
Margins 2.2.5
Materials sections (reports) 4.2
Measures , weights and 2.4.2; A.II
Methods sections (reports) 4.2
Methods and timing 2.1.1
Metric units 2.4.2; A.IIMillion , use of A.III
Modern Language Association 5.6
N
National grid map references 2.4.3
Non-sexist language A.III
Notes , non-bibliographic 2.2.8
Numbering 3.2.2
Numerals 2.4.2
O
Oral presentations 4.5
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Ordering 2.3.1; 3.2
Organisation , logical 3.2
Overhead transparencies 4.5
P
Page clips 2.2.3
Page numbering 2.2.6
Paper sizes 2.2.1
Papers 4.4
Paragraphs , indentation of 2.2.5
, numbering of 3.2.2
, writing of 3.3.4
Passive voice , use of 3.3.5
Penalties 1.4
Periodical articles , citing of (APA) 5.3.3, citing of (Australian - formerly AGPS) 5.4.3
, citing of (Chicago) 5.5.3
, citing of (MLA) 5.6.3
Person , first 3.3.5
, third 3.3.5
Personal Web sites , referencing (MLA) 5.6.4.5
Photographs 2.4.1
Pictures 2.4.1
Place of publication ,APA 5.5.3.2
,Chicago 5.5.4.2
Plagiarism 1.3
, definition of 1.3.1
, avoiding plagiarism 1.3.2
Practical reports 4.2
Present tense , use of 3.3.5
Procedures sections , reports 4.2
Programs , computer 4.6
Proofreading 2.2.4; 3.1
Punctuation 3.3.4
Purpose of this guide 1.1
Q
Quantity , units of A.II
Questionnaires in appendices 2.3.6
Quotations 5.2
R
Raw data in appendices 2.3.6
Reading of oral presentations 4.5
Recommendations sections 2.3.1; 4.3References , lists of 5.3.3
, map grip 2.4.3
Referencing 5
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Reference list , APA 5.3.3
, Australian(formerly AGPS) 5.4.3
, Chicago 5.5.3
, MLA 5.6.3
Referring to titles 5.2.4Report writing , definition of 1.2
, management 4.3
, scientific 4.2
Reports , business 4.3
, laboratory 4.2
, numbering in 3.2.2
, practical 4.2
, technical 4.2
Research reports 4.2
Results sections (reports) 4.2
Reviews of the literature 4.2
S
S.I. Units 2.4.2; A.II
Scientific report , writing 4.2
, terminology 2.4.4
Sections , numbering of 3.2.2
Seminar presentations 4.5
Sentence structure 3.3.2
Sequence 2.3.1; 3.2
Single-spacing 2.2.4
Short quotations 5.2.2
Slang 3.3.1
Spacing 2.2.4
Speaking in public 4.5
Specific names 2.4.4
Spelling 3.3.3
Stapling 2.2.3
Stationery 2.2.1
Subjectivity 3.3.6
Subjects, sections (reports) 4.2Submission of work 2.1
, methods and timing 2.1.1
Subsections , numbering of 3.2.2
Summaries 2.3.3
Supra , avoidance of 3.3.7
Survey questionnaires , in appendices 2.3.6; 4.2
Symbols for SI Units A.II
Synopsis 2.3.3
, samples of A.I
System International (SI) Units 2.4.2; A.II
T
Tables 2.4.1
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, in appendices 2.3.6
, of contents 2.3.4
, of illustrations 2.3.5
Tautology 3.3.1
Technical reports 4.2, terminology 2.4.4
Tense 3.3.5
Terminology , scientific 2.4.4
Third person , use of 3.3.5
Timing of submission of work 2.1.1
Title page 2.3.2
Transparencies, overhead 4.5
Trillion , use of A.II
Tutorial presentations 4.5
U
Units of weights and measures 2.4.2; A.II
Usage , English 3.3
Using this guide 1.2
V
Visual aids , in speaking 4.5
Vocabulary 3.3.1
Voice , passive, use of 3.3.5
, speaking 4.5
WWeb page , citation (APA) 5.3.2
, citation (Australian - formerly AGPS) 5.4.2
, citation (Chicago) 5.5.2
, citation (MLA) 5.6.2
Web sites , referencing (APA) 5.3.3; 5.3.4.5
, referencing Australian - formerly AGPS) 5.4.3
, referencing (Chicago) 5.5.3, referencing (MLA) 5.6.3; 5.6.4.5
Weights and measures 2.4.2; A.II
Writing assignments 3.1
, organisation 3.2
, use of English 3.3
Word processing 2.2.4