Interesting Place Names and History of Canada

Compiled by

Emily Stehr

Edited by

Matthew Lau

To Canada

With Love

*INTRODUCTION*

My name is Emily Stehr. I am by profession a physical therapist. I am by hobby a collator of historic geography. This is my attempt to pay homage to Canada. Any errors are fully mine. Please take time to do further investigation. I have done extensive endnotes regarding the supply of information I have obtained, including specific names, addresses, e-mail information, etc. If you have any corrections, additions, or feedback, please contact me at emilystehr@hotmail.com. I have learned a lot about my Great Northern Neighbor through this process (I am from Pennsylvania, USA). Knowledge is power! Enjoy!

*TABLE OF CONTENTS*

*TOPONYMY*

**ABORIGINAL ISSUES**

**AMERICAN INFLUENCE ON CANADA**

**FIRST PEOPLES**

**INDIANS OF THE NORTHWEST**

**NATIVE-EUROPEAN CONTACT AND ITS CONSEQUENCES**

**TRANSFORMATION OF QUEBEC**

**VIKINGS**

**ALBERTA**

***BLACK DIAMOND, ALBERTA***

***BONNYVILLE, ALBERTA***

***CORONATION, ALBERTA***

***HEAD-SMASHED-IN BUFFALO JUMP, ALBERTA***

***HIGH LEVEL, ALBERTA***

***LEGAL, ALBERTA***

***MILK RIVER, ALBERTA***

***PEACE RIVER, ALBERTA***

***ROCKY MOUNTAIN HOUSE, ALBERTA***

***SLAVE LAKE, ALBERTA***

***THREE HILLS, ALBERTA***

***TWO HILLS, ALBERTA***

***VAUXHALL, ALBERTA***

***VIKING, ALBERTA***

***VULCAN, ALBERTA***

**BRITISH COLUMBIA**

***10 DOWNING STREET, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***70 MILE HOUSE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***100 MILE HOUSE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***ACTIVE PASS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***ALEXIS CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***ANARCHIST MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BABINE LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BARKERVILLE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BATTLE BLUFF, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BELLA BELLA, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BELLA COOLA, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BELLY UP CANYON, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BLIND BAY, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BOO MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BOSTON BAR, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BOTANICAL BEACH, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BOUNDARY BAY, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BOUNTIFUL, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BRILLIANT, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BURNS LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***BURNT BRIDGE CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***CACHE CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***CHARLIE LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***CHILLIWACK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***CHRISTINA LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***CRAIGELLACHIE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***DEATH RAPIDS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***EDDONTENAJON LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***FAIRMONT HOT SPRINGS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***FANNY BAY, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***FASCINATION MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***GOLD BRIDGE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***GOLD RIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***GOLDEN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***GOLDSTREAM, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***HELL’S HALF ACRE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***HOPE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***HUDSON’S HOPE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***ICONOCLAST MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***JACKASS MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***JEMMY JONES ISLAND, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***KALAMALKA LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***KINCOLITH, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***KLINIKLINI RIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***LEJAC, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***MAIDEN CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***MESACHIE LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***MISSION, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***MURDERER CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***NARAMATA, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***NOSEBAG CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***OLIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***PEACE RIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***PEACHLAND, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***PRINCE RUPERT, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***PROPHET RIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***RADIUM HOT SPRINGS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***REDROOFFS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***SAANICH, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***SIN LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***SKOOKUMCHUCK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***SKY PILOT MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***STAVE FALLS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***STUPENDOUS MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***SUMMERLAND, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***TA TA CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***TABOO CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***TELEGRAPH CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***THE BUGABOOS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***THE WITCH TOWER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***TICKLETOETEASER TOWER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***TRIAL ISLANDS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***UKWE-SES-NE-RE-THEL-KREH-NU, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***VIEW ROYAL, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***WAITABIT CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***WHIPSAW CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

***ZEBALLOS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

**MANITOBA**

***ASSINIBOINE RIVER, MANITOBA***

***BERENS RIVER, MANITOBA***

***BIFROST, MANITOBA***

***BIRDS HILL, MANITOBA***

***CONNOLLY BAY, MANITOBA***

***CROSS LAKE, MANITOBA***

***FISHER RIVER, MANITOBA***

***FLEE ISLAND, MANITOBA***

***FLIN FLON, MANITOBA***

***FORT ALEXANDER, MANITOBA***

***FORT WHYTE, MANITOBA***

***GARDEN HILL, MANITOBA***

***GIMLI, MANITOBA***

***GODS LAKE, MANITOBA***

***HUDSON BAY AND HUDSON STRAIT, MANITOBA***

***NELSON HOUSE, MANITOBA***

***NETLEY, MANITOBA***

***NORWAY HOUSE, MANITOBA***

***OPASKWAYAK, MANITOBA***

***OXFORD HOUSE, MANITOBA***

***PEGUIS, MONITOBA***

***PILOT MOUND, MANITOBA***

***PORTAGE LA PRAIRIE, MANITOBA***

***PUKATAWAGAN, MANITOBA***

***QU’APPELLE RIVER, MANITOBA***

***SLAVE FALLS, MANITOBA***

***SPLIT LAKE, MANITOBA***

***ST FRANCOIS XAVIER, MANITOBA***

***THE PAS, MANITOBA***

***WINKLER, MANITOBA***

**NEW BRUNSWICK**

***ALBERT MINES, NEW BRUNSWICK***

***BAY OF FUNDY, NEW BRUNSWICK***

***BURNT CHURCH, NEW BRUNSWICK***

***CAPE TORMENTINE, NEW BRUNSWICK***

***FOUR FALLS, NEW BRUNSWICK***

***KINGSCLEAR, NEW BRUNSWICK***

***LAWRENCE STATION, NEW BRUNSWICK***

***MAGNETIC HILL, NEW BRUNSWICK***

***VICTORIA CORNER, NEW BRUNSWICK***

**NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR**

***CHANCE COVE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***CHANGE ISLANDS, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***COME-BY-CHANCE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***COOK’S HARBOUR, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***COW HEAD, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***CUPIDS, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***FLOWER’S COVE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***FORTUNE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***HAPPY ADVENTURE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***HEART’S CONTENT, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***HEART’S DELIGHT, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***HEART’S DESIRE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***MOUNT PEARL, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***SHANADITHIT BROOK, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***SPANIARD’S BAY, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

***WITLESS BAY, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

**NORTHWEST TERRITORIES**

***FORT GOOD HOPE, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

***FORT PROVIDENCE, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

***FORT RESOLUTION, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

***RELIANCE, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

***TSIIGEHTCHIC, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

***TUKTOYAKTUK, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

***ULUKHAKTOK, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

***WEKWEETI, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

***YELLOWKNIFE, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

**NOVA SCOTIA**

***ADVOCATE HARBOUR, NOVA SCOTIA***

***BIBLE HILL, NOVA SCOTIA***

***BLOODY CREEK, NOVA SCOTIA***

***DOCTORS COVE, NOVA SCOTIA***

***DOMINION, NOVA SCOTIA***

***ECONOMY, NOVA SCOTIA***

***FIVE ISLANDS, NOVA SCOTIA***

***HOPEWELL, NOVA SCOTIA***

***PICKNEY’S POINT, NOVA SCOTIA***

***ROBERT’S ISLAND, NOVA SCOTIA***

***SHINIMICAS BRIDGE, NOVA SCOTIA***

***WINE HARBOUR, NOVA SCOTIA***

***YANKEETOWN, NOVA SCOTIA***

**NUNAVUT**

***AUYUITTUQ (NATIONAL PARK), NUNAVUT***

***ENNADAI LAKE, NUNAVUT***

***FURY AND HECLA STRAIT, NUNAVUT***

***GJOA HAVEN, NUNAVUT***

***IGLOOLIK, NUNAVUT***

***IQALUIT, NUNAVUT***

***KIMMIRUT, NUNAVUT***

***KUGAARUK, NUNAVUT***

***KUGLUKTUK, NUNAVUT***

***PANGNIRTUNG, NUNAVUT***

***QIKIQTARJUAQ, NUNAVUT***

***REPULSE BAY, NUNAVUT***

***RESOLUTE, NUNAVUT***

**ONTARIO**

***AJAX, ONTARIO***

***BARRY’S BAY, ONTARIO***

***BLUE CHURCH, ONTARIO***

***BURNT RIVER, ONTARIO***

***CARRYING PLACE, ONTARIO***

***CENTRAL PATRICIA, ONTARIO***

***EAST WAWANOSH, ONTARIO***

***ECHO BAY, ONTARIO***

***HALFWAY HOUSE CORNERS, ONTARIO***

***HONEY HARBOUR, ONTARIO***

***HUNGRY HOLLOW, ONTARIO***

***KETTLE POINT, ONTARIO***

***MISSISSAUGAS OF NEW CREDIT FIRST NATION, ONTARIO***

***OLD WOMAN’S BAY AND RIVER, ONTARIO***

***PUNKEYDOODLES CORNERS, ONTARIO***

***SODOM, ONTARIO***

***SPARKLE CITY, ONTARIO***

***SWASTIKA, ONTARIO***

***TECUMSEH, ONTARIO***

***THOUSAND ISLANDS, ONTARIO***

**PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND**

***ABRAMS VILLAGE, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

***ANGLO TIGNISH, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

***EMERALD, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

***FORTUNE RIVER, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

***FREELAND, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

***FREETOWN, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

***KINKORA, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

***SOURIS RIVER, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

***SUMMERSIDE, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

***TRAVELLERS REST, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

**QUEBEC**

***BAIE DES HA! HA!, QUEBEC***

***CAPE DESPAIR, QUEBEC***

***CAUSAPSCAL, QUEBEC***

***COUCOUCACHE, QUEBEC***

***IVUJUVIK, QUEBEC***

***KAMOURASKA, QUEBEC***

***KANGIQSUALUJJUAQ, QUEBEC***

***KAWAWACHIKAMACH, QUEBEC***

***KITIGAN, QUEBEC***

***LA GUADALOUPE, QUEBEC***

***LA ROMAINE, QUEBEC***

***L’EPIPHANIE, QUEBEC***

***MASHTEUIATSCH, QUEBEC***

***MEMPHREMAGOG, QUEBEC***

***MERCIER-HOCHELAGA-MAISONNEUVE, QUEBEC***

***MISTISSINI, QUEBEC***

***MONTMAGNY, QUEBEC***

***NOTRE-DAME-DES-ANGES, QUEBEC***

***PUVIRNITUQ, QUEBEC***

***TEMISCAMING, QUEBEC***

***WHAPMAGOOSTUI, QUEBEC***

**SASKATCHEWAN**

**BATTLEFORD BANDS, SASKATCHEWAN**

**DOUKHOBORS IN SASKATCHEWAN**

**IRISH FOLKS IN SASKATCHEWAN**

**JEWISH FOLKS IN SASKATCHEWAN**

**MAGYARS IN SASKATCHEWAN**

***AVONLEA, SASKATCHEWAN***

***CLIMAX, SASKATCHEWAN***

***CUT KNIFE, SASKATCHEWAN***

***EMERALD LAKE, SASKATCHEWAN***

***ESTERHAZ COLONY IN SASKATCHEWAN***

***EYEBROW, SASKATCHEWAN***

***FORGET, SASKATCHEWAN***

***FRENCHMAN BUTTE, SASKATCHEWAN***

***GLEN MCPHERSON, SASKATCHEWAN***

***HEART’S HILL, SASKATCHEWAN***

***INDIAN HEAD, SASKATCHEWAN***

***KANDAHAR, SASKATCHEWAN***

***LOVE, SASKATCHEWAN***

***LUCKY LAKE, SASKATCHEWAN***

***MANITOU, SASKATCHEWAN***

***OLD WIVES LAKE, SASKATCHEWAN***

***POUNDMAKER, SASKATCHEWAN***

***SASKATOON, SASKATCHEWAN***

***SMUTS, SASKATCHEWAN***

***SPY HILL, SASKATCHEWAN***

***STAR CITY, SASKATCHEWAN***

***UNITY, SASKATCHEWAN***

***URANIUM CITY, SASKATCHEWAN***

***XENA, SASKATCHEWAN***

**YUKON**

***BONANZA CREEK, YUKON***

***CARCROSS, YUKON***

***CARIBOU CITY, YUKON***

***DAWSON CITY, YUKON***

***DESTRUCTION BAY, YUKON***

***GOLD BOTTOM CREEK, YUKON***

***KENO, YUKON***

***KLONDIKE RIVER, YUKON***

***LAKE LABERGE, YUKON***

***MALEMUTE PUP, YUKON***

***MINER’S PRAYER, YUKON***

***OLD CROW, YUKON***

***SQUAW RAPIDS, YUKON***

***TOMBSTONE MOUNTAIN, YUKON***

***WHITEHORSE, YUKON***

*TOPONYMY*

Toponymy is the study of place names (toponyms), their origins, meanings, use, and typology. The word “toponymy” is derived from the Greek words topos “place” and onoma “name.” Toponymy is a branch of onomastics, which is the study of names of all kinds.1

**ABORIGINAL ISSUES**

As with all European-colonized regions, Canada has had a tumultuous history between her native population and incoming white colonizers. It is from the First Nations, of course, that many Canadian place names originated, so their history helps inform our understanding of the toponymy. Robert Bothwell imparts: “For most of the twentieth century Canada’s native peoples lingered on the margin of public affairs, outside the political mainstream, largely unrepresented in Canada’s political system. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the aboriginal peoples seemed on the way to absorption in the general population or to disappearance: their numbers touched 105,000 in the 1911 census and grew slowly until the 1940s. In the 1950s and later, however, their numbers increased steadily, until by 1996 they numbered 800,000. Of these, some 234,000 spoke an aboriginal language (the most widely spoken being Cree). In some parts of Canada indigenous peoples were a large and growing presence, particularly in northern Ontario, Saskatchewan and Manitoba.

“Under the Canadian constitution, native affairs belong to the federal government. Initially the government pursued a policy of isolation and assimilation – subsidies for those who stayed on reserves, while compulsorily educating native children off reserves in boarding schools, encouraging them to forget the ways of their ancestors, and even their parents. This policy was, on the whole, unsuccessful, but until the 1970s the objective remained the same: integrating natives into the larger society.

“A change in the cultural climate in the 1970s and 1980s put a halt to assimilation as an official objective. Since then there has been no consensus, either among natives or among non-natives on what native policy should be. Should there be native self-government? If so, should it be municipal, provincial, or sovereign? Should there be differential treatment of natives, in law or in fact?

“A start was made with the creation in 1999 in northern Canada of a majority Inuit territory, Nunavut, meaning ‘our land’. Sparsely populated, 31,000 people inhabiting 2 million square kilometers. Nunavut proclaimed Canada’s intention of developing its fragile north in combination with, not opposition to, it’s native population. Politically and climatologically, Nunavut and Canada faced unprecedented challenges as the Arctic ice cap melted, and competitive interests from Greenland and Denmark on the east, Russia to the north, and the United States to the west threatened to undermine Canadian sovereignty. Small wonder that Canadian governments after 2000 tried to place more resources in the north.”2

**AMERICAN INFLUENCE ON CANADA**

Being the next-door neighbor to the USA has its pros and cons. Remarking on increasing visits from Canada’s friends to the south, Robert Bothwell mentions: “’It’s getting so I feel like staying away from the club,’ a Calgary matron confided to a friend in 1957. ‘There are so many Americans there.’ The

worst thing, she added, was their unfailing sense of cheery hospitality: ‘They’re forever trying to make me feel at home in my own club.’

“Other Canadians had much the same feeling. In Toronto, a Liberal (and highly successful) businessmen, Walter Gordon, began a campaign to persuade the Canadian government, and other Canadians, that massive American investment in Canada was denaturing the Canadian business class, in effect, robbing Canada of its ability to be different.

“Certainly Canada was not as different as some Canadians would have preferred it to be. Nor had it ever been. American ideas, American magazines, American music, American money had always freely crossed the border, and every summer floods of Americans came, to enjoy Canadian woods and lakes, and to pour American dollars into happy Canadian tourist resorts. It was, on the whole, a beneficent exchange, but it was not an equal one: there were ten times as many Americans as Canadians, and their presence, as the Calgary matron discovered, could be overwhelming.

“The songs of Stephen Foster were popular in Canada in the 1850s, as were, later, the songs of Irving Berlin in the 1910s and Cole Porter in the 1930s. In fact, Canadian music was indistinguishable from the American product, and can be said to have contributed to it: Guy Lombardo and his band ‘the Royal Canadians’ serenaded Americans every New Year’s from New York’s Roosevelt Grill – an American institution. Paul Anka, an Ottawa boy, found success, fame and fortune on American pop charts. If Americans ever knew, or reflected on the fact that these were Canadians, it served to underline that Americans and Canadians were, after all, just the same. When Elvis Presley, the rock and roll phenomenon of the 1950s, thanked an Ottawa audience for the 50,000 Christmas cards he got from Canada, Canadian traditionalists winced this was not their idea of Canada. But then it wasn’t American traditionalists’ view of the United States either.

“Canada’s highly traditionalist and very nationalist governor general in the 1950s, Vincent Massey, did his best of combat American incursions. He might have included his film star brother Raymond in the prohibited list. Raymond made a living impersonating Abe Lincoln and other American figures to the satisfaction of American audiences, and incidentally considered his brother insufferably pompous.

“’We can never equal the United States in terms of size,’ Vincent admitted. ‘It will always build higher buildings; it will always have larger crowds. American life has pace and magnitude and glamour. It has immense vitality and exuberance too, but these things must not blind us to the quality of our own life …’ Canadians in the 1950s and for years before had indeed not been blind to the quality of their own life: they measured it constantly and anxiously against American life and if the difference were too great, they emigrated. (One computation in the 1990s showed the eight American Nobel prize winners in science were in fact born in Canada: they, or their parents, had followed opportunity south; Lester Pearson’s brother left for Boston, and prime minister St Laurent’s grandson fetched up as a sheriff in Florida.

“Canadian life in the years after 1945 closely followed American patterns and styles. Canadian suburbs were not much different from American – though they were smaller than the biggest American postwar developments. Canadian public and office buildings reached toward the sky, as in the United States,

only not as high. American movies appealed to Canadian audiences, as did American radio and television. Canadians ate American cereal (possibly produced in Canada); discovered backyard barbecues after a slight time lag, and kept their meat and milk in American-designed refrigerators. Especially in the 1950s, the differences between North American styles and standards of living and those of Europe were wide and, to North Americans, gratifying.

“Nor were there any differences in opinion, as measured in public opinion polls. According to a sociological study in the 1990s, Canadians and Americans agreed over time on about 85 percent of items compared by pollsters, more than any other two countries. ‘The narcissism of small differences,’ sniffed an American historian, in considering the views of Canadians such as Vincent Massey on the United States.

“The ‘small differences’ came to the fore in a political debate in 1956. It was originally a scheme by CD Howe to bring Canadian natural gas from Alberta to Ontario, thereby avoiding dependence on the United States for central Canadian energy supply. Howe wanted his project, organized a company to build it with government aid, and he wanted it to start in 1956. The parliamentary opposition, on the other hand, wanted to portray Howe and the Liberal government as dictatorial. All they needed to do was delay the bill authorizing his project in the House of Commons, and this they did. The government then rammed the bill through using closure – a parliamentary device cutting off debate. The bill went through, the pipeline would be built, and the government loss of a tremendous battle in public opinion and, eventually, the next election.

“A large part of the debate surrounding the pipeline concerned the company that would build it. It was American. Howe, the opposition reminded Canadians, had been born in the United States. It was a sign that Howe and the government in which he served were slavishly pro-American, or so it was claimed. Then, the same year, Pearson helped the Americans over Suez and abandoned the British. It was too much. Boasting that they would restore links with the British and with Canada’s past, the opposition Conservatives defeated Prime Minister St Laurent in a general election in June 1957 – the first election the federal Liberals had lost in 22 years.”3

**FIRST PEOPLES**

Long before people from Europe assaulted the Canadian continent with their exploratory enthusiasm, indigenous peoples had made the land their home. Robert Bothwell puts into words: “The first settlers did not leave their precise date of arrival. Archaeologists studying the remains of Canada’s prehistory estimate that human settlement occurred as far back as 20,000 years ago, during the last glaciation. The glaciers covered most of Canada, but omitted some parts of what is now the Yukon Territory in the northwest, and there, at Old Crow, are the remains of an early encampment, approximately 15,000 years old. The Old Crow site appeared to confirm that the settlement of the Americas proceeded from north to south, starting at a land bridge from Siberia to Alaska and moving south down the Cordillera that divides the continent’s plains from the Pacific. But that is not the only theory of early human settlement: people may have come by sea as well as by land, skipping the inhospitable and icebound north and landing in the comparatively warmer south.

“The glaciers did not finally retreat from the heart of North America until between 14,000 and 7,000 years ago. As they went, people from the south, ‘Paleoindians’, followed them north, occupying all of southern Canada from Pacific to Atlantic by 10,000 years ago. The climate was notably cooler than today’s – what would now be called subarctic – and the coastlines farther out. Glaciers did not finally reach their present dimensions until roughly 7,000 years ago, as the climate warmed to approximately its present temperature.

“The Paleoindians lived in small groups, hunted and fished, and carved their tools and weapons from stone – whether on the West Coast, the Great Plains, or the eastern woodlands. Their quarries were the now extinct mammoth and mastodon, as well as the more familiar elk and deer. By 8000 BC, however, humans on the West Coast had begun to fish rivers for salmon. Eventually, by about 1000 BC, it is possible to trace village fishing cultures that resemble in many respects those of the West Coast peoples of historic times – an ordered and culturally rich life.

“To the east, tools grew more and more sophisticated, from primitive chipped implements to tools of polished stone. Around the upper Great Lakes copper implements appeared, roughly around 3000 BC, drawing on copper deposits around Lake Superior. Further east, in modern Quebec, while implements were still made of stone, they closely resembled those of the copper culture, and archaeologists have concluded that waterborne trade, presumably using canoes, existed by about 2000-1000 BC. Meanwhile the use of pottery spread from west to east, reaching the Great Lakes region around 1000 BC.

“The boreal woodlands to the north and east of the plains supported hunting, though in the rich and temperate Great Lakes region hunting gradually gave way to agriculture, beginning about 1,500 years ago. Maize, Indian corn, became the staple crop, and with it came a more settled style of life, in organized villages, moving only as the soil became exhausted. The mound-building (Adena or Hopewell) cultures, featuring elaborate burial mounds, spread into modern Ontario; indeed, one of the largest mound building sites is in north western Ontario, Manitou Mounds at Rainy River.”4

**INDIANS OF THE NORTHWEST**

Robert Bothwell reports: “The Indians of the northwest had also not been consulted about the acquisition of their homeland by Canada; nor would they be. The Canadian government intended to apply to the Indians of the west the system that had been applied to the natives of central Canada: cession of land by treaty to the government, with natives thereafter restricted to government-run reserves. In the meantime, the government organized and sent west a police force, the North-West Mounted Police, the ancestors of the future Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

“Had the government acted as trustee for the natives it intended to displace, the police might have been sufficient. But the government would prove to be an improvident and irresponsible steward, and as a result, very soon, the police would not be enough. But for the moment the government focused on another, more distant vision: extending Canada to the Pacific.”5

**NATIVE-EUROPEAN CONTACT AND ITS CONSEQUENCES**

Robert Bothwell shows: “The Europeans in exchange for fur offered metal objects – knives, kettles, and muskets – that swiftly displaced the stone and wood tools of the local Indians. They provided cloth, for warmth, and alcohol, for recreation – a dangerous innovation. They brought, though unknowingly, European diseases that overwhelmed Indian immune systems and that devastated the native populations of the Americas. The aboriginal population of Canada may have numbered as many as one million in 1500; by 1850 it was down to 100,000, and several Indian peoples had disappeared as autonomous societies.

“The first of these devastated peoples was a particular favorite of Champlain’s, the Hurons, an Iroquoian nation - an alliance of five tribes living in fortified villages and numbering about 25,000 – that lived around the south shore of Georgian Bay, off Lake Huron. There they practiced subsistence farming, mostly of corn, hunted and fished. The Hurons were rivals of, and hostile to, the five-nation Iroquois confederacy that lived south of Lake Ontario. They were also experienced traders, and almost immediately took advantage of Champlain’s settlement at Quebec to establish contacts. The Hurons hoped to monopolize the French, to the disadvantage of the Iroquois; more, they hoped to ensnare the French in their war against the Iroquois. In both these objects they were successful. French hostilities against the Iroquois began in 1609, a year after the foundation of Quebec. In 1613 and again in 1615 Champlain journeyed to the interior toward the country of the Hurons, wintering there in 1615-6. On the earlier journey, in 1613, Champlain lost one of his navigation instruments, an astrolabe, recovered two centuries later; it now sits on display in a museum in Ottawa, not far from where he lost it.

“During his trips, Champlain discovered Lakes Ontario and Huron, and mapped a canoe route up the Ottawa River to Lake Huron that would later become the backbone of the fur trade. And of course he joined the Hurons in expeditions against the Iroquois, who were at first defeated by French musketry. The Hurons seemed to have made a fortunate choice. Champlain did more than bring guns and knives: he brought religion, in the form of missionaries, starting in 1615. The best known of the missionaries were the ‘black robes’, the Jesuits, perhaps the best-trained and certainly the best disciplined of Catholic monastic orders at the time. Whether from Champlain and his secular associates or from the missionaries, the Hurons also caught diseases, especially smallpox that reduced their numbers in the 1630s to about 9,000 – barely a third of the numbers when the French first made contact.

“As the Hurons failed, the French settlement at Quebec grew. It was not without its vicissitudes. France went to war with England in 1627, and as a consequence an English fleet appeared before Quebec in 1629, seized the town, and removed Champlain back to England. With the resumption of peace the settlement was returned to France, and to Champlain, who died there in 1635.

“Champlain died just as the wars with the Iroquois were heating up. To combat Iroquois raiding parties, the French established a string of posts along the St Lawrence. Of these the most important was established in 1642 at the head of navigation on the St Lawrence; it was called Ville-Marie de Montreal, Montreal in English. Montreal’s location was even better than Quebec’s, placed as it was where the Ottawa River joined the St Lawrence, in the middle of a fertile alluvial plain, while over the city towered a small volcanic mountain, Mount Royal (more than 650 feet high), from which the city derives its name.

“Montreal was intended as a way station en route to Lake Huron; instead it became a beleaguered outpost. Between 1648 and 1652 the Iroquois finally overwhelmed the Hurons, destroying their villages, and killing many of the inhabitants (including missionaries). Not only the Hurons, but all the nations of the Great Lakes region were affected, depopulating what is now southern Ontario and Michigan. The survivors were absorbed by the Iroquois, or fled to the west (eventually ending up in Oklahoma) and to the east, where the largest group formed a mission under the protection of the French, at Loretteville near Quebec, where many of them still live.

“The Iroquois wars did not end with the destruction of Huronia, nor were the Hurons the only French allies. The Algonquian peoples who lived in the Northern Great Lakes region saw advantage in an alliance with New France, just as the French sought to replace the vanished Hurons. The Iroquois only temporarily blocked the access of the French to the pays d’en haut, the backcountry where the beaver flourished and fortunes could be made. As time passed, New France grew stronger.”6

**TRANSFORMATION OF QUEBEC**

Robert Bothwell talks about: “The history of Canada includes the history of Quebec, and the history of Quebec likewise is inseparable from that of Canada; and yet the two histories take different tangents. This was especially the case in the last half of the twentieth century, a period when Quebec was more similar to the rest of Canada than ever before but nevertheless veered toward political separation from the rest of the country.

“There are in fact two Quebecs, French and English speaking, just as there are two Canadas. English Quebec before 1950 was the western part of Montreal and Montreal Island, and a few rural pockets east (the Eastern Townships), northwest and south of the metropolis. Except for Montreal and the area immediately around Ottawa, English Quebec had been losing population for decades – since at least the 1880s. While the English population around Montreal grew steadily, thanks to immigration, people tended to move out of the city proper and into suburbs to the west and north.

“Physically, English Montreal resembled the other large cities of North America, ranging from the lofty heights of Westmount, through the elegant apartment buildings of Sherbrooke Street, to the slums of Point St Charles. Convenient commuter trains brought in office workers and executives from Beaconsfield or Baie d’Urfe or Town of Mount Royal (TMR). The city centered on its mountain, Mont Royal or Mount Royal, conveniently landscaped and turned into a magnificent park, ‘a work of art’ in the 1880s by the great American landscape architect, Frederick Law Olmstead, the designer of Central Park in New York. The suburbs were not all English. The French bourgeoisie preferred Outremont, like Westmount situated on the slopes of the mountain, and the French quarter of the city descended, like the English, until it reached its riverside slums.

“French Quebec only became predominantly urban around 1940, when the war drew farm boys and girls into factories producing tanks, aircraft, textiles and chemicals that dotted Montreal and the cities of the plain around it. French Quebec had been a favorite study for sociologists attracted by its apparent lack of change – the villages along the St Lawrence each topped by the metal spire of the large parish church, ringed by the steep tin roofs of the parishioners’ houses, which were built of wood or stone

from the early days, brick or the cheaper Insulbrick later on. In Quebec alone in North America, wine flowed through the age of temperance and prohibition. And from 1920 to 1940, Quebec alone in North America refused to give women the vote, a measure only brought in by a reforming provincial Liberal government during the war; the women used it in the next provincial Liberal government during the war; the women used it in the next provincial election to help defeat the Liberals and return to a traditionalist nationalist government.

“The Quebec provincial government of Maurice Duplessis (1944-59) appealed to economic conservatism and a desire for social stability. The economic conservatism kept the English businessmen of Montreal happy, for it included a traditional allotment of timber rights on provincial lands, and a cooperative attitude toward the mines and hydroelectric companies that played a large part in the provincial economy. Duplessis broke with tradition in appointing a French Canadian as his finance minister. Up to that point, every single minister of finance in Quebec had been an English Canadian, an outward symbol of the marriage of interest and fact between Montreal money and Quebec politics. In fact that made little difference to the way business was conducted. The premier expected his friends to receive appropriate legal work (and fees) and to have his achievements recognized by contributions at election time.

“It has always been good politics to blame somebody else, and federal systems are well adapted to political scapegoating. The practice has been raised to an art in Canada where provincial governments more often than not blame Ottawa for deficiencies real and imagined. For Duplessis, it was easy and electorally profitable to blame les autres – the English majority in Canada – and to claim that the government in Quebec responded only to nous-memes – ourselves. To emphasize this fact, as he claimed it to be, Duplessis in 1948 proclaimed a provincial flag, based on an eighteenth-century French design.

“Duplessis place great store in Quebec’s unique education and welfare systems, religiously divided, and divided too by language. The Roman Catholic Church administered school systems for both French and English Catholics, and managed its own welfare establishment as well. The crucifix hung in classrooms, hospital rooms and the provincial legislature, approximately enough for a province where 85 percent of the population was Roman Catholic, and church-going Roman Catholic at that. The swish of the soutane and the crocodile lines of nuns’ habits were daily sounds and sights in Quebec – where, in 1951, members of religious orders numbered 45,000 in a population of 4 million.

“This was the Quebec that traditionalists like to imagine, and it was the Quebec that English Canadians believed would never change. Canada was stable because Quebec was stable, for behind the line of fulminating politicians – Duplessis and his ilk – a kneeling army of priests occupied the province. The image was true enough, as far as it went, which was not, in fact, very far.”7

**VIKINGS**

Robert Bothwell catalogs: “Norse adventurers (Vikings) crossed the North Atlantic and settled first Iceland (860 AD) and then Greenland (980 AD). Voyagers from the Greenland colony, under Leif the Lucky, sailed west and south, and later recorded their exploits in stories (sagas). The sagas told of a new

place, Vinland, probably meaning ‘pasture’ rather than ‘wine country’. Vinland was only one discovery, probably corresponding to present day Baffin Island. Further south there was Markland, a wooded terrain that is usually assumed to correspond to Labrador. And then there was Vinland, more temperate, suitable for settlement.

“Probably between 1002 and 1007 the Norse did settle in North America, but for the next 950 years there was nothing, apart from the traditions of the sagas, to say where. In the uncertainty, liars flourished as Norse ‘discoveries’ were unearthed from Maryland to Wisconsin. Only in 1960 did the Norwegian archaeologist Helge Ingstad, and his wife Anne, locate authentic Norse traces near the northern tip of Newfoundland, at L’Anse aux Meadows. Excavated between 1960 and 1973, L’Anse aux Meadows yielded traces of three buildings, a few Norse artifacts, and indications of iron smelting. L’Anse aux Meadows was settled sometime between 990 and 1050, tests showed, but only briefly. Nor were the Norse the first inhabitants of the site: the Dorset Culture had also left its mark, and indeed the sagas told of contacts between native inhabitants and the Norse – a tale of death and violence in large part.

“The Norse sailed back to Greenland, but did not entirely forget their western landfall. Norse Greenlanders visited Markland for timber as late as the fourteenth century, and contacts were kept up between Greenland itself and Iceland and even distant Norway. But in the fifteenth century all contacts between Greenland and present-day Canada ceased.”8

**ALBERTA**

Alan Rayburn conveys: “In 1882 the Marquess of Lorne (1845-1914) named the provisional district of Alberta after his wife, Princess Louise Caroline Alberta (1848-1939), daughter of Queen Victoria. The district embraced that part of the present province (1905) south of Grande Prairie and west of Medicine Hat. The province was established in 1905. Mount Alberta (3,619 meters), on the continental divide northwest of Calgary, was named in 1898 by British climber Norman Collie (1859-1942). The summer village (1920) of Alberta Beach, on the east side of Lac Ste Anne, 52 km northwest of Edmonton, was named by the Canadian Northern Railway, with its post office opening in 1917. In 1999 this community became a village.”9

***BLACK DIAMOND, ALBERTA***

David Petrovich discusses: “Truth be told, our history is largely a result of what lies hidden beneath the surface of our soils. It all began with the deep roots of native fescue grasses that once graced our slopes and valley.

“Back before roads cut into our wide expanses of land, massive herds of buffalo thundered across our lands in search of nutrition in winter. Our native fescue grasses, with their 20-foot long roots protecting the plants from freezing temperatures, provided exactly what the buffalo needed. Back then buffalo were the mainstay of Aboriginal existence. Buffalo skins and meat provided food, clothing, and shelter for our original nomadic prairie inhabitants. Although those times are now long gone, the historic significance of our land and what lies underneath it is not.

“Once the Canadian Pacific Railway opened Canada’s west, tourism and agriculture took hold in a big way. Affluent tourists were attracted to the magnificence of the Canadian Rockies and the prestigious Banff Springs Hotel. Settlers were attracted to the prospect of 160 free acres of land to homestead, and savvy cattle barons from Texas drove their herds north to our fine grazing lands and mountain-fed rivers.

“Ranchers started arriving in the Diamond Valley Region in the 1870s and 1880s. The Bar U Ranch, with over 125 years of ranching history, still exists today as a national historic site located south of Longview. John Ware, born into an African-American slave family, is credited with helping Alberta’s ranching industry. He worked as a cowboy after the Civil War, bringing the first cattle into Alberta from Texas before he got hired on at the Bar U.

“Ranching may have been the way of life back in 1887, but agriculture wasn’t the only way to make a living. While the Turner brothers ranched in what became known as Turner’s Valley, and while Malcolm Millar operated a trading post and post office in what is now called Millarville (today Millarville is a village roughly 20 kilometers from Black Diamond), enterprising entrepreneurs ran logs down the Sheep River for railway ties, and ranchers mined coal outcrops on their land. A 1880s coal discovery, which led to a commercial coal mine, got Black Diamond its start, its prosperity, and its name.

“Black Diamond is a slang term that was used to talk about coal: coal is black, sparkly, and valuable (especially at the turn of the 20th century). Currently the Town of Black Diamond’s borders almost reach the commercial coal mine that was initially discovered in 1880 (the mine’s entrance has been collapsed to prevent injury). Black Diamond’s brand still refers to our history; the brand is ‘Come Get Diamondized’.”10

***BONNYVILLE, ALBERTA***

Ronald Kelland expounds: “In 1908, a post office by the name of St Louise de Moose Lake. In 1910, the post office was renamed Bonnyville. The name was intended to commemorate Father Francis Bonnin, a former missionary in Africa who had also established the first Roman Catholic Church in the Moose Lake region. Father Bonnin’s name was often Anglicized as ‘Father Bonny’. Bonnyville was erected as a village in 1929 and incorporated as a town in 1958. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 6,216.”11

***CORONATION, ALBERTA***

Ronald Kelland impresses: “In 1911, the Canadian Pacific Railway was building a main line through this region of central Alberta. The town sites surveyed by the railway were all to have post offices and railways stations. For naming the new communities, the CPR was inspired by the 1911 coronation of King George V and his consort Queen Mary; names with a ‘royalty’ and ‘empire’ motif were chosen. Other community names along this line include Consort, Loyalist, Veteran and Throne. At this location, a post office called Coronation was opened in January 1912 and the railway was in operation that following October. Many of the town’s early street and avenue names continued the theme, including Victoria, Windsor, Mary, Queen, King, George and Edward. Even the local hotel was named the Royal Crown.

Coronation was incorporated as a town in 1912. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 947.”12

***HEAD-SMASHED-IN BUFFALO JUMP, ALBERTA***

Alan Rayburn notates: “West of Fort Macleod, this provincial historic site and interpretative center is designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Buffalo jumps were part of the ancient hunting culture of Plains Aboriginals. This particular one recalls the story of a curious Aboriginal warrior who was trapped on a ledge as the buffalo plunged over the jump, and was subsequently found with his skull crushed.”13

***HIGH LEVEL, ALBERTA***

Ronald Kelland puts pen to paper: “This name is descriptive of the town’s location. The community is located on the height of land between the Peace River watershed and the Hay River Watershed, so it is at a high level comparative to the surrounding countryside. The region was a frequent stopping place for fur traders and trappers. Toponymic field surveys in the early 1980s found some of the area’s older residents with memories that the name High Level had been used by Hudson’s Bay Company personnel since the early 1800s, possibly even longer. The general region also has a number of aboriginal names. The Dene Tha’ and Dunne-Za people use the names tloc moi, which means ‘hay meadow’ and tl’o meh, which means ‘edge of the prairie’. A post office opened here in 1957 and was given the name High Level. Major oil discoveries in the region in the 1960s brought economic stimulation and population growth to the community and it was incorporated as a town in 1965. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 3,641.”14

***LEGAL, ALBERTA***

Christine Young represents: “In the history of Legal, certain important dates can be confirmed thanks to seven personal diaries left by (Father) Abbot Jean-Baptiste Morin. October 23, 1894, he wrote: ‘I spent the day in Edmonton … with me were seven Germans … two Frenchmen, Gelot and Menard.’

“These two Frenchmen were to eventually become the founders of Legal. While in California they had read pamphlets published by Father Morin, inviting pioneers to come and settle in Western Canada where land could be purchased for $10. Upon their arrival, they either lodged in St Albert or Morinville. From there, they were able to look over several areas before deciding on a site northeast of Egg Lake.

“Official documents state that on November 29, 1894, Theodore Gelot and Eugene Menard applied for their homestead. They were given the first homestead of the region, one on the NE-14-57-24-W4 and the other on the SE-14-57-24-W4. It appears that on the same day, they bought two horses, a wagon, a cow, an axe, a shovel, a hammer, a saw, nails and a bag of flour. Then they began their long trek through the woods, rivers, muskeg and thousands of other obstacles before reaching their section of land. Completely exhausted, they settled that night under their wagons after having surrounded it with branches to protect them from the autumn cold. Early the next morning, they began building their home, after making certain they were on the demarcation line. The house measured 20 square feet, 10 of which were on each side of the demarcation line, thus fulfilling their obligation to the government in

building a residence on each of their sections of land before obtaining the title to their homestead. With their shovel, they dug a deep well which provided them with a good supply of pure water. Theodore had brought his gun with him from California, so he was able to provide food by hunting deer, rabbit and partridge.

“In the life of these two courageous pioneers, the following anecdote is worthy of mention. After Theodore and Eugene had settled on their section 14, they attended mass on Sundays in Morinville. It is not known whether they had a calendar, but one day, all dressed up in their Sunday best, they started out for Morinville to attend their regular service. Upon their arrival, they were told it was Monday! Needless to say, the two men were teased a long time for their error!”15

Ronald Kelland specifies: “This French Canadian settlement was founded in 1898 and was named for Monsignor Emile-Joseph Legal (1849-1920). Legal was born in 1849 at Saint-Jean-de-Boiseau, France. He was ordained as a Roman Catholic priest in June 1874 and completed his training as a member of the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate in Quebec and upper New York State. In 1881 he was posted to the mission at St Albert, Northwest Territories and from there was sent as a missionary to the Blackfoot people south of Fort Macleod, particularly the Kainai (Blood) and Piikani (Peigan) tribes. Legal became Bishop of St Albert in June 1902 and was made archbishop of Edmonton in November 1912. As bishop and archbishop, Legal increased the number of parishes throughout Alberta and engaged in political negotiations to ensure the protection of Roman Catholic schools when the new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created in 1905. In the mid- to late-1890s, people from France and Quebec started homesteading in this region. A post office named Legal was opened in 1900 and the railway reached the community in 1911-2. The community was erected as a village in February 1914 and was incorporated as a town on January 1, 1998. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 1,225.”16

***MILK RIVER, ALBERTA***

Esther Elman tells: “The Seven Years War began in 1756 and involved nearly every nation in Europe. By 1762, Louis XV of France, being exceedingly hard-pressed, ceded our still largely unsettled and unexplored land of Louisiana to Spain. Our future Milk River country was now part of the Spanish Empire and our flag was the red, white and gold of Spain.

“In 1800, Napoleon, Emperor of France, and dreamer of a world empire, forced Spain to cede to France her claim to all of the Louisiana territory west of the Mississippi. A large French army sailed for New Orleans to settle this claim, but being diverted to Haiti, lots its troops to yellow fever. Nevertheless, our land, like a yo-yo, was once again claimed by France. Over the large territory, of which we were destined to become a small, but important part, flew the flag of the French Republic.

“In 1803, because of Britain’s opposition, Napoleon felt that his great empire was insecure. He needed more money to carry on new wars, so he sold Louisiana to the United States for $27 million – the Louisiana Purchase. We were under the Stars and Stripes.

“In 1804, President Jefferson of the United States commissioned his secretary, Meriwether Lewis, to form an expedition to ‘go up the Missouri River to its source, to find the fountains of the Mississippi, to cross the Stony Mountains, and, following the nearest river west, to travel to the sea.’

“Lewis chose his friend, another army captain, William Clark, to go with him. Well-equipped and well-trained, they set off on May 14th with forty-five men in three stout boats. Studying the country, ever alert to the chances for fur trading, they paddled up the Missouri and wintered in what is now South Dakota. In April of 1805, they moved upstream, guided by the now-famous Indian woman, Sacajawea (‘bird woman’). They passed through the Mandan country of North Dakota, looking for the Stony Mountains and the rumored great Saskatchewan River in Rupert’s Land (Canada). Still they moved westward, out of the Minitaree range. They found themselves in the area that is now northern Montana heading west toward the Great Divide. During this expedition, they discovered and named the Milk River. From the journals of Lewis and Clark, edited by Bernard De Voto, we read, ‘Wednesday May 8, 1805 – We nooned it just about the entrance of a large river which disembogues on the Lard (Starboard side); I took advantage of this leisure moment and examined the river about three miles. I have no doubt it is navigable for boats, perogues and canoes, for the latter, probably a great distance. From the quantity of water furnished by the river it must water a large extent of country. Perhaps this river might also furnish a practicable and advantageous communication with the Saskatshiwan (Saskatchewan) river. It is sufficiently large to justify a belief that it might reach to that river if its direction is such. The water of this river possesses a peculiar whiteness, being about the color of a cup of tea with the admixture of a tablespoon of milk. From the color of its water we named it the Milk River. We think it possible that this may be the river called by the Minitaries, the ‘river which scolds all others’. Captain Clark, who walked this morning on the Lard shore, ascended a very high point, opposite to the mouth of this river. He informed me that he had a perfect view of this river and the country through which it passed for a great distance, probably 50 or 60 miles; that the river from its mouth bore northwest for about 12 or 15 miles when it forked, one taking a direction nearly north and the other to the west of northwest.’

“And so, on May 8, 1805, our river was named – the Milk River, and claimed in its entirety by the United States of America.

“In 1818, the United Kingdom and the United States established the international boundary along the 49th parallel from Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains.

“’The boundary line between Canada and the USA is a typically human creation; it is physically invisible, geographically illogical, militarily indefensible and emotionally inescapable.’ (Hugh Keenleyside)

“In 1846, the Oregon Trail extended the line to the Pacific. In most areas the topography of the land was not a consideration in establishing this boundary. Politics drew the line between the two nations – a line that was difficult for Indian or trapper to recognize or respect.

“In a previous charter in 1670 under Charles II of England, a group of investors (with Prince Rupert, the King’s cousin as administrator) established a trading company. The King, who was interested in the fur

trade, granted this company all the lands draining the Hudson Bay. The Hudson’s Bay Co named this large tract of land, Rupert’s Land in honor of Prince Rupert.

“Although Milk River does not drain into Hudson Bay, the portion north of the 49th parallel was included in Rupert’s Land. The flag of this land was the flag of the Hudson’s Bay Company.

“Supposing Lewis and Clark had carried the American flag with its fifteen stars and stripes a little further north and planted it on the Milk River Ridge. Would this ‘extra mile’ have had any influence on the position of the International Boundary? Perhaps, (as suggested by author Wallace Stegner) instead of stoking our wheat, we might have shocked it; and the prairie sky which was a roof over our heads might have been a roof (oo as in good)!”17

***PEACE RIVER, ALBERTA***

Beth Wilkins chronicles: “Peace River, the town and Peace River the waterway have evolved over the years. Each has an abundance of stories to tell. It is said the river obtained its name from an incident at Peace Point adjacent to the east side of Wood Buffalo National Park, near Lake Athabasca, which brought accord to disputing Cree and Beaver Indians circa 1792 – about the time Sir Alexander Mackenzie was wending his way to the Pacific Ocean by way of Fort Fork, about 15 kilometers upstream from the town.

“A Beaver Indian legend suggests that drinking the waters of the Peace River ensures the one who indulged is destined to return.

“1763 (or thereabouts) – The Cree (Knisteneaux) and the Beaver Indians settled a longstanding dispute over a point of land near Lake Athabasca. Thus Peace Point and what is now known as the Peace River was the dividing line. Author and historian David Leonard says it was Sir Alexander Mackenzie, who related the story told to him on his way up the Peace River in 1792, including that the Beaver had firearms. This enabled them to fight the Cree to a standstill. A truce ensued.”18

Ronald Kelland declares: “The town is named for the Peace River and is located at the confluence of the Peace River and the Heart River. The 1,923 kilometer long Peace River takes its name from Peace Point, a projection of land into the river close to the place the river flows into Lake Athabasca. It was at Peace Point where the Cree and Dunne-Za people ended a long-standing dispute. Alexander Mackenzie used the Peace River during his successful 1792-3 crossing of North America. The river is known by numerous names: River of Peace – on Peter Pond’s 1785 and 1987 maps; Amiskwe-moo-sipi – in Philip Turner’s 1780s Hudson’s Bay Company journals, Cree for ‘Beaver Indian River’; Un-ja-ga or unjigaj – translated and unattributed aboriginal names for the river, recorded by Alexander Mackenzie (possibly Dunne-Za for ‘large river’); Thu-tci-Kah – a Sekani term for ‘Water Great River’ or ‘Important River’; Chin-ch-ago – Dene Tha’ for ‘Beautiful River’; Riviere de Brochet – French for ‘Pike River’, recorded in the 1822 Hudson’s Bay Company journals for Fort Chipewyan.

“The location of the current town has a long settlement history. A Hudson’s Bay Company post named St Mary’s House was established near here in 1818. By 1914, the community had become known as Peace

River Landing Settlement. In that year it was erected as a village by the name of Peace River Crossing. The community on the west bank of the river retained the name of Peace River Landing Settlement. In 1916, the village’s name was shortened to simply Peace River. In 1919, the two communities were amalgamated as the town of Peace River. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 6,744.”19

***ROCKY MOUNTAIN HOUSE, ALBERTA***

Ronald Kelland displays: “The North West Company established a fur trade post here in 1799. It was named Rocky Mountain House due to its proximity to the Rocky Mountains. In fur trade parlance, the word ‘House’ was frequently used to denote a post or fort. Shortly after, the Hudson’s Bay Company established Fort Acton nearby. After years of competition, the two companies merged as the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1821; Rocky Mountain House was chosen as the more viable post and Fort Acton was closed. Starting in 1828, Rocky Mountain House was operational only for winter trade until it was closed in 1861. It was rebuilt and reopened in 1864, but closed permanently in 1875. A post office by the name Rocky Mountain House was opened in 1912. In 1913, the community was erected as a village and it was incorporated as a town in 1939. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 6,933. The town is often referred to locally as Rocky. In 1926, the archaeological remains of the fur trade post were designated as a National Historic Site of Canada.”20

***SLAVE LAKE, ALBERTA***

Ronald Kelland expresses: “A post office opened here in May 1909 and given the name Sawridge by the first post master Walter Thompson. The name was possibly a reference to the physical appearance of a nearby hill. In 1921, the Edmonton, Dunvegan and Pacific Railway reached the community and established a station, which was named Slave Lake. In 1922, the post office name was changed to match that of the train station. The name Slave Lake is a reference to the nearby Lesser Slave Lake, the second largest body of water in Alberta. The ‘Lesser’ serves to differentiate the lake from the Great Slave Lake further north. The name of the Lesser Slave Lake is from the Cree word Ay-yi-ti-i-noo Sa-ga-he-gun. Common belief is that the lake was named for the presence of the Dene Tha’ people, who were historically known as the Slavey Indians, in the region. However, it is more likely that the lake was named for other aboriginal groups, possibly the Dunne-Za (Beaver) or even the Blackfoot. The Cree word for these groups meant ‘alien’ or ‘stranger’, but it was translated into English by early fur-traders and explorers as ‘slave’. The community of Slave Lake was erected as a village in January 1961 and incorporated as a town on August 2, 1965. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 6,782 people. In 2011, Slave Lake was devastated by a large forest fire. The entire town was evacuated and about one-third of the town was destroyed, including hundreds of houses, numerous businesses, a shopping mall, the local radio station, the library and the town hall. Damage was estimated at $700 million, the second costliest disaster in Canadian history. There was one casualty, a helicopter pilot engaged in the firefight.”21

Dorthea Calverley notes: “Columbus is said to have given the name ‘Indians’ to the aboriginal peoples he encountered in the Caribbean Islands. He believed that he had been successful in his voyage to find a

new route to Asiatic India - hence his name for the people. Since Columbus’ day, the name has been applied to all of the aboriginal peoples of the Americas except the Eskimo who were easily seen to have a different appearance and a different way of life.

“Yet in Canada alone there were over fifty separate tribes who spoke different languages or dialects, and had their own manners and customs. They had no common name for the country, or for its inhabitants. In fact, many names accepted by the white men were not the tribe’s own name for itself, but a nickname, often derogatory, given to a group by a hostile tribe. An example of this is the name Slave or Slavey Indians.

“The fur traders, especially the Hudson’s Bay men, had for a century been in contact with the Woods Crees who were middlemen between the Athapaskans and the white men. The Crees were making a handsome profit by bartering with the Athapaskans for fine furs, then selling them to the traders. The Crees called themselves Kinistenoags, ‘men of the woods’, which the French voyageurs first changed to Kristenaux and later shortened to Kris, whom the English later wrote phonetically as Cree.

“When the white men began to get curious about the territory of the men from whom the Cree obtained such superior furs, the last thing the Cree wanted was to encourage the traders to visit their source of supply. Hence, tradition says, they answered, ‘Huh! Worthless men. Fit only to be slaves.’ The gullible white man accepted the story - hence the odd names ‘Great Slave’ and ‘Lesser Slave’ Lakes so far north of the area in which slavery, as such, was an issue in Southern United States.

“Eventually the white men, like Peter Pond, reached the Athapaskans. ‘How do you call yourselves?’ they asked, to which the Athapaskan speakers replied, ‘We are the MEN, THE PEOPLE.’ What they called the Cree seems not to be recorded. One must remember that the Athapaskan tongue is perhaps as different from the Cree’s Algonquian as Chinese is from Canadian. Early interpreters would likely be Crees, or Iroquois, long associated with the white traders. It is unlikely that they understood or spoke Athapaskan fluently. Did one ever find one tribe or race of men speaking well of another with whom they could not communicate? We have only to think of the nationalistic prejudices among so-called ‘civilized’ men, expressed in the nicknames they assign to others, to answer the question. We can see that what men call other groups may often be of little value in determining who they actually are. Oddly, the descriptive names from neighboring tribes seem to have stuck to Indian groups, especially in the North.

“For example, while the Beavers called themselves the Tin-eh, the Crees gave them the name ‘Beavers’ in scorn. According to Cree informants (all Metis [www.merriam-webster.com defines Metis as ‘a person of mixed blood; especially often capitalized: the offspring of an American Indian and a person of European ancestry22]) Richard Belcourt, [Cree]; Isadore Mercredi, [Cree-Beaver]; and Peter Campbell, [Cree-Iroquois] they called certain tribes ‘Beavers’ because these men did not go outside their own exclusive tribe or land for wives. In the course of centuries everyone was related to everyone else. Hence the Crees called the Beaver’s marriage relationships ‘incest’, and likened their practices to the mating habits of Beavers, the animal, which are said to mate only with others in the same pond.

“Alexander Mackenzie in his Journal speaks of ‘Beavers’ in an area northwest of Great Slave Lake on the Mackenzie River, and marked them in that area on his map.

“He called those living where the Peace Region Beaver have lived since early times the ‘Rocky Mountain Indians’. In another entry June 23, 1789 he says, ‘Slave and Beaver Indians as well as others of the tribe would not be here (Great Slave Lake) till the time when the swans cast their feathers.’ Again, on July 1, 1789, ‘saw poles of four lodges standing - concluded that they belonged to the Kristeneaux on their war excursions 6-7 years ago (into Beaver Country) just by the River of the Mountains Mouth.’ (The Peace River). Note that Mackenzie included Slaveys and Beavers in one tribe as if they were just different bands.”23

***THREE HILLS, ALBERTA***

Ronald Kelland records: “The town is named for the nearby hills, which are a prominent landmark. The three hills were noted in an 1886 Geological Survey of Canada report. They run from north-west to south-east; the highest of the hills rises approximately 60 meters above the surrounding terrain. A post office by the name of Three Hills was opened in 1904. The community was erected as a village in June 1912 and incorporated as a town on January 1, 1929. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 3,198.”24

***TWO HILLS, ALBERTA***

Ronald Kelland reveals: “The town is named for two prominent hills in the area. These hills may be the ones referred to by Alexander Henry in his journal of his travels with David Thompson in 1808. His entry for September 13, 1808 reads, ‘we nooned at La Plante’s river to refresh our horses and then took a well-beaten track through small plains and hummocks of poplar and willows. At les Deux Grosses Buttes we halted for half an hour.’ Les Deux Gros Buttes translates as ‘the Two Big Hills’. A post office named Pozerville operated nearby from January 1904 to July 1909. A second post office named Two Hills opened in March 1914. The community was erected as a village in June 1929 and was incorporated as a town on January 1, 1955. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 1,379.”25

***VAUXHALL, ALBERTA***

Ronald Kelland spells out: “This community was started as a work camp by the Canada Land and Irrigation Company, which was constructing irrigation projects in the region. The work camp later expanded into a larger community. The town’s name was chosen by the company and is derived from an inner city area of London, England. This name was apparently chosen as a way to attract more capital from overseas. The community appears on a 1915 township plan by WJ Boulton, Dominion Land Survey as Vauxhall Station. A post office by the name of Vauxhall opened in 1921. The community was erected as a village in December 1949 and was incorporated as a town on January 1, 1961. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 1,288.”26

***VIKING, ALBERTA***

MM Hanson touches on: “It is surprising to learn that as late as 1900 not a settler was in the Viking district. Shortly after the turn of the century, the first settlers began to arrive in the area from the United States, many being of Norwegian extraction. In the fall of 1902, Nels Hagenson, John Kringen, John Lokken, Carl Boraas, and Louis Knepp came looking for land. They returned to the States to tell their friends of what they had found.

“In 1903, these first Norwegians returned to the Viking area with OB Nordstrom, Ed Benson, Sivert Hafso, O Kjelland, Gilbert Sorenson, Carl Olsen, Gunder Boraas, and Ole Sorenson. They came with 15 boxcars loaded with cattle, machinery, and household effects. They arrived in Wetaskiwin, the nearest railway station at the time.

“John Kringen eventually became known in the Viking area as the ‘King of the Norwegians’ because he was instrumental in getting many of the early pioneers settled in the community. He also played a leading role in establishing the Lutheran Church in the area.

“In 1904, the Norwegian population increased with the arrival of Lars, Chris, and Ole Wallen, HO Peterson, Ole Benson, Thos L Sorenson, Ed Thompson, Herman Peterson, and Jacob and Knut Knudson. In 1905, Hans Hanson, Kaare Hoyem, Olaf Halverson, and Bert Iverson took up homesteads.

“In 1906, Rev HT Egedahl, Pete Nyhus, and Clarence Holmberg came to the community. In 1907, Fred Thoresen, Pete Kjelland, Carl Swanson, and Ole Ohman arrived. In 1909, the John Lefsrud family came followed by Andrew Hammer in 1910 and Mike and Adofph Johnson in 1916.

“Before the arrival of the Grand Trunk Railway in 1909 there were two communities in this area. One was to the south of the present rail line and was called ‘Harland’. The other was to the north and referred to as ‘Old Viking’ and ‘Golden Valley’. The post office department, from among sixteen names suggested by the settlers, eventually chose the name Viking for the community.

“The early settlers lived frugally and worked hard. They raised families, became successful cattle ranchers, grain and dairy farmers, and businessmen. They were dedicated to improving the cultural amenities of their community. Churches, schools, and eventually a hospital were constructed as a result of their persistent effort and foresight. The town site itself attracted businesses and the community prospered.

“It should be noted that some of the third and fourth generation Norwegian descendants still live on the original family homestead quarter. These included descendants of Ole and Martha Sorenson, Otto and Ida Nordstrom, Sivert and Hanna Hafso, Ingvold and Odelia Thompson, and Hans and Anna Hanson.

“Although large numbers of settlers from Britain, Czechoslovakia, Germany, and other countries have also settled in the Viking area, the influence of the area’s Scandinavian heritage is evident. Rosemaling adorns downtown businesses and a troll park has been built. Viking’s annual lutefisk supper is always a popular event. The Viking Museum, with its many pioneer artifacts and buildings, is well worth a visit.”27

***VULCAN, ALBERTA***

“A post office was established here in September 1910 and named Vulcan for the Roman god of fire and metal-working. Historically, the streets of the town continued the theme and were named for mythological beings, but these were later changed to standard numbered streets and avenues. The community was erected as a village in December 1912 and was incorporated as a town on June 15, 1921. During the Second World War, a British Commonwealth Air Training Plan school and airfield was established nearby and a military post office, MPO Vulcan 1312, operated here from September 1943 to April 1945. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the population was 1,836. Although the town is named for the Roman god, and not the fictional planetary birthplace Star Trek’s Mr Spock, the science fiction connections have not been lost on the town, which has used the naming similarities as a booster for town tourism.”28

**BRITISH COLUMBIA**

GPV and HB Akrigg clarify: “The British were first aware of this part of the word as a northward extension of Sir Francis Drake’s New Albion’ (California and Oregon). In 1792-4 Captain Vancouver gave diverse names to various parts of the future province of British Columbia. To Vancouver Island he gave the name of Quadra and Vancouver’s Island. The coastal parts of northern Washington and the southern British Columbia mainland he named New Georgia, while he called the central and northern coastal areas of British Columbia New Hanover. The names failed to secure acceptance.

“The evolution of the name of British Columbia is easily traced. In 1792 Captain Robert Gray from Boston rediscovered the river that the Spaniards had named Rio de San Roque some seventeen years earlier. Ignorant of the Spaniards’ prior discovery, Gray named the river after his ship, the Columbia, and so the Columbia River entered history. In the following years, it was natural enough that the vast area drained by the mighty Columbia should be referred to increasingly as the Columbia country. When the Hudson’s Bay Company set up two administrative areas west of the Rockies, it named the more northerly New Caledonia and the more southerly Columbia. After the Treaty of Washington in 1846 fixed the forty-ninth parallel of latitude as the Anglo-American boundary from the Rockies to the Pacific, most of the old Hudson’s Bay Company Department of Columbia became American. Somebody was bound to think of using ‘British Columbia’ as a name for what was left north of the new boundary line.

“The person who took this final step was Queen Victoria. In a royal letter of 1858 to Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, the Colonial Secretary, we find the earliest mention of British Columbia. In this letter the naming of a new Crown colony in the Pacific Northwest is discussed: ‘The Queen has received Sir E Bulwer Lytton’s letter. If the name of New Caledonia is objected to as being already borne by another colony or island claimed by the French, it may be better to give the new colony, west of the Rocky Mountains, another name. New Hanover, New Cornwall, New Georgia, appear from the maps to be names of sub-divisions of that country, but do not appear on all maps. The only name which is given to the whole territory in every map the Queen has consulted is Columbia, but as there exists a Columbia in South America, and the citizens of the United States call their country also Columbia, at least in poetry, British Columbia might be, in the Queen’s opinion, the best name.’ The new colony of British Columbia was officially proclaimed at Fort Langley on 19 November 1858. In 1863 Stikine Territory was made part of

British Columbia, and on 19 November 1866 Vancouver Island became part of the united colony of British Columbia.”29

***10 DOWNING STREET, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg document: “Northeast of Pemberton. Many years ago a retired trapper was appointed census taker here. Apparently he took his position very seriously, for some wag chalked on his door ’10 Downing Street’, thereby giving a name to the locality. Later an old-timer, Albert Gramson, bought the property – hence the present official name of Gramson’s. The old name, however, was too good to let go, and the British Columbia Railway’s schedule still lists ‘Gramson’s (10 Downing Street).’”30

***70 MILE HOUSE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

The South Cariboo Visitor Center observes: “Historically 70 Mile House was one of the first roadhouse stops on the Cariboo Gold Rush Trail, constructed in the 1860s to serve the many gold seekers heading north. As time passed, some of the travelers decided to settle and establish roots in the area. 70 Mile House marks the distance along the Cariboo Wagon Road from Lillooet (0 mile), thus allowing travelers to gauge their distance traveled.”31

***100 MILE HOUSE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

www.100milehouse.ca recounts: “The South Cariboo has had an interesting history that started long before man arrived. At one time it was a boiling sea of volcanoes covering the land with thick layers of pahoehoe lava.

“Then in a complete change the entire area was smoothed and carved by the great ice sheets that blanketed the lava fields during the last great ice age. About 10,000 years ago this ice started to melt sending torrents of water cascading off the edges of the Fraser Plateau.

“This deluge cut canyons through the layers of lava that has made for some of the spectacular scenery that makes the Cariboo such a great place to be.

“The evidence of this tumultuous past is everywhere. From the hundreds of lakes (no, that is not an exaggeration) to the beauty of Canim Falls and Painted Chasm to the volcanic core that stands as an ancient sentinel over the tiny town of Lone Butte.

“First Nations people came to this land early, evidence found in Soda Creek carbon dated at approximately 2300 BC. This is the area of the Secwepemc (Shuswap) First Nation and is a part of the Lake Division of the Shuswap Tribe within the Interior Salish Nations in British Columbia. Pictographs can be seen on both the north and south sides of Mahood Lake at about the halfway point.

“Fur traders for the Hudson's Bay Company used the Fur Brigade Trail to pass through 100 Mile House from 1820 into the 1850s. They would move trade goods up the trail to supply inland forts with goods to exchange with First Nations for the furs they would move down the trail for eventual shipping to Europe

and Asia.

“Fur trader's gave many place names to the South Cariboo including 100 Mile House's original name of Bridge Creek, so named for the logs thrown down to make it easier for the horses to get up the steep banks of the creek.

“Other names that echo this era are Green Lake, called Lac Du Vert by the French traders; Horse Lake recalls an unfortunate incident in the 1820s when several horses drowned crossing the end of the lake. Lac La Hache translates in Axe Lake for the luckless trader whose axe went to the bottom.

“The late 1850s seen the beginning of the Cariboo Gold Rush and British Columbia became an official colony of Great Britain in 1858. As the fur trade declined in importance the forts were used more and more to supply miners and settlers who flooded up the trail. The trail ceased to be used in some places and widened and improved in others with the construction of the Cariboo Wagon Road, north of 100 Mile House is such a place. You can still walk a section of the original Fur Brigade Trail west of Little Fort where it winds to the top of the Thompson Plateau.

“The Cariboo Wagon road was constructed with the sweat and sometimes lives of The Royal Engineers whose advance guard arrived in 1858. These were volunteers who all had to be a tradesman of some type and independent thinkers for they often worked in small groups with little supervision. Sometimes the independent attribute backfired with several men deserting, lured by the seemingly endless wealth of the gold fields.

“Volunteers were enticed from the small villages of England, Ireland and Scotland with the promise of thirty acres in the new colony of British Columbia, something unattainable for a laborer in their home countries. This was later raised to 130 acres in recognition of their accomplishment.

“Sgt John (Jock) McMurphy of the Royal Engineers fell in love with the Cariboo during his time laying the route for the wagon road. He wrote in his journal about how plentiful the grouse were and streams full of trout, saying it reminded him of his youth spent on the moors of Scotland. On his subsequent retirement he opened a roadhouse at 74 Mile, calling it Loch Lomond House. His wife and eleven children helped to run the inn and he advertised that the bar contained ‘civility and the best liquors and cigars.’

“His bliss was short lived however, in 1865 while the family was away in Victoria the business was robbed of anything of value and the family moved to New Westminster.

“Thirty thousand people poured into British Columbia when gold was found in what was then known in New Caledonia. Many people where flowing north from the United States and the British government was worried about maintaining their sovereignty. They quickly formed an official colony with the new name of British Columbia under the care of Governor James Douglas.

“While some made money toiling for gold many made very good livings meeting the needs of the miners. Mule packers, stages and coaches pulled by oxen and horses moved people and freight up the new road north. One ill-fated enterpriser brought in camels to move freight but his plan failed because the camels were not suited to the rough ground and often grew lame.

“Horses and mules were frightened by the sight and smell of the understandably ill-tempered camels and some actually bolted right off the road to their deaths. One trigger happy traveler thought one was a grizzly and shot it. The commotion caused by the camels caused them to be banned from the wagon road and the last of the unhappy imports is thought to have died around 1910.

“Others enterprisers made money setting up roadhouses where weary travelers could eat, drink, sleep and rest their animals. Lilloet was officially Mile 0 of the route and roadhouses sprang up with their names designated by their distance from there. This is how 100 Mile House eventually got its name.

“As 100 Mile was then known as Bridge Creek, 1862 saw Bridge Creek House come into being. By 1867 business was going so good the house was expanded to include four other buildings with the original becoming the store and telegraph key.

“Bridge Creek House had a reputation of good home cooking with lots of fresh vegetables, pies, bread and milk. Although one lady traveler remarked that the host was a bachelor and could have kept the house a little cleaner. No doubt she found many of the Cariboo houses rough after leaving the comforts of established Victoria.

“The roadhouse at 100 Mile changed hands many times over the years. It was owned at one point by the Stevenson brothers who built a large barn to service horses. Although it had to be moved from its original location it can be seen from the highway at the north end of town. They also constructed a mill at the falls in what is now Centennial Park and you will see evidence of it in the form of a stack at the falls and flumes snaking through the forest higher up. The roadhouse finally fell into a state of disrepair and eventually became somewhat infested with bugs. The buildings finally burnt to the ground in 1937.

“Other roadhouses of note in the area include 59 Mile House; built overlooking Painted Chasm it included a fifty stall barn to accommodate the horses of Barnard's Express Company. A roadhouse was constructed at 70 Mile. Incredibly, this house operated continually from 1862 to 1956 when it was consumed by fire.

“The 105 Mile House was unlike most of the Cariboo roadhouses in that it was a handsome building built in a Victorian style. This house was moved from its original location and now resides at the 108 Heritage site where it can be toured by the public.

“108 Mile House started as a somewhat cruder affair in 1867. It was only eight miles from 100 Mile House so stage coaches probably passed it by, although it would have been a welcome site to those walking pack animals. By 1875, although there was no evidence of ownership, it was known as the 108

Mile Hotel and was run by one Agnus McVee and her husband Jim. It was rumored that the McVee's would supplement their income by selling girl hostages to lonely miners or by bringing southbound travelers to a quick end, relieving them of their gold and unceremoniously dumping their bodies in nearby lakes.

“The stolen gold was then buried in various locations in the surrounding countryside. Stashed gold has turned up at a couple of construction sites but it is widely believed that there are tens of thousands of dollars’ worth waiting like a buried lottery for the right passerby.

“The next owner tore down the building and reassembled it at what is now the 108 Heritage site. Several more buildings such as a blacksmith shop and an ice house were added, the most notable being the Clydesdale barn built in 1908. This is the largest log barn of its kind in Canada and is still standing at its picturesque location on the shores of 108 Mile Lake.

“The builders of the 111 Mile House felt they had a good location and built a large and impressive, two-story inn. They were right because four horse stagecoaches from Barnard's Express made it a regular stop as a horse change station. It operated till 1909, sat empty for a while and finally became part of the 3,000 acre Highland Ranch. Today only one small building remains beside the creek.

“The 118 Mile House is not as old as some but the building still stands on private property visible from highway 97.

“The roadhouse at 127 Mile started as a blue army tent. It operated as a bar while a building was erected. It was a large, attractive two story building but the location was popularly known as the Blue Tent Ranch for many years. In 1904, it went the way of many buildings in an era of woodstoves and no fire departments, it burned to the ground.

“Two friends, British noblemen, Lord Egerton of Tatton and the Marquis of Exeter bought land here in 1912. Lord Egerton bought land from the 105, 108 and 111 Mile ranches. He later sold this property to Fred Davis. The Marquis purchased Bridge Creek House and 12,000 acres of ranchland surrounding it.

“The Marquis visited periodically but hired a manager to run the ranch, listed in a 1919 directory as William Henry Buse.

“In 1930 the Marquis of Exeter's son, Lord Martin Cecil arrived to run the ranch and one of his first projects was to construct the 100 Mile Lodge to replace the decaying Bridge Creek House. The Lodge still stands behind the Red Coach Inn to this day as well as a Barnard's Express stagecoach. The stagecoach era was coming to an end but there was now a railway in place with passengers disembarking at Exeter station.

“Canada was in the throes of a depression at this time and making money on a ranch was difficult. The young British nobleman worked as hard as any of his ranch hands however and kept the ranch intact.

“He married a European debutante and brought her to the Lodge in 1934 where she helped with the running of the inn.

“When the population of 100 Mile House was only about twelve people, Lone Butte was becoming a busy center for ranchers in the surrounding areas. The Cariboo was poised for a boom though and it came in the forties and fifties with dozens taking advantage of abundant timber and establishing sawmills at places like Forest Grove and Lac La Hache.

“Construction began on a modern highway linking the Cariboo with Vancouver. And 100 Mile House was ready to offer accommodation. The lodge had been built to offer all the luxuries, such as generator powered lights and hot and cold running water (summer only) in many bedrooms. Good food was supplied by the ranch itself, beef, milk and fresh vegetables.

“In 1949, three brothers named Jens leased land from Bridge Creek Ranch and each built a house in 100 Mile. This leasing agreement was repeated by many others until the town was incorporated in 1965 and the properties were offered to sale to the tenants.

“Lord Martin Cecil helped to plan the burgeoning town and donated land for a park (now named Centennial Park), a bird sanctuary at 100 Mile Marsh and land for most of the other publicly owned buildings the population enjoys today.

“With its proximity to both the highway and railroad, 100 Mile House has become the hub for the little satellite communities that once were bigger than it.

“While it is still known for its ranches and logging industry it has also become important as a center for log home building.

“Lastly it is known for its friendly people running modern day roadhouses because the people who follow the road north are no longer seeking furs or gold but a memorable vacation. There are still many grouse in the forest and the creeks still teem with fish.”32

***ACTIVE PASS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg say: “Between Galiano and Mayne Islands. After the US survey ship Active, a paddle steamer of 750 tons with two guns, commanded by Lieutenant Commander James Alden.

“In 1858 Captain GH Richards named this stretch of water Plumber Pass after his ship HMS Plumper, an action to which he refers in a letter of 11 October of that year to the Hydrographer of the Royal Navy: ‘I have had some correspondence with Mr Campbell [the American boundary commissioner] on the subject of naming the passage … It appears that the “Active” sent her boats into this Channel a month before I arrived, and named it “Active passage”. I have informed Mr C that had I known the circumstance I should have had much pleasure in retaining the name – and that I would request you to

substitute “Active” for “Plumper” on the Chart sent home, but I have at the same time fully explained to him that the right of naming all places on our side rests solely with us … I shall be much obliged if you will alter the name to Active.’

“In a later letter to the Hydrographer, Richards confided that he suspected Campbell had territorial claims in mind when he pressed for the American name. The locals, despite the Royal Navy’s change to Active Pass, continued to speak of Plumper Pass. And the official name of the post office on Mayne Island was Plumper Pass until 1 April 1900.”33

***ALEXIS CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg spotlight: “West of Williams Lake. After Chief Alexis, a leader of the Chilcotin Indians. After the Chilcotin War of 1864, Governor Seymour led a force into the chief’s territory. He described his meeting with the chief thus: ‘Alexis and his men came on at the best pace of their horses, holding their muskets over their heads to show they came in peace. Having ascertained which the Governor was, he threw himself from his horse and at once approached me. He was dressed in a French uniform, such as one sees it pictures of Montcalm.’ Ten years later the Canadian Pacific Railway surveyor Marcus Smith met him: ‘A ride of fourteen miles … brought us to the Alexis lakes, near one of which the chief has a rough log house, his headquarters … The chief Alexis looks fully fifty years of age, rather under the middle height, has small black restless eyes, expressive of distrust …’”34

***ANARCHIST MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Alan Rayburn underscores: “East of Osoyoos, this mountain (1,499 meters) is adjacent to the 900 meter climb of steep hairpin turns of Highway 3 from the Okanagan Valley to the Okanagan Highlands. It was named after Richard G Sidley, who arrived in the district in 1889 and was appointed a Justice of the Peace and customs officer at Sidley, on the Washington State border, southeast of the mountain. His extreme anarchistic political views resulted in his dismissal.”35

***BABINE LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg comment on: “Central British Columbia. Babine (the French word for a ‘large or pendulous lip’) was applied by the early voyageurs to the Indians living around the lake. Once female Indians reached puberty, they wore a labret (a plug of bone and wood) in the lower lip, gradually distending it far beyond its normal shape.

“Old Fort Babine (or Fort Kilmaurs) was founded in 1822, partly as a fur-trading post but more importantly as a source for dried salmon should the Fraser River salmon run fail. Babine Lake was known to the Carrier Indians as Na-taw-bun-kut, or ‘Long Lake’.”36

***BARKERVILLE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg emphasize: “East of Quesnel. After Billy Barker, who struck it rich here. Barker, a Cornish potter turned sailor, jumped ship in 1858 to join the gold rush in the Fraser Canyon. On 21 August 1862, he was digging in the Cariboo – fifty feet down and still no gold. He was ready to give up,

but two feet deeper he hit the pay dirt. The find started a spree that left everybody drunk except one ‘well-brought-up’ Englishman. In the period that followed, Billy and his partners took out $600,000 worth of gold (very much more in modern values).

“Barker has been described as ‘a man of less than average height, stout with heavy body, short, slightly bowed legs … His face was partially hidden beneath a bushy black beard, plentifully streaked with grey.’ When Barker entered a saloon, particularly if he was already primed with a few drinks, he would do a little dance while singing:

‘I’m English Bill

Never worked, an’ never will.

Get away girls.

Or I’ll tousle your curls.’

He soon lost his fortune (marriage to a gold digger of another kind accelerated the process), and he ended his life in dire poverty, dying in the Old Men’s Home in Victoria in 1894.”37

***BATTLE BLUFF, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg give: “Kamloops Lake. Writing of Dr ARC Selwyn’s survey party, which passed this bluff in 1871, Benjamin Baltzly, the photographer who accompanied them, recorded: ‘Here, at the foot of this rock, a naval battle was fought about a hundred years ago between two Indian tribes – at least so the Indians say. The victorious tribe stained or painted a large projecting rock, which is about 15 feet above water, with some kind of red material to commemorate the place. Many of the present Indians have superstitious notions in relation to this place. The Bluff had no name, although it is the most prominent point on the lake, so we named it Battle Bluff.’”38

***BELLA BELLA, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg pen: “Northwest side of Denny Island. Its name is that of the local Indians the Bella Bella (Bil-Billa or Bel-Bella) band. That name may derive from a Heiltsuk word meaning ‘flat point(ed)’, describing the village’s original location on McLoughlin Bay near the Hudson’s Bay Company Fort McLoughlin (1833-43). New Bella Bella is on nearby Campbell Island.”39

***BELLA COOLA, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Alan Rayburn scribes: “This community, situated at the head of North Bentinck Arm and at the mouth of the Bella Coola River, established its post office in 1900, having been located at the site of Hagensborg five years earlier. The name of the river, derived from the Kwakiutl description of the Bellacoola tribe of the Coast Salish, was noted in 1862 as Bel-houla by Cdr Richard Mayne.”40

GPV Akrigg and HB Akrigg state: “Head of North Bentinck Arm. From the Heiltsuk (Bella Bella) Indian word that means ‘person from Bella Coola’. The word refers to the entire Bella Coola ethnic region, not to any village in particular.

“Early versions of the name show a wild divergence in spellings, as white men tried to cope with the guttural sounds of the Indian tongue – Billa Whulha, Billichoola, Bill-Whoalla, etc. Sir Alexander Mackenzie called the settlement of Bella Coola ‘Rascal’s Village’.”41

***BELLY UP CANYON, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV Akrigg and HB Akrigg alludes: “Between Peters and Spectrum Lakes. A guide, Eugene Foisy, lost a horse when it fell over a precipice and into the canyon. When Foisy descended into the canyon, he found the horse alive but ‘belly up’.”42

***BLIND BAY, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

BC Geographical Names Office communicates: “Named by local navigators, presumably descriptive: bay is treacherous, with rocks, snags, etc. Not a good place to take a boat.”43

“Part of the suite of Admiral Nelson-related names given in 1860 by Captain Richards, Royal Navy. Blind Bay faces Telescope Passage, recalling the Battle of Copenhagen when Admiral Nelson put his blind eye to his telescope, thereby ignoring his commander in chief's signal of recall.

“Descriptive name; the bay is not visible to mariners until close by, then it can be entered from two sides, each entrance hidden from the other until well up the bay. Sometimes called Hidden Bay. Indian name Atsilatl meaning ‘nice calm water’.”44

“Among the meanings of the word blind are 'out of sight' and 'concealed from sight'. Because of the angle at which this bay joins Shuswap Lake it is easy to travel down the lake without noticing the bay at all.”45

***BOO MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg depict: “West of Decker Lake. Named after Donald Boo. Mrs Turkki reports in her history of Burns Lake that ‘here resided Lucy Boo, her son Donald, his wife, Sarah, and son Leno. The other inhabitants were One-eyed Emily and Square-Ass Jenny Boo … The word boo meaning “wolf” in the native language.’”46

***BOSTON BAR, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg enumerate: “Fraser Canyon. So named because of the numerous Americans washing for gold in the bar in the Fraser River here. Since the first American ships off our coast were almost invariably from Boston, the Indians took to calling the Americans ‘Boston men’. Similarly the Indians called the British ‘King George men’. The Americans, carrying into British Columbia their tradition that the only good Indian is a dead Indian, treated the Natives abominably. In 1859 Arthur Bushby noted in his journal that it ‘is quite strange to see how soon the Indians detect the Boston men and how they

dislike them and how much they like King George man.’ Provoked by the Americans, the Indians in the Fraser Canyon began to murder isolated parties of whites washing the bars of the Fraser. The trouble culminated in the so-called ‘Battle of Boston Bar’ on 14 August 1858. A correspondent of the San Francisco Bulletin who was present reported that the fight ‘lasted three hours, and resulted in the complete rout of the ‘savages’. Seven of the Indians are known to have been killed, and a number wounded. About 150 white men were in the fight.’ According to some authorities, the Battle of Boston Bar actually took place at Spuzzum.

“The original Indian village at Boston Bar was named Koia’um, often spelled Quayome, meaning ‘to pick berries’.”47

***BOTANICAL BEACH, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

www.portrenfrew.com relates: “The abundance of life was what drew Dr Josephine Tildon to choose Botanical Beach as the location for the University of Minnesota's marine station in 1900. For seven years students and researchers came from all over the world to study here. To get to the station, a steamship would come from Victoria to Port Renfrew. From there it was on foot on a very muddy and narrow trail to the station. A better road in to the station was promised, however it did not materialize and the difficult access was considered a reason for the station's closure in 1907. There are few remains of the station left today. Universities still use Botanical Beach for field trips, and research, under park use permits. The area became a Class A provincial park in 1989.”48

***BOUNDARY BAY, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

BC Geographical Names Office stipulates: “The Galiano and Valdes expedition of 1792 charted this bay as Ensenada del Engano (‘Gulf of Deception’), presumably because they had run into shallow water.

“The US Coast Survey named this ‘Mud Bay’ in 1855, but re-labeled it Boundary Bay on the second and subsequent editions of their chart. So-named because it is intersected by the International Boundary.”49

NA Doe writes: “I once lived in White Rock, in a house on the hillside overlooking the sea, and it was here that I first developed an interest in local history. Perhaps unlike most, I can pinpoint the time this happened very precisely; it was the afternoon of Saturday, 29 July 1989. That day, the local newspaper, The Peace Arch News, published an article by local writer and historian Bill Hastings.

“Bill’s article was about the Spanish explorations of Boundary Bay and was based on the work of Major JS Mathews, Vancouver’s one-time ‘crusty but loveable archivist’ (as Bill put it). The article included a brief description of the Narvaez Chart of 1791, which is the first chart ever made of the Strait of Georgia. The chart is well known among local historians, and much has been written about it over the years, but I didn’t know that at the time. What particularly caught my eye that Saturday afternoon was the annotation Boca de Florida Blanca. This, Bill explained, was the Spanish name for the estuary of the Fraser River.

“Now I didn’t know much Spanish then, still don’t, but I knew enough to know that, loosely translated, the annotation mean ‘inlet of white floweriness’. Being interested in the natural history of the Fraser

delta, I spent the next week walking the dykes, searching in libraries, quizzing local naturalists, trying to figure out what white flowers could possibly have impressed the Spanish so.

“Had we had the Internet then, the mystery wouldn’t have lasted long; and maybe I never would have become interested in historical puzzles; and maybe I would never have been writing this; but I didn’t have the Internet then, so it wasn’t until I looked up Floridablanca in the Encyclopedia that the mystery was solved. By then, I was, as the former editor of BC Historical News would say, a ‘local history buff’.

“It turns out, as most historians know, that Floridablanca was just an aristocratic title – nothing at all to do with the local flora. Jose Monino, conde de Floridablanca, was prime minister in Spain from 1776 until he was summarily dismissed in February 1792, in part because of his intransigent opposition to the French Revolution. Most Spanish place names were in fact, like Captain Vancouver’s, the names of important people – saints, politicians, aristocrats, viceroys, naval bureaucrats, people like that – but there are a few examples of names that are descriptive – the Ballenas Islands (‘islands of whales’); Patos Island (‘island of ducks’); and Rio de las Grullas (‘river of cranes’, now Englishman River). Although my immediate puzzlement over the name Florida Blanca has been resolved, there is, as it happens a further puzzle with the name, but that required rather more than a week to resolve and I’ll come back to it later.

“Boundary Bay was visited several times by European explorers before settlement in the area, which began with the establishment of the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) trading post at Fort Langley in the summer of 1827. The explorers who have left records of their visits include Jose Narvaez, who came with the Eliza expedition of 1791; Dionisio Alcala Galiano who, along with Cayetano Valdes, circumnavigated Vancouver Island in the Sutil and Mexicana in 1792; Peter Puget who was with Captain Vancouver’s expedition also in 1792; Francis Annance (of Annacis Island) and John Work , who were clerks on the Hudson’s Bay Company canoe expedition to the Fraser River in the winter of 1824; and fur trader Alexander McKenzie and ship’s surgeon and amateur botanist Dr John Scouler, who were aboard the HBC brig William & Ann when it visited Point Roberts in 1825.

“The Aboriginal people who lived around and frequented Boundary Bay for the most part spoke one of two languages, both with several dialects. The first is called nowadays Straits Salish, and the second Halq’emeylem. These languages are two of the five spoken by people belonging to the fairly loose cultural and linguistic grouping called Coast Salish. The year-round inhabitants of Boundary Bay were the Semiahmoo, with villages at the mouth of the little Campbell River, Drayton Harbor, Birch Bay, and probably others elsewhere. They spoke Straits Salish. The immediate neighbors of the Semiahmoo to the south, were their Straits-Salish-speaking relatives, the Lummi, and beyond them, on Samish and Guemes Islands, the Samish.

“The Semiahmoo also had linguistic relatives immediately across from them on Vancouver Island, including the Sooke (T’Sou-ke), the Songhees in the Victoria area, the Saanich (Wsanec), and others. The people round the coast from the Semiahmoo were the Tsawwassen who spoke, not Straits, but the language of the people who live all along the Fraser River, Halq’emeylem. According to tradition the Nicomekl (Snokomish) people, who also spoke Halq’emeylem, formerly occupied a territory extending

from Boundary Bay to the Fraser River, but they were almost completely wiped out by the devastating smallpox epidemic of 1782-3.

“There once was a very large Indian village on the shores of Boundary Bay. It stood on the southeast tip of Point Roberts, known today as Lily Point. This was the site of the Wadhams cannery, which was built in 1891, the same year as the Drysdale cannery on Semiahmoo Spit. The cannery has long since gone, and the site has reverted to its natural state. Attention was first drawn to the old village by Peter Puget, who records in his log that on the afternoon of 11 June 1792, ‘ … we stopped to dine at a deserted village … [which] must, but its size, have formerly been the habituation of near four hundred people, but was now in perfect ruins and overrun with nettles and some bushes … The body of the village consists of three rows of houses, each row divided by a narrow lane and partitioned off info four or six square houses and every one large and capacious … This frame, the only remnant of the village, must have given the Native inhabitants an infinite trouble in the construction, and it still remains a mystery to me by what powers of mechanism they have been able to lift up the heavy and long logs of timber which are placed on [top of the uprights].’

“One of those trivial curiosities that tend to intrigue local historians in that, conspicuous through the ruins of the village evidently were, nowhere in any of the records of the Spanish explorations of Boundary Bay has anyone managed to find any reference to it. Both Work and Annance mention it in their 1824 journals; and when McKenzie was there in 1825, the ruined village was being used by some Saanich Indians as a temporary shelter. Well, we can now put that right … A previously unpublished sketch by Galiano supplies the long sought for reference. To be sure, it is a bit obscure to those not familiar with the Spanish charts of the time, but be assured that the small rectangle on the east side of the peninsula, close to the southeastern tip, is Galiano’s usual symbol for a sizeable Native habitation. It is certainly enough to satisfy me that Galiano did indeed note the presence of the village in 1792, even though he was too pre-occupied with other things to write about it.

“ … An often-reproduced segment of a larger chart (Carta Que Comprehende …), showing southern Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland. The segment – here annotated by Major Matthews – appears to contain what must seem to anyone not familiar with the countryside around the Fraser estuary, an appalling error in that it shows a large, non-existent body of water stretching northwards from between Point Roberts (Isla de Zepeda) and Kwomais Point in Surrey (Punta de San Rafael) towards the Burrard Inlet. In fact, this is a perfectly understandable mistake by Narvaez. The land between the north arm of the Fraser and Boundary Bay has been created since the end of the last ice age 10,000 years ago, and is still just a few feet above sea level. Now agricultural land, but formerly wet meadows and marshes, this land is difficult to see from any distance away from the shoreline in Boundary Bay. Explanations for Narvaez’s error include the lowland around Point Roberts being flooded by the Fraser, being below the horizon, being shrouded in low-lying mist, or being obscured by refraction caused by the sun drying out and heating up the air above the mudflats at low tide. All of these phenomena, except flooding, which is prevented by modern dykes, often give the high ground of Point Roberts, quite strikingly, the appearance of an island, which undoubtedly it was just a few thousand years ago.

“The second feature of interest … is the apparent continuation of the shoreline from Boundary Bay almost all the way through to the Indian Arm of Burrard Inlet (about where it says Boca de Florida Blanca). This distortion led the incautious Major JS Mathews in his account of ‘incidents presumed to have occurred’ to go as far as to assert that the Spanish made an overland expedition to the Fraser River. This assertion is still occasionally repeated as fact in local history publications and pamphlets, but there is no hint that this might be true in any of the Spanish records.

“This segment of the Carta Que Comprehende … I find particularly interesting because it nicely demonstrates two fairly common types of cartographic error. These errors can sometimes be amusing because they cause endless controversy and speculation as to what the explorers were up to, when alas the simple truth is that some anonymous cartographer made a silly arithmetic mistake and misdrew the chart.

“Charts and maps of large areas, such as Vancouver Island, had of course to be pieced together from collections of much smaller field maps. Each small map represented the work of one or two days’ work by a small surveying crew. The complete chart Carta Que Comprehende … was made up of about eighteen segments which were rather hurriedly ‘pasted’ together in the fall of 1791 at Nootka by Narvaez, Pantoja, Verdia, and Eliza before being sent down to the Spanish naval establishment at San Blas, where Juan Carrasco made a fair copy. Although most of the individual segments that went into the chart have long been lost, some years ago I discovered that they could still be identified in the final version of the chart by scanning the chart for cartographic errors, and noting that these errors tended to occur in small patches. Each ‘patch’ had a characteristic set of errors that differed from those of adjacent patches; and there is little doubt in my mind that these ‘patches’ actually correspond to the original constituent segments from which the chart was assembled.

“The three types of error that occur are 1) scaling, 2) orientation, and 3) geographic location. I won’t go into these in detail here, but briefly, these errors arise in the following ways. Each sketch map of a small part of the coast was likely originally drawn to its own scale; so the first task in incorporating the small sketches into a much larger map, was to redraw all the segments to the same scale. If this re-scaling was not done correctly, then we had the first type of error, a scaling error. Field maps were very often oriented to compass (or magnetic) north, which in this part of the world is about 20 degrees east of geographic (or true) north. Since it is conventional to use geographic north at the top of published charts, all the constituent segments with compass north at the top had to be twisted around clockwise by twenty degrees. A mistake here was the second type of error, an orientation error. The third type of error occurred when it came to adding the latitude and longitude grid to the final version of the chart. It was quite impractical for the surveyors to measure their geographic positions as they worked (no GPS in those days!) – even a rough longitude determination required many careful celestial observations to be made. What was done therefore was to establish the latitude and longitude of just one place on the chart, and then use the distances, measured by dead reckoning, to construct the rest of the grid. The problem here was that sometimes the geographic coordinates of two points on the chart were known and because of errors in both distance measurements and coordinate determinations, the two did not agree. This was sometimes rectified by changing the scaling of the map in the east-west direction until it agreed with the longitudes; and similarly scaling in a north-south direction until it agreed with the

latitudes. Such independent east-west and north-south scaling distorts the shape of the land if done incorrectly, as it often was because longitude and latitude were not easily measured with great accuracy, and such distortion constitutes the third type of cartographic error.

“ … The segment from Bellingham Bay up to Mud Bay has simply been drawn fifty percent too large, a common mistake. The segment representing the North Shore Mountains has simply been drawn with compass, not geographic north at the top – the second kind of error. The segment showing the land between Point Roberts and Point Grey has also been drawn with the incorrect orientation. This segment also shows an asymmetric scaling error, which might be a type-three error; or which might be a simple error in measuring the distance between the two points. That there was some confusion over orientation is suggested by the inscription inserted in Boundary Bay that reads Declin Obser NE 12 degree 30’. This figure is quite wrong. Although the compass variation, or declination as it is called here (the difference between compass and true north), does vary by a few degrees over long periods, there is no evidence that in historical times it fell to as little as 12 degrees 30’ east.

“ … The extended coastline heading for Indian Arm actually represents the border between the 300-feet (90-meter) high Sunshine Heights (or Hills) in the District of Delta and the adjacent Fraser lowland, a natural boundary supposedly that existed between the land and the sea when seen from a distance to the south in a small boat.

“These simple errors evidently engendered some excitement when the 1791 expedition reported them to their superiors in Mexico, just as in a later century they were to do among the local historians in Vancouver. The Boca de Florida Blanca was evidently in reality no more than a very vague indication of the perceived presence of the Fraser Valley, yet in the uncorrected chart it looked like it might be a significant entrance to the interior of the continent. In all of the surviving reports and journals of the 1791 expedition there is little or no reference to this inlet. A point at the entrance (probably Stanley Park) was given the name Punta de la Bodega, after Juan Francisco do la Bodega y Quadra, the then commandant of the naval station at San Blas, an important person without doubt, but nowhere near the rank of the prime minister of Spain. Somebody at the top clearly considered this boca to be of the utmost importance.

“The rest of the story is really history – in 1792, the Galiano and Valdes expedition arrived in Boundary Bay and, with great anticipation headed northward between Point Roberts (Punta de Cepeda) and Kwomais Point (Punta de San Rafael). In no time at all, their boat found itself in shallower and shallower water. ‘In addition …’, their report states, ‘… we did not see any opening at the end of the bay; only that it terminates in low land subject to flooding and covered with trees.’

“The soundings of Galiano’s sketch map wonderfully illustrates Galiano’s comment ‘… our imagination had been so colored by the configuration on the map, and by the word we had received on the expedition of the previous year, that we could not shake off the belief that [the inlet] reached far into the continent …’ It was at this juncture no doubt that the disappointed Galiano gave Boundary Bay the name Ensenada del Engano, ‘the bay of deceit’, and probably with much lessened optimism, directly that his ships look elsewhere for the hoped-for northwest passage.”50

***BOUNTIFUL, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

BC Geographical Names Office writes: “A self-titled property, originally owned by Joseph R Blackmore, a Mormon, who relocated from Alberta in the late 1960s with his many wives and 30+ children. The idyllic Bountiful Valley described in the Book of Mormon inspired the name of the property. Approximately 400 people live here now (May 2005 advice from Marlene Blackmore Palmer). Every few years Bountiful, BC is spotlighted in media reports and editorials about the Blackmore family, polygamy or plural marriage in Canada, the constitutional right to religious freedom, and current vs former doctrines and teachings of the Mormon Church [properly, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints].”51

Barbara Kay articulates: “At a hearing called to test Canada’s rarely enforced anti-polygamy laws, ‘Witness Number Four’, a 24-year-old Bountiful, British Columbia Mormon from Hildale, Utah, married off to a much older man, chosen for her at the age of 17, spoke glowingly in favor of polygamy, painting a picture of sweet harmony with several other ‘sister wives’.

“According to Witness Four, she believes she is in a ‘celestial marriage’ ordained by God. She spoke of having a dream at the age of 16 in which she saw the face of her future husband. A marriage was arranged for her. She met her husband thirty minutes before the marriage ceremony. But she was content, she said, as he resembled her epiphany. Six months later her husband took a new bride, a 15-year-old girl, and that seemed fine to Four, because ‘age is not really a big issue to me,’ and because ‘it was a revelation from God’ that the 15-year-old should be married to their mutual husband.

“Of course this is all purest nonsense, and no more to be taken seriously than a chimpanzee that has been trained to paint a picture by numbers. Number Four gives new definition to the locution ‘Stepford Wife’. A Stepford Wife, from the eponymous satirical 1972 thriller by Ira Levin, refers to a kind of living female robot, programmed to serve the desires of her husband with irrepressible good cheer and calm acceptance of her role as a handmaiden and (in the case of the Bountiful girls) baby-making machine.

“And programmed Four most certainly is. She has lived a hermetically sealed life in the bosom of a community that has brainwashed her. She wouldn’t know what critical thinking is, let alone how to employ it. She may as well be five years old in terms of mind development. My Wednesday column dealt with a woman who grew up in an honor culture. She was thoroughly convinced, until she came to Canada, that girls were ‘unworthy creatures’ and that anything done to them by their parents, including, in her case, beatings that broke ribs and left her unconscious on more than one occasion, was not only permissible but totally normal, as parents owned their children’s bodies. She has repeatedly emphasized in her public speeches that she did not resent her father for his beatings or consider them unfair, since she never knew that life could be any different.

“When cultural or religious environments are totalitarian, children can be indoctrinated to believe anything at all. It seems to me that these young women are as good as children mentally, and are in dire need of the state’s protection.

“It is quite possible that the Charter of Rights will eventually enable this nefarious practice of systemic Stepfordization to continue. If so, this is a good moment to preemptively consider an initiative that

would benefit all Canadians entering into marriage – no marriage license unless prospective couples have completed a premarital course, in which the history of marriage would be chronicled, discussions held on the nature of gender equality in marriage, the penalties for intimate partner violence (for both men and women) and the heavy responsibilities marriage entails. If polygamy is to become legal, then these young women should at least have a fighting chance at learning to think about what they are doing in real terms, not fantasized epiphanies from God. In polygamous communities God is just another name for Big Daddy.”52

The Huffington Post describes: “The Royal Canadian Mounted Police have renewed investigation into possible polygamy within the Bountiful, BC religious commune, a settlement of roughly 1,000 members of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints located in southeastern British Columbia near the US-Canadian border, the Canadian Press reports.

“Shirley Bond, the attorney-general of British Columbia, issued instructions this week for special prosecutor Peter Wilson to consider filing polygamy charges against members of the commune, which was heavily investigated last year on allegations that underage girls were being moved across the border from the United States into Canada for the purpose of being entered into plural marriages with older men, the Globe and Mail reports.

“Canadian authorities have been investigating the commune for polygamy-related crimes since the early 1990s, the Canadian Press reported in a separate article.

“In 2009, two powerful leaders within the commune, Winston Blackmore and James Oler, were each charged with practicing polygamy.

“But the judge dismissed those charges on grounds that government violated the men's freedoms when they chose a prosecuting attorney, prompting then-attorney general Craig Jones to request that the BC government take a look at whether the nation's 121-year-old anti-polygamy law was consistent with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, according to CBC News.

“After much review, Canada's Supreme Court issued a 355-page decision in November 2011 upholding the anti-polygamy laws as constitutional as long as they were not used to prosecute minors who end up in polygamous marriages.

"’I have concluded that this case is essentially about harm,’ BC Chief Justice Robert Bauman wrote in the decision. ‘More specifically, Parliament’s reasoned apprehension of harm arising out of the practice of polygamy. This includes harm to women, to children, to society and to the institution of monogamous marriage.’

“Now authorities are renewing steps to crack down on the practice, a decision that comes one week after Wendell Loy Nielsen, former president of the FLDS's legal department, was found guilty on three charges of bigamy, though he was alleged to have 30 bigamous wives.

“During the trial, Nielsen was also accused of playing a role in 326 mostly bigamous marriages, 50 of which involved girls 12 to 18-years-old, according to the Standard Times.”53

***BRILLIANT, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

BC Geographical Names Office establishes: “Named in 1908 by Peter Verigin, because of the brilliance of the water. According to AM Evalenko, when the Doukhobors came to the Kootenays they gave their first settlement ‘the name of the Valley of Consolation, Village of Brilliant, from a brilliant diamond of the first water, on account of the great river Columbia flowing through the land.’ Actually, though near the Columbia, Brilliant is on the Kootenay River, and a little piece in Cominco Magazine says it was ‘the bright racing waters’ of the latter river that suggested this name to Mr HB Landers who was working with the Doukhobor settlers.”54

WM Rozinkin highlights: “Today no evidence remains to suggest or remind motorists that Brilliant was the headquarters of the Canadian Doukhobor communities of the Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood that had about 90 communal villages in British Columbia and settlements in Alberta and Saskatchewan. There is no doubt that with the passing years interesting Brilliant history is also fading into obscurity.

“Nonetheless, Brilliant’s past includes Verigin’s Tomb and the old bridge whose histories are briefly recorded while the cement foundation remains forgotten. It, indeed, also has a unique place in the pages of this region’s history.

“After the Doukhobors moved to the Kootenay and Columbia regions from Saskatchewan in 1908, their determination to succeed with hard work brought forth almost amazing results.

“By living and working communally under the leadership of Peter Lordly Verigin, in less than a decade they transformed the forested wilderness into village settlements with orchards and gardens around them. They also built a wooden pipe plant to manufacture water pipes for domestic needs and irrigation along with sawmills, planer mills, flour mills, linseed oil plants and a jam factory to serve the villagers of Brilliant, Ootishenia, Pass Creek, Glade, Shoreacres, Slocan, and Grand Forks.

“In Grand Forks where purchased lands included some cleared with small orchards, they built a brick factory to produce quality bricks for all their needs along with occasional shipments to the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company in Trail, British Columbia.

“The main administrative office was in Brilliant. It was also here that the famous Kootenay-Columbia Jam Factory was located along with a towering grain elevator, fruit-packing shed, a retail store, Mr Verigin’s residence and other buildings.

“In the late 1920s Mr Verigin asked his nephew Vasily Lukianovich Verigin and his family to move to Brilliant from Shoreacres to help in maintaining his residence there. Their family consisted of Vasily, his wife Margaret, three daughters, Fanny, Lucy, and Margaret, when they moved into a house on the hillside overlooking Brilliant. Also living with them were their grandchildren, Andrew, Peter, and Johnny Semenoff whose mother Nastia (their first daughter) had passed away earlier in Shoreacres, and their father, Andrew, was away occasionally for extended periods of time to work on community projects.

WM Rozinkin continues: “More than ever, during that period in the 1920s life in the communities honored with pride Peter Lordly Verigin’s slogan, ‘Toil and Peaceful Life’. Under his administration, not only did they show exceptional accomplishments needed for their daily lives, they also were on the threshold of retiring all their financial debts.

“Among occasional problems that occurred in the villages, most were resolved with tolerant appeals for common sense and understanding. There were also occasions Lordly Verigin was asked to help with advice.

“At times a disrupting threat to the villagers came from a small group of people who broke away from the Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood a few years after the Doukhobors arrived from Russia in 1899 to settle in Saskatchewan. Among the Doukhobors this group was commonly called ‘nudes’. Later they became more known as Freedomites.

“There people, whose closest residence to Brilliant was three miles away in Thrums, often harassed the villagers by disrupting their meetings with heckling and stripping nude. Many times Mr Verigin would help his members to manually escort these nudes from their meetings after they forced their way inside.

“A small Freedomite settlement in Thrums was alongside several farmers whom were some (independents) who left the communities through disagreements. Although some farmers befriended the Freedomites, they were shocked to see three Freedomite women that lived nearby, quickly disrobe and standing stark naked to watch an airplane fly by in 1919.

“It was Sunday, April 20, 1924, after attending a morning prayer meeting Vasily Lukianovich and his wife were enjoying their usual Sunday rest with their children when suddenly they heard a loud female voice singing by Mr Verigin’s house. They all ran to the vacant house to search for the intruder and found a nude Freedomite woman, who they recognized, hiding behind a linen drape hanging on the veranda.

“They pleaded with her to leave in peace and return home to Thrums, but she refused to leave. With fears she would damage the house, they sent word to the villages for help. Their neighbors arrived with a team of horses harnessed to a wagon, loaded the female intruder on it and took her home in Thrums.

“When Vasily Lukianovich and his family went to bed that same Sunday night after a very disturbing day that appeared to have ended peacefully, they did not expect a loud hammering on their door after midnight or to hear a loud voice yelling that Mr Verigin’s house was on fire. It was a guard from Brilliant, Nikolai Lebedoff, who saw the flames spreading through the house and rushed there to try help save it. They ran to the burning building and with garden hoses poured water on the blaze while more people from nearby villages came running to help, without success.

“With the frightful fire so close to their house, the children were terrified. And as the light from the nearby flames shone through their windows and flickered brightly on the walls and floor in their house the terrified children began to fear for their own house would also be attacked by arsonists. Their fears rose to helpless panic, and in desperation to at least save some family valuables, 12 year old Lucy, the

second youngest daughter, grabbed her father’s special box that contained valuable correspondence and writings they all treasured and with it she ran to hillside bushes to protect and hide it.

“The flames from the burning house on the hillside were visible for miles around when suddenly it was discovered that the Brilliant school and two Ootishenia schools were also in flames.

“The following day it was noted that the three schools and the house were set on fire at about the same time, indicating that several terrorists had done it.

“The three schools were valued at $1,500 each while the value of Mr Verigin’s house was estimated at $2,500. Not included in the house value was fine furniture and irreplaceable books, correspondence, writings and other personal items. Heirloom rugs alone were valued at more than $500 in 1924.

“The night before this happened in Brilliant a school in Grand Forks was set a fire but was saved before fire spread.

“While these unfortunate events were happening, CCUB president Peter Lordly Verigin was away on business on the prairies. Following the fires he was notified and immediately he returned to Brilliant.

“While community Doukhobors with emotion condemned the Freedomite terrorists and vowed not to let them enter their settlements for any reason whatsoever, Mr Verigin studied the situation, and four days after these attacks, he sent an appeal to the Premier of British Columbia John Oliver for assistance to stop Freedomite attacks on school and community property.

“In his letter dated April 25, 1924 he wrote the premier: ‘Last Sunday night towards Monday morning, April 21, a lot of buildings were burned in the Doukhobor Colony at Brilliant, namely three schools and a small house of mine which was built on a rock about two years ago with beautiful architecture.

“In his lengthy letter Mr Verigin explained that since the arrival of the Doukhobors to Canada in 1899 ‘different opinions were formed in the Doukhobor Society resulting of which three parties came out.’ Almost in detail he addressed many differences of these parties. Describing the parties he said the first party was under his control and carries the name of the Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood. … This party is up keeping the principle religion, and customs which the Doukhobors I have had in Russia.’

“The Second Party he pointed out are ‘the people who left the Doukhobor Society (to become independent farmers) and have accepted the homesteads in the Provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta and became British subjects.

“Describing the Third Party that became more known later as Freedomites, he said: ‘The Third Party, although very small in number that left the Doukhobor Society under the name ‘Nudes’ are absolutely anarchists acknowledging no moral laws, desire to work nothing, hatefully looking on all the cultured progressive arrangements …‘

“’Such party is under suspicion are the ones who is setting fire amongst Doukhobor Colonies in British Columbia.’ ‘ … I have decided to bring to your notice and respectfully ask you to remove this party from nearby community settlements otherwise these people are threatening to start burning the good arrangements as possessed by the Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood. I am very much surprised that the setting a fire to schools had been started some time ago and the government does not take any steps whatever in order to punish the guilty ones …’

“Further in his letter he pointed out that, ‘There will be about 20 or not more than 30 such people who are living around the Community Colonies.’

“Mr Verigin concluded his letter with these words: ‘If the government will appoint an Inspectorate to pick out the ‘Nudes’ or in other words anarchists, I will give exact list of names and surnames of such people. I beg to remain with the hope that you will take quick action on my report. Respectfully yours, (signed) Peter Verigin, President.’

“Upon receiving Mr Verigin’s letter desperately asking for protection against the Nudes’ (Freedomites’) violent attacks on schools and buildings in the Doukhobor communities, it is not known how the 67 year old BC Premier John Oliver planned to respond although he apparently viewed the trouble with Freedomites as ‘incomprehensible’.

“What is known is he and his Liberal party were heavily involved in preparations for an approaching provincial election less than two months away. That election on June 20, 1924 saw all campaigning political party leaders defeated including John Oliver although his Liberal party won enough seats to form a minority government.

“To return as head of the BC Liberal Party and Premier of the province, Mr Oliver ran in a by-election in Nelson where he defeated a local candidate, Harry Houston, and triumphantly returned home to Victoria to remain as provincial premier until he died on August 17, 1927 from incurable cancer.

“Today it appears the only historical evidence of that fateful day of April 21, 1924 is found in Mr Peter Lordly Verigin’s letter in the provincial government archives and the surviving concrete foundation just below Verigin’s Tomb and above the newly constructed road of the Brilliant Interchange as seen daily by motorists travelling north across the Kootenay River bridge between Ootishenia and Brilliant.”55

***BURNS LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Barney Mulvany portrays: “Burns Lake is situated in the south westerly part of Omineca District, the name O-min-eca being given by the natives to the whortleberry which grows in great abundance and forms a staple of food for them. Huge quantities were dried and stored for winter consumption.

“The original name was Burnt Lake, given by the Portland Expedition. A tremendous bush fire had blackened the whole country from the east end of what is now known as Burns Lake, to the westerly end of the present Decker Lake; which compelled the pack trains and drivers of cattle to make the long drive to Boo Flats, in order to camp on good feed.

“The large areas of good lands lying south of Burns Lake were settled by the earliest land seekers in 1904. The first of them came in over the Bella Coola Trail. Early records state that Harry Morgan, Jim McDonald, Alan Goodwin and Divine cut the first pack trail through the Kemano Pass from Kitimat.

“I first camped at Burns Lake when I was making a dog team trip from Hazelton to the Nass River and back to Quesnel with Inspector Ned Charleson. Natives here at that time were Tommy Michell, Plasway Michell, and Alex Michell, with their wives and families. They could speak very little English and only a smattering of Chinook, with which I was conversant, having spent a couple of seasons sealing out of West Coast harbors.

“These natives were in a destitute condition, living on fish, meat and dried berries. They had a few horses and a little hay. One horse was on the verge of starvation, so I bought it for dog food.

“During the later days of the construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific (later changed to Canadian National) I was running a freight camp for the men at Houston. I met many of the settlers from this area there.

“I then went to the dying town of Priestley. That night the poker game ran wild, and in the morning I found myself the owner of all the tents and their contents and equipment.

“I returned to Burns Lake, and soon I was kept busy pitching tents for the transients. I took steps to try and have a town site surveyed, but it wasn't until 1917 that the sale of lots was held at Burns Lake.

“Up to this time there were only my tents and the CNR station, on what became the present town-site. On the Island were all the business buildings. A store and hotel buildings owned by Jack Seeley, Bob Gerow and Howie Laidlaw. They also had a sawmill. Laidlaw had the first Post Office on the island and held it until Jim McKenna became the first Postmaster on the town-site.

“After the sale, building began. I built the first hotel which was taken over by George McKenzie, who later disposed of it to Andy Ruddy in 1921. First known as the ‘Cheslatta’ after Boss Carpenter, ‘Dad Ash’ and his sons, who were the first settlers in the Cheslatta Valley. In 1917, Seeley and Gerow moved their hotel to where the Legion Hall now stands and built a store beside it. A log hall and house were built behind and a livery barn where Jim Lock lived. A store for the Sterns Hardware was built and this later became the Jewel Store and then the Burns Lake Cash & Delivery.

“Fred Aslin built his store in 1920 on the lot between which the Hub and the Igloo now stand. The Telegraph Office with HD McNeil in charge, and the drugstore of Gordon Wood, along with all these other buildings burned down on March 17, 1925.

“Carl Ostberg built what is now one of the Forestry Buildings in 1919. Hank Raymo built a house on what is now the property of the Catholic Church.

“At Francois Lake, the necessity of rafting was a great handicap and a ferry boat was in demand. The first Government ferry was a scow towed by a launch. Captain Wiggs O'Neil used all navigable waters en

route and in the spring of 1915, it was pulled from Burns Lake to Francois Lake by three heavy teams with Blaney's four oxen hitched to the skids on which the boat was loaded.

“And now a word or two of the well-known ones. As to Shorty Haven, he had an eventful career. Trapper, prospector, and a farmer, the records show that he came to central British Columbia with his partner Fullbrook in 1909. He took part in many of the strikes and worked at famous mines (Comstock) and then he went to Nome, Alaska in the days of the Gold rush.

“Dunc McGibbon received his early training driving dog teams and canoeing the Skeena River with the Hazelton Mail. He then partnered with Roy McDonald and Bill Sweeny.

“Among the earliest settlers from the south were Olaf Anderson, Harry and Jimmy Morgan, the three Bennett Bros, Harold, Cecil and Frank. Jim Newman, Bob and Jimmy Nelson, the Harrisons, John Michelson and Jack McCuish.

“Better known too many in this area was Dave Wiggens. Cataline also packed but not so much around Burns Lake. Dave Wintered his pack horses at Old Fort on Babine Lake and also on the Cheslatta range. Finally in his declining years, he was frozen to death at Hazelton.

“The late Robert R Jeffery and Lewis Ogilby Forde came through with pack and saddle horses from Ashcoft by way of Fort Fraser, and taking the train from the east end of Francois Lake to the Tom Harris settlement. In 1912 Robert Jeffery, or the ‘Chief’ as he had been known for many years, returned from a three-year stay on Cowichan Bay with his sons Jimmy, Wally, and Bobby. They left with two heavily loaded wagons, a saddle horse and two milk cows. Reaching the west end of Francois Lake, a huge raft was built. They waited for a favorable wind, and then they hoisted the big sail, and after an all-night sail, they reached the Tom Harris ranch.

“The names of the settlers who made Burns Lake their out-fitting point are legions. Mike Brennan will be forgotten by many. Warren Innes, was one of the earliest arrivals and located a lot of land for the Hunter interests, especially in the Colleymount area.

“The Tom Harris Ranch was the early stopping place for all be-knighted travelers and the stories told of his practical jokes will fill volumes. He was certainly the most visited man in the interior.

“One peaceful Sabbath two gentlemen from Alberta came in to look over the ranch with the intentions of buying it. They had written to Tom that they were on the way so he had baked a huge batch of bread, prepared a great roast for the oven, and told Harry McKean and I to have dinner at two pm. ‘Just in case them prairie chickens should come along, treat 'em white.’ Just at noon Jimmy Jeffrey, who was driving the Francois Lake Mail Stage drove in and unloaded the two passengers. Harry McKean tried to entertain them as they looked over everything. They were greatly impressed by the neatness of the cabin and more especially by the dinner preparations. Opening a small table drawer, they were surprised to see it full of small change and, quite a few bills. Much of it had been left by the frequent guests who never dared to offer Tom Harris payment. One remarked, ‘Mr Harris must be a very honest man.’ ‘Sure he is,’ replied McKean, ‘You see, he is the local church warden and takes up the collection when the Preacher

isn't around and keeps it for him.’ Harry was an apt pupil of Tom's. Just then Tom rode in, driving a bunch of cattle, and his language was that of the Chilcotin Trail. Harry rushed out and closed the door behind him. The sale did not go through.

“On another occasion Tom had gathered a big pan full of his choicest spuds. Looking out of the window, as he heard a team driven by Walter Williscroft and his wife coming through the gate and followed by a bunch of hogs, Tom threw the spuds to the hogs.

“’Oh, Mr. Harris, do you feed those beautiful potatoes to your hogs?’

"’Yes Mum,’ he replied, ‘I've just been hunting out some small ones for them.’

“Mrs Williscroft was astounded, but Walter knew Tom and just grinned.

“Prospectors made their headquarters at Burns Lake, but spent most of their time in the hills.

“John Michelson, one of the toughest prospectors in the hills, used to walk out to Bella Coola or Ocean Falls on snowshoes from Wistaria.

“The first white woman to settle down close to Burns Lake was Mrs George Wallace. She and her husband settled on the Gowan Ranch. He was locally known as the ‘Boer’ and the adjacent mountain still holds his name.

“The McKenna family came in during 1910 and homesteaded immediately.

“One of the first mail carriers was Johnny McCammis known as ‘Hudson Bay Jack’, who with Dick Carrol knocked down and packed on their horses the first automobile to reach Hazelton.

“Bobby Allen will be remembered as the first forest ranger at the old forestry cabin. This site was historic, as Cataline and all the old mule train packers make it a favorite camp. Bill Richmond and his family now live there.

“The trails and road houses from the Bulkley Summit to Endako were under the eagle eye of Constable Andy Fairburn. The trails were the least of his troubles, but the boot-leggers the greatest.

“Once, while the constable was away on patrol, a twenty gallon keg of the most vindictive alcohol arrived at the village in some mysterious way. It was shepherded by a character who called himself ‘the Dude Cowboy’. He was dressed in flashy riding boots, fifteen dollar shirt, and tailored buck-skin coat, heavily beaded and was crowned by a big fawn colored Stetson. ‘The Dude’ partnered up with the stout dishwasher at the local restaurant. She wore a huge apron and from her belt hung an Imperial quart of well-watered alcohol, with convenient glasses in her apron pockets. The ‘Dude’ kept her well supplied until Harry McLean put a smart young Indian named Adnas on his tracks. Adnas had been known to track a deer for two days and come back with fresh meat. He tracked the riding boots to a bush where the big keg was cached. From then on it changed hands frequently, finally landing in the cellar of Harry Johnson's cabin, without his knowledge. When he discovered it, he divided it among his many friends

and the town really celebrated. ‘The Dude’ and his assistant moved on to Freeport, from whence Andy Fairburn speeded them on their way.

“The first garage was operated by Bruce Kerr and Perry Beckstead. In 1922, it added an addition by Andy Anderson. Ira Short bought in the first carload of Fords which was sold by Fay Short, Johnny Short and Beckstead. The first Model ‘T’ was bought by Don Gerrow and named the ‘Mayflower’.

“Sid Goodwin who edited and printed the first newspaper, THE OBSERVER, was famed as a horticulturist and had a beautiful garden at his summer home near Imeasons Beach.

“The ‘Bun’ Smith Store was occupied by the Lowe and Brown Hardware Store, managed by Jack Brown. Jack, among his many other activities, has developed the Burns Lake Hardware and Garage.

“George McKenzie built the first store in the town-site on the lot where the old Burns Lake Drugs stands. The upper floor was used as a dance hall and on nights when the crowd became boisterous and the dancers were stamping out the Red River Jig or the Kalispel Hop, Gordy Wilson organized a crew to brace the walls and ceiling to prevent them from collapsing.

“On one occasion of the sale of Ladies Lunch Basket, the bidding ran high, for the town was full of trappers and fur buyers. Some bids went as high as seventy-five dollars, to the disgust of the local Romeos.

“The ladies had all gathered on the dance floor, but the men, after the sale had adjourned to the ‘Snake room’, taking all the baskets with them. The usual aggregatic of fiddlers were strumming away, and Frank Eckert, who was in great demand because of his ability with his accordion, called for a waltz. But the men were conspicuous by their absence. Sizing up the situation, the Auctioneer of the baskets went over to the snake room and addressed the gathering as follows: ‘Here, you guys, what kind of sports do you think you are? Don't you know you only bought half interest in those baskets? Take your basket back to the girl who made it up. She is supposed to be your partner, and you are responsible for her entertainment. Come on now and help get this dance going.’

“There was little argument. They gathered up the baskets and invaded the hall. The dance was a howling success and a new school was along the way. The little log cabin school for which they had to borrow children from Burns to go to Ootsa Lake, was soon a thing of the past.

“Mrs Frank Keefe was the first teacher of the old school. Today, the need of more rooms is evident and the present schools are proving inadequate.

“Burns Lake has really grown from the days of horse and buggy. There are stores of every kind to serve the community and many say that Burns Lake is ‘The Village of Churches’. There are three doctors and a dentist besides a fine hospital. There are many different active clubs for the people to join.

“In closing, I would like to state that it has been very gratifying to me to see the Burns Lake that I first saw at the turn of the century, develop into the splendid little town it is today.”56

***BURNT BRIDGE CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg remark: “Flows southwest into Bella Coola River. According to the local Indians, the bridge was accidently set on fire by a white man fearful of bears, who lit a fire at either end of the bridge before camping overnight at the center.”57

***CACHE CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg share: “Flows west into Bonaparte River. Commander RC Mayne, in his account of his inland journey in 1859, mentions camping ‘by the side of Riviere de la Cache, a small stream flowing into the Bonaparte.’ Cache Creek was earlier noted on David Douglas’ sketch map of 1833. This latter mention of Cache Creek, many years before the discovery of gold, demolishes Gosnell’s explanation that miners cached provisions here, and similarly the story, told in loving detail in Winnifred Futcher’s The Great North Road to the Cariboo, of how a lone gunman, having murdered a miner traveling south from Barkerville and stolen his eighty pounds of gold, was seriously wounded by a pursuing settler, cached his stolen gold, and disappeared forever, leaving only a rider less horse with a bloody saddle as evidence of his fate. The story has all the marks of a fine Cariboo yarn but is nothing more. All we can say is that, at some time in or before 1833, somebody cached something in the vicinity of Cache Creek. Mary Balf, formerly of the Kamloops Museum, may be right in suggesting that there was a collection point at Cache Creek for furs en route to Thompson’s River Post (Fort Kamloops).

“Today the word cache often refers to a place where supplies have been deposited on a raised platform out of the reach of wild animals. The meaning of the word in French, however, is ‘a hiding place’, and the cache of an early fur trader was exactly that. A round piece of turf about eighteen inches across was removed, leaving the mouth for a large bottle-shaped excavation. This excavation was lined with dry branches, and the cached goods were then inserted. Finally some earth and the round piece of turf were put on top and the surplus earth all carefully removed. If the job had been done expertly, possible marauders would see no evidence that they were passing a cache.”58

***CHARLIE LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

BC Geographical Names Office stresses: “Originally known as Old Charlie's Lake referring to an old Indian who lived at the south end of the lake; Old Charlie was the only person to live here year-round; others camped here seasonally.”59

***CHILLIWACK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Alan Rayburn composes: “Chilliwack post office opened in 1872, a village was created in 1873, and the city in 1908. Since 1980, it has been a district municipality. The incorporated township (1873), which surrounded the city before 1980, was called Chilliwhack. The Chilliwack River rises to the east in Chilliwack Lake, and flows west to join the Vedder River, in the southern part of the district municipality. The name of the Chilliwack, a Salish tribe, means either ‘quieter water on the head’ or ‘travel by way of a backwater or slough’.”60

***CHRISTINA LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

BC Geographical Names Office designates: “After Christina McDonald (1847-1926), daughter of Chief Factor Angus McDonald, Hudson's Bay Company headquarters at Colville, who used to accompany her father and the brigade to Kamloops each year. The brigade travelled the east bank of the Kettle River to Christina Creek, which was crossed 1/2 mile below Christina Lake. She acted as book-keeper for her father, carrying the records in a buckskin sack; the horses would be swum across the river and a raft built to carry the goods. One trip (June 1870?), the raft on which Christina was crossing this creek went to pieces and she was thrown into the rushing water along with the buckskin sack containing her father's HBC books and papers. She was carried down for some distance before being rescued, but when finally dragged ashore still had hold of the satchel of books, thereby saving its precious contents. For this deed the Council of Chiefs of the Colville Indians gave her and her heirs the sole right to trap and fish in the country tributary to this lake, hence her name for the creek and lake.”

Alternatively, “Named after Christina MacDonald McKenzie Williams, daughter of Catherine Baptiste and J Angus MacDonald, HBC chief trader at Fort Colville, 1852-70. Married James McKenzie, HBC clerk at Fort Colville who later operated a rival trading post adjacent to the HBC store at Kamloops, 1872. After her husband's death in 1873, Catherine continued to operate the business, and proved to be a most competent businesswoman, cutting deeply into the trade of the HBC... [Christina] Married Charles Williams in 1875 and moved to Montana, then to Idaho and eventually to Spokane, Washington, where she died in the winter of 1925-6.”61

***CRAIGELLACHIE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg expand: “West of Revelstoke. It was here that the last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railroad trans-continental line was driven in 1885.

“Craigellachie is the name of a high rock in Moray, Scotland. There in olden days the beacon fire was lit to summon Clan Grant in time of battle. The battle cry of the Grants was ‘Stand fast, Craigellachie!’ In 1884, when the finances of the Canadian Pacific Railroad were desperate, George Stephen (later Lord Mount Stephen) raised 50,000 pounds by guaranteeing that he, Donald Smith (later Lord Strathcona), and RB Angus would be personally responsible if the railway defaulted. Stephen and Smith, who were cousins, had grown up close to the crag of Craigellachie and knew the old war cry. After completion of the loan, Stephen’s message cabled from London to Smith in Montreal read, ‘Stand fast, Craigellachie.’”62

***DEATH RAPIDS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg illustrates: “North of Revelstoke. The old Dalles des Morts of the fur traders, one of the most dangerous stretches of the Columbia River route from Athabasca Pass. The worst of the many disasters here occurred in 1838 when twelve people drowned, among them the young botanist Robert Wallace and his bride, a daughter of Governor Simpson of the Hudson’s Bay Company.”63

BC Geographical Names Office maintains: “Dalles des Morts [mis-spelled Dalle de Mort on Trutch's 1871 map of British Columbia.] The French form originated with North West Company voyageurs in 1817, when seven men were wrecked here and all their food was lost. They began walking along the river

hoping to reach Spokane House, the nearest establishment, over 300 miles away. High water forced them up into the almost impenetrable forest. One by one they died, the survivors resorting to cannibalism. The last one was found by Indians on the shore of Upper Arrow Lake and was taken to Kettle Falls, whence he was conducted to Spokane House. His story that he had killed his last companion in self-defense was not believed, and he was dismissed from the North West Company service, escaping more serious punishment owing to lack of evidence against him.”

Alternatively, "In 1817 a party of seven Nor'westers was sent back to Spokane House [from Boat Encampment] because they were too ill to traverse the Rocky Mountains with the rest of the party. Their canoes and provisions were lost at the rapids here. Without supplies, they proceeded on foot very slowly, as they were weak and had only water for sustenance (there being no berries at this time of year). On the third day, the first man died and his remains were eventually eaten by the survivors. This continued until only two men were left, La Pierre and Dubois. Only La Pierre was found alive and he maintained that Dubois had attempted to kill him, but he had succeeded in overpowering and killing him in self-defense. La Pierre's story was doubted, but he couldn't be convicted on the evidence."64

***EDDONTENAJON LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg present: “Headwaters of Iskut River. From a Tahltan Indian phrase meaning ‘a little boy drowned’. According to legend a small boy was standing by the shore, trying to imitate the cry of a nearby loon. His mother rebuked the boy, warning him that if he copied the bird he would go into the water. The child persisted, fell into the lake, and drowned.”65

***FAIRMONT HOT SPRINGS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Fairmont Hot Springs Resort renders: “The recorded history of Fairmont Hot Springs begins the 1800s when the first explorers discovered the hot springs and curative powers of the warm sweet-smelling waters without the odiferous sulphur that permeates the waters of many natural mineral hot springs.

“The first homesteader in the area was the Englishman George Geary. Geary arrived in the area in 1887 and his homestead was a vast tract of land that included the hot springs. The original Geary home is still well preserved and visible on the south end of Mountainside Golf Course. Geary departed in 1888, turning over his holding to Sam Brewer, who came to Canada from the US.

“Sam Brewer operated a stagecoach stop, and his historic home in Fairmont Hot Springs is still inhabited to this day. The Resort’s Brewer’s Market is named in honor of this early pioneer. The name Fairmont Hot Springs was given to the area by Mrs John Galbraith, wife of a ferry operator at Galbraith’s Landing, located near Fort Steele, about 23 km from Cranbrook.

“In the early 1900s W Heap Holland, a manufacturer from England, arrived in the area. Intrigued by the hot water, he purchased the property from Sam Brewer and operated it as a ranch and resort. The original wooden Holland Barn is still a well-known landmark in Fairmont Hot Springs, located at the entrance to Mountainside Golf Course. Holland’s son took over as an absentee owner after Holland’s death, and installed a manager in residence.

“In 1957, two Saskatchewan brothers, Earl and Lloyd Wilder, purchased the property with a group of Invermere businessmen. At that time, the hot spring resort consisted of a few tent cabins, surrounding one small pool with outdoor changing rooms. Shortly after purchasing the property, the Wilder brothers bought out the other investors and, by 1965, Lloyd had purchased Earl’s share and became the sole owner and entrepreneur. He immediately began the major expansion over 40 years that resulted in the basis of the resort we see today.

“In 2006, Canadian investment group Ken Fowler Enterprises acquired Fairmont Hot Springs Resort; the following year it acquired Riverside Golf Course. Since then the BC resort has upgraded and improved many facilities including the golf courses and ski area, opened new dining venues, and developed Mountainside Ridge.”66

BC Geographical Names Office sheds light on: "Near Brewer's Ranch, about thirteen miles south of Windermere and only a few hundred yards from the main road, there is a series of hot springs, known as Fairmont Springs, which at this point bubble out from the side-hill. The waters as they leave the ground have a temperature of from 90° to 120°F. These springs, some twenty or twenty-five in number, cover an area of several acres and are of varying size and temperature, the largest running about as much water as would come out of a 3-inch pipe under a 10-foot head. The water is as clear as crystal and is evidently highly charged with lime and a little iron, judging from the deposits which form on the surface around the springs. This deposit forms in the shape of a circular basin with the spring in center - regular natural baths - much used as such by the people of the locality, who credit the waters with great medicinal properties, a belief handed down by the Indians of the neighborhood. There are several of these basins in the creek-bottom with waters at a temperature of 100°F, while within 5 feet flows a good-sized creek with water at 40 degrees, providing the 'hot bath and cold plunge' of the Turkish bath."67

***FANNY BAY, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Arv Olson suggests: “The first recorded mention of Fanny Bay appeared on map in the 1864 Vancouver Island Pilot. It was presumably designated by Captain George Henry Richards, a royal navy hydrographer who was an ardent ‘place namer’.

“None of various explanations for the name – comical, romantic, local or historical – cannot be regarded without skepticism.

“Richards’ extensive surveys of the island coastline provided the basis for that Pilot volume. If he knew who Fanny was, he left the information unrecorded.

“Among versions of the name’s origin: Fanny was the wife of a British naval officer – Rear Admiral Geoffrey Phipps Hornby, his son, Geoffrey Thomas Phipps Hornby, who commanded the frigate HMS Tribune, or Rear Admiral Sir Robert Lambert Baynes, Pacific Fleet commander in 1859.

“Commander Hornby anchored the 31-gun frigate Tribune in the beautiful island bay. His father, incidentally, never set foot on Hornby Island. The Tribune came to the colony from the China Station in 1859 to increase British strength during the San Juan Islands crisis.

“Capt Richards also named Baynes Sound and Denman Island for Rear Admiral Joseph Denman (1864-6). He designated Lambert Channel between Hornby and Denman Islands after Lionel Lambert, Royal Navy flag lieutenant to Baynes on the flagship Ganges.

“From 1856 to 1863, Richards commanded both the steam sloop Plumper and the Hecate, a paddle sloop. He completed his Vancouver Island surveys on the Hecate by 1863 after a survey tour in Australia.

“Richards spent 1858-9 in the Fraser River, Burrard Inlet and Victoria areas before sailing counter clockwise around Vancouver Island. He also chartered the Hudson’s Bay Company ship, the Beaver, for survey work.

“Adm Richards, 1820-96, was responsible for many place names. They include the Beaufort Range, Gambier, Keats, Mayne, Bowyer, Bowen, Galiano, Meares, and Valdez Islands, Cowichan Bay, Coal Harbor, Malaspina Strait, Howe Sound and Campbell River. He named one of his sons, Vancouver Alexander.

“Many conjectures surround the Fanny Bay name, though all inventions and evidence remain inconclusive. A native maiden who drowned when her canoe capsized in the bay was said to have been called Fanny. The moniker was credited to Hecate crewmen who spotted a well-endowed, unclad female cavorting on the shoreline.

“Another legend: a wistful, young naval officer on a survey ship anchored in the bay was discovered gazing at the sun setting on the Beaufort hills. Asked of his preoccupation, he replied, ‘I’m thinking of my dear Fanny in England.’ The officer became Rear Admiral Baynes who, the story goes, eventually married his beloved Fanny and escorted her to the bay bearing her name. A fable, perhaps. But a love story that the light of hear would like to believe.

“A more plausible explanation for the name: Baynes’ wife was Frances Denman, daughter of RA Joseph Denman and Fanny happens to be the pet form of Frances.

“Then again Richards might have tagged the bay after the schooner Fanny which sailed between Leith, Scotland, and Sydney. It was lost off the English coast in 1836 when Richards was 16 and probably as an impressionable sea cadet.

“Another Australian connection exists. In the 1840s young Richards served on various surveying expeditions to New Zealand and Australia on the HMS Acheron, under Capt John Lort Stokes, and perhaps on expeditions with Capt George Goyder.

“Goyder founded the city of Darwin in Australia’s Northern Territory. His survey party named nearby Fannie Bay after Fannie Carandini, a popular opera singer of the day. The crew would almost have

certainly attended Carandini concerts in Adelaide before setting out for Darwin. While the spelling ‘Fannie’ remains on Darwin maps, the singer legally changed it to Fanny for promotional purposes.

“Two other British Columbia basins bear the name Fanny Bay. They’re located east of the mouth of Butte Inlet, northwest of Raza Island, and on the west side of Phillips Arm, east of Loughborough Inlet. Their name origins are also unknown, though we do know that Richards circumnavigated Vancouver Island and that he took pleasure naming places.”68

***FASCINATION MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Alan Rayburn calls attention to: “Situated in the Coast Mountains, southeast of Mount Washington, this mountain (3,048 meters) was named about 1927 by climber Walter Alfred (Don) Munday (1890-1950), who found it a challenging and shapely mountain.”69

***GOLD BRIDGE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Bridge River Valley Economic Development Society connotes “Gold Bridge is a small town nestled in the Bridge River Valley, among the towering peaks of the South Chilcotin Mountains. It has a rich and fascinating history, full of railways, ghost towns, flooded valleys, old mines, and trails. Since 1859, when gold was first discovered on Bridge River, this region has been home to miners and their families.

“The big gold rush began in the 1930s at the Bralorne-Pioneer Mine near Gold Bridge. It was the richest gold claim in Canada, producing more than four million ounces of gold before it closed in 1971 and prompted the construction of a complete town. The mine has been abandoned for many years but recently there has been new mining activity in the area.

“History buffs still find plenty of old ghost towns and abandoned mines to poke around in.”70

***GOLD RIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

www.goldriver.ca details: “Gold panning attracted Chinese miners into the traditional territory of the Mowachaht and Muchalaht peoples in the 1860s, and the name Gold River first appeared on maps in 1871.

“In the early 1960s the Tahsis company logged at the mouth of the river. In 1964 they began building a 750 ton-a-day bleached kraft pulp-mill there, because of the flat delta land, the deep-sea access for oceangoing freighters, and the steady source of water.

“The Company also selected a site eight miles east of the mill on which to build a town to service the needs of the mill and in 1965 Gold River, a resource-based community appeared - Canada's first all-electric town, and the first in Canada with underground wiring. Incorporated in 1965 as a District, it reincorporated itself in 1972 as the Village Municipality of Gold River.

“In the mid-1980's, the mill added a paper manufacturing component, thus creating a short-term building boom and increasing employment. However, newsprint prices soon collapsed amid a glut of

new supply, the cost of wood chips increased, and high interest rates proved so crippling that in 1993 paper production shut down. In 1998 the mill ceased operations entirely.

“As working families moved away, many of the houses in the town were sold at auction-- some to Europeans. Since then Gold River has reinvented itself as a west-coast tourism hub. Affordable housing, a friendly small town atmosphere, excellent civic amenities and a paved all weather road connecting it to the more populated eastern coast of Vancouver Island have helped fuel a rebirth of the community.

“On the edge of Strathcona Park, Gold River has much to offer people who love the outdoors: about 10 miles away, the Upana Caves are easily accessible to spelunkers; the Crest Creek Crags, Kings Peak, and Elkhorn Mountains challenge rock climbers; rugged trails attract mountain bikers; the steelhead fishing in the Gold River ranks with the best in BC; and a visit to the Conuma River Estuary allows a glimpse of black bear, elk, or coastal black-tailed deer.

“Nearby, Nootka Sound abounds with salmon in summer, with halibut and rock cod year round, and close at hand freshwater fishing fans try their luck in many lakes and rivers. The Uchuck III, floatplanes or water-taxis take tourists and history buffs to Friendly Cove and to the start of the Nootka Trail. Possessing all tourist amenities, Gold River is only the starting point for a host of outdoor west-coast activities.”71

***GOLDEN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

BC Geographical Names Office explains: “So-named because when the pioneers saw it first, as they descended into the valley, it was all golden and shining in the sun.”

BC Geo continues: “The ‘Big Cache’ of Canadian Pacific Railway surveyors in the early 1880s. In 1883, FW Aylmer, CE, changed the name to Golden City, in rivalry with a construction gang at Silver City, an abortive mining camp near Castle Mountain.”

Also, “’This town of Golden was named before the Canadian Pacific Railway came to the Columbia Valley. It was called this name by a man named Baptiste Morigeau, who had at the time a ranch on the east side of Lake Windermere. This man started a store on the north bank of the Kicking Horse River and packed in supplies on pack horses first from Calgary and after the railroad was built further west, he then packed in from Laggan which is now Lake Louise. The reason Golden got its name is, that at this time there was a small mining town at Castle Mountain...called Silver City, so he said he would call his location Golden, and this is how this town got its name. I have heard him tell this many times as he was my father-in-law.’"72

***GOLDSTREAM, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Paula Wuorinen imparts: “The Victoria Gazette of August 25, 1858, reported that a Mr TW Davidson, an experienced miner from Monte Cristo, Sierra County, California, had discovered gold on Deadman’s Creek, fifteen miles to the northwest of Victoria. The next day about five hundred miners were on their way to the new diggings via Craigflower Road, Mr Langford’s farm, Langford Lake, the brow of Mt Skirt and thence to the creek which ran from the lake to Finlayson Inlet. Great excitement prevailed but the

diggings were soon abandoned from an overflow of water in the creek, which stopped the work before the miners had time to get to the bed-rock.

“On August 22, 1862, the Victoria Colonist reported that fine gold had been found by the party engaged in cutting the trail from Langford’s Lake to Cowichan. Four months later, in December, 1862, a rumor circulated that gold had been discovered within twenty-five miles of Victoria.

“The story of Goldstream’s 1863 gold rush is found in the Victoria Evening Express and the Victoria Colonist. A diary of events follows. October 19, 1863 – A party of four miners, sent out by Governor Sir James Douglas eight to ten days prior to prospect for gold in the Victoria neighborhood, returned and reported that they had discovered diggings paying 4 or 5 cents to the pan, and also veins of quartz supposed to contain gold or silver. The locality of the discovery was on a stream flowing into Gold or Deadman’s Creek between the twelfth and thirteenth mileposts on the Cowichan trail, about two or three miles from Landford’s Lake, an area thoroughly prospected in 1858. A number of persons carrying packs and mining tools started for the scene of new excitement. The new ‘Douglas Diggings’ at Goldstream presented the appearance of a thorough mining locality possessing every facility for working. The proximity of the location would tender the working expenses trifling; mining would be easy owing to excellent facilities for washing and the shallowness of the diggings; and, the road was accessible as a dray could be taken within four miles of the spot, whence packing was very easy on horse or foot. Should the discovery be confirmed, the Colonist believed that the beneficial consequence to Victoria would be inestimable. A major concern was finding employment for the surplus population.”73

***HELL’S HALF ACRE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg mention: “East of Monkman Lake. A slide area of immense boulders, some as big as a house, thrown helter-skelter, with many dangerous crevices. Named by men seeking a route for the Monkman Pass Highway.”74

BC Geographical Names Office puts into words: “Originally so-named in 1937 by trail blazers working for the Monkman Pass Highway Association, described by them as an area of immense boulders, some as big as a house, thrown and piled helter-skelter, with many dangerous crevices; the slide originated from a 6,400-foot buttress of Mount Watts.”75

***HOPE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg reports: “Fort Hope was built in 1848-9 by Henry Newsham Peers, a clerk in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company. A year earlier Peers had discovered a way through the mountains here (up the Coquilhalla River and Peers Creek, over Fools Pass, along Podunk Creek and across the Tulameen River). The HBC hoped that, with the building of a trail, this would prove a feasible all-British route by which their brigades could travel between Fort Kamloops and Fort Langley. (It was important that the brigades should not have to dip below the 49th parallel into who had recently become American territory.) It was this hope, which was in fact realized, that a useable all-British route had been found, which led the HBC to name their new establishment Fort Hope.”76

Hope Visitor Guide shows: “Ever wonder why Hope exists, and how it received such an evocative name?

“In 1848, the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) built Fort Hope as a key transfer point linking the Fraser River to Fort Kamloops. The new fort represented the HBC’s best ‘hope’ of replacing fur trading routes lost to the Americans after the 49th parallel was established in 1846. The trail was completed in 1849 and served as the HBC’s critical fur trade route between British Columbia’s coast and interior far more than a decade.

“From 1849 to 1860, brigades comprised of hundreds of men and pack animals carried many tons of cargo over this rugged mountain trail.

“Valuable furs from the British Columbia interior traveled west on the trail, were loaded onto boats at Fort Hope, then shipped downriver to Fort Langley and world markets beyond. On the return trip, food and supplies were carried east over the Cascades to re-supply interior forts. The trail played an important role in the early development of British Columbia and Canada.

“The HBC Trail was originally a First Nations trail used for hunting and east-west trade. An Upper Similkameen chief at Otter Lake named Blackeye described the route to AC Anderson (an HBC employee) in 1846. Sto:lo and Nlaka’pamux guides helped to locate the route from Fort Hope, over Manson’s Ridge and Mount Davis, connecting with Blackeye’s Trail across the Tulameen Plateau.

“The HBC Trail of 1849 is now a designated heritage trail protected by the province. A local non-profit society, the Hope Mountain Centre, has re-opened the trail for hiking, horseback riding, and mountain biking. Four new campsites were built in 2012, and 50 kilometers of the original trail have been cleared and flagged. Funding comes from the New Pathways to Gold Society and Recreation Sites and Trails British Columbia, with the support of a passionate group of volunteers.”77

DGF Macdonald talks about: “In several parts of British Columbia the Hudson’s Bay Company have trading establishments for trafficking with the native tribes. The buildings are all constructed on the same general plan, and located on the banks of lakes and rivers. In ascending Fraser River and New Westminster, the first of these ports arrived at is Fort Langley, thirteen miles from New Westminster. This is an extensive and important station, where the Company keep a large quantity of goods. It is in fact a distributing point to places above, and hither the Indian trappers and hunters resort for supplies. The Company have here a farm of considerable extent, well stocked with cattle and horses, which keep in pretty fair condition considering the coarseness of the grass. The land is good and produces fair crops, although never very heavy ones. The Indians in the neighborhood are sadly demoralized, and useless for any occupation except the chase. The next post is sixty miles farther up, known as Fort Hope, and consists of three or four block buildings with an enclosure. The buildings are in a dilapidated state, yet the trade carried on in them is very large. The next place is Fort Yale, thirteen miles from Fort Hope, where there has been lately erected a commodious block store. Fifty miles hence is situate Fort Dallas, and about thirty-four miles above Dallas is Fort Berens. Deflecting about eighty miles east Fort Thompson is reached, which is situated on the north branch of Thompson’s Fork, not far distant from the junction with the main stream. This is the only post the Company have in British Columbia to the east of Fraser River. One hundred and thirty miles above Fort Berens is Fort Alexander, named after Sir

Alexander Mackenzie, who in 1793 pointed out the spot as favorable for a trading station. This is an important point in the east bank of the Fraser, nearly in latitude 53 degrees north. Besides these may be enumerated Fort Chilcotine, fifty-seven miles southwest from Alexander; Fort George, a hundred miles north of Alexander; and the less important stations of Fort Fraser, Macleod, and St James. In the extreme northwest of British Columbia is Fort Simpson, adjacent to the Russian possessions, which is the mart for the tribes of Queen Charlotte’s Island. It is named after the late Sir George Simpson, for thirty-five years the Chief Governor of the Company, who died on September 7, 1860. The fur trade is carried on by the Company, over a much wider field than the territory of British Columbia, the whole northern Continent being within their comprehensive system.”78

RC Mayne catalogs: “Of the banks of the Lower Fraser, between the mouth of the river and Fort Hope, the Governor writes: ‘The banks of this river are almost everywhere covered with woods. Varieties of pine, and first of prodigious size, and large popular-trees, predominate. The vine and soft maple, the wild apple-tree, the white and black thorn, and deciduous bushes in great variety, form the massive undergrowth. The vegetation is luxuriant, almost beyond conception, and at this season of the year presents a peculiarly beautiful appearance. The eye never tires of ranging over the varied shades of the fresh green foliage, mingling with the clustering white flowers of the wild apple-tree, now in full blossom and filling the air with delicious fragrance. As our boat, gliding swiftly over the surface of the smooth waters, occasionally swept beneath the overhanging boughs that form a canopy of leaves impervious to the sun’s scorching rays, the effect was enchanting.”79

Inge Wilson conveys: “The Halkomelem Indian name for the site of Hope means ‘bald’ or ‘bare’. According to the Sto:lo Nation the village of Ts’go:ls stood on the town site location. The meaning of the word was ‘bare’ or ‘bald’, referring to the trees along the Fraser River at this location which are barren of branches along one side because of prevailing winds from the river side.”80

CE Barrett-Lennard discusses: “We will now retrace our steps, and ascend the Fraser River to Fort Hope. The current in this part of its course is tremendous, and the difficulty of stemming it proportionately great. The steamers seldom succeed in achieving a higher speed than from one to two knots per hour, and I have known them not to make an inch for hours together. On the occasion of the trip I am now describing, our steamer made fast a rope to the trunk of a tree, to assist in stemming the current. This broke, however, but some of our party happening to be on shore, were lucky enough to catch the broken end, and make it fast to another tree. I, in company with several others, performed the remainder of the distance to Fort Hope on foot, leaving the steamer to battle with the current as best she could. We passed several parties of Chinamen, washing the sands of the river for gold, the rockers being generally worked by parties of from three to four. The number of Chinese to be met with all over the world, wherever gold has been discovered, is a singular and characteristic fact. They are to be found in Australia, California, and now here, and in great numbers. Being frugal, persevering, and abstemious, they generally succeed, not only in purchasing their enfranchisement of the agent who has shipped them from their own country and supplied them with the few necessities they required on arriving, but also in taking back with them a competence on their return home. One whole street in Victoria is filled with them – it is called Pandora Street; walking through it, one might almost fancy oneself in Canton.

This is also the headquarters of the merchants, who have their stores here, and many of whom do a very considerable trade.

“On reaching Fort Hope we got some Indians to ferry us across in a canoe, we being on the right bank of the river, while the Fort is situated on the left bank. Having effected the passage with some difficulty, the current being still very strong, we landed in the little town which has recently grown up around the original Hudson’s Bay Fort. The old fort, which I remembered in its primitive state, has been done away with, and the town, as it now stands, consists of two or three streets, and a few stores or shops. Soon after landing, the shrill whistle of the steamer coming up showed she was not far behind us.

“Fort Hope is situated at an angle or bend of the Fraser River, and at its junction with the Coquiklum. The latter is a very picturesque little mountain stream, the waters of which being fed by melting snows, are intensely cold, and are said to abound in excellent trout.

“Fort Hope occupies the center of a panorama of mountain scenery, of the most grand and beautiful description, forming a fitting prelude to the wild and terrible character of that to be met with above Yale, where the Fraser River flows between two almost perpendicular walls of naked rocks of dizzy height.

“Adjoining Fort Hope is the village of Tum Sioux Indians. It presents the usual characteristics of an Indian village, but we must not omit to mention that, in addition to these their ordinary habitations, this tribe have a number of holes dug in the earth, which, when roofed over, and intended to form their dwelling-places in very severe weather.

“On the occasion of one of my visits to this village, I heard sounds of chanting, in which many voices were mingled, issuing from one of the larger huts, and bearing a striking resemblance in their general character to a Roman Catholic service. My curiosity being aroused, I essayed to enter, but was arrested on the threshold by a functionary in a blanket, who evidently filled the office of a Tum Sioux ‘Bumble’. After a time, however, I was admitted, and before the service was entirely concluded. I found a party of Indians, to the number of thirty or forty, emerged in bowing and crossing themselves in the intervals of chanting. I did not observe that they made use of any of the emblems of the Romish Church, but feel sure that the atmosphere of the place in which they were assembled would, at any rate, have been greatly improved by the introduction of a little incense.

“I doubt whether these poor ‘savages’ attached any particular meaning or significance to any of the rites and ceremonies in the performance of which they were engaged. They had, no doubt, been told by the Roman Catholic missionaries, who had been their instructors that is was klosh (good) for them to act after this fashion, and therefore did their best in their rude way to carry out the injunctions of their teachers.

“Before taking leave of our Indian friends, of whom I hope the reader is not yet wearied, I must say a few words about the important functionary the Tumanas, as he is called on the western shores of Vancouver, or ‘Medicine Man’. His post is, I believe, a lucrative one, but at the same time, has a set of against its advantages, should a patient happen to expire under his treatment – a consummation by no

means improbable, considering the nature of the curative process – it is quite within the limits of possibility that the friends and relatives of the deceased may take it into their heads to sacrifice the unfortunate Tumanas to the manes of their relatives.

“The mode of treatment adopted by the Medicine Man consists generally in creating a frightful uproar in the chamber of the sick person, whether with the design of arousing the drooping faculties of the patient or of scaring away evil spirits, I never could rightly ascertain, but know that I have often felt the greatest commiseration for the unfortunate sick who have to undergo the suffering of such an ordeal, at a time when quiet and repose are more than ever desirable. I have seen the unhappy victims of perhaps a bilious attack, accompanied by violent headache, or the weakened and debilitated sufferers from recent fever, tortured by the insensate method of cure adopted by the Tumanas, who persists in dancing about the apartment and yelling at the top of his voice, and, as if this were not noise enough, accompanying himself meanwhile by the horrid uproar of a couple of Indian rattles, one in either hand. When I inform the reader that the latter instruments consist of two hollow pieces of wood, bound together by cords, and filled with loose stones, he will be able to realize at once the delectable sounds they may be made to produce, and the very great probability of their being conducive to the comfort of a sickroom. To crown all, the Medicine Man will occasionally vary his performances by administering smart blows to the patient in various parts of his body – in plain English, boxing his ears and thumping his chest.

“I remember that on one of the first occasions of my witnessing the extraordinary performances of the Tumanas, they appeared to me so extremely ludicrous that, in spite of my utmost efforts, I could not forbear laughing outright. One of the relatives of the sick person, who was looking on in a state of silence and composure, probably not unmixed with awe, bent on me from time to time looks of reproving gravity, until at length, finding that these failed to check my irresistible inclination to laugh, he abruptly exclaimed, with mingled indignation and astonishment, ‘Kopa kha mika hee hee?’ – ‘What are you laughing at?’”81

***HUDSON’S HOPE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg expounds: “Peace River. This is the municipality’s official spelling of its name even though the post office here, ever since it was opened in 1913, has used the name Hudson Hope.

“The post was known as early as 1873 as Hudson’s Hope and The Hope of Hudson. The origin of the name is unknown. Sir William Butler, passed this way in 1873, tells an anecdote in which it figures as a Hudson’s Bay Company outpost, thus giving support to those who maintain that the name was an ironic comment on the Hudson’s Bay Company action in putting a seasonal trading post here, administrated from Fort St John. On the other hand, another school of thought maintains that the Hudson of The Hope of Hudson was a hypothetical prospector who panned here for gold. A very old meaning of the word hope is ‘a small inlet, valley, or haven’.”82

Kathy Burseth impresses: “Recorded as early as 1869, the origin of the name is an unsolved mystery. There are however, several conjectures as to how the name was given: It was named after an old prospector named Hudson or Hodgson who hoped to make a strike here; It was named after the Hudson

Bay Company in their establishment of a post here, the farthest point of navigation before the portage; The word Hope historically meant a small enclosed valley, especially a smaller opening branching out from the main dale and running up the mountain ranges; upland part of a mountain valley; a blind valley (shorter oxford English dictionary, and new English dictionary). ***These meanings were used to the end of the 19th century and place names ending in Hope were quite common in Scotland and north-eastern England.

“Throughout our community’s historical documents, the name has been recorded as Hudson’s Hope. Somehow (subject to legend) around 1915 the postal authorities omitted the ‘’s’ from their rubber stamp. In 1990, a new cancellation stamp for the Post Office was finally made.“83

BC Geographical Names Office notates: “Rocky Mountain Portage House was the first fort built in what is now BC, built by Simon Fraser in 1805 as a base for Northwest Company explorations to the west. Taken over by Hudson's Bay Company in 1821, as an outpost of Fort St John then abandoned for a time in 1825 to punish Indians for the 1823 Fort St John massacre. Re-established 1874, and seems to have been known as Hudson's Hope or Hope of Hudson.”

Conversely, “Various theories for name: prospector with hopes of finding gold; Hudson's hopes of finding northwest passage; ‘a small enclosed valley, esp “a smaller opening branching out from the main dale, and running up to the mountain ranges; the upland part of a mountain valley”; a blind valley.’ ‘an inlet, small bay, haven’ used until the late 19th century; place names ending in hope common in Scotland and northern England.”

Finally, “The post was known as early as 1873 as Hudson's Hope or the Hope of Hudson. The origin of the name is unknown. Sir William Butler, who passed this way in 1873, tells an anecdote in which it figures as a Hudson’s Bay Company outpost, thus giving support to those who maintain the name was an ironic comment on the Hudson’s Bay Company's action in putting a seasonal trading post here, administered from Fort St John. On the other hand, another school of thought maintains the Hudson of The Hope of Hudson was a hypothetical prospector who panned here for gold. A very old meaning of hope is a small inlet, valley or haven.”84

***ICONOCLAST MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Alan Rayburn puts pen to paper: “In the Selkirk Mountains, northwest of Rogers Pass, this mountain (3,240 meters) was named in 1902 by surveyor Arthur O Wheeler (1860-1945) after its steep black face. Five years later surveyor Percy Carson described it as a very prominent majestic mountain whose name was quite suitable.”85

***JACKASS MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg represents: “Fraser Canyon. The old Cariboo Road, narrow and without any protective parapet, came around a corner here with a drop of 500 feet to the Fraser below. According to an old story, a frightened woman passenger screamed at Steve Tingley, the famous driver of the

Cariboo coach, ‘What happens if we go over the edge, Mr Tingley?’ To which he replied imperturbably, ‘Lady, that all depends on what sort of life you’ve been leading.’

“Among those things that did go over the edge in the days before the trail was widened into a road was a jackass laden with miners’ goods, presumably en route to the Cariboo goldfields.”86

***JEMMY JONES ISLAND, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg specify: “Off Oak Bay. After one of the most colorful characters in British Columbia’s early history, Captain James (Jemmy) Jones (1830-82), who lost a schooner, the Caroline, on the shore here. His most famous exploit occurred in 1865 after he had been imprisoned for debt in Victoria and his schooner, the Jenny Jones, had been seized at Olympia, Washington, by a US marshal. Disguised as a passenger on the Jenny Jones when the marshal took her to Seattle for sale, en route, while the marshal was ashore for a night, Jemmy repossessed his ship. After sundry adventures he reached Mexico aboard it, where he sold the ship. Later, tried for stealing the Jenny Jones, Jemmy was acquitted on the very reasonable ground that the marshal had left the ship, not the ship the marshal. Jones could neither read nor write, but he made do with acuteness and a good memory.”87

***KALAMALKA LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg tell: “South of Vernon. The Okanagan Indian word chelootsoos (meaning ‘long lake cut in the middle’) was applied specifically to the narrow strip of land separating Kalamalka Lake from Wood Lake to the south. This strip was sometimes called the Railway because it resembled a railway embankment, while Kalamalka Lake was formerly known as Long Lake.

“Kalamalka was a well-known old Indian who once lived at the head of this lake. Kay Cronin in her Cross in the Wilderness (p 132-3) tells the touching story of Chief Kalamalka and his wives. In his old age, Kalamalka was very anxious to become a Christian and repeatedly asked Father Le Jacq to baptize him. Each time the good father protested that he could not do so until Kalamalka gave up his heathen practice of having four wives. Loyal to his wives, Kalamalka produced reasons against putting aside any of them: one was the mother of his oldest son, another was lame from the terrible frostbite she had suffered once when saving him amid the winter snows, and so the story continued. At length Father Le Jacq was so moved by the old Indian’s constancy to his wives, along with his tremendous desire to be a Christian that he appealed on his behalf to the bishop, only to hear his own ruling repeated – Kalamalka must settle for a single wife.

“Coming back sadly from New Westminster, Father Le Jacq received from Kalamalka the tidings that at last he had only one wife. She turned out to be none of the four, but a good-looking young woman! The four wives had held a conference, decided that a new young wife could take over a lot of the work, and had sent the chief to find a new wife while they went into retirement. And so from that day on, old Kalamalka had one wife but supported all five women, was baptized, and presumably, was happy.

“The word kalamalka can be identified as an Okanagan Indian man’s name, making very suspect a theory that it is a Hawaiian name brought into the country by one of the Kanakas employed by the Hudson’s Bay Company.”88

BC Geographical Names Office chronicles: "When I came here in 1884 the range lying between Vernon and the Coldstream at the head of Long Lake was known as the Tanamalka Range and there was an old Indian Chief living at the head of Long Lake who was known as Tanamalka. I do not know whether the Chief was called after the range or the range after the Chief... When the big hotel was built in Vernon it was called the Kalemalka Hotel. This was afterwards changed to Kalamalka Hotel. Isaac Harris of Armstrong says this word Kalamalka is composed of two words - one a Shuswap Indian word and one an Okanagan Indian word and that one word means ‘water’ and the other means ‘soothing or healing’. The Indian name for Long Lake is Chelootsoos."

Alternatively, "I have been in Vernon now for over 42 years... me and the old timers knew of no other name[s] than Long Lake and Wood Lake. Up until 1908 Wood Lake was distinct as from Long Lake; during that year a channel (canal) was made connecting the two, but Wood Lake has never been confused with or known to be a part of Long Lake. Some years ago I worked with Leonard Norris (our founder) on place names, etc, and we always referred to Long Lake and Wood or Wood's Lake as being two distinct bodies of water. In the early 20s some of the bigwigs started a campaign to rename Long Lake as Kalamalka as such sounded less commonplace. My late brother Chas D Simms came here in April 1887 & died in the late 30s - I had never known him to mention the name Kalamalka. However, more and more people are now using the name Kalamalka as our local radio station appears to insist on using such and the people are naturally following suit."89

***KINCOLITH, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

JW Phillips declares: “This community on Portland Inlet bears a native meaning ‘rock of scalps’ because Haida Indians returning from a slave raid up the Nass River once killed several slaves whose struggles threatened to upset the war canoes and then hung their scalps on the bluff.”90

***KLINIKLINI RIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Alan Rayburn displays: “Rising northeast of Mount Waddington, this river flows west and then south into the head of Knight Inlet. In Kwakwala the name means ‘eulachon grease’, a valuable component in the diet of both coastal and interior Aboriginal tribes. The oily eulachon is also called ‘candlefish’. The river provided a ‘grease-trail’ route into the interior, where the Kwakwala traded with the Chilcotin and other tribes. The post office at Kleena Kleene, where the Chilcotin-Bella Coola Highway, crosses the river, was named in 1927.”91

***LEJAC, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg express: “South shore of Fraser Lake. After Father Jean-Marie Le Jacq, perhaps the most saintly of all the priests of the Congregation of Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate. Father Le

Jacq came to Williams Lake in April 1867. In 1873 he founded the Mission of Our Lady of Good Hope on Stuart Lake, by Fort St James. From here he covered an enormous territory.

“Kay Cronin recalls interviewing an old Indian who had known Father Le Jacq: ‘When I see Pere Le Jacq come, my heart cry,’ said Louis Billy. ‘He come from Babine. He walk; his blanket, his portable alter, his grub, on his back. And when he come, he cover his feet with his cassock because he has no stockings. But I see there is blood in his shoes.’ Not surprisingly Cronin concludes: ‘Of all the Oblate Fathers who had, or have since, worked among the northern tribes, none seems to have made such a deep impression on them or commanded more respect than did Father Le Jacq. Even today there are many among the Indians who are firmly convinced that the man was a living saint. And the tales still told about him are near-legendary’ (Cross in the Wilderness, p 134). Le Jacq died in New Westminster in 1899.”92

***MAIDEN CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg note: “Flows east into Bonaparte River. Walter Moberly had the following Indian legend from Sir James Douglas. Once an Indian maiden was betrothed to a young Indian chief, a great warrior, and hunter. During the winter he went away for a very long time on a hunting trip. His maiden waited anxiously for him since they were to be married that winter. Spring came and the maiden sat, still watching for her lover, near the junction of this creek with the Bonaparte River. Finally she saw him approaching, but with him was a wife whom he had married when visiting a distant band. The maiden died of grief, and her band buried her where she had kept her watch. From her breasts grew two little mounts, and they are the twin knolls seen today near the mouth of Maiden Creek.”93

***MESACHIE LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg record: “South of Cowichan Lake. The Chinook jargon word meaning ‘bad’ or ‘evil’. The Cowichan Indians believed that an old man (called the Mesachie Man in legends) lived in the lake and that anyone trespassing on his territory would be drowned in the lake’s dark and forbidding waters.”94

***MISSION, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

www.hellobc.com reveals: “Shortly after the Fraser River Gold Rush that led to the founding of British Columbia in 1858, the first European settlers arrived in Mission. They were Catholic priests, known as the Oblates of Mary Immaculate.

“Missionary Leon Fouquet founded St Mary's Mission in 1862. Mission was also unfortunately the location of the first residential school for aboriginal people in British Columbia. By 1883, the church and school had relocated from the banks of the Fraser River to the site of today's Fraser River Heritage Park.”95

www.mission.ca spells out: “Mission’s history goes back to the first inhabitants of the region, the Sto:lo, or the ‘People of the River’. People travelling the Fraser River in huge cargo canoes met in the center of

the great river valley where the Sto:lo traded wind-dried salmon, fruits and other goods with clans from the coast and the interior of British Columbia.

“The Xa:ytem Longhouse Interpretive Centre, a recently designated national historic site located east of the urban area of Mission, pays tribute to the early Sto:lo who raised their families 10,000 years ago on the riverbank.

“In 1861 a young French Oblate Priest selected Mission for the site of St Mary’s Indian Residential School, which included a church, workshops and a grist mill. Local farms then established and included dairy, poultry, hog farming, grain, fruit, berry and vegetable production.

“In the mid-1880s, establishment of railway facilities further focused attention on Mission and facilitated a period of rapid urban growth which included the ‘Great Land Sale’ of 1891. Mission’s considerable lake and forest resources also enabled establishment of hydroelectric operations and the creation of a prosperous logging industry.

“The area from the Stave River to Hatzic Lake was first incorporated in 1892 as the Municipality of Mission. In 1922 the ‘Village of Mission’ was incorporated, which became the ‘Town of Mission’ in 1957. On November 3, 1969, the Town of Mission and the Municipality of Mission amalgamated to become the current ‘District of Mission’.

“Mission has retained its keen sense of history which is evident in the heritage buildings of its historic downtown core and hinterland. More recent additions to the historic mosaic include Westminster Abbey, Hatzic Rock and the Fraser River Heritage Park. Planned rejuvenation of the Fraser River Waterfront will ensure that history will continue to be an important part of Mission’s future.

“Today, Mission is a growing community of over 38,000 residents nestled in the Coast Mountains beside the Fraser River, 70 kms from downtown Vancouver. Residents enjoy Mission’s rich history and strong sense of community, while also retaining the benefit of ready access to the greater Vancouver area.”96

***MURDERER CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg touch on: “Flows northwest into Cariboo River. The story goes that during the gold rush days Boone Helme, a notorious Montana bandit, robbed and killed three men between Keithley Creek and Quesnel Forks. He is supposed to have buried his loot under a cedar tree on this creek.”97

***NARAMATA, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg clarify: “North of Penticton. John More Robinson, who founded Naramata in 1907, tells us that he got the name ‘from the denizens of the spirit world through the mediumship of Mrs JM Gillespie, one of the most prominent spiritualistic lecturers and mediums of the American Spiritualistic Church. Big Moose was a Sioux Indian Chief, and he dearly loved his wife of whom he spoke in the most endearing terms, and he gave us her name as Narramattah, and he said she was the ‘Smile of Manitou’. It struck me that this would be a good name for our village which I thought of calling Brighton Beach. We therefore cut out the unnecessary letters and called the town Naramata.’ Mrs Gillespie’s first

husband had lived in Australia, and skeptics who do not believe in Big Moose suspect that Naramata is based on some Australian aboriginal name such as that of Paramatta, near Sydney.”98

BC Geographical Names Office adds: “Later research, however, suggests that perhaps Mrs Gillespie unconsciously drew the name from an Australian source, since naramatta in aboriginal Australian dialect means ‘place of water’. Her first husband had lived in Australia.”99

***NOSEBAG CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg document: “Flows northeast into Carpenter Lake. In his book Beyond the Rockies (p 152), Lukin Johnston mentions meeting ‘a delightful old gentleman named Jones – “Jonesey” for short, or sometimes “Nosebag Jonesey”. From him Nosebag Creek takes its name.’ Presumably Nosebag Jones was fond of his food. (A nosebag, partly filled with oats, would be slipped over the head of a horse to let it eat during a halt.)”100

***OLIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

www.britishcolumbia.com observes: “The founders of Oliver named the town after ‘Honest’ John Oliver, a BC premier after the First World War, who believed that the irrigation canal would bring prosperity to this northern end of the Great Basin Desert. The Pocket Desert is part of the Great Basin Desert, part of the network of deserts that extend southward to the Sonoran Desert in Mexico.”101

www.hellobc.com recounts: “In 1918 the BC government established the Southern Okanagan Lands Project, primarily as a place to settle veterans returning from the First World War. The ambitious scheme involved creation of a 37km/23mi irrigation canal known as ‘the Ditch’ that runs from Vaseux Lake to the US border. Oliver was laid out as the administrative center and named for ‘Honest John’ Oliver, the provincial premier who championed the project. The first agricultural lots were sold in 1921 and the area soon became the immensely productive fruit-growing region it remains today.”102

Garnet Basque says: “Our story began on a clear August morning in 1896 as George McAuley climbed into a buckboard at Camp McKinney, a dusty little British Columbia gold mining town. McAuley, co-owner of the famous Cariboo Amelia mine, was visiting for a few days from Spokane, Washington, and had decided to make the journey. On the floor boards behind him, concealed in saddlebags, were three gold bars with a combined weight of 656.5 ounces.

“This represented the monthly clean-up of the mine, which, after delivery to Midway, was trans-shipped to the San Francisco mint. Forgoing the customary precaution of an armed guard, McAuley headed the buckboard up the dusty single street between unpainted frame buildings and out of town. The date: Tuesday, August 18, 1896, as he rounded a turn near McMynn’s Meadows, about two or three miles from Camp, he jerked his team to a sudden stop. Barring the road, Winchester at the ready, stood a masked bandit. The robber motioned for McAuley to throw down the saddlebags. McAuley, who may have been reckless for leaving town without an escort, wasn’t completely stupid. Though armed, he could see the obvious disadvantage of arguing with a loaded rifle, and promptly threw down the bags. ‘Now drive on and don’t turn back,’ warned the robber.

“Whipping the team to a gallop, he proceeded down the trail for about a mile, where he found a spot wide enough to turn the buckboard, and hastened back to Camp to spread the alarm.

“When McAuley’s partner, James Monahan, was notified of the robbery, his first act was a quick check of all the mining personnel. Everyone was accounted for; Monahan then sent McAuley for the Provincial Police stationed at Midway. A superficial search of the site and surrounding woods failed to unearth any new leads so they returned to town.

“Later that afternoon Constables William McMynn and Isaac Dinsmore arrived at Camp McKinney and, after asking some routine questions, were taken to the actual scene of the robbery. It was Dinsmore who apparently discovered the empty saddlebags which had been missed by the previous searchers. They also unearthed ‘some soda biscuits, apples, raw fresh eggs, part of a bottle of whiskey, and a bottle half filled with water.’

“The town was a fever of activity in preparation for the robber’s arrival. Armed men were positioned at strategic vantage points around Bald Mountain, guarding every approach. Tom Graham, and an Indian called Alexine (or Long Alex), were hidden at the forks of the Sidley and Fairview Roads. From this vantage point they commanded an excellent view of the surrounding countryside.

“The evening, October 26, 1896, the suspect was observed making his way up the dusty mountain road toward them. Alexine was immediately dispatched to town to give the alarm. Two Provincial Constables, Louis Cuppage and RW Dean were in Cameron’s Saloon with Superintendent Keane when the Indian burst in with the news. Arming themselves, they set off down the trail. It was then about 10:00 pm. Outside, thick clouds obscured the moon in what was reported to be ‘one of the blackest nights of the year’.

“The small party had been walking about a mile when they perceived an object on the road; however the utter darkness made it impossible to distinguish what the object was, so they continued cautiously. After walking a bit further they heard horse hooves approaching. The men stopped and waited, the blackness engulfing them. Suddenly Keane was heard to ask, ‘is that you, Matt?’

“There was a death-like silence for perhaps a half a minute, after which the night was shattered by a loud shot. Dean, fearing Roderick and felled Keane, fired his rifle at the dark figure of a man he had glimpsed in the flash of the preceding shot. His shot was expended for nothing, however, for it had been Keane’s weapon that had spoken earlier. His bullet entered Roderick just below the left chest, penetrated the heart, and lodged in the back muscles. Dean’s bullet had been fired at the already dead, falling body or Roderick.

“Roderick’s rifle, which Keane later testified had been aimed at him, was found to contain a rag stuffed in the muzzle. But it and the pistol recovered from the body were covered with rust, indicating they had just been unearthed. A small amount of money was also found on the body. Under Roderick’s coat was discovered a special vest with two pockets, one under each armpit, large enough to accommodate the two large gold bars. There was no sign of the bullion, however, and it was believed that Roderick was returning to the secret cache when he was killed.

“A coroner’s inquest into Roderick’s death, held at Camp McKinney on November 11, 1896, decided it was a case of ‘justifiable homicide’, and exonerated Keane of all blame. Regardless, he was brought to trial in Vernon in June 1897 on a manslaughter charge and found guilty.

“However, the judge, Chief Justice McCall said, ‘You have been found guilty in a technical and legal sense,’ and sentenced him to one day in jail, which Keane had already served, and he was thereby released. Roderick’s death left many unanswered questions. The author, in an effort to determine first the validity of the story and secondly if the treasure does exist, began to sift through most sources of information.

“That the robbery took place and the gold bricks were never recovered is a matter of record and undisputed fact. Although it was generally believed that Roderick had managed to smuggle out the smaller bar. However, there are some discrepancies.

“Despite reports by various writers that the McKinney bullion shipments were ‘shrouded in mystery’ and ‘escorted under armed guards’, this simply was not the case. Two newspapers of the period make that all too clear. The Grand Forks Miner, August 22, 1896, wrote ‘These shipments have been made regularly for months past, and the public always knew within a day or two of the exact time at which they would pass through, so the only surprise created by the holdup is that it had not happened before.’

“And the September 3, 1896 issue of the Province dispelled all rumors of an armed guard when they wrote ‘The robber’s success is not in any way a cause for surprise. What is astonishing is that some enterprising scoundrel had not had a try at “raising the wind” at the expense of so small amount of labor or difficulty. Ever since gold was first produced from the Cariboo Mine, bullion had been carried out as if it were of no more value than so much yellow bacon, without the slightest care of precaution being taken to guard for its arrival at its destination.’

“This was reasoned to be the robber’s good cache as he waited in ambush. These articles shed no new light on the mystery.

“There was nothing substantial to go on, and for some time there was a lull during which no new leads were uncovered. Because of the isolation of Camp McKinney (it could be reached by only two roads), it was deemed impossible for a robber to flee the area. Yet, the general feeling now was that he had made a clean getaway.

“Rewards totaling $3,500 were then posted by the mining company; $2,000 for the arrest and conviction of the guilty party, and $1,500 for the recovery of the bullion.

“The reward money again stimulated interest, and it wasn’t long after that the Company received their first big break. It came in the form of a letter addressed to Monahan, and was later published in the November 14, 1896 issue of the Grand Forks Miner.

“It read: ‘I met a man in a saloon in Oroville at about the end of May. We fell to drinking together and he told me that his name was Matthew Roderick, from Spokane. He was very hard up on his way to get the bullion from Camp McKinney, an easy job, he said. He had a gun, a Winchester I think, and was

going to stage a holdup. He liked the way I held my liquor, said I’d be one with a cool head and wanted me to come in with him on the job. I didn’t want to. Roderick said he was a dead shot and he wouldn’t hesitate to kill me if I revealed what passed between us that night. We went to Camp McKinney where we both got work. After we had been working three months, and nothing happened, I left for Trail Creek late in August. After I’d been there three days I read an account of the robbery of the Camp McKinney bullion in the Spokesman Review, so I thought I’d better let you know about Roderick.’

“Armed with fresh information, Monahan did some quick checking and soon verified the fact that a man named Roderick had been in the mine’s employ at the time. He also learned that Roderick was far from being a model worker.

“Each week after collecting his pay he would indulge in one of the frequent poker games held at Cameron’s Saloon. He never left the game until he was broke, often ignoring his shift for two or three days in the process.

“Roderick had lived in a small cabin on the outskirts of town. On the day of the robbery, and for a few days previously, he had been absent from work suffering from a back ailment. Several days after the robbery he had decided to return to his Seattle home to recuperate. The miners, feeling sorry for the ailing Roderick, had passed the hat and collected $84 for his passage home. Those who recalled seeing him leave were convinced he had taken only a blanket with him. In those days it was recognized as a sign of respectability for a man to travel with his own blankets.

“Further investigation revealed several old whiskey bottles in a dump behind Roderick’s cabin bearing the same label as those discovered near the scene of the robbery. This and other clues indicated that Roderick was their man.

“The Cariboo Mining Company promptly enlisted the aid of the Pinkerton Detective Agency in Washington to keep Roderick under surveillance. They had no difficulty locating him as he was listed in the Seattle directory as a civil engineer.

“The Pinkertons even had a lady operative move in next to Roderick’s. In neighborly chit-chat she eventually learned that, since returning from British Columbia, Roderick had paid up some back taxes and had taken out a $3,000 insurance policy. A neat trick for a man who left Camp McKinney under the charity of the miners. Certain Roderick was their man, and convinced that he had only managed to smuggle out the smaller bar (worth $1,600), they continued their vigilance.

“The one day, unaware that the information would lead to his eventual death, Mrs Roderick announced that her husband was preparing to leave on a business trip ‘one that will make us rich’, she said. Unconscious of his being followed, Roderick traveled by train to Loomis, Washington, where he purchased a gray saddle horse and rode north for the BC boundary. Matthew was apparently returning for his stolen loot.

“So much for the reported secrecy and security. Another point which many writers seem to disagree on, is who actually drove the buckboard on that fateful morning 100 years ago, McAuley or Keane? For the

record, it was McAuley, as verified by the same issue of the Province. ‘Mr GB McAuley, of Spokane, secretary of the Cariboo Mining Company, was “held up” by a masked robber on his return from the mine in charge of three gold bricks.’

“Some writers claim that candles, matches and goggles were taken from Roderick’s body shortly after his death. Acting on this, they suggest that he buried the bullion in one of the numerous old water filled shafts. This could not be confirmed, but it seems highly unlikely that Roderick would go to such elaborate measures to hide gold when he was pressed for time. It seems more likely that he would bury it in a convenient, safe spot between the scene of the robbery and the town.

“One thing is puzzling. Roderick’s rifle and pistol, rusty and dirt-covered, were definitely buried. It seems odd that he would bury weapons in one location and the gold in another, when it would be more convenient to inter them together. If this was so, and not realizing he was under suspicion, Roderick may have planned to visit the town for a day or two before retrieving the treasure on his way out.

“Or perhaps he was indeed on the way to recover it when fatally shot. All this is supposition, of course. But the robbery did take place, and the gold has never been recovered. And at today’s prices the remaining gold bars are worth over $190,000.

“Camp McKinney is deserted now. Even the ghosts have gone. Only a few piles of decaying lumbar and an occasional log cabin mark its passing. A dusty, but good, gravel road leads to it from Rock Creek and passes through what was once its main street.

“Somewhere around here are two gold bars worth $190,000, they are probably buried in a shallow hole, and should be easy to detect with a good metal detector. However, getting close enough to detect them may be another question.

“Historically speaking, the Nk’Mip people were the first to enjoy this land of plenty, followed by colonialists in search of furs in the early part of the 1800s. Prospectors soon followed and established mining communities in the hills above the Okanagan Valley.

“In response to heightened demand for fresh produce to supply the growing population of the area, characters like ‘Okanagan Smith’ recognized the opportunity. In the mid-1800s he planted 1,200 fruit trees on 24 acres of land. Once the trees began to produce, ‘Okanagan’ was able to sell the fruit to mining camps, towns, and ranches throughout the valley region. Other orchardists soon followed. Pete McIntyre planted apples, pears, and soft fruit at the foot of the massive bluff that still bears his name. John and Peter Stelkia, (a surname still prevalent in the area), of the Inkameep Creek on Osoyoos Lake.

“As the mines petered out and community populations began to wane, the fledgling agriculture industry in the area was in jeopardy. But for the vision and foresight of then premier of British Columbia, ‘Honest’ John Oliver. With the end of the First World War in 1918, Premier Oliver created the Soldier’s Land Act. The BC Legislature paid $350,000 for 22,000 acres of land from McIntyre’s Bluff in the north, to the US Border in the south. It may seem like a pittance in modern terms, but it was a hard won victory for Premier Oliver as his contemporaries took him to task for spending tax payers’ dollars for a

land full of Jack Pine, bunchgrass, kangaroo rats, rattlesnakes, black widow spiders, and not much else. But, Premier Oliver knew the homecoming soldiers needed hard work and land ownership, and he knew that the land of the South Okanagan would reward their labor and release its potential and prosper –with water.

“The South Okanagan Lands Project was hatched, and the elaborate gravity flow irrigation system, dubbed the ‘Ditch’ was engineered and built over eight years between 1919 and 1927. In all, the canal stretched 25 miles. There were 20 miles of concrete-lined ditch, and 27 metal flumes on wooden trestles, a wood stave siphon, and seven spillways to control the flow of water in various sections of the canal.

“A town of sorts sprang up as engineering camps, sawmills, and the laboring soldiers all required some manner of community while they toiled on the massive project. As the soldiers exercised their special purchasing rights in the area, the settlement was eventually formally named Oliver after the forward seeing Premier who conceived the enterprise.”103

***PEACE RIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg spotlight: “Northeast British Columbia. The Sekani Indians of north-central British Columbia knew this as Tse-tai-e-ka, meaning ‘the river that runs by the rocks’, referring to its canyon through the Rocky Mountains. The Crees called it A-mis-kwe-i-moo-si-pi, meaning ‘the Beaver Indian River’. As for the Beaver Indians, they came to call it Unjigah, Unchaga, or Unjaja, variant forms of their word for ‘peace’. They called this ‘the Peace River’ because of Peace Point near Lake Athabasca. Sometime before 1790, the Knistenaux (Cree) and Beaver Indians ended a territorial war by setting their boundary at this point in the river.”104

***PEACHLAND, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Don Wilson underscores: “Peachland is a small community of 5,200 persons and is situated on the west shore of Okanagan Lake midway between Kelowna and Penticton.

“In the early years, 1800-15, fur traders trekked through this area from Astoria, Oregon, as far north as Fort Kamloops on the Thompson river.

“Gold was discovered in California in 1849 and prospectors moved north through the mountains seeking more gold. Much gold was discovered in the Cariboo in 1858 and finally as the prospectors labored north the huge Klondike strike occurred in 1898.

“One of these prospectors, JM Robinson unlucky at finding gold, stopped at an early settlers homestead near the mouth of Trepanier Creek. He was given a few ripe peaches and while enjoying the feast got the idea that perhaps land could be purchased and resold to settlers from eastern Canada to develop fruit orchards.

“In due order Mr Robinson and some of his investor friends bought land and sub-divided lots for orchards. They promoted the area and soon settlers arrived. Mr Robinson created the name Peachland

and a post office opened under that name on December 1, 1898. In 1909 the town incorporated as the District of Peachland and remains so to this day.

“Fruit growing and saw-milling were the main activities for the next 40 years. A copper-molybdenum mine operated from 1968-90 in the hills above town and this brought a rapid influx of residents. In later years most orchards have been re-zoned to residential use and many houses constructed.”105

www.britishcolumbia.com comments: “Peachland is Ogopogo's hometown! While all the communities on Okanagan Lake lay claim to this famous watery beast, it's at Squally Point, just across the water, that Ogopogo is thought to make his (or her) home.”106

Mark Chorvinsky emphasizes: “There are a number of similarities between Lake Okanagan in British Columbia and Scotland's Loch Ness. They are both long and narrow and lie at about the same latitude. And they are each famous for their resident monsters.

“The best-known Canadian lake Monster, Ogopogo, actually made its media debut long before the Loch Ness Monster. In 1926, seven years before Nessie's came to the public's attention, Roy W Brown, editor of the Vancouver Sun, wrote, ‘Too many reputable people have seen [the monster] to ignore the seriousness of actual facts.’ While there are serious questions about whether there are non-retroactive Nessie sightings before 1930, there are archival records of Ogopogo's existence going back to 1872 and sightings have been reported regularly up to the present.

“The creature is most often described as being one to two feet in diameter with a length of 15 to 20 feet. The head has been described variously as being horse or goat-like. One oft-mentioned characteristic of the monster is its resemblance to a log.

“Cryptozoologist Roy P Mackal believes that there is a ‘small population of aquatic fish-eating animals residing in Lake Okanagan.’ Mackal initially assumed that the type of animal in Lake Okanagan was the same creature that he believed is in Loch Ness, but after a careful examination of the available data, he determined that the creature must be a form of primitive whale, Basilosaurus cetoides. ‘The general appearance of Basilosaurus tallies almost exactly with the log like descriptions of the [Ogopogos]. Mackal spells out a detailed case for Ogopogo being a primitive whale in his book Searching for Hidden Animals.

“There are good size Indian reserves in the Okanagan Valley. The Indians believe that small, barren Rattlesnake Island is the home of the Okanagan Lake Monster. Indians called the Okanagan Lake Monster N'ha-a-tik, and there are pictographs that some feel depict the monster near the headwaters of Powers Creek. Other native references to the Okanagan Lake Monster include the Chinook ‘wicked one’ and ‘great-beast-on-the-lake’. In addition to the Salish N'ha-a-tik (or Na-ha-ha-itk), ‘snake-in-the-lake’ was sometimes used.

“The early inhabitants of the area saw the monster as a malevolent entity. Indians claimed that Monster Island's rocky beaches were sometimes covered with the parts of animals that they had attacked and ravaged. When crossing the lake during bad weather, the Indians always carried a small animal that they

would toss overboard in the middle of the lake to appease the monster, according to material in the files of the Kelowna Archives.

“Primrose Upton, in The History of Okanagan Mission, noted that no Indians would fish near Squally Point. When Europeans settled in the area, they too feared the aquatic monster and supposedly continued the custom of offering an animal to appease Ogopogo. According to Ogopogo expert Arlene Gaal, armed settlers patrolled the shoreline in case of attack by the monster.

“In 1914 a group of Nicola Valley and Westbank Indians discovered the decomposing body of an unidentified creature across from Rattlesnake Island. Five-six feet long and estimated to weigh 400 pounds, it was blue-grey. It had a tail and flippers, and an amateur naturalist in the area felt that it was a manatee. No one knew how such a creature could have gotten into the lake, and Lake monster expert Peter Costello has hypothesized that the carcass was ‘actually an Ogopogo, as the details of this mammal with flippers and a broad tail and dark color are all that we would expect. But the carcass was mangled so much that the long neck was already gone.’

“Ogopogo footprints have also been found. Some have been irregularly shaped, others cup-like, some were like dinosaur tracks with three toes, and still others had a pad foot and eight toes! As Dr Mackal has written, ‘The trouble with footprints is that anyone can fake them easily. Further, to assume that they were made by Naitaka is pure conjecture and supposition--certainly possible but without even a circumstantial link’ to the few cases of Ogopogo land sightings that have been reported.

“The name Ogopogo might suggest to some that it is an Indian word, but all evidence points to a modern origin. According to Mary Moon, author of Ogopogo: the Okanagan Mystery (1977), in 1924 a local named Bill Brimblecomb sang a song parodying a popular British music-hall tune at a Rotary Club luncheon in Vernon, a city in the northern Okanagan Valley. HF Beattie adapted the lyrics, which included the following:

I'm looking for the Ogopogo,His mother was a mutton,His father was a whale.I'm going to put a little bit of salt on his tail.”

“Robert Columbo, in his book Mysterious Canada, notes that the Pogo Stick was a popular craze since its introduction in 1921 and this may have contributed to the name.

“According to Arlene Gaal, author of Ogopogo: The True Story of the Okanagan Lake Million Dollar Monster, a Vancouver Province reporter named Ronald Kenvyn later parodied a popular British ditty and composed a song that included the following stanza:

His mother was an earwig;His father was a whale;A little bit of head And hardly any tail-And Ogopogo was his name.

“Thanks to these songs, the name Ogopogo stuck and the Indian name has been forgotten by all but monster buffs.

“While Ogopogo has never attained the fame of Nessie, the Loch Ness Monster, the creature of lake Okanagan has regularly caused quite a stir in the international press. Monster hunters from all over the world have been drawn to the area for research purposes, and many of the sightings have been as strong or stronger than those at Loch Ness. Multiple witness sightings of Ogopogo, so rare with many other controversial phenomena, have occurred on many occasions.

“On September 16, 1926, Ogopogo was watched by some 30 cars of people along an Okanagan Mission beach. Not many monsters have been seen at one time by so many people. The Ogopogo sightings of 1925-6 deserve some in-depth study.

“Consider the appearance of Ogopogo on July 2, 1947, when a number of boaters saw the monster simultaneously. One of the witnesses, a Mr Kray, described the animal as having ‘a long sinuous body, 30 feet in length, consisting of about five undulations, apparently separated from each other by about a two-foot space, in which that part of the undulations would have been underwater ... There appeared to be a forked tail, of which only one-half came above the water. From time to time the whole thing submerged and came up again.’

“On July 17, 1959, Mr and Mrs RH Miller and Mr and Mrs Pat Marten saw a tremendous creature with a snake-like head and a blunt nose swimming some 250 feet behind their motor boat on British Columbia's Okanagan Lake. The group watched the unknown animal for over three minutes, after which it submerged.

“More recently, in the summer of 1989, hunting guide Ernie Giroux and his wife were standing on the banks of Okanagan Lake when a bizarre animal emerged from the otherwise placid waters. ‘It was about 15 feet long and swam real gracefully and fast,’ Giroux told the press. The Girouxs claim to have seen an animal with a round head ‘like a football’; at one point several feet of the creature's neck and body came up out of the water. The Girouxs saw the monster at the same spot where, in July 1989, British Columbian car salesman Ken Chaplin took a video of a what he described as a snake-like creature about 15 feet long and dark green in color. This columnist has viewed the Chaplin video and feels that it was probably a beaver.

"’I've seen a lot of animals swimming in the wild and what we saw that night was definitely not a beaver,’ Ernie Giroux states emphatically.

“Giroux is in good company. There have over 200 sightings by credible people including a priest, a sea captain, a surgeon, police officers, and so forth. The fact that the percipients are generally people of good repute is often mentioned in reports of sightings. Photos of Ogopogo are numerous and include the 1964 Parmenter photo; the 1976 Fletcher photo; the 1978, 1979 and 1981 Gaal photos, the 1981 Wachlin photo, the 1984 Svensson photograph.

“There have now been half a dozen films and videos taken of an animate object in Lake Okanagan, but none of them are conclusive.

“What would solve the Ogopogo enigma? Only the discovery of an actual beast or the carcass of one would admit these creatures into mainstream science. If Ogopogo exists, it is clearly an elusive creature. Ogopogo hunters have failed to come up with that piece of unimpeachable evidence that will prove to the world that the aquatic monster exists. Until that evidence is found, Canada's premiere lake monster will remain a classic mystery.”107

***PRINCE RUPERT, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Amanda Clark gives: “Prince Rupert (1619-1682) was the son of Frederick V, King of Bohemia and Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I of England. He was also the second cousin of King Charles II of England. Prince Rupert is acclaimed as the most talented Royalist commander of the English Civil War (1642-51). He was the first governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1670, but he never came to Prince Rupert, or Canada. In 1905 the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Company had a contest for the naming of this new coastal city. After more than 12,000 entries, Prince Rupert was chosen as the winning name.”108

www.princerupert.com pens: “If only Charles Melville Hays could have lived to see how Cow Bay in Prince Rupert, BC has become such a major dock for passenger cruise ships on their way to and from Alaska. Hays would be alive today if the RMS Titanic had been traveling in Prince Rupert’s harbor, the 3rd deepest natural harbor in the world and ice-free year round; instead, he and many others died in 1912 when the RMS Titanic passenger cruise ship struck an iceberg and sunk into the icy waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Prince Rupert’s deep, ice-free harbor and modern port facilities make it an important gateway for transporting passengers and goods across the Pacific Ocean. The city first developed as a transportation hub in the late 1800s when it was chosen as an end-point for the Grand Truck Pacific Railway (GTR); the GTR was later purchased by the Government of Canada and merged with other railways to form the Canadian National Railway (CN) crown corporation. Prince Rupert has a history of being more than just a transportation hub: before it was founded in 1910, this tiny port city on Kaien Island was an attractive location for fur traders. However, since 1984 the Khutzeymateen Grizzly Bear Sanctuary has been protecting grizzly bears from hunters, tourists or any other threats to their existence. When the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) established a trading post at Prince Rupert in the late 19th century, it was discovered that Prince Rupert had an abundance of something much more valuable than sea otter pelts or bear fur: salmon. Canneries such as the North Pacific Cannery in Port Edward, BC near Prince Rupert were the economic backbone of many coastal British Columbia communities in the first half of the 20th century but have since been closed. Of course, long before the white man arrived in Prince Rupert, the Tsimshian First Nations fished, hunted and carved beautiful totem poles that visitors can learn more about at the Museum of Northern British Columbia. Today, according to the Statistics Canada 2006 Census, Prince Rupert has a population of 13,390 and a median family income of $56,670.

“Charles Melville Hays: Hays founded Prince Rupert, and he saw the potential for it as a tourist destination. He dreamed of transforming the city’s harbor into a premier docking destination for passenger cruise ships, and in the early 19th century he hired someone to build an Empress-style hotel

in Prince Rupert. Though he died in 1912 when the RMS Titanic passenger cruise ship sank off the coast of Newfoundland, Hays’ importance to Prince Rupert is well-preserved today. There is a statue of Hays in front of Prince Rupert’s City Hall, a street named Hays Cove Circle and a school, Charles Hays Secondary School, which was opened in 1992. At the base of Mount Hays is an eighteen-hole golf course set amongst lush foliage and populated with an abundance of interesting wildlife.

“Cow Bay: In 1908, farmers began unloading cows in Prince Rupert's bay and, as a result, it was renamed Cow Bay. Today, a steady stream of cruise ship passengers come ashore at the Northland Terminal, opened in 2004 at Cow Bay, not far from downtown Prince Rupert. Passengers on the ‘Norwegian Spirit’ cruise ship first docked at Prince Rupert in 2004 and, like many after them, likely spent the few available hours on land shopping in the Cow Bay Shopping District. There are also several restaurants and coffee shops to eat and chat at in Cow Bay, an area filled with restored heritage buildings and lots of character. The Prince Rupert Yacht Club building in Cow Bay, built in 1912, is thought to be one of the oldest yacht clubs in Canada.

“Port of Prince Rupert: The Port of Prince Rupert has come a long way from its days as a venue for exporting pulp and timber for which it was first built in the 1970s. Today, cruise ships, containers, grains, and coal arrive and depart from Prince Rupert’s various port terminals. The Port of Prince Rupert is ideally located at the apex of less congested rail and truck routes across western Canada that allow for the speedier delivery of goods to markets in North America’s mid-west. The port is an important economic engine for Prince Rupert and a major reason why the city is considered an international transportation hub: over 10 million metric tons of people and freight were welcomed in 2008 according to the Prince Rupert Port Authority’s 2008 Quarterly Performance Report.

“Cruise Ship Terminal: Thanks to an important decision made by the Prince Rupert Port Authority several years ago, the Port of Prince Rupert has gone from experiencing hard economic times to setting new milestones for passenger traffic. In 2004, a new terminal was built to allow large cruise ships traveling between Alaska and Seattle to dock in Prince Rupert. An October 2008 Prince Rupert Port Authority press release, Port of Prince Rupert 2008 Cruise Season ‘Biggest Year Ever’, tells the story of how Prince Rupert has fulfilled Charles Melville Hays’ dream of becoming a major passenger cruise ship docking point. For the first time ever, more than 1,000 passengers came ashore in Prince Rupert to see its many attractions such as the Khutzeymateen Grizzly Bear Sanctuary in 2008.

“Tsimshian First Nations: The Tsimshian First Nations had lived for quite some time in what is now Prince Rupert when fur traders arrived in the latter part of the 19th century. Today’s visitors are fortunate that these indigenous peoples lived through smallpox and other epidemics and make such an important contribution to the area today. Over 750 Tsimshian band members are registered with the Government of Canada’s Department of Indian and Northern Affairs according to its May 2007 publication Registered Indian Population by Sex and Residence. The Tsimshian people work with the Government of BC to manage the Khutzeymateen Grizzly Bear Sanctuary, a popular tourist attraction that helps to protect over 50 grizzly bears and numerous other wildlife species. Long before the North Pacific Cannery was built, Tsimshians caught salmon and lived in longhouses made from redwood cedar like the one at the

Museum of Northern BC. An excellent salmon meal can still be enjoyed at a Prince Rupert restaurant, and there are hotels and motels that provide modern-day comfort to visitors.

“First Nations Carving Shed: Living in harmony with the land is an art form that has been practiced by Northwest Coast First Nations for centuries. The Carving Shed, operated by the Museum of Northern BC, provides an opportunity to watch this art come to life. Visitors to Prince Rupert may observe some of the Northwest Coast’s finest First Nations artists as they carve items such as canoes, paddles and jewelry from red cedar and other material. Members of the public may attempt to create their own art by learning to weave and carve at week-end workshops offered during the summer. Similar carving techniques were used to make the many totem poles prominently on display in parks throughout Prince Rupert.”109

***PROPHET RIVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg scribe: “Flows north into Muskwa River near Fort Nelson. The Beaver Indians recognized certain people as ‘dreamers’ or ‘prophets’ who could foretell future events. This river may be named for a fairly recent prophet of the Beaver people, Notseta, the father of people still living on the Prophet River Reserve. Alternatively, it may be named for Decutla, a prophet of an earlier generation.”110

***RADIUM HOT SPRINGS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

www.hellobc.com states: “The story of Radium Hot Springs begins with its geology, and the awesome forces that pushed up the Rocky Mountains from an ancient shallow sea. Here, a fault line penetrates deep into the earth's crust. Today, surface water finds its way deep into the fault, is heated by hot rock, pressurized and forced back up to emerge at the source of Radium Hot Springs.

“The springs were known to Aboriginal people long before European contact, but it didn't take long for the newcomers to recognize the value of this magical hot water source. In 1890, the first private ownership of the Springs was registered to Roland Stuart, for the princely sum of $160.

“By 1923, with the brand-new Banff Windermere Highway completed, ownership of the springs was in the hands of the Canadian government and the first pool was open to the public. Hotels were built to accommodate visitors who traveled by train to Banff, and completed the bumpy journey by bus.

“Radium Hot Springs quickly grew to become a tourist destination and, as tourist traffic increased, development spread beyond the canyon. In this way, the village of Radium Hot Springs grew progressively out into the valley, housing a community of permanent residents to work in both tourism and the burgeoning forest industry.”111

BC Geographical Names Office alludes: "The natural temperature of the main springs of the Sinclair Radium Hot Springs in Kootenay National Park is about 114 degrees Fahrenheit. The radioactivity in these springs is unusually high and it is believed that their therapeutic efficacy may be partly due to this fact."112

A Jessop communicates: “The most radioactive waters in Canada were at Radium Hot Springs and Fairmont, but these were substantially lower than in some springs in Austria, Germany, France and Japan. It was recognized that the radioactive content of the spring water was of no economic value other than its attraction to the tourist.”113

***REDROOFFS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

www.sunshinecoasteh.com depicts: “In 1909 Frederick Sargeant sold the land to BG Wolfe-Merton and Hubert Kitchin who turned the area into a village – a resort known as Redrooffs (double ff because of old English spelling of the word). They constructed six log homes, six log cabins, built a community building, a wharf and the Redroofs General Store. The name Redrooffs comes from the color the roofs of the cabins dotting the shoreline. The red roof was a guiding landmark for the steam ships. The site of Coopers Green Park now sits on the same location.”114

***SAANICH, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Andrew Scott enumerates: “There is some uncertainty over the origin of the word Saanich, which designates the local First Nation people, who today call themselves the Wsanec and comprise four separate bands: the Pauquachin, Tsartlip, Tsawout and Tseycum. According to David Elliott, author of Saltwater People, a resource book used in local Native studies programs, the word means ‘elevated’ or ‘emerging’ and refers to the appearance of Mt Newton (Lau’wel’new to the Wsanec) when viewed from offshore to the east. Thus the Wsanec are the ‘emerging’ people. The rolling Saanich Peninsula, which includes the municipalities of Highlands, Saanich, Central Saanich and North Saanich, has much valuable agricultural land and was settled and farmed in the 1860s. Saanichton, formerly served by both a railway and an interurban tramline, developed as an early agricultural center. Today the peninsula is home to Victoria’s airport, a major ferry terminal and some of the province’s most luxurious homes and suburbs. Saanichton Bay was once known locally as Siwash Bay.”115

***SIN LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg give an account: “Peace River district. An evangelical Bible camp was once established on its shore, with converts being baptized by total immersion in its waters. Local residents, remarking that a great deal of sin must have been washed off into the lake, took to referring to it simply as ‘Sin Lake’.”116

***SKOOKUMCHUCK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

“The name of the town of Skookumchuck dates from the time of fur trade explorer David Thompson and refers to the large rapids in this area on the Kootenay River. Skookumchuck means ‘strong water’, meaning effectively ‘big rapids’ or ‘heavy current’ in the Chinook jargon, and in ordinary use it is a generic name for any rapids, especially the great saltwater rapids at the mouths of the coastal inlets. Some locals believe the name refers to the series of strong-smelling hot springs that occur along a fault plane on the west side of the Rocky Mountain Trench in southeastern British Columbia. These naturally-occurring springs bring hot sulphurous-smelling water to the surface in several locations from the small

springs on Ram Creek (not far from Top of the World Provincial Park) northward to the more well-known Radium Hot Springs at the east gate of Kootenay National Park.

“In common use, referring to Skookumchuck as a place name, may refer to two other specific locations in British Columbia: 1) The unrelated marine tidal rapids at Skookumchuck Narrows — the Skookumchuck, as it is the largest and most powerful of the British Columbia Coast's saltwater rapids — are several hundred kilometers west on the province's Sunshine Coast, where the narrow mouth of Sechelt Inlet spills out that fjord's contents into Jervis Inlet. 2) The native community and historic Catholic mission ghost town of Skookumchuck Hot Springs, also known as Skatin in the St’at’imcets (Lillooet) language, lies on the Lillooet River south of Pemberton, about 20 miles nearly due east of the resort of Whistler on the inland side of the Garibaldi Ranges.”117

***SKY PILOT MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg point out: “East of Britannia Beach. Back around World War I, ‘Sky Pilot’ became a slang term for a chaplain or any other member of the clergy. Sky Pilot Rock at the east end of Desolation Sound was named after the United Church’s mission boat Sky Pilot.

“The highest summit on the ridge west of Sky Pilot Mountain is known as The Copilot.”118

***STAVE FALLS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

BC Hydro relates: “The river was named Stave River by Hudson's Bay Company employees because the forests in the area were used to produce wooden barrels, known as staves, for the transportation of fish.”119

Meg Stanley and Hugh Wilson stipulate: “The Stave watershed has two parts. The more northerly area comprises most of the lake, feeder streams, and surrounding mountains; the terrain is steep and rugged. The more southerly part, from the lower part of Stave Lake, the falls, canyons, and outlet, is more hospitable due to its glacial benches and flat areas.

“Many descriptions of the area in the 19th and early 20th centuries included the words ‘inaccessible’ and ‘uninhabited’. The canyons of the lower Stave were usually described as forbidding barriers to anyone wishing to reach the falls or Stave Lake. In his 1915 description, Robert F Hayward had this to say about the area: ‘Though the first settler entered the Stave Lake district over thirty years ago, access was so difficult that only a few families stayed on the land. To all practical purposes the valley of the Stave remained in its primitive state until the formation of the Stave Lake Power Company in 1899.’

“Although the upper Stave Lake area has always been too rugged for humans to settle, the Stave River was a permanent home for some of the Kwantlen people, and there were many routes to and through it. To the Kwantlen, the Stave was always ‘the source’.

“It is unlikely that humans appeared on the scene much earlier than ten thousand years ago, when the Fraser Glaciation was finally subsiding. Archaeological surveys of the lake bed, conducted by British Columbia Hydro and the Kwantlen First Nation, found more than two thousand artifacts – primarily

arrowheads, tools for dressing fish, and beads. In addition, pictographs were discovered on the shoreline of the Stave Reservoir. These discoveries make it clear that parts of the Stave watershed have been used for thousands of years.

“The Kwantlen appear to have had three villages on the lower Stave: at the falls, near present-day Ruskin, and at the confluence with the Fraser River. Extended families and groupings of families lived in shed-roofed cedar longhouses made of logs and planks that were produced by using traditional tools such as stone chisels and adzes. The Kwantlen also established temporary sites in the watershed that were part of trade and hunting routes and that were used for spiritual purposes such as winter dancing.

“These inhabitants of the Stave River area were part of the larger Kwantlen nation, whose territory stretched from present-day New Westminster to Xa:ytem (Hatzic) Rock, east of Mission. The Kwantlen in turn are part of the larger Sto:lo nation associated with the lower Fraser River. The Sto:lo people speak the Halkomelem language and were fishers, hunters, and traders. Kwantlen means ‘tireless hunter’, and in the rugged territory of the Stave River and Stave Lake, that attribute would have been very useful.

“Clarence Cheer, a Kwantlen who grew up in the village near the falls in the early 1900s, remembered a way of life that had been practiced for millennia: ‘Some [residents] stayed all year round, and some of them didn’t. I was raised in a longhouse … That’s where everybody was raised. We were taught to get up early in the morning. The people used to tell us about the water, that you would have to get down there and look at it. The water was still asleep … And we would go down early in the morning and take our bath, come back … They didn’t have the medicines and things we have today, and that was one reason they used to make us get tough to the cold. We didn’t get sick as much as we do now … In the mornings we didn’t eat. We learned how to … prepare fish and meats and all that. We had to do that when we were young. We had to learn because we … had to look after ourselves and everything we had done. All our meats and hides – we had to … take off the hair and prepare it for buckskin and that was some of their trading material. We didn’t throw the hides away – we had to know what to put on the hides so the hair would come off easy … We were educated that we had to learn all [about] fishing, what parts to take and what parts not to take. Everything they done back there was trading … because we didn’t know what money was. That’s why they did so much trading, that was the money. They had to learn that the people from the Fraser River were trading with people over here because we don’t get all that and we were trading buckskins. Later some of the smart young people would get pack horses and come over, and trade fish, and get more fish; it was a business.’

“Stave Lake was part of an overland and water route to the interior of the province. The people of the lower Fraser traded extensively with people both in the interior and on the coast. The hundreds of traditional trade goods included salmon (prepared in various ways), sturgeon oil, cedar baskets, canoes, goat and dog wool, buckskin, huckleberries, Saskatoon berries, dried shellfish, wild potatoes, and seal skins.

“Charlie Miller, who was born in England, spent almost his entire life near the Stave River and had a close relationship with the Kwantlen people there. He wrote about one of the trade routes in his book

Valley of the Stave: ‘A well-defined trail progressed eastward along the high ground north of what is now Haney, along the south bank of the Alouette, then named Lillooet, to the foot of the lake. Here, a natural low-water crossing enabled them to proceed overland again, to higher land overlooking Stave Lake, then to a point on the lake now known as Morgan, formerly Alice Lake, and then down the trail beside it to a creek that ended at Stave Lake. Here, [at the beginning of the 20th century] much evidence of cedar dug-out canoe building could be observed. Albert Kearsley, who logged the Stave Lake area for many years, told me he had found the waterlogged remains of sixteen old dug-outs. Without any doubt, these canoes were used to take their passengers to connect with the Winslow, or Roaring Creek, trail. Travelers would then go down to Harrison Lake and from here to Port Douglas [on Little Harrison Lake], then by trail and portage to Lillooet and further on into the Fraser River country.

“The Kwantlen people Charlie Miller knew, even early in the 20th century, were a vestige of a larger nation. The home of their ancestors in the Stave had been changed by the arrival of Europeans.

“Even before Europeans – known to the First Nations people as Xwelitem – set foot in the area, ‘passive’ contact had already taken place. European tools and clothing had made their way into western North America along trade routes that extended to Mexico. Then, in 1782, a smallpox epidemic entered Sto:lo territory along these same routes. The results were devastating. The Sto:lo elder Simon Pierre of the Katzie First Nation, near Maple Ridge, gave this account of the epidemic: ‘The news reached them from the east that a great sickness was traveling over the land, a sickness that no medicine could cure, and no person could escape. Terrified, they held council with one another and decided to send their wives, with half the children, to their parents’ home, so that every adult might die in the place where he or she was raised. Then the wind carried the smallpox sickness among them. Some crawled away into the woods to die; many died in their homes. Altogether about three-quarters of the Indians perished … If you dig today on the site of any of the old villages you will uncover countless bones, the remains of the Indians who perished during this epidemic of smallpox.’

“Tony Dandurand, a member of the Kwantlen nation, explains the impact of smallpox on the Kwantlen: ‘Habitation in the lower Stave was more permanent, which is why we were there at the time of contact and why we were allotted reserves there … There was a village at the mouth called Sky’ux, which means ‘the place of all dead’, because of the smallpox epidemic that came up through the trade routes in the 1780s. Kwantlen people used to number in the thousands and were one of the main tribes of the lower Fraser. There are only 140 of us now.’”120

***STUPENDOUS MOUNTAIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg write: “Bella Coola River. When it came to naming this mountain officially, somebody remembered Sir Alexander Mackenzie’s description of it as he reached the end of his famous journey overland of 1793: ‘Before us appeared a stupendous mountain, whose snow-clad summit was lots in the clouds.’”121

***SUMMERLAND, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

David Gregory articulates: “The community of Summerland is located in the middle of the Okanagan Valley in the southern interior of the province of British Columbia. The community is situated on the shores of Okanagan Lake.

“In the year 1900 the Canadian Pacific Railway was looking for 10,000 acres of orchard land in British Columbia to grow and provide fruit for their expanding CPR hotel chain. By 1901 there was a short list of two potential locations of orchard land: an area just west of Kamloops and Trout Creek, just north of Penticton. The Kamloops site had water supply concerns. The Trout Creek site only had 4,000 acres of orchard land. The CPR executive decided to drop the idea. But CPR President Sir Thomas Shaughnessy decided to personally invest in the project. Shaughnessy formed a development company and bought the large Barclay cattle ranch in Trout Creek. Shaughnessy managed the early community from Montreal. He hired JM Robinson to be the manager of the Development Company.

“JM Robinson was noted for his spiritualism and his seances. The wording of one of the hymns sang during Robinson's seances was ‘there no cloud shall dim the sky, in that happy home on high, in that heavenly Summer Land, in that heavenly Summer Land.’ Shaughnessy bought the Trout Creek Ranch in August 1902 and Robinson named the new community: SUMMERLAND. Shaughnessy's development company created the road, water and electrical systems (the first electrical system in the Okanagan Valley). The community of Summerland was incorporated in 1906 and in 1910 Shaughnessy's Development Company sold the utilities to the new District of Summerland.”122

***TA TA CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg describe: “Northeast of Kimberley. Many variants of the tale of Ta Ta Creek are told in East Kootenay, but basically it is as follows. A horse thief was being taken to Fort Steele by a posse when he persuaded the constable to let him have a fresh horse. A little later, where a stream ran through a heavily wooded steep gully, the thief suddenly put his spurs to his horse and got away. Before disappearing into the woods, he turned to his pursuers, lagging on their jaded mounts, and uttered the famous line: ‘Ta ta, friends, I’ve business up the trail.’”123

BC Geographical Names Office establishes: "Among the less frequent habitues of Fort Steele before the turn of the century was one Red Fletnum. ... It is not recorded that he was a really bad man, although there were those who suspected his tendency to err in the matter of horses. Red was simply that kind of a fellow who could readily mistake another man's horse for his own... Fletnum eked out a precarious livelihood picking up stray ponies and selling them for what he could get. No one minded much until, grown bold by reason of long immunity from punishment, Red sallied forth into Montana and annexed a bunch of ponies belonging to a rancher of Tobacco Plains. ... Red must have made excellent time with his stolen stock for no trace of him did his pursuers see along the trail; on arrival [at Fort Steele] they learned that Red had a cabin on the west bank of the Kootenay River, about 15 miles north in the vicinity of Skookumchunk Prairie. Adding the provincial constable to their posse, they [regained] the trail. Towards nightfall, they reached Red's cabin and caught him in the act of rounding up the stolen horses, evidently with the intention of driving them back into the mountains. Red was arrested, but requested a fresh horse for the ride back to Fort Steele and the lockup. A short distance from Red's

cabin they had to cross a small stream; as they picked their way across, Red put the spurs to his horse and galloped away: ‘Ta ta, friends, I've business up the trail.’ Red was gone, his swift fresh mount had carried him quickly from sight, the posse on their jaded ponies left far in the rear... "

Conversely, "... Red McLeod, the immortal horse thief ... did nothing, absolutely nothing, to better the welfare of his fellow man. He hated toil of any kind and yet worked hard at his chosen profession. He had no roots to cling to and nearly every mining camp in the East and West Kootenay knew him, as did every rancher, and they knew him well. Billy Clark knew him too, and said he was a likeable enough fellow, but no one you would bring home for Sunday dinner. Red got himself involved in a couple of hotel shooting scrapes at Argenta and almost left this world; instead he got himself in trouble with the law. Horses were his weak point and one day down at Nelson he 'borrowed' a team of horses from a barn and sold them for $300. Later that night Red re-stole them and returned the team to their original owner. ... One day he was caught over in the East Kootenay riding a horse the police had good reason to believe was not his. Enroute down to Fort Steele ... Red and his police escort stopped for a drink beside a little stream. Suddenly Red leaped on his horse and charged across the creek and up a hill. As he vanished into the woods, he called down ‘Ta-ta!’ to the flabbergasted policeman. The creek is now known as Ta Ta Creek."124

***TABOO CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg highlight: “Flows northwest into Skaist River. During gold rush days, a party of Chinese camped where the trail crossed this stream. One of their number dying here, he remained unburied for some time, the others refusing to touch his body.”125

***TELEGRAPH CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

JW Phillips portrays: “A trading post on the Stikine Trail during the gold rush to the Klondike, it got its name in 1866 as the site of a Stikine River crossing of the proposed Old World-to-New World telegraph line via Bering Strait.”126

BC Geographical Names Office remarks: “Named during the winter of 1866-7 when the Collins Overland Telegraph to Asia was expected to cross the Stikine River at this point. Actually the line had not gotten this far when the project was abandoned because of the success of the trans-Atlantic cable.”127

***THE BUGABOOS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Alan Rayburn shares: “Located in the Purcell Mountains, northwest of Invermere, these peaks are a popular skiing destination. Bugaboo was noted on an 1893 map by gold commissioner AP Cummins. It was reported in 1906 to chief geographer James White that the name referred to the loneliness of the location.”128

BC Geographical Names Office stresses: "Indians and prospectors were the first to come this way, but the mineral claims proved to be little else than a bugaboo."

Conversely, "Probably named after the Bugaboo mining claim at the crest of [Bugaboo Pass]. Writing in 1906 to James White, the federal Chief Geographer, an informant declared, 'Bugaboo was named by a Scotchman on account of the loneliness of the place.' "

Additionally, “Webster's Dictionary identifies bugaboo as an imaginary object of fright; hobgoblin, etc - seemingly a variation from the colloquial references to loneliness and/or hopelessness.”129

***THE WITCH TOWER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg compose: “Glacier National Park. This shoulder of Mount Fox is remarkable for its fantastic rock shapes. To quote the vivid description of AO Wheeler, ‘the configuration suggests a number of hideous old giant beldames leaning from the parapet of a rock-tower and scattering vituperation broadcast over the earth.’”130

***TICKLETOETEASER TOWER, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg designate: “West of Chilko Lake. A climbing party from the Alpine Club of Canada playfully named peaks in the Capital Group of mountains after various persons and places named in the nonsense poem A Capital Ship for an Ocean Trip. Two of the lines in it run: ‘And pink and blue was the pleasing hue / Of the tickle-toe-teaser’s claws.’”131

***TRIAL ISLANDS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg expand: “Victoria. These islands got their name in the old days because they constituted a trial of one’s skill in navigation. The trick was to round them in a small sailing ship and enter the Strait of Juan de Fuca, despite the fact that the tide rips off the islands and the prevailing westerly winds.”132

***UKWE-SES-NE-RE-THEL-KREH-NU, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Karen Heikkeila illustrates: “Ukwe-ses-ne-re-thel-kreh-nu (Oogwususneghetelgehnoo) ‘island over which the black bear uses to escape us’, a prominently-sized island in a lake that eventually came to be called Morice Lake. The meaning of the name of the island hints as its enormity, in the sense that it is so large that a bear can effectively hide itself from hunters, and warns of the difficulty of bear-hunting on the island.”133

***VIEW ROYAL, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Victoria Daily Colonist maintains: “View Royal is only four miles from the city. It is charmingly located on a harbor that has long been recognized as one of Victoria’s show places. The subdivision is high-class in its design as well as in its surroundings. For neighbors it already boasts of several of Victoria’s most prominent citizens. Not only the waterfronts, but every lot has a ‘royal’ view of the harbor, the Straits and the Olympics. Every lot has waterfront privileges. Street ends have been made to come at the most desirable parts of the coast so that all may enjoy the pleasures of the seashore. Motor boats can safely be anchored all the year round, so thoroughly is the seafront protected. Water is guaranteed on every

street by virtue of a contract entered between the Esquimalt Water Works and our company. With the general progress of the West, the exploitation of Vancouver Island’s resources, the forthcoming opening of the Panama Canal, and the present activity of the E & N and the CN railways, who can say what Esquimalt, said to be ‘the world’s second harbor’ has in store? When you buy one of our quarter acre lots, at our reasonable prices, and on exceptionally easy terms, you get more than value, a beautiful summer home site, and a property that lies directly in the path of development. Prices from $600 up.”134

***WAITABIT CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg present: “Flows south into Columbia River, north of Golden. Early travelers descending the upper Columbia River would wait a bit, resting and trimming the loads in their canoes, before entering the rapids here.”135

***WHIPSAW CREEK, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

GPV and HB Akrigg render: “Southwest of Princeton. Early gold-hunters, needing lumber with which to build sluice-boxes and flumes, whipsawed their lumber in sawpits close to this stream. In this primitive method of sawing, a log was rolled onto two skids over a pit. One man stood on top of the log and another down in the pit, and they pulled the saw up and down. Progress was slow – 100 feet board measure was a good day’s work.”136

***ZEBALLOS, BRITISH COLUMBIA***

Lyn Hawley sheds light on: “The Village of Zeballos’ namesake origins can be found as far back as 1791, when Captain Alexandro Malaspina, a Spaniard, along with his two officers, Lieutenant Joseph de Espinosa and Lieutenant Ciriaco Cevallos explored this area. Zeballos was named for Lieutenant Cevallos.

“As illustrated in the Village’s logo today, Zeballos’ early years were associated with gold mining back in the early thirty’s. At that time there were no roads into Zeballos, only trails leading to the mines from the mud filled streets of the town and supplies were shipped in by boat.

“In 1929, forty gold claims were staked in the Zeballos area. The incorporation of the Nootka-Zeballos Gold mine in 1936 was the start of many full-fledged companies to come to the valley. The next two years saw the start-up of many mines – Spud Valley, Golden Gate Mine, Rey Oro Mine and the White Star Mine, to name a few. Housing was at a premium – the boom was on.

“At its height, Zeballos had many hotels, restaurants, stores, a bank, a school, a hospital, a newspaper Zeballos Miner, and a library. This isolated little community even had electricity and a Board of Trade. With the boom comes the bust and Zeballos was no exception. World War II caused an exodus of miners. Stories are told that many families just left with the clothes on their backs leaving behind fully furnished homes. The community quickly shrank from 1,500 inhabitants down to 35!

“In the early 60s the opening of an iron ore mine gave Zeballos a short lived boost. The tailings from this mine created what is now described as The Point. In 1970, the road to the outside world opened and the logging camp at Fair Harbour was moved to Zeballos. The Tahsis Logging Company brought people back into this area.

“Around 1987, gold mining reared its head again and McAdam Resources began explorations at Spud Valley. After spending millions of dollars, McAdam Resources folded, dismantled all their improvements and left the area.

“Today Zeballos has in excess of 125 residents with further increases expected for the adjacent community of the Ehattesaht Band which shares services and school functions.”137

**MANITOBA**

Alan Rayburn suggests: “The name of the province derives from the Ojibwa Manito-Bah or Cree Manito-Wapow (‘the strait of the spirit’), in reference to noisy sounds made by pebbles on a beach of Manitoba Island in the Narrows of Lake Manitoba. The name is less likely from the Assiniboine Mini-Tobow (‘lake of the prairie’). Pierre Gaultier de La Verendrye (1685-1755) called it Lac des Prairies in 1730.”138

JB Rudnyckyj calls attention to: “Name of the province since 1870; originally name of the lake and of the island, north of the Narrows of the Lake.

“There are various explanations of the origin and meaning of this name: ‘Manitoba is generally believed to be of Cree or Ojibway Indian origin. In the narrows of the lake of that name lies an island on whose limestone beach the pounding of the waves produced a roaring sound such as superstition would ascribe to the action of a Manitou, or spirit, accustomed to beat his drums there. The strait, called manitowapow (Cree) or manito bau (Ojibway), meaning ‘the strait of the spirit’, gave its name to the whole lake and the province. There is however, a less widely held view put forward by Dugas and Prud’homme, that we must find the source of the name Manitoba in the Assiniboine Indian mini and tobow, meaning ‘lake of the prairie’; this form, indeed, did appear very early in the translated Lac des Prairies, the name used by La Verendrye, who was the first white man to see it.’”139

www.gov.mb.ca connotes: “The name Manitoba originated in the languages of the Aboriginal people who lived on the Prairies and traveled the waters of Lake Manitoba.

“These people, the Cree and Assiniboin First Nations, introduced European explorers, traders and settlers to the region and its waterways. They also passed on to the newcomers the ancient names and poetic legends associated with the places they inhabited. More than two centuries of contact and trade between the Europeans and First Nations produced a blending of their languages. From Aboriginal name and legend to official title of the province, the evolution of the name Manitoba mirrors the history of the region.

“At the Lake Manitoba Narrows a strong wind can send waves washing against the limestone rocks off an offshore island. The unique sound from the waves is said to be the Manitou, or ‘Great Spirit’ (in Ojibway, Manito-bau. The legend survives in the Province’s name – Manitoba.

“Thomas Spence, leader of the Canadian settlement near Portage la Prairie, was the first person to use the word Manitoba in reference to both the lake and surrounding territory. By 1858 the population of the Portage community had grown to the point where it needed a municipal organization of its own. In 1860, Spence and others at the settlement formed a provisional government and announced to the British Colonial Office that the district was to be known as the Republic of Manitobah. The government was not recognized, but the name endured.

“During the Red River Resistance of 1869-70, Spence joined Louis Riel’s Metis Council. In the spring of 1870, delegates from this council were sent to Ottawa to negotiate the transfer of Red River to the Government of Canada. The List of Rights they carried to the meeting stated that the new province would be called Assiniboia, a name given to the area by Lord Selkirk. But Riel had misgivings about the name. On April 19, 1870 he sent the following letter of instructions to his delegate, Father Noel-Joseph Ritchot: ‘the name of the country is already written in all hearts, that of Red River. Fancy delights in that of Manitoba, but the situation seems to demand that of ‘North-West’. Friends of the old government are pleased with that of Assiniboia (but) it is not generally enough liked to be kept. Choose one of the two names Manitoba or ‘North-West’.

“On May 2, 1870, Sir John A Macdonald announced that a new province was to enter Confederation under The Manitoba Act. He said the province’s name had been chosen for its pleasant sound and its associations with the original inhabitants of the area.

“Both the Cree and Assiniboin terms, and the legends and events associated with their use, are preserved forever in the name Manitoba. A plaque commemorating its origin is located on the east side of the Lake Manitoba Narrows.”140

***ASSINIBOINE RIVER, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj details: “An important highway of the fur trade (on the map of 1761 by John Rocque: Assinipoeis River) it took its name from that of the Assiniboine Indians whose name means ‘those who cook by placing hot stones in water’, or, as E Samila of Winnipeg put it in 1955: ‘The white people gave this name to one of our rivers in memory of the Assiniboine Indians who used to come over from the present United States and camp by the river. Those Indians were known as “the ones who cook by means of stones” because they used to throw very highly heated stones into the water in their cooking pots to make it boil. In their language the word assini means ‘a stone’, and the word boine means ‘the ones who cook’.’”141

***BERENS RIVER, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel explains: “Berens River: Community at the mouth of the Berens River. A Post Office opened in 1900, but it was originally established in 1814 as a Hudson’s Bay Company trading post and named after the river. The river was named after the Governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, Joseph Berens (1812-1822). Geographic Board of Canada correspondence from Assistant Postmaster A Disbrowe (1905), however, suggested the Post Office was named after Chief Jacob Berens when the reserve was established under Treaty 5. Field research indicated that older residents also called it Pigeon River

because the Hudson’s Bay Company moved their post here from Pigeon River and continued to keep records under the that name for a few years. Thus freight going to Berens River would be addressed Pigeon River (the latter is also a former name for the Berens River). The Berens River Report, Hudson’s Bay Company (1815) indicated that circa 1813, a post was established on Pigeon River, about four miles from its mouth, but was abandoned because of the difficulty of ‘procuring subsistence at that place.’ It moved to the mouth of Berens River, which was occupied in 1814 by traders from Jack River. Arrowsmith (1796) simply noted it as a Canadian House; Baldwin (1834) Berens Ho[use]; Blackie (circa 1840) Beren Ft; Arrowsmith (1854) Berens R Ho[use]; Hind (1858) Beren’s Fort; Garnier (1860) St on Berens; Bell (1872) Berens Fort; Dawson Brothers (1880) Ft Berens; Cram (circa 1885) Ft Beerens; Johnston (circa 1889) Beerens House; Bayne (1901; plan of Hudson’s Bay Company posts) Berens River Post; Department of the Interior (1905) Berens River. Berens Island: West of Berens River, was similarly named by the Geographic Board of Canada (1933) although an old and still used local name is Swampy Island, first shown on a Fidler map (1808). Kempt (1824) possibly Swan’s Island (possibly intended ‘Swampy’); Taylor (1827) Big Island. Berens Bank: In Lake Winnipeg northwest of Berens River. Named by the Canadian Board on Geographical Names in 1949. Berens River: Drains Family Lake west into Lake Winnipeg. First noted correctly in Fidler’s journal of 1808. Named after Joseph Berens, Governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company (1812-1822). Douglas (1933) added that the Cree name was omimi sibi meaning ‘Pigeon River’, but this applied only to the river about seven miles south. Geographic Board of Canada correspondence (1905; from Assistant Postmaster A Disbrowe at Berens River) noted that the river was originally called O’Meemee Sibi or Pigeon River, but that name is now applied to the river to the south. He accounted for Pigeon River applying to both rivers from the fact that the two are branches of the same river. With the signing of Treaty 5, the northern branch became Berens River. Gill (1973) noted it was originally Pigeon River or Omimicbsibi in Cree, but surveyors renamed it after the post and gave the name ‘Pigeon’ to a river 10 miles south. A Graham (post 1771; Hudson’s Bay Company Archives) possibly one of his two Rice Rivers – mouths only compiled; Fidler (1808, 1810) Beren’s River; Lean (Lord Selkirk grant survey, 1811) Barens River; Taylor (1827) Berings River and Bearing’s River; Blackie (circa 1840) Beren River; Anonymous (post 1875) Berings River; Stanfords (circa 1888) seems his River Wastickwa, for a combination of Berens and Severn rivers; Bulman (1905) Bevens River. Several old maps show either Berens River or Poplar River as part of the Severn River, or as Wastikwa, an alternate. Berens River Indian Reserve at the mouth of the Berens River. First noted on a Department of Indian Affairs map (1891) and on a Dufresne survey (1885) as Berens River Indian Reserve, which added that the Chief here was Jacob Berens. This is a Swampy Cree reserve (Douglas 1933).”142

***BIFROST, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj imparts: “Settlement northwest of Gimli, also name of rural municipality. The name is taken from the Norse mythology and means the rainbow or the bridge that every warrior had to cross from this life to the hereafter; only those who met their death by arms in war had the privilege of walking bifrost, ‘the distance between two resting places’.”143

***BIRDS HILL, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj mentions: “Village northeast of Winnipeg; also name of the Provincial Park.

“Originally it was named Roseneath; renamed after Dr Curtis J Bird, who lived and practiced medicine in the vicinity; later he was member of the first Provincial Legislature of Manitoba and first speaker of the Legislature, 1873-4; he died in London, England, 1876.

“Originally the property belonged to Dr Bird’s father. During the flood of 1852, Bishop Anderson in his diary referred frequently to ‘Mr Bird’s Hill’. It was one of the three areas to which the settlers fled from the flood, the other two being Stony Mountain, and the area ‘up the Assiniboine’ north of the river, between Omand’s Creek and Sturgeon Creek.

“According to a legend related by Emily Arabska, Winnipeg, the origin of the name is as follows: ‘In the beginning Guichimanitou created the heaven and the earth. The Red River flowed through here, to the north. Each year it used to overflow its banks. When the land was flooded the birds would seek the higher places which were still not flooded. There was only one very high hill in the Red River valley. So all the birds would flock thither during a flood and build their nests there. As years went by the river floods kept on decreasing in number, but still the birds went to their nests on the hill on their return from the south each spring. Here, in the valley, two Indian tribes, the Ojibways and the Crees, kept on fighting. Whenever the Indians were hungry they went hunting for the birds on the hill. They could also discover there whether the enemy was approaching, as, at the approach of a large number of men – of the enemy – the birds would start flying away in all directions. That is why hill was called Birds Hill.’”144

***CONNOLLY BAY, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj puts into words: “West shore of Cedar Lake; also name of lake.

“Named in honor of William Connolly, a fur-trader, who entered the service of the North West Company in 1801, and became partner in 1818. When the company amalgamated with the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1821 he became chief trader; in 1825 he was promoted to chief factor. Connolly was in charge of New Caledonia, 1825-31, and of the King’s Posts, 1832-40. He retired in 1843 and lived thereafter in Montreal. In the annals of court cases he figures due to the litigation that arose over his estate: When he retired, his Indian wife, whom he had married ‘according to the custom of the country’, was placed in a Red River convent; and in Montreal Connolly married his cousin, Julia Woolrich. After the death of both himself and his Indian wife, his eldest ‘half-breed’ son brought suit to obtain his share of Connolly’s estate and the Canadian courts ruled that the Indian marriage was valid. An appeal was carried to the Privy Council but a settlement was reached out of court before a decision was given.”145

***CROSS LAKE, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel reports: “Cross Lake: Community on the southeast shore of Cross Lake. The Post Office opened in 1921 and was named after the lake (Douglas 1933) which was a translation of the Cree name Pimichicomow Sakahigan (Tyrrell 1915). Cocking (1772) spelled it Pimochickonow, and gave the meaning as ‘it lies athwart’ (Douglas 1933). In 1927, the Geographic Board of Canada reported that this and other historical Cross Lakes are found on early canoe routes, and was simply so named because the

routes crossed them. The lake name was first noted on Thompson (1813-4) and Arrowsmith (1814). Cross Lake Post (Hudson’s Bay Company) was noted on a survey of the post and Indian Reserve by G Bayne, Dominion Land Surveyor (1901; plan of Hudson’s Bay Company posts). Voorhis (1930) referred to it as Cross Lake House. For lake: possibly A Graham (post 1771) Pemochicimo Lake, and post 1773, had Pimochicomou Lake noting that ‘Mr Cocking had travelled through here’; Fidler (1806) simply Pimmitchikoomow; Vivien (1825) Lake Cross; Vandermalen (1827) Lac Crosse; De Smet (1844) Lac la Croix; Dufour (1863) Lac la Crosse; Quebec Government map (1918) Lac a la Croix; Department of the Interior (circa 1900) Newfoundland Lake; Spanish map L o Crux. Cross Lake 19: Indian Reserve on Cross Island in Cross Lake. Douglas (1933) noted that the Cross Lake Indian Reserves are occupied by Swampy Cree. The names were approved in 1930. First noted on a Department of Indian Affairs map (1891) and named after Cross Lake. Cross Island was first noted on a Department of Railways and Canals map (1914) and as Indian Reserve Island on a Department of the Interior map (1883). Cross Lake 19A: Indian Reserve on the southeast shore of Cross Lake. First noted on a survey plan by D Robertson, Dominion Land Surveyor (1913). Cross Lake 19B: Indian Reserve on the southeast shore of Cross Lake. First noted on a survey plan by D Robertson, Dominion Land Surveyor (1913). Cross Lake 19C: Indian Reserve on the southeast shore of Cross Lake. First noted on a survey plan by D Robertson, Dominion Land Surveyor (1913).146

***FISHER RIVER, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel shows: “Fisher River: Flows northeast into Fisher Bay, Lake Winnipeg. Alexander Henry mentioned it in this location in 1803 (Coues 1897), while it was first identified on a Fidler map (circa 1809). It was named after the fisher, a fur-bearing member of the marten family and is a translation of the French name Riviere aux Pecans (Garland 1975). The Cree name was Ochakeweo, from the word ochak (or ochik) meaning ‘fisher’. Also called West Fisher River locally. Arrowsmith (1824) Fishers River; Vandermalen (1827) River Fishar; McLean (1909) West Branch of Fisher River above the junction with East Fisher River.”147

***FLEE ISLAND, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj talks about: “Delta marsh.

“According to Douglas L Campbell, former premier of Manitoba (1948-58) who was born here, this is how the locality was named: After the Custer massacre (1862), the Sioux Indians were not too popular in the Dakotas. Hunting also was not very good, so they started moving north. The Assiniboine Indians tried to repel the invaders, but had to retreat. They fled to the island which has been called Flee Island ever since.”148

***FLIN FLON, MANITOBA***

Liz Donaghy catalogs: “’Down, down, down he went into the bottomless lake, leaving behind the watchers on the shore and a circle of bubbles on the surface of the water. Soon Flinty could feel his submarine ‘fish’ was being swept along by a deep current. Ahead he saw a cloud of swirling water indicating the subterranean river he sought. All at once his fish spun wildly, hurtling down like a scrap of

soap sucked through the drain. Down, down, down until finally it reached the center of the earth where he found a sunless city, laden with worthless gold, where women ruled …’

“Flin Flon is proud of being the only city in the world named for a science fiction character.

“Intrigued by the story of Flin Flon, Al Capp of ‘Lil Abner’ fame donated his time and talent to creating an image of the gentleman ‘conspicuous for two things – the smallness of his stature and the largeness of his perception.’

“The Flin Flon and District Chamber of Commerce had the statue constructed in Winnipeg, Manitoba and Flintabattey Flonatin now resides in the Flin Flon Tourist Park at the entrance to the City on Highway #10-A.

“In 1915, a group of prospectors who were portaging near the Churchill River in Northern Canada found a tattered copy of The Sunless City. During the long evenings they read the novel. However, they never found out what became of Josiah Flintabattey Flonatin as the last pages were missing. Later, on the shores of a lake which reminded them of Flin Flon’s, they found a promising outcrop – staked a claim, and named it for the grocer-adventurer. The claim led to a mining venture and the City of Flin Flon was born.”149

***FORT ALEXANDER, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel conveys: “Fort Alexander: Post Office and community northwest of Pine Falls. The Post Office opened in 1879 as Pine Falls, changed to Fort Alexander in 1881, closed in 1941 and reopened in 1950 on Lot 6, Township 19-9E on Fort Alexander Indian Reserve 3. Both were named after the former fort here. Fort Alexander was built on the south side of the Winnipeg River, a short distance below and opposite the old French Fort Maurepas (Voorhis 1930). It was built by Toussaint Lesieur for the North West Company in 1792 (Masson 1960). McDonnell (1794) referred to it as Sieur’s Fort, while Thompson (1796) called it Winnipeg House. Between 1800 and 1808, Alexander Henry (the younger) called the post Bas de la Riviere (French, meaning ‘bottom of the river’) and described it as ‘one of the most important posts of the North West Company’ (Douglas 1933). Alexander Henry mentioned the fort of Bas de la Riviere Winipic in 1800 (Coues 1897). Rudnyckyj (1970) noted the additional name Winnipeg River Fort, adding that it was an important transfer point on the North West Company freighting route from Fort William, Ontario to the West. After the amalgamation of the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company in 1821, a new Hudson’s Bay Company fort was built on this site which continued to operate as a post until 1940. Geographic Board of Canada records indicated that in a letter from Lord Wolseley to his wife (1870), he mentioned that the Hudson’s Bay Company post at the mouth of the Winnipeg River had been named Fort Louisa, after her. Before Fort Bas de la Riviere was built, the North West Company had a storehouse at Otter Point Rock about four miles above the river mouth, and Bas de la Riviere was built one or two miles further down river (Voorhis 1930). Until 1821, both the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company maintained forts here ‘only a few rods apart’ (Unpublished National Library manuscript 1979). Farmer (1829) Fort Alexander or Fort du Bas de la Riviere; Levasseur (circa 1847) Fort Alexandre; National Library manuscript (1979) Fort Bas-de-la-Riviere.”150

***FORT WHYTE, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj discusses: “Railroad point south of Winnipeg.

“Named in honor of Sir William Whyte, vice president of the Canadian Pacific Railway, for many years general superintendent of its Western Division with headquarters at Winnipeg. The place was the scene of a bloodless battle October-December 1888, between the Canadian Pacific Railway and the government of Manitoba. The Canadian Pacific Railway obtained an injunction to restrain the government sponsored railroad from crossing the Canadian Pacific Railway tracks southwest of Winnipeg; ‘Fighting Joe’ Martin, provincial attorney general and railway commissioner, had popular support for forcing the issue; prominent Winnipeg citizens were sworn in as special constables to see that the workmen were allowed to put in the crossing. Superintendent Whyte had a dead engine dumped in the path of the new railway and kept two engines at the crossing with steam up and hoses attached so that the scalding steam could be sprayed on the workmen and the special constables if they became too persistent. One night the government forces tore up the track and put their crossing in. Next day the Canadian Pacific Railway men tore it up and took it triumphantly on a flat car to Winnipeg where it was displayed. Fortunately, there was neither bloodshed nor burns from scalding steam. Special constables sometimes offered a drink to Canadian Pacific Railway men and all joined in singing hymns on Sunday, hymnbooks having been sent out for the purpose. In December, the Supreme Court ruled against the Canadian Pacific Railway and the battle was over.”151

***GARDEN HILL, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel expounds: “Garden Hill: Community on the northeast shore of Island Lake. Canadian Permanent Committee on Geographical Names records indicated that this name applied to the community within Island Lake Indian Reserve 22A, on the north side of d’Arcis Bay. It appeared as Garden Hill Indian Reserve on a Geological Survey of Canada map (1927). Correspondence from the Island Lake postmaster (1962) suggested that Island Lake was formerly applied to all three settlement areas around Island Lake – St Theresa Point, Waasagomach, and particularly Garden Hill, as Island Lake Post Office is on the same reserve. Fieldwork revealed two old, local Native names for areas within the community: Amikkwakiestowats, meaning ‘the beaver’s place’, and Wanapaskwatinang, meaning ‘clear area of land (from fire) in a valley’, referring to a narrow strip of land to the north of the present reserve buildings.”152

***GIMLI, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj impresses: “Town; also rural municipality.

“This is the site of the first Icelandic settlement in Manitoba, dating back to 1875. According to W Kristjanson, the name was suggested by one of the settlers, Olafur Olafsson, after the home of the gods in Norse mythology, meaning ‘the great hall of heaven’.

“It was one of a series of Icelandic settlement, known as New Iceland, established on the west shore of the lake in 1875. This first permanent Icelandic settlement in Canada was then in the Northwest

Territories, and during the years 1878-87 it was a self-governing unit according to its own constitution. From this parent colony developed many other Icelandic communities in Manitoba and the United States. The railway reached the community in 1909. Gimli was incorporated as a village in 1908 and as a town in 1946. About 75 percent of its present population is of Icelandic origin.

“According to H Bessasson ‘the most plausible thesis is that the first element gim- means ‘a fire’ … and the latter element –li (-le) stands for Icelandic lile, ‘a shelter’. Judging by a mythological source Gimle (Old Icelandic form) was a place in the third heaven. It is therefore natural to conclude that the meaning is ‘a shelter from fire’ or ‘a place that has never been reached by fire’.”153

***GODS LAKE, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel notates: “Gods Lake: Community on Elk Island in Gods Lake. The Post Office opened in 1935 and closed in 1944 at the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Gods Lake Post, at the north end of Gods Lake. It reopened in 1950 and closed in 1964, but at the old Gods Lake Mine site to the south on Elk Island. It is named after Gods Lake, probably a translation, or variation of the Cree word manitou, meaning ‘spirit’ (Douglas 1933). Lionais, Dawson (1870) Gods Lake House. Gods Lake: North of Island Lake. First noted correctly on an Anonymous, undated map (circa 1815) possibly by the Hudson’s Bay Company. As noted above, the name is probably derived from the Cree word manitou. Several early maps, from Hall (1830) to Colton (1856) called it Fishing Lake. Franklin (1819; copy by Pettigrew 1919) God’s Lake; Andriveau (1856) Lac Gode; Garnier (1860) Lac de Dieu; Hunter, Rose and Company (1867) Good Lake; Government of Quebec (1918) Lac de Dien.”154

***HUDSON BAY AND HUDSON STRAIT, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj puts pen to paper: “In North Manitoba.

“This vast inland sea was discovered in 1610 and named ‘after Henry Hudson, the renowned navigator who sailed from England on the river Thames, 22 April 1610, in the ship Discovery of 55 tons to seek the northwest passage; he spent the winter in James Bay but while returning in June 1611, his crew mutinied and cast him adrift in a shallop with his son and eight others in the bay which was afterwards to be known as Hudson Bay … the Indian name is Winipeg meaning ‘nasty water’.’”155

***NELSON HOUSE, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel represents: “Nelson House: Community on the north shore of Footprint Lake. A Post Office and Hudson’s Bay Company post located within Indian Reserve 170. Also called Nelson River House, Nelson House was established between 1740 and 1760 and was one of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s earliest posts (Voorhis 1930). The location changed several times, and a post was erected on the present site in 1878. Most early maps, however, placed the site at the junction of Highrock Lake and Nelson Lake, the latter joined to it on the east side. Fidler (1798) placed Nelson House here and noted the alternate name Fishing House on an 1807 map. His 1808 map called it Highrock Lake, Nelson Lake. Presumably this post was named after Nelson Lake and took the name with it when it moved.

Arrowsmith (1814) Nelson Ho[use]; Hunter, Rose and Co (1867) Fort Nelson; Ross (1892) Nelson River Post.

“Nelson Lake: East of Highrock Lake. First noted correctly on a Smith map (1878). Fidler (circa 1808) called it Highrock Lake and probably included Nelson Lake. The lake was named by David Thompson after Horatio, Viscount Nelson (1758-1805), the famous British admiral who defeated the French fleets at Aboukir Bay and Trafalgar (Douglas 1933, Garland 1975). Quebec government (1918) Lac Nelson.”156

***NETLEY, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj specifies: “Post office north of Selkirk; also name of lake, marsh, and creek.

“The Indian name for the creek is Nepowin sipi or ‘Deaths river’; AM Muckle in a letter from Clandeboye, November 19, 1891, explains the origin of the name as follows: ‘The river was not given the name because of a massacre which took place there, but for the reason that when the Saulteux first came to the mouth of the creek they found abandoned tents along the bank, also on going up stream they again found abandoned tents; at these tents they found human remains, both inside and out; this is the reason it got the name Ne-poo-win; they discovered one boy alive who told them that his people had all died of smallpox; this boy, Pockwa-now was known to the Selkirk Settlers. … The Saulteux then took possession of the land without opposition, after killing or adopting the few Mandans who lived along the banks of the Red River, but did not venture into the prairie; a short time after the Assineboins (assine, ‘a stone’, and pown, ‘a Sioux’) came back and found the Saulteux in possession; they smoked the pipe of peace and made an offensive and defensive alliance against their enemies, which has lasted up to the present day, the Saulteux to have the woods and rivers for the moose, bear, beaver, and fish in them and the Assiniboine the prairies with the buffalo.’”157

***NORWAY HOUSE, MANITOBA***

RM Beaumont tells: “Long before Norway House existed, there was only a river and a lake, part of a waterway that started in the mountains far to the west and ended at the great salt water sea to the north. All around, for as far as the eye could see, stretched forest, marsh, and muskeg with patches of bare rock here and there. It was a place untouched by human hands.

“Time passed and people started to come in small groups to hunt and fish. For thousands of years, they set up their wigwams and tipis along the river and around the lake, stayed for a time, and then wondered on in search of better hunting grounds.

“Eventually, the river and lake were named, as well as islands points of land. The people needed to be able to tell others where they had seen animals, so that hunters could go out and catch them. They also needed to tell one another where the best fishing spots were. Different peoples passed through Norway House and each brought its own names for places.

“The river and lake were part of a land mass which spread out for thousands of miles in every direction. The people dwelling in the vast area spoke different languages and followed different customs. They lived as traders and artisans in large cities of brick and stone, or as farmers growing corn, beans, and

other food crops. Some hunted the buffalo on the prairie grasslands, other the caribou in the northern forests and barren lands. At times they lived in peace with one another, at other times they quarreled and wars broke out. If defeated, they fled their enemies and moved to new places for safety. Sometimes, they used the river to escape.

“To the east, west, and north lived the Cree. Further north and west lived their enemies, the Chipewyan. Both were hunters and fishermen who had wandered from place to place for generations, always on the move in search of food. To the south and west lived the Assiniboine, who survived by hunting and fishing, too. Sometimes as fall approached, the Cree would paddle south and join the Assiniboine to hunt the buffalo. During the summer these animals roamed the prairie grasslands by the millions, but in the cold months many of them moved in among the trees of the parkland for shelter. There the hunters made fenced enclosures called pounds, chased the frightened animals into them, and killed them with bow and arrow before they had time to escape.

“Later in the winter the Cree separated from the Assiniboine and moved north again, where they killed moose for food. In the spring their families set up fishing camps along the rivers and lakes of the region, while they young men sometimes headed south once more to join the Assiniboine in war parties against the Sioux. Occasionally, the Cree may have gone with the Assiniboine on their long fall trip to the Missouri, where they traded meat and fat for the corn and beans the Mandans grew in their farming villages.

“From earliest times, people traded with their friends and allies. Each group had something that was prized by its neighbors, and sharing meant that everyone was richer. When people came together to renew their friendship, gifts were always exchanged, and when they departed, there was general satisfaction with the new things they had obtained.

“Thus the Cree and others paddled back and forth along the river in search of food or trade. And it was trade that changed the river and lake forever.

“For many years the vast lands that stretched forth in all directions had been unknown to anyone but the people who lived in them. Then strangers began to arrive from across the ocean to the east. At first the Cree did not know about them because they were far away. But as the years went by, they began to hear stories from their relatives, the Ojibway, who lived to the southeast along the shores of the great lakes. The Ojibway had seen and talked to these strangers, who were called Frenchmen, and spoke of the wonderful things they had to trade. The Cree were skeptical, but when they saw axes and chisels, knives and files, all made of a hard and unfamiliar substance, they were impressed, and eager to find out if they were as good as their own tools. Even more interesting were the weapons that could kill at a great distance. At first the Cree were startled by the noise made by them, but once they understood their use, they wanted them. These new weapons could be used to hunt for food or to protect them from their enemies.

“Soon they were trading for the goods the Ojibway had received from the French. But not for long. They quickly learned that their furs were highly valued, and they could get more for them by trading

with the strangers themselves. As the French moved further and further west, the Cree and their Assiniboine friends joined the Ojibway in trading directly with them.

“Other strangers, called Englishmen, arrived on the shores of the great salt water sea to the north. Like those before them, they renamed the sea Hudson’s Bay, and the body of water to the south of it James Bay. Trading posts with odd names like York Factory, Fort Albany, and Severn were built at the mouths of rivers flowing into those waters, and trade in furs began. The French, old enemies of the English, wanted exclusive control of the fur trade and tried to drive the English away. Sometimes they were able to capture their posts, but then the English would take them back again. This went on for many years until the French finally gave up and signed a treaty with the English. After that, only the English had trading posts along the coast, while the French were confined to the interior around the great lakes and the western lands beyond.

“The Cree and their allies were quick to see the advantages of trading with both sides, so that the best possible terms could be obtained. Moreover, they controlled the rivers that flowed down from the interior into Hudson Bay. No one could trade with the English unless they had permission from the Cree and Assiniboine to pass through their lands.

“As news of the Englishmen’s arrival on the northern sea spread across the prairies, other people became anxious to see them and the marvelous things they had to trade. Because of distance, visits were infrequent, but the Blood, Blackfoot, Mandan, and possibly the Sarci and others, may have made the long journey down to the Bay. If they did, they went for canoes manned by Cree and Assiniboine captains who knew the way, and undoubtedly by the place that was to become Norway House many years later.

“When the canoe brigades arrived near York Factory after their long journey, they stopped out of sight a short distance up the river and prepared themselves to meet the traders. Once ready, they set out on the last part of the trip. Ten or more canoes, with the captain in the middle one, shoved off and headed downstream side by side. A few moments later, a second line set off, followed by a third, until the entire number, sometimes as many as a hundred canoes, was in the water. They were impressive when they hove into sight. Guns were shot into the air by the paddlers, and cannon at the factory boomed a welcome reply. A young company employee hoisted the flag, which flew all the time the visitors were there. The factor, who was in charge of the post, and his chief officers hastened to the shore to welcome the arrivals.

“As soon as they landed, the captain and a few others were invited into the post, while the women and the rest of the men prepared the camp. Once everyone had smoked a pipe, the captain made a speech. He told the factor how many people had made the journey. He added that they had brought good fur for which they wanted a fair exchange of trade goods. Then, the factor made a welcoming speech, telling the visitors how glad he was to see them and that he had the best goods available to trade for their furs. After that, he gave the captain a fine suit of clothes, with shoes and hat to match. He also gave him food and other items for the rest of the people. When the formalities had been completed, everyone rose and went outside in a procession led by a drummer. The gifts were given to everyone,

and for the next two or three days, there was much singing and dancing. At the end of the merrymaking, everyone entered the trading post, and the pipe of peace and friendship was smoked. More speeches were made, and gifts exchanged, including furs from the captain to the factor and more food for the visitors. At 4:00 o’clock the next morning trade began and continued until 8:00 o’clock that evening.

“The visitors took their furs to a trading room and bargained for the best possible deal. Once the bargaining was over, they passed their furs over a counter and received goods from the warehouse in exchange. In those days there was no money. Because there were no dollars or cents to use when people wanted to buy something, everything was exchanged by trading or bartering. In the Hudson’s Bay Company, the price of everything was described according to how many beaver skins it was worth. A Made Beaver was a unit of value just as a dollar is today, and all other furs were valued as they compared to beaver. For example, a gun could be purchased if the buyer had fourteen high quality beaver skins. In other words, a gun was worth fourteen Made Beaver. If it took ten muskrat skins to equal one Made Beaver, then one hundred and forty such skins were necessary to buy a gun.

“It was the job of the captain to make sure the people received as much as possible for the furs they had to trade. If they were unhappy with him, they would look for another captain the following year. Likewise, if the people were pleased with the amount and quality of goods they had received from the Hudson’s Bay Company, they promised to return. If dissatisfied, they threatened to go to the French traders. The Company had to be careful that its customers went away happy.

“When the trading was complete, the captain received more gifts, which were meant for him alone, but which he generally shared with the rest of the people. Also, as the Company had a vested interest in keeping the trappers healthy, medicine chests were distributed as well. Then, the entire brigade of canoes headed back upstream on the return journey to the hunting grounds.

“Every year the same pattern of trade was repeated. The Cree and Assiniboine became the main travelers to the Bay. The Blackfoot, Sarci, and other far off people did not like the long journey away from their own hunting areas, where they were sure of something to eat. They preferred to obtain European goods through the Cree and Assiniboine, some of whom gave up trapping altogether and became middlemen in the trade. They took furs down to York Factory, traded them for goods there, used those goods for several months, and then sold them to the inland people for furs. A gun which had been traded for fourteen Made Beaver at York Factory sold to the Blackfoot for fifty Made Beaver; a kettle purchased at eight Made Beaver sold for twenty. In this way, the prosperity of the Cree and Assiniboine increased.

“Other changes happened, too. Around Hudson Bay, some of the Cree were encouraged to stay near the trading posts to hunt and fish for provisions to feed the Hudson’s Bay Company employees and their families. These families grew in number and size as more and lonelier young Orkneymen from Scotland, and a few Englishmen and Irishmen as well, married the daughters of the Cree hunters nearby. A new people were being created. Some stayed near the trading posts and their children entered the Company’s service. Others eventually rejoined their relatives and returned to the Cree way of life. The

Home Guard Cree, as they came to be known, still wandered from place to place, but did not travel as far as they had done in the past. Quickly adapting to the new goods provided by the European traders, they were soon wearing clothes made of European cloth and hunting with guns. According to reports from the time, they adapted so rapidly that some had forgotten or become less skillful in the use of the bow and arrow by 1716. According to one English trader, this loss of skill in tradition weaponry leads to the destruction of a band of Assiniboines. Having run out of ammunition for their guns, they were apparently no match for the more competent bowmen among their enemies.

“Sometimes, however, the possession of guns did give their owners and edge in battle. The Cree engaged in a bloody war with the Chipewyans in which several thousand were reputed to have died. Having guns, the Cree were able to inflict heavier losses on their enemies than they themselves sustained. The Assiniboine, too, may have used the gun to some advantage against their enemies, but there is increasing evidence neither group expanded its territory beyond traditional boundaries as has been believed in the past. War interfered with the trade everyone wanted, and this must have been abundantly clear to Cree and Assiniboine traders who could see the merits of their geographical position.”

RM Beaumont continues: “On May 29, 1814, eight Norwegian laborers embarked from Gravesend, London, aboard the company ship Prince of Wales, and arrived at York Factory September 3. They were under the direction of Enner Holte, a Swedish naval officer, who had been hired as their overseer and interpreter. On the evening of their arrival at York, Mr Holte was entertained at ‘the Chief’s Table’ and undoubtedly received instructions from Mr Thomas about the work ahead of him. He was to proceed inland with his men to the site of the first depot on the winter road. The Norwegians, reputedly expert axe men, had been hired to clear from fifty to sixty acres of land and plant them to potatoes. Then they were to move to the site of the second depot at White or Robinson Falls to clear more land and plant it to rye. If they were able to clear and plant fifteen acres each, they would be considered to have completed the requirements of their three year contract. It had been the intention to have Peter Fidler, the company surveyor, direct the work, and Thomas wrote him a letter of instructions on the eighth of September, but it was not to be. Fidler spent the winter at Brandon House and did not arrive at the depot site until the summer of 1815. Holte was destined to be alone, just one of the many unexpected turns that were to plague him all winter.

“During the next week, Mr Thomas explained the terms of the contract to the Norwegians, who seemed pleased with the arrangements. Hoes, manufactured by the local blacksmith, were loaded onto the boats along with hatchets, spades and other equipment needed for the project. Then, on the tenth of September, Holte left in two boats accompanied by James Kirkness, clerk at Jack River, the Norwegians, and a few Irishmen. Trouble was immediate. That same evening, the Irish returned to the Factory, refusing to go further on the grounds they could not eat pemmican. The following day, they went back to ‘the Old Country’ on the company ship, while Holte and his men continued on in an adventure that was to add one frustration after another. Describing the journey to Jack River in his journal, Holte said, ‘On the passage the men were so stubborn and obstinate, that it was with the greatest difficulty I and Mr Kirkness could make them obey our Orders, and one Day they actually intended to take their things out of the Boat and return to the Factory, which however, I succeeded in persuading them from. I must

allow their behavior often brought me into a passion which I could not master.’ Holte’s temper was to be stretched to the limit on many occasions during the upcoming months.

“Arriving at Jack River on October 10, after a journey of a month, the men were greeted by James Sutherland, the master in charge. They rested for two days, then left for the depot site, taking with them two Orkney fishermen and two Irish laborers as replacements for the men who had returned to York Factory. Progress was slow. Headwinds forced them to stop at Play Green Point, where Holte had to reduce liquor rations when the men became drunk and troublesome. After the weather cleared, another irritant arose. The guide took them to the wrong place, and it wasn’t until the next morning when Sutherland and Dr Holdsworth arrived from Jack River that the error was corrected. They moved to the proper site at Mossy Point on the west bank of the Nelson River, opposite a place known as Warrens Landing and put up a hut the first day. Nevertheless, problems persisted. Labor unrest and other delays prevented the completion of the men’s house until November 30. The Norwegians complained about the food as well as the work. When threatened with a reduction of their wages, they protested that they would work better if they were fed better. Throughout December and January, the complaints and slowdowns continued, until Holte finally sent for more supplies from Jack River. It was on one such trip in March that James McKinley died altogether. In April, Hans Rasmussen was drowned. And in May, the men refused to work altogether. It was not until June, after Kirkness and Holdsworth had met with them and more provisions were brought from Jack River that they returned to their jobs.

“After a winter of frustration, Holte concluded in his journal that even the potatoes and barley would probably not grow. And to make matters worse, his left hand, wounded accidently by a pistol shot, gave him so much pain he could not write well. Labor problems, lack of proper equipment, and poor provisions had led to death and near mutiny. Norway House, the name given to that humble establishment, could not have begun under less auspicious circumstances. Indeed, with Colin Robertson arrived there in July 1815, he recorded in his diary: ‘Mr Hold and his Norwegians have cleared about an acre of land here, he has only erected two small huts, Mr McDonnell and White had not both a shed to cover the property they brought from Red River …’ One can only speculate at the reaction of Mr Thomas when he heard that disappointing news.

“In the meantime at Red River, conflict had escalated. In the spring of 1815, the North West Company was able to persuade one hundred and forty colonists to go to Canada. The Metis harassed the remainder by trampling their crops and burning houses, forcing them to flee north under the leadership of Peter Fidler. They stayed for a short time at the Norwegian site before returning to the colony with Colin Robertson. John MacLeod was there to greet them, having in their absence successfully defended the Hudson’s Bay Company fort against an estimated eighty attackers with only a handful of men, a few guns, and a five pounder cannon. Meanwhile, Fidler was sent north to begin construction on a large depot at Knee Lake and from there he went to York Factory to guide Governor Robert Semple and eighty Sutherland settlers down to the Red River Colony. Their arrival boosted the morale of the harried colonists, whose crops had survived the incursions of the Metis and had produced a bountiful harvest.

“Although the winter of 1815 was somewhat more comfortable for the colonists, the North West Company was more determined than ever to challenge the supremacy of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In

May 1816, Cuthbert Grant and his men captured the Hudson’s Bay pemmican boats on the Qu’Appelle and started east with them. After capturing and looting Brandon House, they proceeded along the Assiniboine and unloaded the boats onto Red River carts well about the Forks where Governor Semple and his enemy forces were located. From there, the intent was to go overland to Lake Winnipeg, but it was so wet and marshy that the carts had to go around many spots and ended up within a short distance of the Forks. Alerted to what was going on, Governor Semple rushed out to confront Grant at a place known as Seven Oaks. Angry words were exchanged, and shots fire. Among the dead was Enner Holte, the Swedish naval officer, who had taken such an active role in founding Norway House.”158

***OPASKWAYAK, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel chronicles: “Opaskwayak Cree Nation 21 Indian Reserve on the east shore of Clearwater Lake northeast of The Pas. First noted on a SGO map (1917). A Bray survey (1894) indicated that Stony Point was a fishing station, while added remarks implied that this reserve was surrendered and exchanged in 1917, presumably for the larger, present reserve. This is a Swampy Cree reserve (Douglas 1933).”

Des Kappel continues: “I was able to conduct two interviews to learn more about this name. One was with an Elder of the Opaskwayak Cree Nation and the other interview was with a Cree speaker who worked at the Aboriginal Language of Manitoba Inc.

“What I have learned is that the word Opaskwayak conveys a feeling or idea as opposed to being a word that has a very specific definition. The two definitions that I received were: 1) a high ridge or slope, 2) narrows between the woods, usually referring to a marshy or swampy area.

“I also received some unofficial comments from Cree speaking people that suggested they thought Opaskwayak meant ‘there are banks between the trees’ and ‘clearing in the trees’. Based on the two divergent definitions provided by different Elders in addition to the two unofficial thoughts on what Opaskwayak means, you get a feel for the idea of what Opaskwayak means even if there is no specific definition.”159

***OXFORD HOUSE, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel declares: “Oxford House: Community at the northeast end of Oxford Lake. A Post Office, Hudson’s Bay Company post and church mission located on the Indian Reserve. This Hudson’s Bay Company post was built by William Sinclair in 1798 under instructions from Joseph Colen then in charge of York Factory (Douglas 1933). It is 220 miles equidistant from York Factory and Norway House – both Hudson’s Bay Company posts. Situated on the historic Lake Winnipeg-Nelson-Echimamish-Hayes River route, it is the oldest post in the Keewatin District (Voorhis 1930). The first was built by Chief Factor Sinclair and the second by John McLeod in 1816. Canadian Board on Geographical Names records (1950) indicated that the Post Office opened in 1950 and closed in 1978 when the Thompson Post Office assumed that responsibility. The Cree name is Poonapowwanippeeko meaning ‘the place with the hole in the bottom’ in reference to the depth of Oxford Lake (Garland 1975). Andriveau (1856) Oxford Station. Note: we do not have a specific identification/history on the name Oxford however it is likely a reference to Oxford, Oxfordshire in central southern England.”160

***PEGUIS, MONITOBA***

Des Kappel displays: “Peguis: Locality north of Selkirk. The Post Office opened as Eagles Nest in 1870 (Campbell 1972), changed to Peguis in 1876, became Gilolo in 1906, was renamed Peguis in 1913 and closed in 1952. (Gilolo is the former name of the island of Halmahera in eastern Indonesia. It gained prominence due to the evolutionary research of Wallace and Darwin in the 1850s). The Post Office was originally established on the Peguis Indian Reserve within the Parish of St Peters. The School District name was Peguis South, while Peguis North School District was shown about two miles northwest. A Green survey (1899) showed it as North St Peter’s School. The Post Office (and reserves) was named after Peguis (William Prince), chief of the Saulteaux tribe at Red River. In 1816 he befriended the Selkirk settlers, and in 1835 was granted an annuity of five pounds by the Hudson’s Bay Company for ‘being well disposed towards the whites’ (Douglas 1933). The story of how Peguis received his name was related by his great grandson (in Ham 1980). ‘ … he was abandoned when an infant and found on a pile of wood chips by an elderly woman who raised him as her own son. She named him Peeh-quaa-is, or ‘Little Chip’.’ Secretary of State (1873) Eagle Nest; Manitoba and North Western Railway (circa 1884) Peguis; Department of Agriculture (1884) Eagels Nest.”161

***PILOT MOUND, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj expresses: “Village west of Morden; also creek and hill.

“The village takes its name from Pilot Mound, a butte which is visible for miles and therefore a ‘pilot’ for travelers on the prairie. At one time it was believed that the mound had been built by the Mound Builders, which explains the use of ‘mound’. One theory is that the butte is the result of an upheaval of natural gas; another is that it is a cretaceous elevation which escaped destruction by the Wisconsin Sheet. On its summit there are remains of a small circular hill which had been used as a burial mound; relics were found there in 1908. The Indians called it Mepawaquemoshen meaning ‘Little Dance Hill’, because they met to hold ceremonial dances there. Star Mound, southeast of Crystal City, was Big Dance Hill – The first site of the settlement was on the eastern slope of the hill; when the railway came in 1884, the village was moved to its present site.”162

***PORTAGE LA PRAIRIE, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel notes: “Portage la Prairie: City west of Winnipeg. First shown as a settlement on an Arrowsmith map (1857). The Post Office was established before 1870 and is a French name meaning ‘prairie portage’, named after the portage which ran from the Assiniboine River to Lake Manitoba (Douglas 1933). The first postmaster was Charles House. Also Canadian National and Canadian Pacific railway points, a provincial constituency and a Rural Municipality, the latter possibly organized in 1879 (Garland 1975). It was also a parish, extending north and south of the Assiniboine River (Secretary of State map 1872). This was an important, historical location as it was here that fur traders crossed from the Assiniboine River north to Lake Manitoba (Douglas 1933). The portage was also called Meadow Portage by Thompson (1798) and Plain Portage by Harmon (1805) and was mentioned by La Verendrye in his 1739 journal as a ‘carrying place’ from river to lake, used by the Assiniboine on their trading expeditions to the English posts on Hudson Bay. Hind (1857) provided an

interesting account of the name. ‘The name Prairie Portage is derived from the existence of a carrying place nine miles long, between this part of the Assiniboine and Lake Manitobah. It is stated by [Metis] at the settlement, that at seasons of extraordinary high waters, canoes can approach each other from the Assiniboine and Lake Manitobah, so as to leave but a very short distance from the portage; and instances have occurred of water, during periods of high floods, flowing from the Assiniboine into Lake Manitobah by the valley of Rat River’ (now Rat Creek).

“The city stands in the vicinity of Fort la Reine, a post built by La Verendrye in 1738 (Douglas 1933). Other posts were also built here and are listed separately as are current neighborhood names in the city. The locality underwent a name change three times before Portage la Prairie established itself: Prairie Portage, Meadow Portage and Plain Portage (Collier 1969). The first European settlement was established here by Archdeacon Cochran of the English Church Mission Society who purchased the land on which the city now stands from Chief Pequakekan in 1851. Thomas Spence set up a ‘republic’ here in 1867 and had himself elected President. It was called the Republic of Portage la Prairie, Republic of Manitoba or Republic of Caledonia. The community went on, however, to become incorporated as a town in 1880 and a city in 1907. Peter Fidler (1808) Portage des Prairies also called ‘barren ground portage’; Selkirk land grant (1817) Portage de la Prairie (for the portage); Hind (1858) Prairie Portage; Dawson (1859) Prairie or Grand Portage; Blakiston (1858) Manitoba Portage; J Arrowsmith (1863) La Prairie (possibly a typographical error); Secretary of State (1872) Portage-La-Prairie (within the parish of Portage La Prairie); Ross (1872) Portage De La Prairie; Militia Department (1878) Portage Village; Moffette (1888; of an 1823 route) Portage des Praire; Department of the Interior (1904) Portage La Prairie; Metcalfe (1932) Savanna Portage; Canadian Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (1961) Portage-la-Prairie.”163

***PUKATAWAGAN, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel records: “Pukatawagan: Community east of Sisipuk Lake. First noted on a Topographical Surveys map (1924) as a community on Pukatawagan Lake after which it was named. The Pukatawagan Post Office opened in 1952 under Postmaster Richard R Smith and Canadian Board on Geographical Names correspondence (1951) indicated that it was a Cree name which meant ‘fishing place’, or ‘fishing with a net’. The Canadian National Railway named the railway point after the Post Office in 1953. A modern map of Hudson’s Bay Company establishments showed this as a fur trading post. Fidler (1807) mentioned that the name of the lake (as Pockattwagan) was given to a House built here circa 1806 by Sutherland and McKay, but the House or Post was not named. He added that Pockattwagan or ‘Fishing Lake’ was so named because it was an excellent place to catch tikameg (whitefish).”164

***QU’APPELLE RIVER, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj reveals: “Flows into Assiniboine River.

“Name is a French translation of the Indian word Ketepwe which means ‘who calls?’; so named because at a certain bend in the river there is an unusually powerful echo. There is an Indian legend about the name: ‘A beautiful young maiden vanished mysteriously. Her lover called from the hills across the river and she started out to meet him. A mist settled about her and she was never seen again. Often her

canoe appeared on the river at twilight, but always disappeared when her heart-broken lover approached. Her spirit, however, still lingers in the valley and when anyone shouts, she cries, “Qu’appelle?”’ (Edna Baker, Prairie Place Names, 1928).

“Another version was recorded by EC Kyryliuk of Winnipeg in 1955: ‘It is said that this took place during the French period in Canada. A young French trader was hurrying in his boat to the place where lived his betrothed, as he had not seen her for over six months and the wedding was to take place in two days. He kept on rowing, lost in thought. All of a sudden he heard someone calling him. It was a girl’s voice. So he looked around and began to call back: “Qu’appelle? Qu’appelle?” which means (in French) “Who calls? Who calls?” But there were no more calls. They say when he came to his betrothed’s home he met a funeral procession. The night before, at the time when he heard someone calling him, it was his girl calling him in high fever. Thereupon she died. That is why the river was called Qu’appelle.’”165

***SLAVE FALLS, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj spells out: “Locality of east of Lac du Bonnet.

“’… From Sioux woman who had been carried off by one of the Salteaux and is said to have escaped and drowned herself; another account represents her to have been thrown in’; called by the Cheppewas Awakane pawetik.”166

***SPLIT LAKE, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel touches on: “Split Lake: Locality southeast of Split Lake. Geographic Board of Canada

records (1929) note this as a Canadian National Hudson Bay Railway point … named in 1929 after nearby Split Lake. Formerly called Landing River after the nearby river. Split Lake: South of Waskaiowaka Lake on the Nelson River. First noted in Thompson (1792). It is a translation of the Cree name Tatusquoyaou used by Jeremie in 1720 (Douglas 1933). Tyrrell (1915) recorded the Native name Tataskweo Sakahigan, and in 1918 reported that the name Split Lake was derived from the fact that a string of islands ‘split it’. Morton (1957) and Hamilton (1967) concurred that it was formerly called Lake of the Forts because of the large number of trading posts in this muskrat trapping area, many of which were little more than temporary shelters. Dobbs (1744; 1967 reprint) cryptically added ‘the Natives call it the Lake of Forts, or rather Forests.’ Anonymous (post 1700) Lac des Forts, Tatusquoyaou Secahigan; Delisle (1724, possibly 1720) Lac des Forts; d’Iberville or possibly Jeremie (circa 1724) Tatuscoia-ousekahigan ou Lac des Forts; Anonymous, possibly La Verendrye (circa 1741) Tatuscoia-ousekaigan ou L des Forts; La France (circa 1739-42; in Dobbs 1744) possibly Lake de Siens [sienna, particularly as a color or reddish brown pigment means burnt, possibly intended as Burntwood Lake to the southwest]; Jefferys (1762) Lake des Forts; Hearne (1775) Tatassquiough Lake; Kitchin (circa 1770s) Lake of Forts; Sayer and Bennett (1775) Forts Lake; Turnor (1778-9) seems Tesqueau Lake and Tasquiau Lake, while a 1779 map places a Deer Lake about here west of Gull Lake with a large river draining out of it to the south (probably an error); A Mackenzie (1785) places Burnt Lake about this position, (the Burntwood River does flow northeast into Split Lake); Peter Fidler (1806) Tatasque or Split Lake; Anonymous (circa 1826) Tisquian Lake; Vandermalen (1827) Lake Fendu; Thompson (1813-4; 1843 map) Split Lake or Tahtahsqueaw; Tackabury

(1875) Arsenal Lake; Anonymous (circa 1889) and Department of Railways and Canals (1891) Split Rock Lake. Split Lake: Community on the northwest shore of Split Lake. A Post Office, settlement and Hudson’s Bay Company post, all named after the lake and located on a point to the east of Indian Reserve 171. Split Lake Post was built by the Hudson’s Bay Company between 1740 and 1760 and was one of the earliest posts built inland from Hudson Bay (Voorhis 1930). It appears to have closed for several years and the present post at the north end of lake was built in 1886. North West Company Papers referred to a Split Lake Fort. There were several posts built around the lake at various times and for various purposes. Peter Fidler (1809) reported that Split Lake House was built circa 1800 and that there had been two other houses lower down the lake. Baldwin and Cradock (1834) Split Fort; Bayne, Dominion Land Surveyor (1901; plan of Hudson’s Bay Company posts) Split Lake Post on the west side of the lake; Department of the Interior (1909) Split Lake Mission to the south.”167

***ST FRANCOIS XAVIER, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj clarifies: “Also called Grantown; post office [established in] 1871; parish [established in] 1828; rural municipality, west of Winnipeg.

“First known as La Prairie du Cheval Blanc, or White Horse Plain; the following legend explains the name: ‘In the 1690s a Cree chief and a Sioux chief both wanted to marry the beautiful daughter of an Assiniboine chief. The Cree was the favored suitor because he could offer a swift and sturdy horse, “white as the winter snow” in exchange for his bride. The marriage took place when the Sioux was away on a war expedition, he had received word of it and arrived with a band of warriors. The Cree and the maiden fled, he on a grey horse, she on the white, but the Sioux overtook them just east of St Francois and their arrows killed the fleeing couple. The grey horse was captured but the white horse escaped. For years it roamed the plains and the Indians, believing that the soul of the maiden had entered the horse, feared to approach it. In time the belief grew that the ghost of the white horse still haunted the plain.’ (MA McLeod and WL Morton, Cuthbert Grant of Grantown, McClelland and Stewart, 1965.)

“Renamed Grantown, after Cuthbert Grant, Bois Brule in the employ of the North West Company who led an unsuccessful attack upon the Selkirk Settlement at Colony Gardens, took the Hudson’s Bay Fort Brandon in 1816 and led the Bois Brules in the Battle of Seven Oaks in the same year. After the amalgamation of the two companies, he became a trusted employee of the Hudson’s Bay Company. He retired in 1824 and was encouraged by Governor Simpson to persuade about fifty Metis families to leave Pembina (from which the Company had withdrawn its fort for fear of trouble with the Sioux), and settle on White Horse Plain, in the first permanent settlement they had ever known. After his death in 1854, the name Grantown gave way to St Francois Xavier, the name of the parish, so called after its patron saint.”168

***THE PAS, MANITOBA***

Des Kappel documents: “The Pas: Town northwest of Kelsey Lake on the Saskatchewan River. A Post Office, Canadian National railway point (at Mile 0 of the Hudson Bay Railway to Churchill), School District name and early mission and fort. The Post Office originally opened as Le Pas in 1895 … and changed to The Pas (the local preference) in 1918. Geographic Board of Canada records (1917) indicated that the

name was adopted in 1901 and revised to Pas in 1912 noting, however, that The Pas was incorporated as a town in 1912. This area was identified as a Native settlement by La Verendrye (circa 1740) called Poskoyac. The Canadian National Railway reached The Pas in 1908 and the Hudson Bay Railway line was begun here in 1910 reaching Churchill in 1929 (Garland 1975; from H Bowsfield). The area had been explored in 1690 when Henry Kelsey journeyed into the interior from Hudson Bay via the Saskatchewan River. Since the days of La Verendrye, The Pas has been a strategic location in the fur trade and a succession of posts was built there. Douglas (1933) gave a good account of the conflicting views which have been expressed as to whether the name is of Native or French origin.

“Both explanations are derived from the fact that the place is the natural crossing point of the Saskatchewan River. The supporters of the former view contend that Pas is a proper name, an abbreviation of the Cree name of a former Native village called Basquea by Anthony Hendry (1755), Basquia by Mathew Cockins (1772), Pasquayah by Alexander Henry the elder (1775) and variously spelled by others Pascoiac, Wupaskwayou, etc. The longer word Opasquaow means ‘narrows between wooded banks’, and the shorter word opas, opaw, woopow, wupow, etc, means ‘narrows’. The supporters of the opposing view contend that Pas is the French common noun meaning ‘gap, strait, passage or crossing’. It was frequently used by the French as a geographic name – Le Pas de Calais, the French name of the Strait of Dover in the English Channel is a common example. They ask, if Pas is the contraction of a Native name, why is the pronunciation French? The first occurrences in an English narrative of the word Pas are in the younger Henry’s Account of the Saskatchewan Brigade in 1808. According to Henry, ‘At eleven o’clock we entered the main channel of the Saskatchewan and soon after reached The Pas. This place may be called the first dry land we have found since we left Lac Bourbon. The little river of Montagne du Pas comes in here on the South. Formerly the French had an establishment on this spot, some traces of which are still to be seen.’ The earliest occurrence of the name in a French narrative is in an itinerary by Joseph Derouen (circa 1760), a voyageur about whom virtually nothing is known. The itinerary is preserved in the Archives of the College Ste Marie, Montreal. Derouen states that ‘at forty leagues distance’ up the Saskatchewan river from Cedar Lake is the fort du Pas. Evidently the place had two names, a Native one and a French one with similar meanings, descriptive of the Saskatchewan River in the vicinity.

“In a footnote, Douglas (1933) added that: ‘Professor Morton of Saskatoon has suggested that Pas is derived from the Sioux word for ‘red deer’ given by the younger Henry as opah, which would explain the application of the name Red Deer to the Saskatchewan River by Jeremie (1720). Judge Prud’homme has suggested that the place was named by the sons of La Verendrye after their mother, who was a daughter of the Sieur du Pas.’

“Tremaudan (1962) mentioned that Jean Baptiste Proulx (1754), a trader at Sautau Pas, sent a letter to the Hudson’s Bay Company post at York Factory. In his report, the post manager wrote that JB Proulx of the Pas asked for tobacco. According to Canon Ahenakew, the ‘name was Opaskwayaw, and meant a ‘tree covered slope’, some Natives called it Wapaskwayaw which means the same. White people always leave the first syllable so the name became Pasquia’ (Whillans 1955). Geographic Board of Canada records (1930) noted a newspaper’s suggested change from The Pas to Baygate, since it ‘is becoming the gate to Hudson Bay, and people mispronounce The Pas.’ La Verendrye (circa

1750) Poskoyac; Bellin (1763) Poscoyat, (village de sauvages); S Hearne (1774) Basquiau; Alexander Henry (circa 1775) Posquyaw; Hind (1860) The Pas and Christ Church (Cumberland Mission), also just Pas; Department of Indian Affairs (1882) Pas Mission; Burland (1884) The Pas Mission; R Bell (1895) The Pas or Christ Church Mission (Cumberland Station); Poole Brothers (1917) The Pass.”169

***WINKLER, MANITOBA***

JB Rudnyckyj observes: “Town east of Morden.

“Named after the Hon Valentine Winkler, Minister of Agriculture and Immigration from 1915 until 1920. The Canadian Pacific Railway decided to place a town site at this point and bought the station grounds and one-half interest in the quarter section from a Mennonite, Isaac Wiens, and proposed to name the town after him. The early Mennonite churches disapproved of any member selling land to anyone outside their group, or living in town, and as for anyone allowing a town to be named after him that would be a sin of worldliness and vanity. Wiens was in real trouble, but Valentine Winkler solved the problem by offering to exchange a quarter sections he owned for the one the Canadian Pacific Railway wanted. So the settlement was called Winkler, who granted every second block of land to the railway, built a grain elevator and opened a lumber yard. In 1892 he was elected to the Legislature of Manitoba, and represented the district until his death in 1920.’ (Peter Brown, A Town Gets its Name; 1959.)”170

**NEW BRUNSWICK**

Alan Rayburn recounts: “The province was separated from Nova Scotia in 1784, and named after the House of Brunswick of the British royal family. Sir William Alexander (1567-1640) wanted to call the area New Alexandria in 1624. In 1784 British Under-Secretary of State William Knox proposed the name New Ireland, to complement New England and Nova Scotia, but Ireland was then out of favor with George III. Pittsylvania was also suggested as a compliment to William Pitt, the prime minister.”171

***ALBERT MINES, NEW BRUNSWICK***

Provincial Archives of New Brunswick says: “Located 2.26 km northwest of Demoiselle Creek and 4.52 km southwest of Edgetts Landing; Hillsborough Parish, Albert County: settled in 1830: the mineral Albertite was discovered here in 1849 by Peter Duffy and John Duffy: this mineral was exported to Boston: Post office 1855-1959: in 1866 Albert Mines was a mining and farming community with about 56 families: John Byers was manager of Albert Mines: 1871 it had a population of 200: in 1898 Albert Mines had 1 post office, 2 stores, 2 sawmills, 1 church and a population of 200: included Post office Albert Quarries 1858-66.”172

HY Hind spotlights: “The discovery of the existing Albert Mine was due I have been informed, to the bursting of a mill dam on a branch of Frederick’s Brook, which exposed the brilliant and massive veins of Albertite, now the source of the mineral of the Albert Mine. The name Albertite was suggested to Sir Charles Lyell by Dr Robb, at a time when the true nature of the mineral was still a matter of doubt. What was known of the Albert Mines in 1852, at the period of the trail, is already familiar to the public, and need not here to repeat.”

HY Hind continues: “In the Report on the Albert Coal Mine, by Dr Jackson, allusion is made to the crushed Albertite occurring in situ in the mines, and a diagram is given showing the supposed relation to the surrounding rocks. I have not seen any specimens of crushed Albertite (in situ) from the Albert Mines, but I have before me numerous specimens from another source, obtained during the present year. They were procured from a vein of Albertite found penetrating the grey sandstones far above the Bituminous Shales, about 2 miles east of the Albert Mines. A portion of the sandstone adheres to some of the specimens, and it does not appear to be impregnated with bitumen, apparently a curious and indeed remarkable fact, but one which will be explained when the properties of petroleum are discussed.

“These specimens are from a vein three inches thick, and they are composed of two layers of Albertite, one layer slightly crushed, the other uniform and differing in no particular from the best specimen from the Albert Mines. The thickness of each portion is about 1.5 inches, and each show the wall of the vein on the outer side, and the crushed portion shows in places an impression of a former wall, which is faithfully copied on the side of the unaltered or homogeneous portion of the vein. The explanation of the origin of these remarkable specimens, I conceive to be as follows: The crushed portion represents an original vein of Albertite occupying a narrow fissure into which it had been injected from below; a disturbance of the strata, accompanied by a slight downfall, occurred a second time, and the fissure was enlarged or widened, the Albertite occupying it being crushed by the disturbance.”173

***BAY OF FUNDY, NEW BRUNSWICK***

Alan Rayburn underscores: “Separating the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, this 50- to 70- km-side inlet was called La Baye Francoise in 1604 by explorer Pierre du Gua de Monts (circa 1558-1628). In 1624 Sir William Alexander (1567-1640) referred to it as Argall’s Bay after a raider who was there 11 years before. On a 1679 map it was identified as Bay of Funda, with the present form appearing on a map in 1711. The name was derived from Cap Fendu, the French name of ‘Cape Split’, in reference to the prominent cape separating Minas Channel from Minas Basin. Fundy National Park (206 km squared), in Albert County, was created in 1948.”174

***BURNT CHURCH, NEW BRUNSWICK***

Provincial Archives of New Brunswick comments on: “Located on the Miramichi Bay, 1.85 km south of Village-Saint-Laurent: Alnwick Parish, Northumberland County: name was derived from burning of French settlements by the British in 1758: Post office 1865-1904: in 1866 Burnt Church was a farming settlement with approximately 33 resident families: in 1871 it had a population of 200: in 1898 Burnt Church had 1 post office, 2 stores, 1 hotel, 1 sawmill, 1 grist mill, 1 canning factory, 1 church and a population of 300: included the community of Church Point: Post office 1873-1904: in 1898 Church Point was a farming and fishing settlement with 1 post office, 1 store, 1 hotel, 1 church and a population of 80: also included the settlement of New Jersey: Post office New Jersey 1904-70.”175

Abraham Gesner emphasizes: “After the conquest of Quebec, a vessel having on board the remains of General Wolfe was driven by a gale of wind into Miramichi River. The captain sent a boat and six men on shore to procure water. The boat landed at Henderson’s Cove, and while the men were employed,

they were surprised by a party of armed Indians and soldiers from the fort, and inhumanely massacred upon the spot. The captain of the vessel, having ascertained through the medium of the pilot that this murderous act had been committed, resolved to retaliate. He first silenced the battery at the Cove, and then destroyed the settlement at Canadian Point, where, it is said, he killed the miserable wretches that had escaped the famine and the pestilence. In proceeding to sea, he landed at Nequaak, and set fire to a large chapel. From this circumstance the settlement has ever since been called Burnt Church.”176

Robert Cooney gives: “The Captain, growing alarmed at the prolonged absence of his men, put such enquires to the Pilot as the nature of his fears suggested. These elicited replies that at once confirmed his apprehensions, and determined his retaliation. He proceeded with his vessel up the river; silenced the battery at French Fort Cove, and coming abreast of the settlement at Canadian Point, razed it to the ground, and killed almost every one of the half famished creatures in it. Having taken the water on board, he proceeded to sea, but on his way out, again wrecked his vengeance on a small Chapel at Neguaak. At his approach the few inhabitants fled; and then executing his reprisal upon the Church, he set it in flames, from whence the settlement has ever since been distinguished by the name of Burnt Church.”177

***CAPE TORMENTINE, NEW BRUNSWICK***

Alan Rayburn pens: “The post office in this community which is located at the most easterly point of the province was named in 1847 after the cape. The cape was called Cap de Tourmentin on Nicolas Denys’ map of 1672, with the possible meaning of ‘cape of storms’. Thomas Jefferys’ 1755 map had Stormy Point and John Mitchell’s 1755 map had Cape Storm. Frederick Holland’s 1791 map introduced Cape Tormentine.”178

***FOUR FALLS, NEW BRUNSWICK***

waterfallsnewbrunswick.ca scribes: “Four Falls is a series of waterfalls formed by the Limestone Stream as it cascades wildly into the Aroostook River. This area is steeped in history due to the Aroostook War over the location of the boundary between an emerging country, United States, pushing for independence and another, Canada, wanting to remain dependent upon the British Commonwealth. The Americans were laying claim to the area and it was not until the Webster-Ashburton Treaty that the area was deemed British Territory and bloodshed was averted.

“Four Falls, as one would surmise consist of four major drops and a number of smaller falls over broken bedrock. The fall is about ten meters wide with the drops varying in height. The falls is in a rural setting just off the Trans-Canada Highway. Even with the close proximity to civilization it has an amazing wilderness feeling due to thick over cover and the roar of the water as it careens over and around large boulders. The falls start with a broken dam that was once a waterwheel for milling grain. The final drop is where the area changes into the Aroostook Riverbed. The rocks in the stream are large and very angular and well-polished.

“The bedrock along this steep ravine dips upstream at a very acute angle. This structure allows large blocks to fall freely away from the falls producing small voids behind the falls. In the case of the largest

fall when the water is low you can walk behind the fall watching the water cascade into the pool below. Each of the falls becomes smaller with greater evidence of large broken blocks of bedrock in the river.”179

***KINGSCLEAR, NEW BRUNSWICK***

WB Hamilton states: “As the name suggests, it was an area where the king's surveyor allowed clear-cutting - hence, king’s clear.

“Clear-cutting was not allowed everywhere at the time. In 1722, the British Parliament passed an act prohibiting the cutting of white pine trees in the king's woods in North America. Land grants in New Brunswick included the stipulation of ‘Saving-and reserving nevertheless to us, our heirs and successors, all pine trees.’

“When the surveyor of woods did grant a licensee to cut trees, the land would be inspected and any trees fit for use as masts (those at least 30 centimeters in diameter) would be marked with broad arrows and reserved for use by the Royal Navy. Then the licensee could take away timber that was ‘unfit for His Majesty's service.’ Broad Arrow Brook, which flows into the Keswick River, is named for this custom of marking trees.”180

***LAWRENCE STATION, NEW BRUNSWICK***

Provincial Archives of New Brunswick alludes to: “Located 2.27 km northwest of Watt Junction: Saint James Parish, Charlotte County: named for Wheeler Lawrence in 1853 when the St Andrews and Quebec Railway was built: Post office 1871-1969: in 1871 it had a population of 100: in 1898 Lawrence Station was a farming and lumbering settlement line with 1 post office, 1 store, 1 church and a population of 75.”181

St Croix Courier communicates: “Aug 18 1870, The Late Fires: We have from time to time recorded the damage done by the fires in the woods, which continued to rage for several weeks with unabated fury. The residents near Lawrence Station and on the Woodstock Road have been heavy sufferers. Messrs JE Kelso, Alex Dunn, Harrison Dunn and Jas Evans have all sustained serious loss in the burning of hay fields, fences, etc. Mr Kelson had seven or eight acres of hay destroyed, and it is not only this year’s loss, but the roots are so burned as to destroy the prospect of next year’s crop. We learn also that Mr James Anderson on Woodstock Road had about 4 acres of hay land destroyed. For miles on miles in the same vicinity there is nothing to be seen but the blackened debris of the fires.

“Feb 9 1871: A way office is wanted at Lawrence Station. There are forty or fifty families who live in that vicinity and have their center of trade there, who are debarred postal privileges altogether. Letters and papers have to be entrusted to private hands or Railway officials, and they are often thrown off into the snow and lost. The expense of establishing a way office at that station would be very trifling, as every day: and, we have no doubt, Mr Harrison Mercer would willingly undertake the duties of way office keeper.

“March 28, 1889: A terrible accident occurred at Lawrence Station on Thursday evening last which resulted in the death on Friday of Mrs McGregor, wife of Rev Mr McGregor, Baptist minister of Buffalo, New York, and daughter of Mr Levi Richardson, of Lawrence Station. Mrs McGregor came home last fall to spend the winter with her parents, and, being troubled with sciatica, had tried many remedies. The only one which gave her any relief was kerosene, and, while applying the remedy too near the open stove, her clothing caught fire, all of which was destroyed, leaving her body frightfully burned. Everything possible was done to relieve the sufferer, but without avail and, after suffering the most excruciating pain for some hours, she expired. Her sister in striving to extinguish the flames was severely burned about the hands and arms. Mrs McGregor leaves a family of five small children, the eldest being about thirteen years of age. Her husband was telegraphed for and arrived on Monday, when the burial took place.”182

***MAGNETIC HILL, NEW BRUNSWICK***

Alan Rayburn depicts: “In Moncton, 10 km northwest of the city center, this site of an illusory phenomenon of vehicles seeming to roll up a hill was discovered in 1933 by Muriel Lutes Sikorski on the side of a hill called Lutes Mountain. She opened an ice cream stand called ‘the Shanty’ on the top of the hill. Her discovery was promoted by several writers throughout North America. Many drivers from the Canadian provinces and the United States still come to the Magnetic Hill to roll up the hill in their cars.”183

***VICTORIA CORNER, NEW BRUNSWICK***

Etta Faulkner enumerates: “Victoria Corner, nestled along the St John River, has been called the most beautiful little village along the valley.

“My earliest date concerning this village mentions the Presqu’ile Military Post erected in 1790s in Simonds, which states that Victoria Corner was a rendezvous point when there was danger of war with the United States. British Empire Loyalists had received land grants which were occupied from about 1800 to 1810. They were the Shaws, Yorks, Boyers, and Dickensons. Probably the first business would be the farmers. The descendants of these people may be found here today. Some of them are: the Albrights, the Cooks, the Tibbitts, Farnhams, Halletts, Coxs, Bubars.

“It formerly was known as Bowyer’s Corner for Charles Bowyer, a land grantee here. We are told that the Village of Wakefield of old is the Victoria of Today. Named for Queen Victoria, it has been Victoria Corner Post Office since 1850. True natives refer to this village as the Corner.

“The Carleton Sentinel, dated 1889 December 14, notes: Narrow escape: Dr EW Stevenson of Hartland had a very narrow escape from drowning on Monday. He started from the east side of the river to walk over to Victoria Corner and when a little more than half way across the ice suddenly began breaking up and moving. The doctor turned to retrace his steps which of course was now exceedingly difficult; however, by dint of running, leaping and creeping, he succeeded in getting so near the shore that Messrs BN Shaw and A McMullin who had seen his danger and hurried to the rescue, were enabled to

reach him with boards and thus afford him a measure of escape. The doctor was thoroughly prostrated and he certainly had a close call.”184

**NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR**

Alan Rayburn gives an account: “The Portuguese identified the island in the 1500s as Tierra de Bacalaos (‘land of the codfish’). In 1497 John Cabot (circa 1450-98) called it the new founde isle, and by 1502 New found launde was being used in British documents. Giovanni da Verrazzano (circa 1485-1528) referred to it as Terra Nova in 1529. The coast of Labrador became part of Newfoundland in 1809, and its boundary with Quebec was defined by the Imperial Privy Council in 1927. In 1964 the province designated its administration as the government of the Newfoundland and Labrador. In 2001 the Constitution of Canada was amended for the province’s name to be Newfoundland and Labrador.”185

Alan Rayburn continues: “The province of Newfoundland and Labrador was renamed from Newfoundland in 2001 to include this mainland district. An amendment was made in the Constitution of Canada. The name may be traced to the Portuguese lavrador (‘small landholder’) Joao Fernandes. Fernandes explored the coasts of North America at the end of the 1400s and beginning of the 1500s. In 1500 he identified Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland) as Tiera del Lavrador and the present Labrador as Tiera del Corte Real, given for another lavrador, Gasper Corte-Real. About 1560, after the name Greenland was found to be in general use, mapmakers shifted the name Labrador to the mainland.”186

Matt Rosenberg points out: “On December 6, 2001, an amendment to Canada's federal Constitution Act officially approved a name change from the easternmost province of Newfoundland to the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The move for change began in the early 1990s to provide ‘symbolic but important recognition of Labrador's status as a full and vital partner within the province, with its own unique geography, history and culture.’

“The name Newfoundland alone represents less than half of the territory of the province, which consists both of mainland Labrador in the north and island of Newfoundland in the south. Before the change Labrador was definitely neglected by the provincial name.

“In April 1992, the province of Newfoundland House of Assembly adopted a resolution calling on the provincial and federal government to take the necessary steps to change the name of the province to Newfoundland and Labrador. Public hearings took place throughout the province and a Select Committee of the House was established to review the matter. The end result was that there was consensus throughout the province for the name to be changed.

“Seven years later, in April 1999, the Newfoundland House of Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution authorizing the Governor General of Canada to issue a proclamation amending the Constitution of Canada to change the name of the province to Newfoundland and Labrador.

“Then, a year and a half later (October 2001), the Government of Canada introduced a resolution in the House of Commons to change the province's official name. At the time, Canadian Premier Roger Grimes stated, ‘Labrador is an important and vital part of this province. The Government of Newfoundland and

Labrador is firmly committed to ensuring official recognition of Labrador as an equal partner in this province, and a constitutional name change of our province will reiterate that commitment.’

“Labrador and Aboriginal Affairs Minister Ernie McLean also commented, ‘Including Labrador in the official name of the province is a reflection of the concrete action this government has taken to ensure the objectives and aspirations of the people of Labrador are met. Once passed, this constitutional amendment will finally clear up the long-standing inconsistency between the name of the government and the name of the province.’

“Finally, on December 6, 2001, an amendment to the Canadian Federal Constitution Act officially approved a name change from the province of Newfoundland to the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The French form of the name is Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador.

“Interestingly, if a cartographer prints the new name of the province across the entire province, the word Newfoundland sits on the portion of the map that is Labrador while the word Labrador is printed near island of Newfoundland. MapQuest.com recommends their cartographers use, in addition to the full province name, italicized labels for the two different sections of the province, to minimize confusion.

“Less than a year after the official change, the federal bureaucracy caught up with the chance - on October 21, 2002, and Canada Post’s mail processing equipment was modified to recognize NL as the provincial symbol for Newfoundland and Labrador, replacing NF as the provincial symbol for the anachronistic province of Newfoundland.”187

***CHANCE COVE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Wayne at www.ridetherock.com relates: "Chance Cove, on the southern shore of Newfoundland, is infamous in Newfoundland history as a place where many ships were wrecked and hundreds of lives were lost. In 1869, the Anglo-Saxons suffered the same fate, with all souls aboard losing their lives. Within 5 years of the disaster, stories spread of unearthly screams and terrifying apparitions experienced in the town. A sudden exodus occurred one night, on the anniversary of the disaster, and Chance Cove became a ghost town. The ghostly cries and spectral noises erupted in the silence of the night and as the men ran to the beach to see if another boat had suffered the fate of the Anglo-Saxons, the noises stopped, only to resume with terrifying intensity when the beach was once again quiet. All inhabitants inexplicably left, leaving homes and farms suddenly deserted. Twenty-five years later, a group of fishermen used the town for shelter one night, taking refuge in the vacant homes. They, too, left quickly, but not before burning the frightening community to the ground."188

***CHANGE ISLANDS, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

neil@changeisland.com stipulates: “The name of the islands originates with the practice of local fishermen who would live on the islands during the summer, but at the end of the fishing season, they would change their location and move inland to cut wood and spend their winter. During the early 1700s the first Europeans to visit the area were primarily French fishermen prosecuting the northern cod fishery. In the early 1800s permanent settlement begins with the arrival of English settlers.”189

JB Jukes writes: “The central portion of the island of Fogo, about Hare Bay, is composed of a red sienite or granite of rather a peculiar character, being almost entirely composed of crystalline quartz. North of this, about the harbor of Fogo, is the common light grey fine-grained grit stone or slate rock, generally hard and compact, but having here and there an imperfect slaty cleavage: it forms the bold hills about the harbor, rising 500 feet about the sea, and dips to the north or northeast. The Change Islands are blue or green slate, and from the Indian Islands I saw a specimen which would form good roofing slate. The north point of New World Island contains large beds of coarse conglomerate with little or no appearance of bedding, but having the enclosed pebbles arranged in regular lines. The remainder of the island is almost entirely slate rock. Toulinguet Islands are principally coarse slate rock, but on the east side of Toulinguet Harbor white granite, rather fine-grained, shows itself. In the low and crumbling cliffs along the eastern side of the harbor, and for two or three miles to the south of it, a trap-dyke of a very remarkable character may be traced here and there. It is a dark-brown trap, rather soft and readily decomposing, and it is full of small crystals of mica. These are hexagonal, generally one-eighth to half an inch long, and split horizontally into thin plates. The general width of the dyke is not more than three feet, and at the place it is best exhibited the rock on each side is whitish quartz.”190

***COME-BY-CHANCE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Alan Rayburn articulates: “This town (1969) at the north end of the Isthmus of Avalon was named after an extension of Placentia Bay called Come by Chance. There is a reference to this bay as Comby Chance as early as 1706. It may have been named because it was a chancy proposition for fishermen to bring their boats to shore here during rough weather. In 1612 John Guy (died 1629) identified it as Passage Harbour.”191

Town of Come By Chance describes: “According to ER Seary (1971) Come By Chance was first recorded as Comby Chance in a dispatch dated 13 September 1706 from Major Lloyd, an officer prominent in Newfoundland for activity against the French between 1703 and 1708. In this dispatch he related the incident of a clash between the English and the French: ‘About 9 days since, I with 30 soldiers pursued a party of French 21, who had plundered several inhabitants of Trinity Bay and carried ye same to a place called Comby Chance in Placentia Bay, where I overtook them…’ 

“Edward Wix (1836), while visiting Come-By-Chance River in 1835, mentioned that ‘on the banks of this Come-By-Chance River, ruins of buildings, iron bolts and nails, are found; relics of former structures and cannonballs are also frequently picked up, as though there had been formerly some engagement, if not a fort, in this neighborhood.’ 

“The isolation and hardship of living at Come By Chance in the nineteenth century were not uncommon among Newfoundland communities of the period, but the conditions were still often lamented. As one resident of Come By Chance, identified only as RW, informed Wix: ‘Ah! Sir; if any of us is sick or sore, there is no one near to visit us, or to care for our souls.’ Oral tradition reports a Wiseman family as the first settlers and until the 1880s the community numbered about thirty people, who depended almost solely on the small-boat inshore cod fishery. 

“Despite its excellent harbor, Come By Chance was far from major fishing markets in Placentia Bay. Although the lobster, the Labrador fishery, some sawmilling and the establishment of a Marconi Telegraph Station in the early 1900s’ brought new settlers to the community, difficulties in the fishery caused people to leave the community in the early 1920s for Sunnyside, Arnold’s Cove, Haystack, Spencer’s Cove, Toronto and Boston (CG Allen: 1970). By 1921 the population dropped to forty-four from seventy-two in 1911, the church and school (both built 1904) were sold, and only three families remained around the telegram site.

“In 1936 the total labor forces of Come By Chance was three – Casablanca, Archibald and James Gilbert – all fishermen (Newfoundland Directory 1936: 1936). It was Come By Chance’s central location which gave it a new lease on life in the late 1930s when it was chosen to be the site of a cottage hospital serving over forty communities in the Trinity-Placentia area. In 1941, JR Smallwood (1941) described Come By Chance as ‘popular partridge shooting grounds’ and the location of a cottage hospital. With the building of the hospital, employment in the construction industry and the service sector (in restaurants, boarding houses, and several general stores that were built) became available and logging in central Newfoundland, a telegraph and rail-line construction and maintenance became sources of employment.”192

***COOK’S HARBOUR, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

www.landoffirstcontact.ca establishes: “The out port was named by the legendary Captain James Cook in 1764. Between 1763 and 1767, Cook conducted a cartographic survey of Newfoundland and southern Labrador for the British government. At the time there were increasing disputes over fishing rights and boundaries between the French and British fishermen. The location of Cook’s Harbour, on the southern edge of the Strait of Belle Isle, made it an excellent spot for hunting seals and as a way station for fishing schooners headed to Labrador. Like most of the larger harbors on the French Shore, Cook’s Harbour had a seasonal French cod fishing station. By the mid-1800s, many French Shore harbors began to experience permanent settlement, mostly by Newfoundland fishermen from southern ports. This caused additional problems about fishing rights, which were not resolved until the French gave up their rights as part of the Entente Cordiale of 1904. The community reached its largest population in the mid-1900s as it became a regional center for cod fishing and a supply stopover for the Labrador schooner fishery. Today, it remains a fishing community in spite of the Cod Moratorium of 1992 and subsequent out-migration of many fishermen and plant workers.”193

***COW HEAD, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Alan Rayburn highlights: “On the northwestern coast of Newfoundland, and surrounded by Gros Morne National Park, this town (1964) may have been named after a boulder shaped like the profile of a cow’s head.”194

***CUPIDS, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Cupids 400 portrays: “The story of Cupers Cove (modern day Cupids) is not only the story of a proud little community that has stood the test of time, it is also a rich tale of huge historic relevance to the

Newfoundland and Labrador – and the Canada – we know today. It is a story of vision and determination, of intrepid adventure and bloody disputes. But most of all, it is a story of survival over adversity.

“It all began several hundred years ago, 1610 to be exact. At this time, across the ocean in England, a group of prominent traders and merchants came together to form what is most commonly known at the London and Bristol Company. Top of their agenda was to colonize the island of Newfoundland for the purposes of farming and fishing. In August of 1610, the company was issued charter rights by then reigning British monarch, King James I.

“Without further ado, a party of thirty-nine men, led by Bristol merchant John Guy (widely regarded as the father of Cupids) set off across the Atlantic with just some basic supplies and livestock in tow. Their mission was to settle in Cupers Cove, living off the land, fortifying the settlement, and farming, fishing and trading in order to make a living. Without many of the luxuries and conveniences that they were used to back in their more advanced homeland, and amid often challenging weather conditions, this would be no easy task.

“The work began the moment the would-be settlers set foot on their newly acquired land. Trees had to be cut and cleared, with a load of logs sent back to England on the ship that brought them – the first fruits of their early labor. With the rest of the lumber, they would construct their first buildings. By December 1, they had completed their first dwelling and a second building for storage. These were the humble beginnings of the new community.

“Fortune favored the new settlers that first winter, which was a mild one by Newfoundland standards, without too much snow. This allowed them to keep working outside, clearing, exploring, and especially building. Indeed, they made great strides in the construction of buildings and boats, as detailed in a letter sent back to England by Guy just nine months after the colony had started out. By this time, they had already built a workhouse so they could continue working with the weather was bad, along with a fort and a blacksmith’s shop. Amazingly, they had also found time to throw together six small fishing boats and a 12-ton ‘bark’ (a sailing ship with at least three masts) for further exploration of the island, which they called the Indeavor.

“In 1611, Guy issued eight laws for his settlers to live by, as he left again for England, to return the following spring with sixteen female settlers. Still more settlers followed that spring and summer, and construction work continued apace, with a saw mill, a grist mill and other buildings all completed by the summer of 1612. In fine English, and Newfoundland tradition, they even built themselves a brew house so they could make their own beer!

“But it wasn’t all building and brew, for danger lurked and further adventure beckoned for the first settlers of Cupers Cove. Danger came in the form of pirates and in particular the infamous plunderer Peter Easton. Easton first ventured to Newfoundland in 1612, building a fort in Harbour Grace, and he soon set about attacking numerous ships and taking provisions from the fishermen, forcing some among them to join his callous cause. In an attempt to resist Easton’s threat, the Cupers Cove settlers, who had

by this time began to set up a second settlement at Renews, were forced to offer up precious livestock as a means of protection payment.

“When Easton set sail for other shores to conquer, the settlers set out on adventures of their own, namely to meet with the native Beothuk in an attempt to establish a fur trade. In November 1612, the settlers made first contact with the Beothuk somewhere in Bull Arm, Trinity Bay. In a historic encounter, the settlers and the Beothuk exchanged gifts and shared a meal.

“By the winter if 1613, the Cupers Cove colony was thriving. Sixty-two people now called the settlement home, but they were not without their problems. This was a harsh winter and about half the colony had been struck down with scurvy. The ever-resourceful settlers eventually discovered they could cure the scurvy by eating the raw turnip left in the ground, but not until the disease had claimed eight of their numbers. And the deaths weren’t only limited on the human contingent, with many animals losing their lives to the adverse weather conditions that year.

“There was some good news, however, with the first child born on March 27. A son to Nicholas Guy and his wife, the boy became the first English child born in Canada.

“In April 1613, John Guy left Newfoundland indefinitely. He would go on to enjoy great success as a Member of Parliament back in his native England, and campaigned vehemently for the rights of settlers back in Newfoundland throughout his political career. In 1615, John Mason assumed the role of governor of the Newfoundland colony. In a highly successful 6-year reign, Mason chased out the pirate threat and would later go on to establish new colonies in Maine and New Hampshire. It is not clear who, if anyone succeeded Mason as governor; however, the settlement at Cupers Cove carried on, growing and flourishing into the vibrant and proud community we today call Cupids.”195

***FLOWER’S COVE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

www.landoffirstcontact.ca remarks: “Originally called French Island Harbour, Flower’s Cove is one of the few protected harbors along the northwest coast of Newfoundland's northern peninsula. As such it was heavily used by French migratory cod fishery from the 17th to early 20th century. In the mid-1800s, as the French fishing presence diminished, English-speaking settlers began to arrive in the area. By the 1870s French fishing operations had ceased around Flower's Cove completely.

“In 1871 the Church of England made its regional headquarters in Flower’s Cove and in 1907 the Grenfell Mission build a nursing there. Thus, early on, the community became a service center for the northwest coast. In 1919 the Reverend JT Richards began construction of the first Anglican Church for the community. St Barnabas Church is known locally as the Skin Boot Church because Richards garnered funds to build the church by setting up a sealskin boot industry. The church was opened in 1931. Its neo-Gothic style, heritage preservation, and unique story have earned the church building a designation as a Registered Heritage Structure.

“The town of Flower’s Cove has grown to include government offices, a regional police headquarters and a commercial banking facility, increasing Flower’s Cove’s status as a service center for the region.”196

***FORTUNE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

A Brief History of Fortune shares: “Fortune is located on the extreme northwestern tip of the Burin Peninsula, on the south coast of Newfoundland. It is situated near the mouth of Fortune Bay, in a shallow valley, on a small coastal plain. The town is built along the shore of Fortune Barasway, a narrow inlet from the sea which forms a sheltered harbor, and meets the mouth of Fortune Brook. Fortune enjoys a moderate climate of cool winters and warm summers as a result of prevailing onshore winds.

“The name Fortune is believed to have come from the Portuguese word fortuna, which apparently means ‘a place of good fortune’. The name also appears on a 1505 map by Pedro Reinal as Y Da Fortuna.

“An exact date of settlement is difficult to pinpoint as most early records are sketchy, but French Captain Parat reported 73 men living here in 1687. However, Fortune has actually been in existence as far back as 1527, when it was recorded on both Spanish and Italian maps. Records show that Basque fishermen were coming to Fortune at least as early as 1650.

“A 1693 French census lists inhabitants of Fortune as Millou, LeManquet and Chartier. The latter two names were recorded again in 1694, suggesting at the very least some permanent seasonal habitation. In 1765 Captain James Cook reported the existence of a small fishing village near the bottom of the barasway, which, in essence, constitutes a settlement.

“Sources indicate that George and Ann Lake moved to Fortune from Paradise Sound, Placentia Bay, sometime around 1763. They brought with them at least two sons, George and John. It is to John's large family that many present-day residents can trace their ancestry.

“There is also strong evidence to suggest that a number of other people settled at Fortune in 1863 when the Treaty of Paris forced them to leave St Pierre. Morgan Snook Sr, his son Morgan Jr, and a family named Anderson are reported to have moved to Fortune. This is supported in part by the fact that Captain Cook hired ‘Morgan Snook of Fortune’ as his pilot when charting the south coast in 1765.”197

LA Anspach stresses: “By the fifteenth article of the Treaty of Amiens, concluded in March, 1802, it was stipulated, that the fisheries on the coast of Newfoundland, and the adjacent islands, and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, should be placed on the same footing as they were before the last war, according to the stipulations of the Treaty of 1783. It was also agreed that the French fishermen, and inhabitants of the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelons, should have the privilege of cutting such wood as they might stand in need of in the Bays of Fortune and Despair, for the space of one year from the 26th day of April then last past.”

LA Anspach continues: “It has been observed by Pliny, that fish which have stones in their head fear winter, and on its approach retire either to the deeper regions of the sea, or to warmer climates. According the cod-fish refuses to take the bait, and is, consequently, supposed to leave the coast of Newfoundland generally about the beginning of October; but yet, different in this respect from the mackerel, and most other species which frequent this coast at stated periods, cod is found in the

southern and many other parts of the island during the whole year. Even in the most severe part of the winter, by making a hole in the ice and dropping a line with a piece of salt pork, or any other kind of bait, cod is easily and quickly obtained; though, at that time, but of an indifferent quality, it, nevertheless, sometimes makes a very acceptable addition to the winter stock. It may be kept long in a frozen state, or else it is immediately split and put in pickle, where it remains until the weather will allow it to be spread on the flakes or beaches for drying. Thus, in Fortune-Bay and neighboring parts, having herrings all the winter, the people are never without bait, and catch fish through the ice at a considerable depth. They split it and put it in pickle, begin to spread it in April, and as soon as it is completely dried; they send it to Saint John’s or to a foreign market.”198

***HAPPY ADVENTURE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Alan Rayburn composes: “This municipal community (1960) on Happy Adventure Bay may have been named after an incident when a fishing ship eluded pirates in the adjacent maze of channels and coves. The place was first recorded in the 1869 census of the province.”199

Chuck Matchim designates: “Happy Adventure a very picturesque town in Bonavista Bay I believe got its name from a famous Pirate Peter Eastman. He was sent to Newfoundland in 1603 with 3 British war ships to attack Spanish interests in Newfoundland and after the end of war with Spain continued on building up a large fleet of ships. His Flag ship was named Happy Adventure. The story goes that he escaped in a foggy day by hiding in the upper cove harbor a very sheltered part of our cove and thus avoided capture and thus called a most Happy Adventure and we believe made some kind of notation either in his log or chart. Peter Easton eventually was pardoned and very wealthy spent his retirement days in Europe settling in Villefranche, Savoy becoming the Marquis of Savoy. In the 1817 a hydrographer George Holbrook charted the bay and named the community Happy Adventure which I believe was provided to him from information that he had brought with him. There were also many other pirate named coves in our area such as St Chads that was called Damthebell because of another ship who was captured hiding when the ships motion caused the ships bell to ring giving away its position.”200

***HEART’S CONTENT, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Alan Rayburn expands: “Located on the eastern shore of Trinity Bay and northwest of Carbonear, this town (1967) was identified by John Guy (died 1629) in 1612 as Hartes content, and by Abbe Jean Baudoin in 1697 as Havre-Content. Its name may have been given by English fishermen either after a ship or as a place of relaxation and protection from stormy seas.”201

Rev William Wilson illustrates: “The town of Trinity is situated on a level spot of land, under Rider’s Hill. It is small, but neat, and the inhabitants are respectable and intelligent. On the north shore of the bay, above Trinity Harbor, are the harbors of Bonavinture, Ireland’s Eye, Random Sound, Heart’s Ease, and Bay Bull’s Arm, from the head of which it is only three miles to the head of Come by Chance Harbor, in Placentia Bay. It is this narrow isthmus that connects the peninsula of Avalon with the main land. It was in Bay Bull’s Arm that the Atlantic Cable was landed, which, by some unknown cause was broken in the deep sea. On the south side of the bay, are New Harbor, Heart’s Delight, Heart’s Desire, and Heart’s

Content; the last named, a good harbor, and is the place where, it is said, a second Atlantic cable will have its terminus. Below Heart’s Content, are New Pelican, Hant’s Harbor, and Old Pelican; and near the south point of the bay is Great’s Cove.”202

***HEART’S DELIGHT, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Explore Newfoundland and Labrador maintains: “The peaceful little town is rich in tradition. According to one story, Heart's Delight may have gotten its name from a traveler from Whitbourne who was passing through on foot. The traveler grew tired as he came upon a location that filled his heart with delight and named the place Heart's Delight.

“According to another story, the town may have the oldest headstone in North America. A broken fragment of a headstone was found which read ‘154?’ The fragment is on display in St Matthew's Anglican Church.”203

***HEART’S DESIRE, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Alan Rayburn presents: “This local improvement district on the eastern shore of Trinity Bay and west of Carbonear was named in the 1700s, possibly because its pleasant site fulfilled the desires of its first settlers.”204

Explore Newfoundland and Labrador renders: “According to one story, told by Harold Horwood, the town was named after a pirate ship which ravaged both sides of the Atlantic for years until 1620. The ship was captured by a Newfoundland skipper and brought back to Newfoundland as a prize!”205

***MOUNT PEARL, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Donald L Hutchens and Lilla Ross shed light on: “In 1834, a new governor was appointed for Newfoundland. Before [exiting Governor Thomas John] Cochrane left, [Royal Navy Commander James] Pearl and his sister, Eunice Blamey, completed the road adjacent to their properties that he had fought so hard against. On February 8, 1834, Pearl received legal title to 500 acres of land, which made him the third largest landowner in the colony; his sister, Eunice, was the largest landowner having 800 acres. The governor was the second largest, owning the 685 acre Virginia Cottage Estate.

“Pearl must have taken some satisfaction from the farewell Cochrane received. Although he is considered one of the most progressive governors Newfoundland ever had, he had made other enemies besides Pearl. He and his daughter were cursed and pelted with mud as they drove to the dock.

“With his land grant finally in hand and Governor Cochrane off the island, Pearl changed the name of his estate when he made out his will that year.

“’As regards my Estate of Mount Cochrane situated in the District of St John’s, Newfoundland, granted in perpetuity to me as a small reward for my naval services. It is my positive desire and will that the aforesaid estate shall have its name immediately changed to Mount Pearl and that it shall ever after be so called.’”206

***SHANADITHIT BROOK, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Alan Rayburn suggests: “This brook, which flows into the northwest side of Red Indian Lake, was named in 1956 after Shawnadithit, a Beothuk woman who was captured in 1823, but died nine years later in St John’s. She may have been the last survivor of her people.”207

***SPANIARD’S BAY, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Town of Spaniard’s Bay calls attention to: “The name Spaniard’s Bay derived from the fishermen of Jersey who came to fish our shores from the Channel Islands around the turn of the 15th century. In 1585, Sir Bernard Drake carried out an extensive attack on Spanish ships in Newfoundland being careful to avoid Spanish centers like Placentia and the Strait of Belle Isle. The Spanish cod-fishing industry never completely recovered. The French records show reports of Spanish fishermen north of Bonavista after the 1660s. By this time, France was dominant in the fishery and England was its only serious rival.”208

Sir RH Bonnycastle connotes: “The west shore of Conception Bay also contains several other towns of rising importance – such as Brigus, Port de Grave, Bay of Roberts, Harbour Main, Spaniard’s Bay – in fact, the whole shore, from Point de Grates to Holyrood, which, at its termination, is thickly settled with fishing villages and stations, the only drawback being, that this coast, exposed to the fury of the Atlantic, particularly in the portion called the North Shore, is subject at times to the ravages of easterly storms; and, in 1773, Harbour Grace and Carbonier suffered much from one, which threw the fishing craft on shore, upwards of a hundred boats having been lost in one cove, with their unfortunate crews.”209

***WITLESS BAY, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR***

Alan Rayburn details: “South of St John’s, this municipal community (1986) is located at the head of Witless Bay, whose name has engendered much speculation over the years. The present spelling was in use in the mid-1600s, but spellings such as Whittles, Whitley’s, and Whistles during the latter part of the 1600s suggest the possibility of its being a personal name. Because the bay is quite open to the sea, its name might suggest a seaman would have to be deranged to consider trying to enter it during a heavy storm.”210

**NORTHWEST TERRITORIES**

Alan Rayburn explains: “When Canada acquired the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory from Great Britain in 1870, the combined lands were called North-West Territories. Ten years later Great Britain transferred its rights to the Arctic Archipelago. Meanwhile parts of the present province of Manitoba (1870) and the district of Keewatin (1876) were separated from the territories, and in 1897 the territory of Yukon was taken from it. In 1905 the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were severed from the newly named territory of the Northwest Territories, with Keewatin being restored to it as one of its four districts (the others were Ungava, Mackenzie, and Franklin). In 1912 Ontario and Quebec took away parts of its territory by extending to the shores of Hudson and James bays. Nunavut separated from it in 1999. The residents of the remaining territory had preference to retain the misnomer, Northwest Territory.”211

***FORT GOOD HOPE, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

Tom Andrews mentions: “The community of Fort Good Hope was established as a North West Company trading post and was named in expectation of what would be accomplished by means of the post.”212

Fort Good Hope imparts: “The people who lived around the area where Fort Good Hope is today were known as the ‘hareskin’ people. Today the Sahtu Dene of the area call themselves the K’asho Got’ine or ‘big arrowhead people’. But, the term gah is very close to the Dene term for ‘rabbit’, and the people were known for making rabbit skin clothing; therefore the name may have confused early missionaries and anthropologists. The Dene name of the area is Radeyilikoe and means ‘home at the rapids’. The Ramparts are a high-walled canyon and set of rapids along the Mackenzie River, where it narrows to a mere half kilometer. The Ramparts are described as the doorway to the Arctic. The cliffs on either side of the rapids are about 80 meters high and appear yellowish in color because of concentrated limestone. High up a cliff wall is a statue of the Virgin Mary, placed there to protect villagers from drowning. However, community members say the carver drowned while hunting soon after. The canyon, known as Fee Yee in the local North Slavey dialect, is considered an ancient fishing and spiritual site. One old story tells how a giant formed the Ramparts by throwing rocks at a giant beaver. The giant then lay down for a nap, leaving his head and footprints imprinted in the earth.

“The settlement of Fort Good Hope was first established in 1805, the earliest of any of the settlements in the lower Mackenzie Valley. The fort changed locations several times before ending up in its current location in 1839. The first trading post was set up by the North West Trading Company on the left bank of the Mackenzie River near Thunder River. The post amalgamated with the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1821 and moved to Manitou Island in 1826. A decade later flooding and ice damaged the fort and today the settlement sits across from Manitou Island. Throughout these years the Shita Got’ine, Gwich’in and Inuvialuit of the Mackenzie Delta came to the other community to trade. Many stayed and settled. In 1844 there was a sudden increase in the concentration of people living in the area as well as uncontrolled hunting and low supplies. Disease and starvation devastated the community. In 1859 an Oblate missionary named Henri Grollier established the first Roman Catholic Mission. In the 1960s Father Emile Petitot worked with local Dene to build the Our Lady of Fort Good Hope church. Inside, murals painted with local dyes and pigments of the time decorate the walls.”213

***FORT PROVIDENCE, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

Tom Andrews puts into words: “The community of Fort Providence was established as a Roman Catholic Mission by the Oblates in 1861 followed by the arrival of the Sisters of Charity (Grey Nuns) who founded a mission school at the same location.”214

Hamlet of Fort Providence reports: “Historically, the people of Fort Providence have come from nine different tribes or clans. The largest Dene tribe was known as 'the river people' who are now known as 'Deh Gah Got'ie' Dene. The site of Fort Providence today is not to be confused with other areas of the same name. The earliest established community named Providence was located on the North Arm of Great Slave Lake, near Fort Rae during the time of fur trader Peter Pond. The second is known as old Fort Providence. It’s located at Big Island, 60 miles upstream of the present day community. The first

missionaries to arrive in the area established it during the early 1800s. The present day community of Fort Providence became more established by missionaries when an orphanage and mission were started by the Sisters of Charity (Grey Nuns) in 1867. The Sacred Heart Residential School was the first mission school established in the Northwest Territories. By 1871 there were 26 children at the school. During its first twenty-five years of operation the Fort Providence mission cared for and educated 268 children from throughout the Mackenzie valley and from as far south as Fort McMurray.

“A Hudson’s Bay Company Post opened shortly after the school in the 1800s. Cattle ranching and farming became a staple of life in the area. Roman Catholic missions in the South Slave and along the Mackenzie River Valley undertook garden trials for the Department of Agriculture. Fort Providence was one of these settlements, eventually producing vegetables and grains as well as a number of dairy cattle.”215

***FORT RESOLUTION, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

Alan Rayburn shows: “On Great Slave Lake, south of the mouth of the Slave River, this settlement (1988) is the site of a Hudson’s Bay Company trading post established in 1815. The name is suggestive of the hardships endured at the most northerly Hudson’s Bay Company post, before the union with the North West Company in 1821. The Geographic Board called it Resolution in 1815, but the older name was restored in 1940.”216

***RELIANCE, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

Tom Andrews talks about: “This location was built and named in 1833 by Lieut George Back of the British Navy. The location was his exploration party’s winter quarters and he recorded ‘As every post in the country is distinguished by a name, I gave to ours that of Fort Reliance, in token of our trust in that merciful Providence, whose protection we humbly hoped would be extended to us in the many difficulties and dangers to which these services are exposed.’”217

***TSIIGEHTCHIC, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

Alan Rayburn catalogs: “The name of this charter community (1993) at the confluence of the Arctic Red River with the Mackenzie River name replaced Arctic Red River in 1994. The name in Gwich’in means ‘mouth of the iron river’, in reference to the reddish color of the Arctic Red River.”218

Mariah Blake contributes: “Gwichya Gwich’in originally used Arctic Red River Flats as a location for summer fish camps. Traditionally, Arctic Red River Flats was known as a gathering site where people participated in dancing, visiting and summer social activities. By the mid-1800s people began moving to the present site of Tsiigehtchic during more than the summer season. In 1868 the Catholic Church began construction of a permanent mission station. The original Catholic Church, built in 1921, still sits on Church Hill. By 1902, the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) was establishing a presence in the area and began construction of a trading post at Arctic Red River. In 1926 the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) followed the likes of the HBC and constructed an RCMP post at Arctic Red River. The RCMP post remained in Arctic Red River until 1976. Though there were many changes that took place at Arctic Red

River, life for the Gwichya Gwich’in remained centered around the land and seasonal activities. It was not until the 1970s and the introduction of a government housing program the Gwichya Gwich’in began to settle permanently at the present day site of Tsiigehtchic.

“In 1992 the Gwichya Gwich’in along with the other Gwich’in groups, signed the Gwich’in Comprehensive Land Claims Agreement. The community of Tsiigehtchic now sits within the Gwich’in Settlement Area. This land claim gives the Gwich’in people ownership and jurisdiction over parcels of land in the Mackenzie Delta. The Gwich’in people are currently negotiating a self-government agreement.

“Culture: Even today life in Tsiigehtchic remains fairly traditional. Families still go to summer fish camps and community members frequently go out on the land throughout the seasons. Tsiigehtchic is well known for its good dryfish and strips. Sewing and beadwork is undertaken by many community members for artistic and practical purposes. Cookouts and feasts are held throughout the year.

“Ferry and road: Tsiigehtchic is located on the Mackenzie River and is accessible by ice road in the winter and by ferry in the summer. The community witnesses complete isolation for 4-5 weeks each spring and fall during break up and freeze up of the Mackenzie River. The ferry access to Tsiigehtchic is located off the Dempster Highway and the ferry is in operation from early June to late October. During this time it runs daily from 9 am until midnight. The ice road is accessible 24 hrs/day.

“Economy: Many community members still make their living from hunting, trapping, fishing, and harvesting. Community members are employed by the Gwichya Gwich’in Band/Tsiigehtchic Charter Community, Northern Store, Gwich’in Social and Cultural Institute, and Government of the Northwest Territories. Positions with these organizations include: municipal works, housing maintenance, ice road construction, community development, health care, research, equipment operations, administration, economic development, and renewable resources. During the summer months community members work as deck hands on the ferry. The Gwichya Gwich’in Band operates and manages its businesses and contracts under the Red River Incorporated Band. Some community members are also employed in the oil and gas camps, and other resource exploration/development camps.

“Gwich’in meaning of Tsiigehtchic: Prior to 1994 Tsiigehtchic was named and designated by the territorial government as Arctic Red River. The Gwich’in meaning of Tsiigehtchic is ‘at the mouth of the iron river’. Tsiigehtchic is located within the area of the Mackenzie River that is known as Nagwichoonjik in Gwich’in. This is the area between Thunder River and Point Separation and means ‘a water flows through a big country’.”219

***TUKTOYAKTUK, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

Tom Andrews conveys: “The community name of Tuktoyaktuk is a traditional Inuvialuktun name which means ‘place where there is something that looks like a caribou’. Felix Nuyaviak told this story about the meaning of Tuktoyaktuk in Inuvialuktun in the 1970s: ‘The name Tuktuuyaqtuuq comes from a legend about a girl who was forbidden to look at some caribou that were swimming across the harbor. She

disobeyed and the caribou turned to rock. Several large rocks can still be seen from the point at the north end of the town when the water is low.’”220

Hamlet of Tuktoyaktuk discusses: “Historically, Inuvialuit harvested caribou and beluga whales in the area. Tuktoyaktuk was formerly known as Port Brabant, when foreign whalers began docking and hunting beluga as well. Its name was changed in the 1950s to its indigenous name. Tuktoyaktuk is the Anglicized version of Tuktuujaartuq, an Inuvialuit word meaning, ‘resembling caribou’ in Inuvialuktun. It comes from a legend in which a woman saw caribou wading into the water and then turning to stone. Today, the reefs visible at low tide in Tuktoyaktuk are said to resemble those petrified caribou.

“During the flu epidemic between 1890 and 1910 most families living in the area at the time died. People from the surrounding areas, such as Herschel Island and the Alaskan Inupiat, settled in the area afterward. Inuvialuit and Inuit culture is directly tied on the land. The modern wage economy has replaced the need for traditional hunter/gatherer activities, however, many communities in the region still become sparse with people during the summer months when families go ‘on the land’ to hunt, fish, trap, pick berries, and take part in other traditional activities. Most people living in Tuk are of Inuvialuit and Inuit descent. About 16 percent of the population of Tuktoyaktuk is non-aboriginal, about two percent are Dene or North American Indian and about one percent are Metis. Religious beliefs outside native spirituality are seen in Protestant and Catholic followings.”221

***ULUKHAKTOK, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

Tom Andrews expounds: “The community name of Ulukhaktok is an Inuinnaqtun name which means ‘where there is material to make ulus’. The community was previous called Holman, but changed to the traditional name in 2006.”222

www.merriam-webster.com defines ulu, “an Eskimo woman's knife resembling a food chopper with a crescent-shaped blade.”223

Hamlet of Ulukhaktok impresses: “Uluhaktok's history is tied to early European exploration. Before the community took back its traditional name on April 1st, 2006, it was known as Holman. JR Holman was a member of Sir Edward Augustus Inglefield's 1853 expedition that was sent in search of the ill-fated explorer Sir John Franklin. Franklin was one of the first explorers to visit the area.

“Some families today are descendants of Dane explorer Christian Klengenberg and two indigenous Northern members of an expedition led by Vilhjalmur Stefansson. Natkusiak was a guide and lead hunter for Stefansson. He originally came from Alaska. Alaskan Inupiat, Ikey Bolt was also a member of the expedition. He married Klengenberg's daughter and eventually settled in Kugluktuk, east of present-day Uluhaktok. Therefore, today family ties are strong between Uluhaktok and Kugluktuk since families travelled all over Banks and Victoria Islands in the early 1900s and an actual settlement did not occur until the first Hudson Bay Company post was opened in 1923. The community also developed that year as Inuit settled in the area.

“Because of Ulukhaktok’s traditional ties with the Inuit of the Central Arctic it tends to have a unique mix of western- and eastern-style drum dancing, throat singing, and printmaking. The indigenous language spoken in the community is the Kangiryuarmiutun dialect of Inuinnaqtun. Because Uluhaktok is part of the Inuvialuit region (Western Arctic) the dialect is considered part of the Inuvialuktun, rather than Inuinnaqtun (Central Arctic), group of languages.”224

***WEKWEETI, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

Tom Andrews notates: “The community name of Wekweeti is a Tlicho name which means ‘rock lake’. The community was previously called Wekweti and Snare Lake, but changed to the current form of the traditional name in 2005.”225

***YELLOWKNIFE, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES***

higharc.tripod.com puts pen to paper: “When Samuel Hearne, an explorer for the Hudson's Bay Company, reached the shores of Great Slave Lake in 1771, he became the first white man to have reached the lake. Accompanying Hearne were several natives from the Yellowknife tribe, a band of Indians who frequented the north shores of Great Slave Lake. The City of Yellowknife was named after this tribe. Hearne called them the Copper Indians, but fur traders soon were referring to them simply as the band with yellow knives, or the Yellowknife tribe. The Yellowknife Indians were driven from the area by Warring Dogribs around 1830, but their name remained.

“In 1896, miners on their way to the Klondike discovered gold in Yellowknife Bay, but Yellowknife might not have existed today, if it weren't for the discovery of pitchblende in 1930 on Great Bear Lake. The discovery led to the mining of radium ore from Eldorado Mine and because of this, prospecting activities in the Northwest Territories were increased. It was during this increased activity that prospectors headed down the Yellowknife River and found gold in the east shore of Yellowknife Bay in 1934.

“During the Second World War, gold production slowed down, but started to increase steadily after the war and in the year 1948, Giant Mines began commercial gold production. The population grew and by 1947 an extensive building program had begun that included hydroelectricity, water and sewer systems. In 1953, Yellowknife became a Municipal District and its first mayor was elected.

“On May 1, 1967, Yellowknife became the capitol of the Northwest Territories. The commissioner of the Northwest Territories and his staff moved to Yellowknife in September of 1967. Three years later on January 1, 1970, Yellowknife became the first city in the Northwest Territories.

“In 2002, the city's population was 17,807 residents.

“Yellowknife is considered to be one of the best places in the world from which to view the Northern Lights (Aurora Borealis).

“Our brief visit to Yellowknife was spent waiting at the airport while our plane was being refueled. During this time someone shouted out ‘there's a polar bear on a Chevy outside.’ Of course a few gullible people had to run outside to check it out.”226

**NOVA SCOTIA**

WB Hamilton represents: “Although applied first on September 29, 1621, when Sir William Alexander (1567?-1640) received a grant of ‘the lands lying between New England and Newfoundland ... to be known as Nova Scotia, or ‘New Scotland’,’ the name did not become fixed on the map until after the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

“Prior to this, the name Acadia was generally used by the French to denote the Maritime Provinces along with adjacent portions of New England and Quebec. The origin of the word Acadia is in dispute. It is generally accepted to be from Archadia (Acadia), assigned by Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524 and suggested by the classical name for a land of rustic peace. The claim that it is of Micmac origin is probably coincidental. The Micmac word Quoddy or Cady was rendered by the French as cadie and meant a piece of land or territory.”227

***ADVOCATE HARBOUR, NOVA SCOTIA***

CB Fergusson specifies: “This community is located on Advocate Harbour near Cap d’Or. According to tradition when the Loyalists landed here some persons suggested settling at Apple River whereupon one of their numbers is supposed to have said, ‘I advocate the selection of the Harbour,’ and the majority replied ‘that is a good word and it is a good place. We will settle at the Harbour and we will call it Advocate.’ If this incident actually took place, it must have been earlier for Advocate Harbour is on Morris’ Map of 1767. It is also said it was originally Avocat. According to one account the community was settled by six or seven retired Army officers with a body of American loyalists about 1778. According to another account one of the first known settlers was Jacob Lynde who lived there briefly sometime between 1761 and 1768. There was a school in the community by 1828. A way office was established in 1842 and a Wesleyan Chapel was opened in 1858. Advocate had a vigorous ship-building industry in the latter half of the 19th century, with a large number of brigs, barques, and schooners being built from the 1870s to the 1890s. The population in 1956 was 336.”228

Alternately, Russell Fillmore tells, “A lawyer landing on Spruce Island came over to Advocate which was then wooded down to the water’s edge. As it seemed to be uninhabited and seemed to have no name, he named it Advocate after himself because he was an advocate of the law.

“The French and Scottish people were the first inhabitants of Advocate. They settled back from the water’s edge upon the hills. Remains of their dykes and cellars of their homes are still to be seen. They lived chiefly by hunting and fishing. But after a time this race of people died out and Advocate was again destitute of inhabitants for a number of years.”229

JW Dawson chronicles: “Cumberland is a large county, thickly settled along its shores, but having large tracts of uncultivated land in its interior. Amherst is a neat village, on a level plateau overlooking the extensive marshes at the head of Cumberland Basin. Pugwash and Wallace are rapidly growing and considerable villages, carrying on an extensive trade in ships and lumber, and surrounded by large agricultural settlements, the principal of which are those of the Gulf Shore and Wallace River. River Philip, Maccan River, Hebert River, and Minudie, have good agricultural settlements. The settlement of

the Joggins derives considerable importance from its coal mines and grindstone quarries. Advocate Harbour and Mill Village are the principal seats of shipbuilding, lumbering, and the coasting trade, on the south coast.”230

***BIBLE HILL, NOVA SCOTIA***

Alan Rayburn declares: “On the northeast side of Truro, this village (1953) was first settled about 1761. It owes its name to the practice of the Reverend Dr William McCulloch – pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Truro, 1839-85 – of giving away copies of the Bible. He lived in the area of the present-day village.”231

CB Fergusson displays: “This village is located on the north side of the Salmon river, at the eastern end of Cobequid Bay, in central Nova Scotia. Traditionally the name is supposed to have been prompted by the piousness of the Archibald family, one of the first families to live here when English settlement began about 1761. In the 1700s, the Hill was the place where public business was transacted. Law Offices, Customs House, Court-House, Masonic Hall, and the two principal inns were located here. After 1800, however, business gradually moved to Truro, and the village became somewhat of a suburb. In 1953 Bible Hill was incorporated as a village, and in the 1960s either incorporation as a town or amalgamation with Truro was contemplated.

“St David’s United Church was opened July 11, 1948. It became the church hall when the new St David’s was begun in 1959, opened and dedicated June 26, 1960. St George’s Anglican Church was dedicated late in April 1962. Daniel Dickson was schoolmaster at ‘Hill District, Truro’ in 1828, and a schoolhouse was built before 1837. The erection of a new school was begun early in 1905, completed in 1906. A two-room school was built on East Court Road in 1947. Another new school was opened December 11, 1950.”232

***BLOODY CREEK, NOVA SCOTIA***

Beamish Murdoch expresses: “It appears that early in the summer of 1711 the English at Port Royal endeavored to conciliate the Indians and attract them to their side. … The governor piqued at this opposition, and being besides discontented with the conduct of the inhabitants, who would not furnish the wood he required, detached eighty men of the garrison, under captain Pigeon, an officer of the regular army, to surprise some families of the Indians who were up the river, and to carry off the principal inhabitants. This detachment consisted of the choice of what remained of this men, there being, according to Cahouet’s account, not about 120 men left in the garrison, inclusive of officers and servants. When the detachment got to the place of their destination up the river, a party of forty-two Indians, who were in ambush in the woods, suddenly came out and fell upon them. Thirty of the English were killed, and the rest made prisoners. Among the slain were an engineer and a major. The latter, not being willing to be made a prisoner, [attempted escape and] an Indian swam across the river with his tomahawk at his side and his pistol between his teeth, and killed him. The fort major, the engineer, and all the boat’s crew, were killed; and two captains, two lieutenants, an ensign, and some 30 or 40 men of the garrison, were made prisoners. The scene of this disaster is about twelve miles above Annapolis, on the river, and bears the name of Bloody Creek.”233

***DOCTORS COVE, NOVA SCOTIA***

CB Fergusson notes: “It is approximately one mile west of the Cape Island Causeway location, near the mouth of Barrington Bay on the southern end of Nova Scotia.

“This area was included in the Indian name Menstugek for Barrington Bay. The French called the area La Passage which still exists as applied to Barrington Passage. Doctors Cove may have been named for Dr Andrew Collins, a relative of the Liverpool Collins family who moved to Liverpool from Barrington in 1796. Skeats Cove, just to the westward, took its name from a settler who lived there as early as 1780.

“The Doctors Cove area was settled by descendants of the Cape Cod fishermen who came to Barrington in 1760. Grants were given in 1767, but extensive settlement really started after the American Revolution.

“In the early days considerable shipbuilding was carried on here. More recently, boats built at Cape Sable Island have had a monopoly and the people of Doctors Cove make their living by fishing, gathering Irish moss, and lumbering.”234

***DOMINION, NOVA SCOTIA***

PS McInnis records: “The community's origins are closely connected with coal production, which began in 1829 when the General Mining Association opened a drift mine. In this early period the community was known as Old Bridgeport, but in 1893 it changed its name to Dominion after the Dominion No 1A Colliery. That year the area mines were acquired by the Dominion Coal Company, a syndicate led by Boston entrepreneur Henry M Whitney. The Dominion Coal Company was then absorbed by the notoriously insolvent British Empire Steel Corporation (BESCO) in 1920, and when BESCO floundered in 1928, it became part of the Dominion Steel and Coal Company. Coal production peaked during the 2 world wars, then declined sharply afterwards. The community's last mine, Dominion No 1B, closed in 1955. During Dominion's mining history, 102 miners were killed in mining accidents.

“Similar to other communities in industrial Cape Breton, Dominion faces the challenge to adapt its economy to new ventures, including tourism. It is located next to Dominion Beach, one of the finest sand beaches on Cape Breton Island. The Heritage School House Museum, situated adjacent to the beach, is a vintage one-room schoolhouse (circa 1888) now fully restored and staffed by interpreters during the summer.”235

***ECONOMY, NOVA SCOTIA***

CB Fergusson reveals: “The four sections of this community are located along the shore within an eight mile area in the vicinity of Economy Point and River, on the north side of Cobequid Bay, in central Nova Scotia. The name probably comes from the Indian word Kenome, ‘a long point jutting far out into the sea’.

“Possibly the Acadians began to occupy this area sometime in the first two decades of the 18th century. By 1748 four families were living here, and when Vil Conomie was visited by Captain Abijah Willard on

August 10, 1755, he found two families and several deserted houses. Soon afterwards the village was destroyed. Resettlement began in the 1760s with the arrival of Irishmen and New Englanders. At Lower Economy, Edward Faulkner purchased 2,000 acres from Lieutenant James Faulkner about 1782, settled on it, and improved it until his death in 1797. In 1814 the farm was divided among his widow, Eleanor, and his sons: Daniel, William, John, Edward, Robert, and Thomas, and a grant were issued to them in 1815. This area was called Lower Settlement until the passage of the Free School Law in 1865 when it became the school district of Lower Economy.”236

***FIVE ISLANDS, NOVA SCOTIA***

CB Fergusson spells out: “This settlement is located between the East River and the Colchester-Cumberland county line, on the north side of Minas Basin, in central Nova Scotia. It was so named because of the five islands located about a mile offshore: Moose, Egg, Diamond, Long, and Pinnacle Islands. The Indian name was Nankulmenegool, meaning ‘Five Islands’.”237

Ryan Faulkner touches on: “If you've ever driven the Glooscap Trail in its entirety, you've definitely passed through what I would call one of the most photogenic places in Nova Scotia. I'm talking about Five Islands. My favourite view of Five Islands would have to be from the descent of Economy Mountain when the islands and Minas Basin comes into view. The view from the look-off at Five Islands Provincial Park is nothing to scoff at either as Moose Island, the largest of the five, dominates the landscape.

“The area surrounding the Glooscap Trail is steeped in Mi'kmaq legends and Five Islands is no exception. I spent a good portion of my younger years in Five Islands with my grandparents and I remember my grandmother telling me of the Mi'kmaq's interpretation of how Five Islands came to be. I have heard different variations of the legend but the version that I was told went as follows:

“Glooscap was a giant god-like man who lived in Cape Blomidon, overlooking the Bay of Fundy. He was created by Gisoolg, the Great Spirit Creator, from a bolt of lightning. A giant beaver, one of Glooscap's enemies, had built a large dam which caused the flooding of Glooscap's garden in Advocate. Angered by this, Glooscap threw handfuls of mud at the beaver in order to break his dam and drive him away and these handfuls became the five islands: Moose, Long, Diamond, Egg and Pinnacle. It is also believed that the water released from the dam created the historic Bay of Fundy tides.”238

***HOPEWELL, NOVA SCOTIA***

CB Fergusson clarifies: “This community is located on the West Branch, East River. The place is said to be named after the ship that brought Alexander McNutt and the Ulster settlers to Colchester County in 1761. Another explanation is that the name was suggested by a resident who saw it on a sign in Halifax. An early name was Milltown from the John Duffs grist mill. The site is partly on a 500 acre lot granted to Alexander McIntosh in 1797 and which may have been settled by him as early as 1785. The other lot on which Hopewell is located was granted to Alexander McDonald in 1828.”239

***PICKNEY’S POINT, NOVA SCOTIA***

www.yarmouth.org documents: “The first settlement in the area of this community was made by Ephrim Cook, who came from Kingston, New York. He had come to these shores, as other Americans had done, to spend the fishing season here, long before he settled permanently in 1762. He settled on the eastern side of the Chebogue Harbor and built his home not far from Cooks Beach (which was named in his honor). The house was built from materials he brought over from New York on his ships. He also built fish stands, and a store house for storing trade goods on the knoll today known as ‘Store Hill’. He cured and salted fish and shipped it to the West Indies. He was known as the founder of the fishing trade in the country.

“Captain Cook's grant included acres of wooded area, such as Big Island and Little River Point (which became Pinkney's Point), and acres of the largest marshland in the area. Captain Cook died in 1821, at the age of 84, and was buried on his farmland at Lower Melbourne, but his headstone is in the Town Point Cemetery.

“In 1777, John Pinkney came to Nova Scotia, also from New York State. At 44 he married Captain Cook's daughter, Louisa, and settled on the clear upland of Cooks Beach. This was known as Pinkney's Land, which was changed from Little River Point to Pinkney's Point in honor of John Pinkney. He built a very large house, big enough to hold more than one family, which it sometimes did. John had 6 daughters and 3 sons. The daughters married and moved away, the eldest son became a sea captain, and the youngest one remained on the farm. The fishing trade was still in progress at the beach, Pinkney having some vessels of his own. When John died, all land, house, barn, sheds, tool shop and blacksmith shop passed on to his son, Gilbert.

“At twenty Gilbert married Matilda Weston and they had four sons and one daughter. Three of their sons went to sea, and the youngest died at 19. Their daughter married and moved away. On what is known as the ‘Sands’, the original cellars of the Pinkney ‘Villa’ are still visible. In 1852, Gilbert sold the first piece of land on the farther wooded point to Nathan Weston, and Weston built a home there. Today it is the DeViller home and the oldest one on Pinkney's Point. Other people bought land from Gilbert Pinkney as time went on, until finally he moved away and no other Pinkney remained on the Point. Their graves are found in the Arcadia and Town Point Cemeteries. Then, in 1856, for whatever reasons, all lands known as Pinkney's Point, south of Carrying Place Creek, were sold at public auction to the highest bidder.”240

***ROBERT’S ISLAND, NOVA SCOTIA***

CB Fergusson observes: “It is located west of the mouth of the Argyle (Abuptic) River near the southern end of Nova Scotia.

“This island was long called Non-Parison Island. During the deportation Major Jedidiah Prebble put several Acadians onto the island for safekeeping until he could return for them. They escaped over the tidal flats and were ‘not present’ when Prebble returned. The place takes its name from New England settlers named Roberts who came here in the 1770s. On September 6, 1773 grants of land on the island were made out to Edmund and Joseph Crawley.

“Israel Doane taught in a log schoolhouse in 1792. A new schoolhouse was built in 1835 and another in 1858. Jonathan Roberts kept a way office in 1865. This became Glenwood Way Office on May 1, 1874, and on April 1, 1876 it was made an official Post Office. Theodore Kenny kept a Post Office at the lower end of the island in 1900.”241

***SHINIMICAS BRIDGE, NOVA SCOTIA***

CB Fergusson recounts: “A community on the Shinimicas River. Shinimicas (or Shinimecas) is said to be an Indian name meaning ‘Shining River’. One of the early settlers was John Smith who was there in 1810. There used to be a flour mill, a saw mill, and a carding mill at Shinimicas Bridge. The flour mill was still standing in 1948, but none of the enterprises were still operating.

“The population in 1956 was 76.”242

***WINE HARBOUR, NOVA SCOTIA***

CB Fergusson says: “This rural area is located on the east side of the harbor of the same name on the eastern shore of Nova Scotia. It was so named an account of a Portuguese barque loaded with wine being wrecked there. The Indian name was Pelumke egunech, ‘fish spawning place’, or ‘an outlet cut through the sand’. In 1818 one family consisting of about five persons was settled here and had cleared about 10 acres. This was probably the family of John Walters, a native of North Carolina and veteran of the American Revolutionary War, who settled here about 1811 or 1812.

“St Patrick’s Church was built about 1857 to replace a larger Church which had blown down in a storm. A schoolhouse was built about 1869 and a postal way office was established in 1862. A Union Church for Baptists, Anglicans and Presbyterians was dedicated June 13, 1897.

“Gold was discovered in July, 1861, by Katie Doody and Joseph Smith, Sr. Mining was carried on until 1874, and then the mines lay idle until the plough lead was reopened in the autumn of 1898. Operations ceased again in the early 1900s. More recently the industries are fishing and limited farming.

“Population in 1956 was 50.”243

TF Knight spotlights: “Then followed discoveries at other places on the Atlantic Coast; at Indian Harbour, and at Wine Harbour in the County of Guysborough. This was about the middle of September. Mr Smith, the discoverer of gold in this neighborhood; (who had been prospecting for some days in the vicinity of Indian Harbour,) upon searching at Wine Harbour discovered near the tideway, a ridge of whinstone cropping out, and slaty formation adjoining; the two being separated by a small vein of quartz, which he found to contain gold. This seam of quartz extends for some distance nearly parallel with and close to high water mark on the shore of Wine Harbour, the direction being south 63 degrees east.”244

***YANKEETOWN, NOVA SCOTIA***

CB Fergusson underscores: “Yankeetown Road is also used in reference to this settlement on Stillwater Lake, approximately twelve miles northwest of Halifax. Probably it was located on Pernette’s old road to Lunenburg, and was settled by people from New England, nicknamed Yankees. Regarded as part of the Hammond’s Plains district, it was regranted after the War of 1812. In 1813 Ebenezer Smith and the widow Barbara Hinde received two hundred and three hundred acres respectively. On March 28, 1814 four lots were granted: Number 1 with 250 acres and Number 4 with 200 acres to the widow Margaret Farquhar, Number 2 with 400 acres to the widow Ann Thompson and Number 3 with 400 acres to James Armstrong. John Hayes, a carpenter, with Ebenezer and Nathaniel Smith obtained grants totaling 810 acres in 1815.

“The United Baptist Church, one of the smallest churches in Nova Scotia, was dedicated on July 9, 1897.

“Limited farming and lumbering were carried on in the early days, and in the twentieth century cottages have been built on Cox’s Lake.

“The population in 1956 was 88.”245

**NUNAVUT**

Alan Rayburn comments on: “This new territory was created in 1993, to come into being on 1 April 1999. It consisted of the administrative regions of Keewatin, Baffin, and Kitikmeot, which together comprise all the former district of Keewatin, the northeastern part of the district of Franklin, except Banks and Prince Patrick Islands and parts of Victoria and Melville Islands, with some smaller islands in the Northwest Territories. In Inuktitut, Nunavut means ‘our land’.”246

Ann Meekitjuk Hanson emphasizes: “The technical translation of nunavut is simply ‘our land’. The emotional, spiritual, deeper meaning of nunavut or nunavun is ‘our homeland’. The unspoken meaning stresses ‘home’. To some Inuit, with deeper knowledge of the language, when nunavut is spoken, the silent understanding means ‘we share in this together, unconditionally,’ and there is an intense gratitude.

“We have gone through a lot in a short time. Among those who have left their mark on us are whalers, Christian ministers, traders, police, teachers, scientists, and southern politicians. Some of these people had good intentions, and our ancestors welcomed them because tradition and belief ruled them with good manners, kindness, and curiosity. Inuit today inherited both the good and bad effects of these influences.

“I grew up knowing myself as an Inuk — simply translated a human, breathing being. Later, I learned I was called an Eskimo. I never identified the word Eskimo as an insult. In fact, when I was travelling outside of Nunavut I would voluntarily and proudly offer the information, ‘I am an Eskimo.’ Today, I am back to Inuk.

“Traditionally, it was up to elders to name babies after relatives or favorite people, and many given names had long been used — names like Aniqmiuq, Annogakuluuk, Annogaq, Arnaquq, Kimalu, Aitii, Maatu, Quvianatukuluk, Makivik, Yutai, Aiuula, Suu, Yugayugausiq, Arnaguatsaaq, Angusimaajuq,

Qiilabaq, Nuiijaut, Ikilluaq, and thousands more. When the missionaries came, some could not pronounce these ancient names properly. They gave our people names from the Bible — Joanasie, from John, Jamiesie (James), Olutie (Ruth), Miali (Mary), Salamonie (Solomon), Noah, Jonah, Ipeelie (Abel), Ilisapie (Elizabeth), and so on. Among ourselves, we always used our ancient names. So when I was baptized, I became Annie, but to my parents and elders, I was Lutaaq, Pilitaq, Palluq, or Inusiq.

“To the Canadian government, however, I was Annie E7-121! In the early 1940s, Inuit had to be counted and identified for government records so that our parents or guardians could receive family allowance. E stood for east and W stood for west. We were given a small disc looped on a sturdy string, brown with black lettering. I only learned about last names when I went to school in Toronto in the early 1960s. My foster parents let me use their family name, so in Toronto I went by Annie Cotterill — E7-121 was not a very attractive name for a young girl! And when I came back home, I certainly did not want to be Miss E7-121 as a secretary in a government office, so I took my father's first name, Meekitjuk, as a surname.

“I was not alone in disliking the number system. By the late 1960s, Simonie Michael, our first elected Inuk member of the Northwest Territories legislative assembly, stated that he no longer wanted to be known by his E7- number. Thus, Project Surname was created. Abe Okpik, a respected Inuk from the western Arctic, headed the project. Between 1968 and 1970, Abe visited every Inuit home and asked the families to choose a name. The head of the family picked a surname — often a relative's given name — and we were no longer known by numbers.

“Place names, just like our own traditional names, are indigenous and meaningful. Kimmirut, or ‘heel’, for the shape of a rock outcropping there, the community I am from, has always been Kimmirut. Until just a short time ago, however, it usually appeared as Lake Harbour on maps. Initiatives like the South Baffin Place Names Project are slowly returning Nunavut's communities to their names of old: Frobisher Bay officially became Iqaluit (‘school of fish’) in 1987, and in November 1998, Broughton Island became Qikiqtarjuaq (‘big island’).

“But most importantly, there is the word nunavut. Now the same word, meaning our homeland, is being capitalized as Nunavut, to become a place name, a new inuksuk (‘directional beacon’) for the world to see, and for us to share and to pass on to our children. What joy!”247

www.alaskannature.com gives: “Inuit is a general term for a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic coasts of Alaska, the eastern islands of the Canadian Arctic, Labrador, and the ice-free coasts of Greenland. In Eskimo Inuktitut, the language of the Inuit people, Inuit means ‘the people’. The English word Eskimo is a Native American word which is widely believed to mean ‘eater of raw meat’ (although this meaning is disputed). Many Inuit consider the word Eskimo offensive, but it is still in general usage to refer to all Eskimo peoples, though it has fallen into disuse throughout Canada, where Canadians use the term Inuit.”248 

***AUYUITTUQ (NATIONAL PARK), NUNAVUT***

Alan Rayburn pens: “On the east side of Baffin Island, and north of Pangnirtung, this park reserve (21,471 km squared) was established as Baffin Island National Park in 1972. It was renamed three years later after the Inuktitut word auyuittuq (‘land of big ice’ or literally ‘place that does not melt’).”249

***ENNADAI LAKE, NUNAVUT***

Alan Rayburn scribes: “The name of this lake (669 km squared), located on the Kazan River and west of Arviat, derives from the Chipewyan word for ‘slaughter’. Presumably the Cree disguised themselves as stags in an attempt to ambush the Chipewyan, but the ruse was discovered so that the Cree were slaughtered. Or, as legends often evolve, it may have been the Cree who slaughtered the Chipewyan.”250

***FURY AND HECLA STRAIT, NUNAVUT***

Alan Rayburn states: “Uniting Foxe Basin and the Gulf of Boothia, this strait was discovered and named in 1822 by Sir William Parry (1790-1855) after the two ships under his command, the Fury and the Hecla. Because the strait was icebound, he was unable to navigate through it, but a journey overland confirmed that a sea lay beyond.”251

***GJOA HAVEN, NUNAVUT***

www.nunavuttourism.com alludes to: “The storied community of Gjoa Haven is located on the southeast coast of King William Island at the heart of the Northwest Passage. It is also called Uqsuqtuuq which means ‘place of plenty blubber’ in Inuktitut. The English name for this place honors the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen who wintered here with his ship the Gjoa. He called this place 'the finest little harbor in the world.' In 1906 he was the first European explorer to transit the Northwest Passage. The John Ross expedition of 1829-33 had previously visited this region and the ill-fated John Franklin expedition of 1845 perished nearby, so Gjoa Haven is often visited by arctic history buffs. The local Inuit people are famous for their historic acts of kindness.”252

***IGLOOLIK, NUNAVUT***

Alan Rayburn communicates: “On Igloolik Island, at the east end of Hecla and Griper Strait and offshore of Melville Peninsula, this hamlet (1976) was named in 1951 after the Inuktitut for ‘there are houses’. Archeological studies reveal the site has been continuously occupied for 4,000 years.”253

Courtney Dunphy depicts: “The name Igloolik means ‘there is a house here’ (from iglu meaning’ house or building’, and referring to the sod houses - not snow igloos - that were originally in the area) in Inuktitut and the residents are called Iglulingmiut (miut – ‘people of’).”254

www.nunavuttourism.com portrays: “Located north of the Arctic Circle, between the Canadian mainland and Baffin Island, Igloolik is situated on a small island in Foxe Basin just off the northeast corner of Melville Peninsula. Spelled Iglulik in Inuktitut, this vibrantly artistic community is considered to be a cultural epicenter for the Inuit people. Although it is part of the Qikiqtaaluk region of Nunavut, the community has a mix of cultural traditions from all three regions, including Kitikmeot and Kivalliq. The award-winning movie ‘Atanarjuat — The Fast Runner’ was produced and filmed here. Igloolik is also

home to Artcirq, the only Inuit circus troupe in the world, and each summer the hamlet hosts the Rockin' Walrus Arts Festival. This gifted little island, inhabited 4,000 years ago, is an ideal place to visit for an authentic arctic adventure, to go dog sledding, to view whales, to visit an iceberg, to experience the Inuit way of life and enjoy the Northern Lights.”255

***IQALUIT, NUNAVUT***

Courtney Dunphy enumerates: “Formerly called Frobisher Bay, in 1987 the community's residents changed the name back to its original name Iqaluit, which means ‘many fish’ in Inuktitut. In a referendum in 1995 Iqaluit was chosen to be the capital of the new territory of Nunavut, which came into being in 1999. In 2001 Iqaluit was officially recognized as a city.”256

www.nunavuttourism.com remarks: “The city of Iqaluit is located on Baffin Island at the northern end of Frobisher Bay near the mouth of the Sylvia Grinnell River. Iqaluit is the territorial capital of Nunavut, the largest and fastest-growing community in the territory. This exciting, dynamic city is the political, business, journalism and transportation hub of Nunavut, with an excellent airport. The landing strip is long enough to land the space shuttle, so it is often used for cold weather testing of the world's largest new aircraft. Formerly known as Frobisher Bay, the modern city of Iqaluit is rich with traditional Inuit culture. It is the home of many Inuit artists, filmmakers and musicians, plus there are arts and culture festivals staged in the spring and summer that bring artists here from across the territory. The friendly people of Iqaluit — the Iqalumiut — love to go out on the land, sea and ice at all times of the year to enjoy a variety of outdoor activities. Iqaluit is located near beautiful parklands that feature a range of landscapes, mountains, rivers, waterfalls and ancient Thule sites to visit.”257

***KIMMIRUT, NUNAVUT***

Hamlet of Kimmirut gives an account: “Kimmirut was chosen as the site of an Anglican Church in 1909 and the Hudson’s Bay Company set up a trading post here in 1911. The previously uninhabited site is now home to about 425 people, of which approximately 91 percent are Inuit. However, nearby visitors may find archaeological evidence of habitation by earlier Dorset people.

“Formerly known as Lake Harbour, the hamlet of Kimmirut prides itself on its warm, friendly people and traditional indigenous Inuit culture and way of life. Kimmirut, which means ‘a heel’ in Inuktitut, the language of the Inuit, is named after a geological feature resembling a heel located across the Inlet opposite the community.

“Many of Kimmirut’s residents participate in subsistence harvesting, hunting caribou, seal, fish, whale, walrus and migratory birds. The hamlet also fosters a vibrant arts and crafts community, which includes carvers and jewelers who incorporate local gem stones in their work.

“Tourism is an important part of Kimmirut’s economy as well, with cruise ships visiting in the summer, and numerous eco-tourism opportunities for the more adventurous traveler throughout the year. While visiting Kimmirut you'll see some of the most incredible tides in the world, reaching 11 meters in the summer months. In the winter, when the bay is frozen, you'll notice dramatic ice walls during low tide.

“Many nomadic Inuit families took up permanent residence here during the 1950s and 1960s and the community remains a relatively traditional one with many still participating in subsistence harvesting and traditional arts and crafts activities. Buildings from this early era, including the first Royal Canadian Mounted Police post (1915), the Hudson’s Bay buildings and the Anglican Church are still standing and make for an interesting walking tour.

“An outdoor enthusiast’s playground, Kimmirut is also the southern gateway to the Katannilik Territorial Park Reserve, which takes in the whole of the Soper Heritage River watershed. Canoeists, kayakers, rafters and hikers can take advantage of the Soper Valley’s temperate climate and experience the area’s abundant plant and animal life. Visits to the Katannilik Park Visitors Centre and Soper House Gallery – named for government scientist and artist Dewey Soper who built the house in the 1930s – are musts for anyone touring the community.

“Kimmirut is named for a marble outcrop located opposite the community and many unusual minerals and gemstones have been discovered on nearby marble hills. Precious and semi-precious gems such as sapphire, spinel, scapolite, tourmaline, iolite, apatite, zircon, moonstone, garnet, diopside, pargasite and lapis lazuli have been discovered here. The geological setting of Southern Baffin Island, where Kimmirut is located, is analogous to productive gem mineral occurrences created by the collision of India with Asia (eg, Afghanistan, Myanmar and Vietnam).”258

***KUGAARUK, NUNAVUT***

Courtney Dunphy points out: “English: ‘little stream’ (also called Arviligjuaq, meaning ‘the great bowhead whale habitat’); formerly known as Pelly Bay until 3 December 1999.”259

www.nunavuttourism.com shares: “Kugaaruk is located on the southeastern shore of Pelly Bay off the Gulf of Boothia on the western side of the Simpson Peninsula. Kugaaruk means 'little stream' in Inuktitut, the traditional name of the small brook that flows through the village. This place is also sometimes called Arviligjuaq in Inuktitut, which means 'place of many bowhead whales' because it is situated near bowhead habitat. Formerly known as Pelly Bay, the community changed its name to Kugaaruk in 1999. Home to some famous Inuit artists, it's a great destination for sea kayaking and whale watching adventures.”260

***KUGLUKTUK, NUNAVUT***

Courtney Dunphy relates: “The hamlet changed its name from Coppermine in 1996 to Kugluktuk, which means ‘place of rapids’ referring to the rapids at Bloody Falls, 15 km upstream.”261

www.nunavuttourism.com stresses: “Kugluktuk is the westernmost community in Nunavut. It is located north of the Arctic Circle on the Canadian mainland at the mouth of the Coppermine River where it feeds into Coronation Gulf, which is part of the Northwest Passage. Situated near the border with the Northwest Territories, the scenic valley of the Coppermine River was an ancient source of copper for the Inuit people. It has a unique microclimate that extends a narrow band of stunted boreal forest trees northwards toward the Arctic Ocean. Kugluktuk means 'place of moving water' and the root word kugluk

means 'waterfall'. Upriver from this hospitable hamlet is the beautiful Kugluk cascade, also known as Bloody Falls, an ancient fishing and hunting location that is now a territorial park of historic cultural importance.”262

***PANGNIRTUNG, NUNAVUT***

Courtney Dunphy stipulates: “English: ‘the place of bull caribou’.”263

www.nunavuttourism.com composes: “Also known as Pangniqtuuq and fondly called Pang for short, this artistic community, famous for the quality of its woven tapestries and lithographic prints, is situated on a beautiful fiord in scenic mountainous terrain that is very popular with hikers, climbers and skiers. This hospitable hamlet is located 50 kilometers (31 miles) south of the Arctic Circle on the broad reaches of an ancient beach in Pangnirtung Fiord at the north end of Cumberland Sound. Outdoor arctic enthusiasts identify it as the southern gateway community to the famous Auyuittuq National Park.”264

***QIKIQTARJUAQ, NUNAVUT***

Courtney Dunphy writes: “The community was known as Broughton Island. The name was changed to the Inuktitut name Qikiqtarjuaq (‘large island’) in 1998.”265

www.nunavuttourism.com designates: “Qikiqtarjuaq is a friendly community located just north of the Arctic Circle on Broughton Island, adjacent to the eastern coast of Baffin Island at the Davis Strait. This welcoming hamlet encourages visitors to enjoy its impressive art scene and partake in a number of outdoor activities that are ideal for hikers, skiers, climbers and sledding enthusiasts. Qikiqtarjuaq (fondly called Qik for short) is known as the iceberg capital of Nunavut. Many species of marine mammals thrive here, including bowhead whales, narwhals and orca whales. Qikiqtarjuaq is conveniently close to the northern boundary of the majestically mountainous Auyuittuq National Park.”266

***REPULSE BAY, NUNAVUT***

Alan Rayburn articulates: “Located at the south end of Melville Peninsula and at the northwest side of Hudson Bay, this hamlet (1978) was established in the early 1960s. It was named after the bay, which was given its name in 1741 by explorer Christopher Middleton (circa 1690-1770), who was disappointed in not finding the Northwest Passage.”267

www.nunavuttourism.com describes: “Some people speculate that the English name for this place may instead come from an 18th century British ship called the Repulse that supposedly also visited this area, but there have been twelve ships in the British Royal Navy called HMS Repulse and during the 18th century one sank in a hurricane near Bermuda in 1776. Repulse Bay in Hong Kong has the exact same problem with its English name too! To resolve this ongoing friendly dispute here, most locals just chuckle and call the place Naujaat instead. Throughout the 1800s it was a popular destination for American and Scottish whalers, employing many local Inuit hunters who worked aboard the whaling vessels and were expert trackers of the bowhead whale migrations.”268

Courtney Dunphy establishes: “Naujaat refers to the multitude of seagulls coming each summer from the south.”269

www.nunavuttourism.com continues: “The hospitable hamlet of Repulse Bay is situated on the Canadian mainland at the northwestern limit of Hudson Bay near Foxe Basin. It is located right on the Arctic Circle, at the north end of Repulse Bay on the southern shores of Rae Isthmus. The Inuktitut name of this community is Naujaat ('seagull nesting place') for a cliff area nearby where fledgling seagulls are born each June. Its people are the Aivilingmiut ('people of the walrus place'), direct descendants of the ancient Thule people, known for their excellent dog teams and walrus hunting skills. It's a great place for viewing polar bears and for whale watching excursions, plus it is located close to beautiful Ukkusiksalik National Park, which is a 15-minute plane ride away.”270

***RESOLUTE, NUNAVUT***

Alan Rayburn highlights: “Located on the south coast of Cornwallis Island, this settlement was established in 1947 as the site of a joint American/Canadian High Arctic weather station. The bay was named after HMS Resolute, which may have wintered here in 1850-1. It is commonly called Resolute Bay.”271

Courtney Dunphy shares that the Inuktitut name is Qausuittuq, meaning ‘place with no dawn’.272

www.nunavuttourism.com expands: “Resolute is known as Qausuittuq in Inuktitut, which means the 'place with no dawn' because of the long winter night this far north. It is also the 'place with no sunset' in the summertime! Resolute is the second most northerly community in Nunavut and Canada. It is sometimes called Resolute Bay, after its bay, the waterway into Parry Channel on the southern coast of Cornwallis Island, right in the middle of the Northwest Passage. The many little islands and big arctic waters nearby are special habitats for numerous nesting birds and large migrating pods of beluga whales. Resolute is home to some of the greatest Inuit hunters in the world. This High Arctic hamlet with its excellent airport often serves as a starting point for international scientific research teams and extreme adventure expeditions to the North Pole. When you visit this special place be prepared for polar conditions. Resolute is situated so far north that most times you have to look south to see the Northern Lights!”273

**ONTARIO**

George Johnson illustrates: “Ontario is Indian for a ‘beautiful prospect of hills and waters’, or a corruption of the Indian word Onitariio, meaning ‘beautiful lake or waters’, the appropriateness of which, as of every place-name given by Indians is at once apparent; and the same may be said of the early French names, the environment being the same in both cases. It is a good deal more than can be said of our English place-names although we in Canada may fairly and proudly boast of having carefully abstained from imitating the barbarities of our cousins to the south of us. When the traveler asked the French native what the river in one of the Western States was called over which he was ferrying the stranger, the answer was ‘Bloody Gulch’, the Yankees call it; with us it is La Brunette – ‘the brown river’.”274

saontario.tripod.com maintains: “There are various interpretations as to the actual origin of the name Ontario. The Archives of Ontario have found three sources and translations of the name, all of which are derived from an Iroquoian word. The Archives of Ontario has also found a source that disputes the Iroquoian translation of the three names. The three possible sources and the questioning of the translation are as follows: 1) the name is said to be a variation of the word kanadario which means ‘sparkling or beautiful water’. This word was originally used to describe the large body of water that is currently known as Lake Ontario. The use of the word later grew to include the area of land along the shores of the lake and beyond. 2) The name may be a variation of the term Onitariio which translates to ‘beautiful lake’. Use of this term was also traced to identify the body of water currently known as Lake Ontario and later to include the land surrounding the lake. 3) The name is said to have developed from the term Skanadario which is reported to mean ‘very pretty lake’. 4) It has been stated that the translations of the names given could not have been as descriptive as suggested. ‘In 1683 Fr Louis Hennepin had said that the name meant 'beautiful lake’, but beauty in geographical features is a concept alien to Aboriginal naming. In one or more of the Iroquioan languages, such as Huron, Mohawk and Seneca, the name probably means simply 'a large body of water'.’"275

***AJAX, ONTARIO***

Brenda Kriz presents: “With the onset of the war, it became apparent that a steady supply of ammunition would be required to assist the war effort. In order to meet this demand, a shell-filling plant proposed to be the largest in the British Empire would be built, but the question was where to put it. This was decided with the acquisition of some 2,800 acres of farmland of what was then known as Pickering Township.

“On February 14, 1940 a couple of army surveyors arrived in Pickering to view the land and by late summer of 1941 some three thousand workers were in residence at the new plant, while others were living nearby in rented homes or boarded houses. Initially, the nation’s largest munitions plant, known as Defense Industries Limited – Pickering Works, or DIL, kept a low profile. During the first year a small sign at the side of the main Canadian National Railway line provided the only hint of identification, DILCO.

“By December of 1941 the major plant buildings were completed and it soon became apparent that the small Pickering Village post office was overwhelmed. The only thing that stood in the way of DIL having its own post office was the lack of a name.

“Under the direction of DIL management, the plant newspaper, The Commando, announced a contest to find a name. Many entries were received, but it was the submission of Frank Holroyd, Assistant Safety Director at the plant, that won with the suggestion of Ajax.

“With the Battle of River Plate still fresh in mind, the idea of naming the community after one of the three ships that had defeated the German Battleship Admiral Graf von Spee appealed to a great many. The area the plant occupied would become known as Ajax, and in 1942 when the wartime houses were built to the north of the plant, this would become known as the Community of Ajax. It would be granted

the status of the Improvement District of Ajax on November 9, 1950. It was January 1, 1955 that the community officially the Town of Ajax.

“There remains a strong relationship between the HMS Ajax, the officers and men who served on her, and the Town of Ajax. In 1958 the Town was presented with mementos from the Ajax [ship], along with an exact replica of the crest of the HMS Ajax, which still hangs in the Council Chamber. In 1963 Major William Parish went to England to attend the commissioning of the eighth HMS Ajax.

“An invitation from the Council of the Town of Ajax was extended for the HMS Ajax to visit its namesake. While the invitation could not be accepted at that time, it became tradition for each incoming Major to extend the same invitation. In August 1976 the officers and crew of the HMS Ajax accepted the invitation and marched on the streets of Ajax. On August 28th the officers and men were given highest civic honor that can be bestowed on a visiting military unit, they were given the freedom of the town.

“In 1985, at the decommissioning of the eighth HMS Ajax, the bell of the ship was presented to the Town. The anchor from this ship was brought to Toronto Harbour on the HMS Fife, and at a ceremony on the deck of the ship on May 14, 1987 the anchor was formally presented to the Town. The anchor is on display in front of the Royal Canadian Legion on Hunt Street and the bell hangs in the town Council Chamber. To this day, each assembly of Council is called to order with the ringing of the bell.

“Within the town, Achilles Road and Exeter Road pay homage to the ships that served beside the HMS Ajax at the Battle of River Plate. Harwood Avenue, Woodhouse Crescent and Parry Road remind us of the captains who commanded them.

“Streets throughout the town bear the names of the officers and men who served on the Ajax. The Town recently amended this to include the names of men who served on the HMS Achilles and HMS Exeter during the Battle of River Plate.

“The Town of Ajax is the only town in the world named after a Royal Navy Warship and is proud to preserve the heritage of its beginnings.”276

***BARRY’S BAY, ONTARIO***

www.bancroftontario.com renders: “The history of this community in the township of Madawaska Valley starts out with the Algonquin, who named it Kuaenash Ne-ishing, which means ‘beautiful bay’. Long before the first pioneers ever laid eyes on the Bay of Kamaniskeg Lake, it was a meeting place for bands of aboriginals, who enjoyed the fruits and beauty of the unspoilt nature.

“Then the wealth of the surrounding forests attracted the lumber dealers. James Barry, who worked as foreman for McLaughlin’s Lumber in Arnprior, built a cabin on the shores of Kamaniskeg Lake. Soon it was the center of an active lumbermen camp and a lumber depot. Hence it became the company’s headquarters. Everyone called it ‘Barry’s camp on the bay’, hence Barry’s Bay. Yet this was not the only lumber depot that the McLaughlin brothers operated. They became millionaires through the lumber trade.

“The influence of the Polish immigrants is still evident today. Barry’s Bay is a center of Kashubian culture in Canada. Kashubians are a West-Slavic ethnic group from north-central Poland. Also, there is a Karol Wojtyla Square in Barry’s Bay. The Our Lady Seat of Wisdom Academy, a Catholic liberal arts post-secondary institution, established in 2000, is located there. Karol Wojtyla became popular as Pope John Paul II (papacy from 1978-2005); his native country was Poland.”277

***BLUE CHURCH, ONTARIO***

Archaeological and Historical Sites Board sheds light on: “On January 1, 1790, inhabitants of Augusta and Elizabethtown townships agreed to build a church here in the ‘burying yard’ of the proposed town of ‘New Oswegatchie’. Subscriptions were inadequate and nothing was built by 1804 when Barbara Heck, the founder of Methodism in Upper Canada, was buried here. In 1809 Anglicans of Augusta and Elizabethtown built a frame chapel, later called the Blue Church, which served the parish until St James, Maitland, was opened in 1826. The Blue Church, unconsecrated, rarely used for services and in bad repair, was partially burned and taken down in 1840. The present small blue church was built in 1845.”278

***BURNT RIVER, ONTARIO***

“Originally settled in the 1830s, the first name of the community was ‘Rettie's Crossing’, after a local settler's family. Another town further upstream was called ‘Rettie's Bridge’. Mixed-up mail shipments continued until sometime in the 1920s, when an unfortunate accident occurred.

“At the time, there was a Shell gas station located in the center of the village, across the road from the current post office. A gentleman arriving in his Model F Ford smashed into the gravity-fed gas pumps and severed the lines connected to the above-ground gasoline storage tank. The gasoline was almost immediately ignited, and flowed like a river, down the main street engulfing everything it touched in flames, until it poured into and spread across the fast-moving river.

“Fire equipment was virtually unheard of in the little hamlet at this time, and although there was a well-organized fire brigade, there was little that could be done to save the town, until the 2 o'clock train arrived. The train was stopped across the main crossing, shielding half the town, while the water in the tender was used to extinguish the remaining flames on the south side of the crossing. If you look carefully, you can see the modern construction on one side of the village, while dwellings on the other half consist of older wood and stone masonry.

“According to local legend, there were 18 miles of ‘Burnt River’ stretching from there to Cameron Lake. Shortly after this, the Post Office changed its name to Burnt River, and the former village of ‘Rettie's Bridge’ to the north became known as Kinmount."279

***CARRYING PLACE, ONTARIO***

Jeff Ball suggests: “The location was known to the early settlers as the Carrying Place because the Indians traveling along the lake shore and up and down the Bay of Quinte used to carry their canoes across this strip of land from one body of water to the other.”280

www.ontarioplaques.com call attention to: “Following the peace settlement of 1783 the British sought alternative trade routes north of the new boundary. Among these was the communication, via river and portage, between Lakes Ontario and Huron. Here, at the Bay of Quinte carrying place, on 23 September 1787, preliminary negotiations for cession of lands enclosing the route were held between some Mississauga chiefs and Sir John Johnson. The purchase of a tract at Toronto and one at Matchedash Bay was completed the next year and reaffirmed in 1805. While the route was never developed, the purchase did facilitate settlement at Toronto.”281

William Canniff connotes: “The distance between the head of Bay Quinte and the waters of Lake Ontario, at the narrow part of the isthmus is about a mile and three-quarters. By this narrow neck of land the peninsula of Prince Edward is saved from being an island. This was called in the first proclamation of Simcoe, ‘the isthmus of the Presqu isle de Quinte.’ It is from this source that the harbor on the lake west of the isthmus has received the name Presqu isle.

“We have elsewhere spoken of the fact that a Carrying Place had existed here from time immemorial. From the Indian villages, which at times were located, now along the lake shores of the peninsula, and now upon the bay, the Indians started forth, perhaps to ascend the Trent, or the Moira, or to pass down the waters of the bay, or perhaps to coast along the shore of the lake, westward to the mouth of some river. And, when the French had possession of the country they found this a well-marked Indian path. The French had no occasion to cross it, as they either ascended the Ottawa, the Trent, or if desirous of going to the head of Lake Ontario, they passed along its south shore. But in the early years of Upper Canada, this portage was frequently crossed by those passing back and forth from the lower parts of Canada to the west. This was the case particularly after the forts of Oswego and Niagara were handed over to the United States in 1796.

“The original Indian Carrying Place can yet be traced. Its course is indicated by a road which leads from water to water. The street is consequently somewhat crooked, and is in some places wider than in others. When the land was originally surveyed, this path was made the base line of a row of lots on either side. The surveyor being ill and entrusting the matter to an assistant; the Indian path was faithfully followed. While this irregular dividing line between Ameliasburgh and Murray may appear unseemly, it cannot be regretted that the old path is thus indubitably known. Upon the Murray side of the road the fence is comparatively straight, but upon the opposite side it is very devious. This pretty nearly marks the old Indian path. While used as a Carrying Place for bateaux, which were transported upon low wheels, the road was no doubt, to a certain extent, straightened; yet mainly the old route remained.

“The old days, when Weller used to haul the bateaux from water to water, have left no memorial; and even more recent days when the first steamboats invariably came to this place, have left but little to mark their history. Here are the remains of the wharf and frame store house where once was life and enterprise; but now all is in decay and rural solitude prevails. But there is beauty here, as well as interest. All along the street between the head of the bay and Weller’s Bay of the lake are buildings, consisting of private residences, and churches. The tourist will find abundant food for thought at the Carrying Place; whether he contemplates the far remote past ere the Indian was disturbed in his native

abode; or the days when the French Recollet Missionaries followed the footsteps of those whom they sought to convert; or the time when the pioneer surveyor and settler first trod the path; or whether he reflects upon the many human beings who have come and gone on their way of life, now going one way or another; or thought of the trader intent on pressing his business into the very outskirts of the settlements; of the soldiers – regulars, and militia, who pressed onward for the conflict, to drive off the invading foe; or of the thousand prisoners carried captive through the province, which they had boastingly came to conquer. If the writer were there again, he would ponder, in addition to all this, upon the sad, yet natural occurrence, that, of all who had come and gone, the one who imparted much information to him, who came to the Carrying Place long years ago, is now gone the way of the earth. The history of the place is inseparably associated with the life of Hon Col Wilkins, whose loss was expressed by the presence of many as he was carried to his grave.”282

***CENTRAL PATRICIA, ONTARIO***

littlepatti.wordpress.com details: “1943 in a Northern Ontario town, Central Patricia Gold Mines, an Ugly baby was born. Well, that’s what her Dad said to himself the first time he laid eyes on her, which was probably 2 days after the actual birth that was followed by, appropriate for the time, drunken celebration at the local Moose Hall or whatever the venue was before ‘Pub’ was popular. She was named Patricia. She was born with jaundice and a short muscle in the neck, and all the usual ugly baby traits (no hair, no teeth-). Luckily, her mother thought she was just wonderful, and had a knack for making the best of it, anyway. Her father didn’t have any idea what to do with babies, he was a hard-rock miner, but he was actually very happy to have a family of his own and he enjoyed the kids more and more as he would recall a conversation (imagine that, with a 2 year old), and some antic he could recount. I wish I had taken notes of all the stories he told. He lived during the depression, rode the rails from east to west, combined wheat from September in Montana, to November in waist high snow drifts in Edmonton, Alberta.

“Back to Central Patricia: Patti’s Mother was a ‘natural’. She did her version of physio under her old local Doctor’s tutelage, and in no time that ugly baby was not only jaundice free, but the neck muscles were normal. Patti was blond haired & blue eyed & proved to be a real ‘handful’ (that was the parents’ description).

“Central Patricia was an isolated town in Northern Ontario, no roads in or out and everything came in by planes that landed on the lake in the early years. There were many times when fresh goods were just not available, although during the war years, the mine was running full tilt with every consideration given to keep the employees working there for the much needed gold. We didn’t see food rations until we moved to the city briefly in 1947.”283

***EAST WAWANOSH, ONTARIO***

Alan Rayburn explains: “Wawanosh Township was named in 1840 for Chief Joshua Wawanosh of the Chippewas on the Sarnia Reserve. Wawanosh was one of the chiefs who transferred a large area of southwestern Ontario to the British Crown in 1827. It was divided in 1867 into East Wawanosh and

West Wawanosh municipal townships, with both remaining in Huron County. In 2001 East Wawanosh became a part of the township of North Huron.”284

***ECHO BAY, ONTARIO***

Jeff Ball imparts: “Named for the lake a few miles northeast where the mystic Indian interpreted the reverberation of natural sounds as ‘voices’.”285

***HALFWAY HOUSE CORNERS, ONTARIO***

“Halfway House Corners is a hamlet in Norfolk County, Ontario, Canada. It is considered to be south of Simcoe and northeast of Port Dover. The Halfway House was an inn that sat on the southwest corner of the intersection. The name was given because it was located exactly half the distance between Port Dover and Simcoe. Ontario Highway 24 is the main road and commerce in this community includes a bait shop and a recording studio.”286

***HONEY HARBOUR, ONTARIO***

Bernard Nicholson mentions: “I can give you a brief outline from our book A Taste of Honey Harbour. The first official record of Honey Harbour came from the survey notes of JK McLean in 1878. He was contracted to survey the unincorporated township of Baxter in the District of Muskoka in preparation of settlement. His notes refer to the difficulty he was experiencing due to rough terrain and numerous bays and channels of the area. We can only guess that the name was in use prior to his work. As folklore would have it, the native population had harvested wild honey from the area on a seasonal basis since before recorded time. The name could have been used by early settlers in reference to the area the natives did this harvesting. Another story puts the naming to an early sailing master who had to take shelter from a gale and marked his rough chart with the name. His crew was said to have found a large store of honey in a hollow tree while they waited for the weather to clear. The captain, Frank J Smith, later became one of the first settlers to the area. The last story is about a pioneer apiarist and leading edge honey producer from the village of Tecumseh. DA Jones developed better genetic hybrids in honeybees to increase production in the early 1870s. He imported strains of bees from Palestine, Borneo and Cyprus and segregated them on islands that he had purchased in Georgian Bay on Lake Huron. He named these islands after the bees which apparently decided to mix with the local bees and become wild. As travel to the area was by steamboat, the main route was through the inside passage, now known as Honey Harbour. Jones became one of largest honey producers in North America and the County of Simcoe changed the name of Tecumseh to Beeton in recognition of this.”287

***HUNGRY HOLLOW, ONTARIO***

Jeff Ball puts into words: “So dubbed as it described the destitute condition of those who first came to the area. The original name of Georgetown until 1837.”288

***KETTLE POINT, ONTARIO***

Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point First Nation reports: “The history of the Anishinaabe of Kettle and Stony Point begins prior to the first European contact circa the 16th and 17th centuries. However, the Anishinaabe were one of four groups who occupied southwestern Ontario; the Huron, Neutrals, and Iroquois also shared the use of land and resources with the Anishinaabe. During this time the flint trade was one of the most important trade goods in North America and the shore of Lake Huron surrounding Kettle and Stony Point was rife with flint or chert beds. Flint (Chert) was used for tools, weapons, and to make fire.

“Archaeologists have identified the flint from Kettle and Stony Point in locations as far away as the eastern and western coasts of North America and into the southern United States. During this time wampum agreements between the four nations kept the peace in this territory; wampum such as ‘the dish with one spoon’ declared the shared rights of all four nations to feed their people with the land and resources of their common homeland.

“Wampum shells were a trade commodity acquired from the east coast and the beads created from the shells were used to make wampum belts which carried the same significance as the treaties made with the European settlers in the centuries to come.

“When the French and British began exploring the eastern woodlands and harvesting pelts for the fur trade, the delicate peace between the four nations was overturned; new trade goods were introduced as well as weapons that the First Nations people had never seen before. The French allied themselves with the Anishinaabe peoples and the British found ready comrades with the Iroquois. The Neutrals, (so-called by Samuel de Champlain for their peacekeeping role in maintaining relations between the Huron, Anishinaabe, and Iroquois) were eradicated by the Iroquois with the sale of guns for pelts. The Iroquois then turned against the Huron and nearly decimated their population by the mid-1600s. The Huron fled southwestern Ontario and sought the aid of the Anishinaabe in central Ontario and a war was fought between the remaining Huron, their Anishinaabe allies and the Iroquois.

“The Anishinaabe were successful in pushing the Iroquois back to their traditional territories along the St Lawrence River in the Ottawa Valley and New York. Sadly, the Huron did not survive this battle.”289

***MISSISSAUGAS OF NEW CREDIT FIRST NATION, ONTARIO***

Bryan LaForme presents: “The intent … is to outline the general history of the Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation from the time before contact with Europeans in the early 1600s to the time of settlement in the mid-1800s, on to the present Mississaugas of the New Credit Reserve in southern Ontario. The contents … provide information on the historical way of life of ancestors of the Mississaugas of the New Credit from the 1600s to the 1800s. The historical account presented … details the relocation and settlement of ancestors of the Mississaugas of the Credit into southern Ontario, and the nature and extent of use of lands in this time period.

“The Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation is part of the Ojibway (Anishinabe) Nation, one of the largest Aboriginal Nations in North America. Before contact with Europeans and until the late 1600s, the Mississaugas occupied a territory situated inland from the north shore of Lake Huron, just to the

west to Manitoulin Island and east of Sault Ste Marie. The first known written record to identify and locate the Mississaugas was in a 1640 account of Aboriginal occupants of the Lake Huron by the French Jesuits. … The Mississaugas are identified as the Oumisagi. The name Mississauga has been given two possible meanings. One interpretation suggests the name refers to the Eagle Clan of the Ojibway Nation. A second interpretation suggests the name refers to the mouth of the Mississauga River, which was an important fishing location for the Mississauga people.

“Like other Anishinabe people living along the north shore of Lake Huron, the Mississaugas followed a way of life that involved mobility and recurring shifts in resource harvesting with the different seasons of the year. In winter months, the Mississaugas were spread out over the Nation territory, living in mobile groups of extended families. Families’ members cooperated in hunting large and small game animals, and supplemented this main source of food with ice fishing. It was customary for families to establish and move their winter hunting camps within certain ranges. However, there were no fixed boundaries to hunting lands used by family groups, and in times of need people could count on neighboring groups to share food and other resources.

“By early spring families moved to maple sugar grounds. At the end of the maple sugar harvest period, all family groups gathered at spring fisheries. These fishing locations were important social and ceremonial centers. The mouth of the Mississauga River was one of the main fishing centers for the Mississauga people. Up to three villages were established in the area totaling about one thousand persons. At this time of the year, people renewed social relationships after the long winter months, and individuals developed marriage ties. Village populations performed communal religious rites. The summer months were also the time in which the Mississaugas renewed and strengthened social, political and economic relations with other Ojibway and Anishinabe Nations in the Lake Huron region. Mississauga leaders and representatives often traveled to the Sault Ste Marie area, which was one of the main regional gathering centers for Anishinabe in the Upper Great Lakes.

“Between late spring and early fall, people followed a much more sedentary lifestyle relative to winter. The rich fisheries of Lake Huron allowed the Mississaugas to live in permanent villages throughout the summer. The main subsistence activity was fishing sturgeon, trout, and whitefish. However, in addition to fishing, the Mississaugas also practiced agriculture to some extent, cultivating corn, squash, and other vegetables in family and village gardens. Summer was also the time in which people collected bark from birch trees to construct canoes and lodges.

“With the approach of fall, the Mississaugas harvested their garden produce and collected a number of wild fruits and vegetable products. A portion of collected fruits and vegetables, in particular corn and blueberries, was set aside and preserved for later consumption in winter. By late fall, village populations began to disperse along the shoreline of Lake Huron, hunting beaver and moose. After a last harvest at fall fishing locations, people broke up into extended family groups and removed to inland hunting ranges in preparation for winter.

“The arrival of Europeans and the establishment and growth of colonies by the early-mid 1600s brought Aboriginal Nations in eastern North America into increasingly complex political, economic and military

alliances with the two main competing European Nations – France and England. Anishinabe Nations in the St Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys and in the Upper Great Lakes, along with the Wendat (Huron) living in the Penetanguishene peninsula and Lake Simcoe area, allied themselves with French fur traders, missionaries, and the French colonial government. Meanwhile, the Five Nations Confederacy living south of Lake Ontario had developed similar alliances with England.

“During the first half in the 1600s, Anishinabe and Iroquois had occasionally engaged in military conflicts in attempts to access territories rich in fur bearing animals, and to control important fur trade travel routes. By 1650, these conflicts had grown into full-scale regional warfare. The Iroquois destroyed villages of the Neutral, Huron and Petun Confederacies between 1649 and 1650, forcing survivors to flee to distant refuge areas. After 1650 southern Ontario became a vast hunting territory for the Five Nations Iroquois, who now threatened more distantly established Anishinabe, including the Ojibway of Lake Huron.

“By the 1680s, the Anishinabe of the Upper Great Lakes began to mount an organized counteroffensive against the Iroquois. In the early 1690s, the Ojibway, Odawa and Potawatomi, now politically and militarily allied as the Three Fires, initiated a series of offensives that gradually pushed the Iroquois back into their original homeland territory south of Lake Ontario. An oral tradition of these battles was kept by the Mississaugas for over 200 years. In 1904, a narrative account told by Chief Robert Paudash was recorded. This oral tradition was then published in the Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records the next year. The tradition has been validated by modern historians and historical researchers.

“The oral tradition indicates that the Mississaugas played a key role in Anishinabe battles with Iroquois. It also describes how the settlement of Mississaugas into southern Ontario dates from the final removal of the Iroquois from the region. According to Chief Robert Paudash, the Mississaugas first defeated a party of Mohawks on an island in Georgian Bay named Pequahkoodebaminis (‘Skull Island’). The Mississaugas then traveled along the Severn River to Lake Simcoe where they divided into two groups. The main group continued east to Balsam Lake, and from there down through the Trent waterway to the Bay of Quinte.

“A second group of Mississaugas traveled south from Lake Simcoe along the Holland and Humber Rivers. The southern route followed by the Mississaugas, known as the Toronto Carrying Place, was an ancient and well known Aboriginal overland route linking Lake Ontario to Georgian Bay. Aboriginal peoples had long used it to avoid the long water passage via Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. French explorers learned of its existence from Aboriginal people in the mid-1600s. In the 1700s French traders, followed by Northwest Company traders, used this route as it proved a shorter and more efficient link between Lake Ontario and Lake Huron than any alternatives at the time.

“According to Chief Robert Paudash, after the Iroquois retreated to their homeland south of Lake Ontario, the Mississaugas negotiated a peace treaty with the Mohawk Nation. Upon returning from these negotiations, the Mississaugas decided to settle permanently in southern Ontario. Although an exact date cannot be confirmed, historians generally agree that the process of southern Ontario settlement by Mississaugas occurred in about 1695.

“One large group established themselves in the valley of the Otonabee or Trent River, along Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence up to Brockville. A second group established themselves to the west, in an area between Toronto and Lake Erie. This latter group is the direct ancestors of the present Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation.

“The Mississaugas who settled in the area between Toronto and Lake Erie occupied and used a large territory in southwestern Ontario throughout the 1700s and into the 1800s. In about 1720, French traders established a fur trade post at the western end of Lake Ontario. From this time onwards, the Mississaugas were regularly involved in the regional fur trade. By 1750, another French trade post had been built in the area of present-day Toronto (Fort Rouille). A practice soon developed by which French and later English fur traders would extend credit to the Mississaugas at a particular river location. As a result, this river became known as the Credit River. By extension, the Mississaugas established in the region became known to Europeans as the Mississaugas of the Credit.

“Over time, the Mississaugas of the Credit came to view the territory they occupied and used in southern Ontario as their traditional territory. In the 1800s, several detailed and consistent geographic descriptions of what was by then considered the traditional territory of the Mississaugas of the Credit were outlined in written documents. One such description was provided to the Governor General by Chiefs Joseph Sawyer and John Jones in 1844: ‘The extent of country owned and possessed by the River Credit Indians from time immemorial, extended as far down as the river Rouge thence up the said river Rouge to its source, thence Westerly along the dividing ridge between Lake Huron and Ontario to the head waters of the Thames thence southerly to Long Point on Lake Erie, thence down Lake Erie, Niagara River, and Lake Ontario to the place of the beginning.’

“In 1848 the Reverend Peter Jones, whose Mississauga name was Kah-Ke-Wa-Quo-Na-By, provided a similar description of the traditional territory of his people in the Christian Guardian.

“The Reverend Peter Jones was at the time a well-known missionary and advocate not only for his people, the Mississaugas of the Credit, but also for many other Aboriginal Nations and communities in Ontario. By 1855, then as Chief of the New Credit Band, Peter Jones provided a further description of the traditional territory of the Mississaugas of the New Credit in a statement to the Indian Department: ‘The Mississauga Indians of New Credit … were the original owners of the territory embraced in the following description, namely commencing at Long Point on Lake Erie thence eastward along the shore of the Lake to the Niagara River. Then down the River to Lake Ontario, then northward along the shore of the Lake to the River Rouge east of Toronto then up that river to the dividing ridge between Lakes Ontario and Simcoe then along the dividing ridges to the head waters of the River Thames then southward to Long Point the place of the beginning. This vast tract of land now forms the garden of Canada West.’

“Between about 1695 and the mid-1820s, the Mississaugas of the Credit continued to follow a yearly cycle of movement and resource harvesting in their southern Ontario territory. This yearly seasonal cycle was generally comparable to the way of life followed by the Mississaugas on the north shore of Lake Huron.

“In winter months, extended family groups were dispersed throughout the territory of the Mississaugas of the Credit. Hunting provided the major means of subsistence in winter. A number of large and small game, birds and fur bearing animals provided important sources of food and pelts for commercial trade. Deer were abundantly available, and bear were also harvested although to a lesser extent. Beaver and muskrats were important fur bearing animals whose pelts were traded in exchanged for European goods. However, these fur bearing animals were also harvested for food, and their meat supplemented dietary needs of families.

“In spring, families first moved to sugar bushes to tap maple trees. After the maple harvest, families congregated at the Credit River, the site of an important salmon fishery. Furs and pelts were also brought to trade posts at this time. Fishing was supplemented by hunting small game and fowl, principally ducks, geese and partridges.

“Summer provided an abundance of resources for subsistence. Women planted corn and other vegetables, tended to crops and collected a variety of wild foods. Berries, mushrooms, roots, and where available, wild rice in the fall, were important wild foods that could be preserved for winter months. Fishing, supplemented by hunting, was the main economic activity engaged in by men throughout summer months. By fall, people often returned to the Credit River for salmon fishing and for obtaining credit (trade goods) from European traders prior to returning to winter hunting grounds.

“Toward the end of the 1700s, growing Euro-Canadian settlement in the Lake Ontario region started to interfere with the seasonal movements and resource harvesting activities of the Mississaugas of the Credit. However, the growing villages and towns also provided some opportunities for the Mississaugas of the Credit to supply this population with food and manufactured goods through barter sales. The diary of Mrs John Graves Simcoe (wife of the first Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada) details a number of examples of receiving supplies of salmon, pike, geese, ducks and maple sugar from barter sales by Mississaugas of the Credit in the 1790s.

“In the 1820s, the Mississaugas of the Credit established a mission settlement on the Credit River under the direction of the Reverend Peter Jones. The mission settlement quickly developed as a successful agricultural community. Over the following years, the Credit River settlement gained considerable political importance as a regional center where a number of Ojibway Grand Councils were held.

“However, throughout this time period, the Mississaugas of the Credit continued to travel extensively for hunting and fishing. Many community members had developed close family relationships with Ojibway and other Aboriginal peoples from several First Nation communities in southern Ontario, including Muncey, Owen Sound and the Six Nations Iroquois on the Grand River. As Euro-Canadians settlement intensified along the western end of Lake Ontario, Mississaugas of the Credit traveled further inland and to more remote hunting grounds, for example, in the Muskoka area, to harvest renewable resources.

“Between the late 1700s and into the 1800s a number of events would have long lasting impacts on the Mississaugas of the Credit and their land base. These events happened within broader social, political and economic changes that included the development of Euro-Canadian settlement in Mississauga

territory, colonial government land grants to the Six Nations Iroquois and land purchases from the Mississaugas.

“Throughout the 1700s, the Mississaugas and the Iroquois Confederacy (which after the early 1700s included Six Nations) maintained peaceful relations. In the early-mid 1700s, the Mississaugas were even admitted into the Confederacy. This formal political alliance would not last, in part because of British attempts to undermine a growing pan-Indian alliance movement. However, it is clear that friendly relations between Mississaugas of the Credit and Iroquois were maintained. At the request of the British colonial government in 1784, the Mississaugas agreed to a land grant permitting settlement of the Six Nations along the Grand River.

“The land grant to the Six Nations was part of a series of ‘land surrenders’ (as the British conceived the agreements) involving the Mississaugas first in 1784, and then later between 1787 and 1805. In this time period, according to the English texts of agreements, the British colonial government ‘purchased’ tracts of land along the Grand River and the entire Niagara Peninsula. The ‘Toronto Purchase’ covered much of what is today central metropolitan Toronto. The ‘Gunshot Treaty’ covered Mississauga lands north of Lake Ontario. Both of these land agreements remain controversial today. The original land purchase documents contained defects by British legal standards at the time. For example, the 1787 Toronto Purchase was not ratified by the British government until 1805, and the Gunshot Treaty was immediately considered invalid by colonial authorities.

“The validity of these early ‘land surrenders’ by the Mississaugas of the Credit is also questionable on other grounds. The Mississaugas understood these agreements very differently from the colonial government. The British saw land as a commodity and thought they were purchasing land or rights to land once and for all. The Mississaugas conceived of their relationship to the land in spiritual terms. They did not believe that land could be ‘sold’, or that their rights to use land and access resources for food and living, could be absolutely and permanently signed away.

“After 1800, the growth of Euro-Canadian settlement in the Toronto area put increasing pressure on the ability of the Mississaugas of the Credit to continue to make a living. At first, the Mississaugas of the Credit responded by seeking to protect their ability to make a living on their territory. The Mississaugas petitioned the colonial government to secure for them exclusive rights to key fisheries in ‘land surrender’ agreements. The text of the 1805 Treaty 13A defined specific, exclusive rights to fisheries for the Mississaugas in the Twelve Mile Creek, the Sixteen Mile Creek, the Etobicoke River, and the Credit River. In 1829, the Mississaugas of the Credit sought further protection of their fishing rights in a petition to the Upper Canada government to secure their salmon fishery on the Credit River. Later that year, an Act of Parliament was passed confirming exclusive rights of the River Credit Mississaugas to hunt and fish along that river. The Act was confirmed again in 1835.

“Yet by the early 1840s the Mississaugas of the Credit realized that their ability to make a living at their settlement on the River Credit was in jeopardy. It was becoming increasingly clear that the community would have to relocate to an area less directly disturbed by Euro-Canadian settlement. After considering

several options in 1847 the Mississaugas accepted an offer from the Six Nations to establish a new settlement on a tract of land situated in the southwest portion of the Six Nations Reserve.

“A number of reasons convinced the leaders and people that this tract presented better possibilities for successful relocation relative to other options. The land was within the traditional territory of the Mississaugas of the Credit, and relatively close to the existing settlement on the River Credit. Also, the land was of superior quality compared to other tracts, and presented greater potential for agricultural development. Finally, over the years, the close ties between the Mississaugas of the Credit and the Six Nations people had resulted in a number of intermarriages. The opportunity to maintain close family ties proved an important attraction.

“The relocated community became known as the Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation. This tract of land was formally confirmed as the Mississaugas of the New Credit Reserve in 1903, which remains to this day.”290

***OLD WOMAN’S BAY AND RIVER, ONTARIO***

“There once was a village of old women that lived on the banks of this river; this is how it received its name.”291

Kirk Bergey shares: “The wind is as biting as ever when I get back on the road. I have quite a long downhill until the highway meets the shore again at Old Woman Bay. Here I stop for lunch.

“Old Woman Bay is nothing short of spectacular. It sits at the divide between the two forests types. To the north, the woods are solid yellow-green. At the head of the bay is the sandy outlet of the Old Woman River and a pebble beach. Massive rock faces rise out of the water to about 150 meters to the left. Overall, the setting is powerful and possesses a great spirit.

“While I’m eating lunch in the picnic area at the head of the bay, a red squirrel hops and skittles about me doing its best to attract my attention. I have conflicting thoughts when it comes to feeding animals. I’ve been taught that feeding wild animals is not good. But, at this point in time and space, it is easy for me to separate this individual from any blanket teachings. Especially when it sits motionless, staring at me a meter away. Besides, winter is around the corner.

“I throw out a piece of bread, which it quickly seizes and dashes up a tree. Then, with more evil than good, I spoon out a small bit of peanut butter and stick it to a nearby log. After several advances and retreats, the squirrel finally pauses and becomes entirely fixated on slowly licking up the peanut butter. About halfway through he lets out a combination cough and sneeze and then stands still. After a few seconds he is back at it, quickly finishes and returns to a tree. Sitting on a branch facing me he begins to bark or squeak at increasing intervals. Then other noises join in and he begins to sound very much like an old sputtering tractor. At last he stops and runs off to other trees and gullible picnickers.

“On a short walk along the beach I find a plaque dedicated to Bill Mason. He filmed many of his movies at Old Woman Bay. The superintendent back at the park office told me his ashes were scattered in the Bay.”292

***PUNKEYDOODLES CORNERS, ONTARIO***

Alan Rayburn shows: “In the regional municipality of Waterloo, midway between Kitchener and Stratford, this locality has one of the province’s most amusing names. It is said that busy, prosperous farmers of German descent resented a lazy farmer among them, who grew only pumpkins, earning the name Punkeydoodle. The name is also said to be a garbled rendition of the song ‘Yankee Doodle’. For the record, Punkeydoodles Corners had a post office for six hours on 26 June 1982.”293

***SODOM, ONTARIO***

“The term Sodom has come to refer to ‘a place well known for vice and corruption’. The community is believed to have received its name from a local 19th-century school official named Chester Prouty who, in the midst of the Temperance Movement, objected to what he saw as the community's overconsumption of alcohol and the purportedly exuberant subsequent social events that occurred there.”294

William Canniff talks about: “This village [Demerestville], which is situated upon lots 38 and 39, of the march front, is named after the original settler, Guillame Demerest. The old settlers called him Demeray. He was a native of Duchess County, New York, and was a boy during the rebellion. He was often engaged in carrying provisions to the British army. He continued to live in Duchess County, until 1790, when he came to Canada. He failed to prove his right as a United Empire Loyalist, and consequently ‘lost a fine grant of land’. He died at Consecon, 1848, aged seventy-nine. The village sprung up from the mills, which were here erected. It was, for many a day, called Sodom. This name, it is stated, arose from the fact that when Mr Demerest’s first wife was on her deathbed, a ball was given in the place, at which the inhabitants generally attended, and created some little noise, whereupon she said they were ‘as bad as the inhabitants of Sodom.’ The village of Demerestville was incorporated in 1828.”295

***SPARKLE CITY, ONTARIO***

Jeff Ball catalogs: “Place started with paper shacks in 1946, the new houses were built and the number of lights coming from these homes increased. The place was looking up and shed its rundown image. Residents in Prescott regard these new lights as ‘sparkles on the road leading to Domville’, hence it was so named.”296

***SWASTIKA, ONTARIO***

Alan Rayburn conveys: “In the Town of Kirkland Lake, Timiskaming District, this place was named in 1911; five years after brothers Bill and Jim Dusty found gold at a nearby lake and named the mine after a visitor’s good luck charm. Because of the symbol’s later association with Adolf Hitler, the Ontario government tried to rename the place Winston after Winston Churchill during the Second World War, but local residents protested the desecration of their name.”297

Bruce Ricketts discusses: “The swastika is a happy symbol perverted by the Nazis in World War II. The swastika, from the Sanskrit for ‘good luck’, is as ancient as the sea. The symbol has been found from

Scandinavia to Africa to North America and Asia. It was the symbol of the Aryans, a race that included Romans, Greeks, Tuetons and Slavs, to name but a few. Buddhists regarded it as a chakra or ‘wheel of the law’; the Tibetans called it Yun-drun or ‘path of life’.

“In 1904, Jim and Bill Dusty, two rugged freelance prospectors, took a contract from a group of investors to locate silver mine in an area known to hold gold. They found no silver but in 1907 they staked out the Swastika Gold Mine. In 1908, the town was incorporated as Swastika. The Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway established a watering station near the town and miners and prospectors flooded into the area. In 1909 a new mine, called Lucky Cross (after the good luck symbol of the swastika), adjacent to the T&NO railway tracks began producing gold. By 1911, the town consisted of hotels, stores and schools. The little town flourished.

“In 1935, the rise of Nazism in Germany created a major problem for the few hundred people of Swastika. As war loomed and then exploded in Europe the Ontario government decided that German sounding names should not exist in Ontario, regardless of the origins of the names or the peoples of the towns or area. Berlin, Ontario was changed to Kitchener and Swastika was changed to Winston. While the name change stuck in Kitchener, the townsfolk of Swastika were not amused. They tore down the Winston sign and replaced it with a restored Swastika sign (good for them!) and another sign which read, ‘To hell with Hitler, we came up with our name first’.

“If you are looking for Swastika, Ontario, just go north on Highway 11 from North Bay to Highway 66; turn right towards Kirkland Lake and look for the sign of good luck.”298

***TECUMSEH, ONTARIO***

Alan Rayburn writes: “In 1999 this town (1921) became part of the town of Tecumseh, with the village of St Clair Beach and the township of Sandwich South, Essex County, East of Windsor, it was renamed Ryegate in 1870. Six years later it was renamed after Tecumseh Road, the old route from Windsor to Chatham named after the famous Shawnee chief Tecumseh, who fought on the British side during the War of 1812, dying near present day Thamesville in 1813.”299

***THOUSAND ISLANDS, ONTARIO***

Alan Rayburn expounds: “Located in the St Lawrence River, between Kingston and Brockville, these islands were described as Mille Isles in 1721 by French historian Pierre-Francois-Xavier Charlevoix (1682-1761), although he concluded that there were only about 500 islands. Various counts have ranged 1,149 to 1,800. Checking large-scale navigation charts, a methodical count in 1985 revealed 1,149 islands and islets, 665 on the Canadian side and 484 on the American side. There are only 367 islands with official names, with 241 of these on the Canadian side of the border.”300

**PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND**

KB Harder impresses: “For Prince Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent (1767-1820), fourth son of George III of England and father of Queen Victoria. Because he had displayed an interest in Charlottetown’s fortifications, the province was named for him in 1799. An earlier name was Ile St Jean.”301

Canadian Heritage notates: “The province's name was adopted in 1799 to honor Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, and fourth son of King George III, who was then commander-in-chief of British North America and was stationed in Halifax when the island was named.”302

Joseph Bouchette puts pen to paper: “We shall conclude our account of this interesting section of the British dominions, with another short quotation from Mr M’Gregor’s work, and we do so merely by way of expressing our entire concurrence in his opinion, and confirmation of the inference at which he has arrived: ‘When we view the position of Prince Edward Island, in regard to the countries bordering on the Gulf of St Lawrence, the excellence of its harbors for fishing stations, and take into account that the whole of its surface may, with little exception, be considered a body of fertile soil, it does not certainly require the spirit of prophecy to perceive, that unless political arrangements may interfere with its prosperity, it will in no very remote period become a valuable agricultural as well as commercial country.’”303

***ABRAMS VILLAGE, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

R Douglas represents: “Met with in 1829 as Abraham’s Village and later as Abram’s Village. After Abraham Arsenault, the first settler who came to the township in the early 1820s, probably at the time of the trek of Acadians from Colonel Compton’s land in Lots 17 and 19, following a dispute with him.”304

***ANGLO TIGNISH, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

Alan Rayburn specifies: “Three miles northeast of Tignish in Lot 1. It is an English-speaking community in a predominantly Francophone district. School district circa 1859. Anglo Park is located there.

“Tignish: Village incorporated 1952 in Lot 1. Post office from circa 1841.

“Tignish River: Flows east into Gulf of St Lawrence, Lot 1. Said to be from Micmac Mtagunich, ‘paddle’, because an Indian had broken a paddle there and went adrift. Such naming is not characteristic of Amerindians. WF Ganong suggests in notes in the New Brunswick Museum that it may be Tedeneche, ‘straight across’, in reference to its straight evidence. Clark 1902 has M’tagunite, ‘tacking place’. Pacifique 1934 has Mtagenetjg, ‘trail’. Tignish Run, Tignish Shore and Tignish Harbour are adjacent features.”305

***EMERALD, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

Alan Rayburn tells: “Seven miles southeast of Kensington in Lots 26 and 67. Named for Ireland. Post Office County Line 1875-87, because it was on the Queens-Prince line; Post Office Emerald 1887-1970.”306

***FORTUNE RIVER, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

Alan Rayburn chronicles: “Flows east into Rollo Bay and Northumberland Strait, Lot 43. From French riviere a la Fortune, possibly meaning ‘river of riches’. Douglas 1925 notes that Sieur Laborde bought

the ship La Fortune from the English in 1754, but he also notes that de la Roque shows Riviere a la Fortune in 1752. Bay Fortune is the name of the bay at the mouth and the name of a community.”307

***FREELAND, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

Alan Rayburn declares: “Seven miles north of Tyne Valley in Lot 11. School district 1868. Named for the fact that it was the first place that was given to the people by a proprietor in Prince Edward Island. Formerly known as Frederick Cove. Post Office Lot 11 1852-1914; Post Office Freeland circa 1886-1915.”308

***FREETOWN, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

Alan Rayburn displays: “Four and a half miles south of Kensington in Lot 25. Said to be named for the large amount of freehold land in contrast to land rented elsewhere. Post Office from 1854. Formerly called Burns Settlement.”309

***KINKORA, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

Alan Rayburn expresses: “Village incorporated 1955 in Lot 27. Probably named for Kincora near Killaloe, Ireland. Formerly called Somerset as school district name. Settled from Ireland circa 1841. Post Office Somerset 1867-87; Post Office Kinkora from 1887. In Meacham is the statement that it was better known as South West in 1880, but this more properly applied to Middleton.”310

***SOURIS RIVER, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

Alan Rayburn records: “Flows southeast into Colville Bay, Lot 44. Named for various plagues of mice in the 1700s. Marsden 1816 reports: ‘It is a singular circumstance, that every few years, the mice so completely overrun [Prince Edward Island], that they cut off everything in the shape of food that comes within their reach; and though the people surround the fields and provisions with trenches filled with water, they pass these in such vast numbers, they make a bridge of their drowned companions, and cross by myriads.’ Bellin 1744 has havre a la Souris for Colville Bay. Holland 1765 Colville River by the French Riviere Souris: Meacham 1880 also shows Souris Cove at the river’s mouth, and Souris Harbour at the town. An alternative origin could be Havre a l’Echouerie, which would aptly describe the barred entrance to Souris River. De la Roque refers to havre a la Souris and to havre de l’Echourie, which appears to be South Lake. Possibly this name resulted in the mistake name, Havre a la Souris, which become fixed as the result of the numerous plagues.”311

***SUMMERSIDE, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

Fred Horne notes: “As late as 1835 the land that the City of Summerside occupies today was farmland, the center of what was to become the town being owned and farmed by a family by the name of Green. What is now the Summerside Waterfront was quite literally Green’s Shore. It belonged to the descendants of United Empire Loyalist settler Daniel Green who arrived in the late 1700s. It was divided up amongst his descendants and one of them was Joseph Green. By 1840 Joseph Green completed the construction of an inn which he called Summerside House. It was the first public building on the Green

farms and it was the beginning of activity that was new to the area. Over the next two decades the name caught on. The Town of Summerside was incorporated in 1877.

“Why did Joseph Green name his inn Summerside House? The answer is suggested by the following story passed down from an unknown source. Readers should keep in mind that the climate on Prince Edward Island in March can be very harsh when the cold winds blow out of the north.

“One publication tells the story this way: ‘It seems that Major Thomas Compton paid Joseph Green a visit on a cold March day, as Green’s stagecoach inn was nearing completion. Major Compton, the son of [local] feudal patriarch, Colonel Compton, had come over from his own house on windswept Malpeque Bay to the more sheltered Green’s Shore. Green was cutting stove wood in the yard when his northern neighbor said: “Why, you certainly live on the summer side of the Island!”’

“One other noteworthy of mentioning relates to the aboriginal people of the area: the Mi’Kmaq, who named the bay upon which Summerside borders Bedeque meaning ‘warm or hot place’, which also suggests a condition one would find in summer and early autumn and perhaps speaks to the favorable condition discovered by Major Compton, perhaps unexpectedly that cold windy day in March!”312

***TRAVELLERS REST, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND***

Alan Rayburn reveals: “Three miles northeast of Summerside in Lot 19. Named for a public house owned by a Mr Baker circa 1810 halfway between Malpeque and Bedeque Bays. The government also had a rest house established here for travelers according to Douglas 1925. Post Office 1827-1917. John Townsend, the first postmaster, is said to have opened a public house called Travellers Rest in 1826. Formerly known as Trownsend’s Corner.”313

**QUEBEC**

Alan Rayburn spells out: “After the 1763 Treaty of Paris, the name Quebec was adapted to describe the former territory of New France, roughly centered on the St Lawrence River, extending north to Lake Nipissing and south to the forty-fifth parallel. In 1774 it was extended north to the limits of the watershed of the St Lawrence, west beyond the Great Lakes to the lands between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and east to include the north shore of the Gulf of St Lawrence and the present area of Labrador. In 1791 the territorial name of Quebec was replaced by Lower Canada and Upper Canada. The two were united as the Province of Canada in 1841, with each division being called Canada East and Canada West, although Upper and Lower Canada continued in both popular and official use. With the passing of the British North America Act of 1867, the name Quebec was restored as the name of the province centered on the lower St Lawrence, with its northern limits following the heads of rivers flowing into the river and the gulf. These limits were extended north to the central part of the present province in 1898, and all of the land area of the territory of Ungava was added in 1912. Its area reduced by the Imperial Privy Council in 1927 by awarding the area of present Labrador to Newfoundland. When Jacques Cartier (1491-1667) arrived at the site [Quebec City] in 1535, the local Iroquoian-speaking people called it Stadacone. In 1601 its site was identified as Quebecq, the description in Algonquin and Abenaki of the narrow, relatively obstructed channel of the St Lawrence between the city and the south

shore. Samuel de Champlain (1567-1635) founded the city in 1608, and built his ‘Abitation’ here, making it the focus of the vast French political and commercial empire based on St Lawrence and the Great Lakes.”314

***BAIE DES HA! HA!, QUEBEC***

Alan Rayburn touches on: “Appearing as though it is an extension of the impressive Saguenay fiord, this bay east of Chicoutimi comes to an abrupt end only 10 km above the point where the Saguenay appears to divide in two rivers of equal size. Haha is an old French word describing an unexpected barrier blocking progress or penetration. At the head of this bay are two coves that give the illusion of leading to other waterways, thus explaining its plural form. The exclamation marks came about when surveyors, historians, and others presumed in the nineteenth century that the phrase represented a shriek of surprise by travelers.”315

***CAPE DESPAIR, QUEBEC***

George Johnson clarifies: “Down in the Gulf of St Lawrence forming the most easterly point of the north shore of Baie des Chaleurs is Cape d’Espoir, so named because it was a welcome sight to early French fishermen who had lost their bearings in a storm. The English call it Cape Despair and the lugubrious change is reported to have been intentional having been caused by the total loss there of an English troopship carrying a portion of Sir Hovenden Walker’s squadron in 1711. We have added to our list of post offices in this very year of grace, 1897, the post office of Cape Despair.”316

***CAUSAPSCAL, QUEBEC***

Alan Rayburn documents: “Located in the regional county of La Matapedia, south of Matane, this town was named in 1965. It had previously been the village of Causapscal (1928) and the parish municipality of Saint-Jacques-le-Majeur-de-Causapscal (1897). The original township, Casupscull, was proclaimed in 1864. In Mi’kmaq, the name means ‘stony and glittering bottom’.”317

***COUCOUCACHE, QUEBEC***

“In 1806, explorer Jean-Baptiste Perrault reported on ‘the small Koukoukache River that flows by a rocky mountain where there are 11 portages to get to the Grand Koukoukache.’ This name came from the word kokokachi, meaning ‘owl’. It was also the name of the former Coucoucache Lake, where the Hudson’s Bay Company had maintained a trading post, called Coocoocache, since at least 1823 (closed circa 1913). Coucoucache Lake, part of a chain of lakes on the Saint-Maurice River, may have been named after a small mountain in the shape of an owl that was situated at the eastern end of the lake. However, legend has it that a fight developed between the Atikamekw and the Iroquois at this lake, and when the Atikamekw imitated an owl's cry, they sprung on the Iroquois and massacred them.”318

***IVUJUVIK, QUEBEC***

Alan Rayburn observes: “The most northerly of Quebec’s northern villages, at the most northeasterly point of Hudson Bay, this was the site of the Hudson’s Bay Company post Wolstenholme, established in 1909 and named after the nearby cape. It was renamed Ivujuvik in 1981 from the Inukititut word for ‘place where the ice is carried by strong currents’.”319

***KAMOURASKA, QUEBEC***

WS Wallace recounts: “The name is an Indian word signifying ‘where there are rushes on the other side of the river’.”320

J Disturnell says: “Kamouraska, situated 90 miles below Quebec, on the southeast side of the river, contains about 1,500 inhabitants, and is surrounded by a fruitful district. Vessels can land here only at high water; at low water, passengers are taken ashore in small boats. In the rear of this village are seen abrupt and sterile hills with little or no verdure. In front are two or three small islands, chiefly resorted to for fishing and bathing, this being a favorite resort, during the summer months, for the citizens of Montreal and Quebec, and is no doubt destined to become a fashionable watering-place, where sea-bathing can be enjoyed by invalids and seekers of pleasure.”321

Zadock Thompson spotlights: “Kamouraska County is bounded on the northwest by the St Lawrence, northeast by Rimouski County, and southeast by the state of Maine, and southwest by L’Islet County. The extent of this county along the St Lawrence, is about thirty miles. It embraces the seigniories of Terrebois, Granville, Lachenaye, l’Islet du Portage, Kamouraska, St Denis, Riviere Oeueille and St Anne, and the townships of Bungay, Woodbridge and Ixworth. The principal streams are the river Ouelle and Kamouraska. The soil along the St Lawrence is of an excellent quality and in a good state of cultivation. Population in 1831, 14,557.”322

Willis Russell underscores: “Coudres Island – we take what follows from the Quebec Guide Book, published by Mr Sinclair, in 1851 – is the largest below Quebec except Orleans. It was settled at a very early period, forms a parish by itself, and has a church. It is tolerably fertile, but requires its produce for its own population. It belongs to the ecclesiastics of the Seminary of Quebec, to whom it was granted in 1687. After passing the traverse, the settlements on St Paul’s Bay on the north shore, present themselves to view. Here commences the county of Kamouraska, which fronts the river for thirty miles. The tract of country watered by the Ouelle is very productive, and regularly transports to Quebec many marketable articles. Near the entrance of the Ouelle into the St Lawrence a porpoise fishery is carried on to a considerable extent. The village of Kamouraska is, in summer, much enlivened by visitants, who resort to it for sea-bathing. It has the reputation of being one of the healthiest spots in the lower province. The islands off Kamouraska are of little value, being almost bare rocks. They afford shelter, however, in stormy weather to numbers of small vessels that are continually passing here; [this] deserves the attention of the geological observer. From the bank of the river a very level tract stretches almost to the foot of the mountainous range behind. The even surface of this tract is in various parts regularly embossed with abrupt masses of granite, varying from twenty to thirty yards of perpendicular height, and embracing a circumference of three or four acres and upwards. They are destitute of anything like a covering of soil, and produce only dwarf pine trees and creeping shrubs. On reflecting

that the bed of the river is almost dry between the Kamouraska Islands and the shore at low water, and contrasting the position appearance and striking resemblance of these isolated mounds on terra firma with the adjoining islands the geologist is naturally led to the conclusion, that this level tract was at some period submerged beneath the more widely spreading of ‘the mighty St Lawrence’, and that the elevations in question formed islands exposed to the action of its waters. Between Kamouraska and River du Loup, a distance of a dozen miles, lie the Pilgrims a group of five islands. At low water carts can pass from the mainland to this group and the Kamouraska one. Riviere du Loup contains about 100 inhabitants, there being a larger proportion of English and Scotch than is usually found in the smaller towns of Canada east. There is an Episcopal Church here perhaps the only one eastward of Quebec. About a mile in the rear is a picturesque waterfall of about 80 or 100 feet. To this place and Cacouna which lies about ten miles below, many families resort for the benefit of sea-bathing. Cacouna is a rocky peninsula, three hundred and fifty feet high, being connected with the mainland by a marshy isthmus. At Riviere du Loup commences the Grand Portage road which leads to Lake Temiscouata, a distance of 36 miles. Hence is the route via the Rivers Madawaska and St John to New Brunswick, and Halifax. The situation of Du Loup is more romantic, but Cacouna has the advantages of purer and stronger water. Both command an extensive prospect of the St Lawrence, which is here upwards of twenty miles wide, studded with islands, and bounded on the opposite shore by lofty and rugged mountains. The sojourner is enlivened by the sight of numerous large vessels constantly navigating the broad expanse. Green Island likes off Cacouna, and has a light-house sixty feet above the sea. The light is fixed, and can be seen at the distance of from twelve and seventeen miles according to the height of the observer’s eye from ten to sixty feet. The light is shown from sunset to sunrise between the 15th of April and the 10th December. From this lighthouse to the light vessels at the Traverse is fifty four miles; and for the first thirty miles above, the river is divided into the north and south channels by numerous islets with banks and reefs attached to them. Among these we may mention Hare Island, which is seven miles long in the direction of the River, and the Brandy Pots, off which vessels bound down, and waiting for a wind or the tide, usually rendezvous.’”323

***KANGIQSUALUJJUAQ, QUEBEC***

Alan Rayburn comments on: “This northern village at the mouth of Riviere George in northeastern Quebec is near the site of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s George River trading post, which operated from 1869 to 1952. The place was called Port-Nouveau-Quebec in 1961, an unpopular choice among the local Inuit. The present name, given in 1980, means ‘the very large bay’ in Inuktitut.”324

***KAWAWACHIKAMACH, QUEBEC***

“Kawawachikamach is a Naskapi/Iyiyiw First Nations reserve and community at the south end of Lake Matemace (where it joins Lake Peter), approximately 15 kilometers (9 mi) northeast of Schefferville, Quebec, Canada. It belongs to the Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach. The village was built by the Naskapi/Iyiyiw from 1980 to 1983. The language spoken is Iyiyiw-Imuun, a dialect closely related to Innu and Iynu (East Cree) and English. The name means ‘the winding river’.”325

***KITIGAN, QUEBEC***

“Kitigan means ‘garden’ or ‘cultivated land’. Since Algonquians were historically not farmers, it may be that, in this case, this name originated as a reference to a clearing made by the Hudson’s Bay Company for the establishment of its post, dependencies, and the adjoining garden.”326

***LA GUADALOUPE, QUEBEC***

Alan Rayburn emphasizes: “This village in the regional county of Beauce-Sartigan, southwest of the city of Saint-Georges, was known as the village of Saint-Evariste-Station from 1929 to 1949, when it changed to La Guadaloupe. It was named after the religious parish of Notre-Dame-de-la-Guadaloupe, created in 1945 and named in commemoration of the 400th anniversary of three apparitions of the Virgin Mary to Mexican Juan Diego. The place in Mexico had been named in honor of Our Lady of Guadaloupe, whose image had been found by a shepherd in Spain’s Extramadura.”327

***LA ROMAINE, QUEBEC***

“The name La Romaine is the French adaptation of the word Ulaman. Before its spelling was standardized, the place has also been called in times past: Fort Romaine, Olomanshibu, Olomenachibou, Ulimine, Ouromane, Olomanoshibou, Olomano, Romaine, La Romaine, Grande-Romaine, Gethsemani-d'Olumen, Gethsemani, Uanaman Hipiht, Ulamen Shipit, and Ulaman Shipu. These names applied sometimes to the old post, sometimes the village or the reserve, or sometimes to the river that flows through the place. Except for Gethsemani, all these variations have the same source: Unaman Shipu, from unaman meaning ‘vermilion’ or ‘red ochre’, and shipu meaning ‘river’. Deposits of this material are found on the banks of the Olomane River.”328

***L’EPIPHANIE, QUEBEC***

Alan Rayburn gives: “This parish municipality in the regional county of L’Assomption south of Joliette was named in 1853 in honor of the three wise men’s visit to the Christ child. The village of L’Epiphanie was separated from it in 1921 and became a town in 1967.”329

***MASHTEUIATSCH, QUEBEC***

“Previously officially known as Ouiatchouan Reserve, it was renamed Mashteuiatsh in 1985, from Ka Mesta8iats, meaning ‘where there is a point’ or ‘seeing one yet again at the point’.

“Before Europeans arrived in the area, the site was a frequently used stopover place and camp of the indigenous Innu. Circa 1775, a trading post was established there, owned by English merchants Thomas Dunn and John Gray.

“In 1853, the Commissioner of Crown Lands, John Rolph, had proposed to assign the Innu living near the Peribonka River, north of Lake Saint-Jean, a reserve of 16,000 acres (6,500 ha) and the Innu residing in Metabetchouan Township, south of Lake Saint-Jean, were allotted 4,000 acres (1,600 ha). But because Pointe-Bleue had been their traditional site and because loggers would not respect the boundaries of the reserved lands, the Innu asked the Government of Canada to exchange these lands bordering the Peribonka and Metabetchouane Rivers for those in Ouiatchouan Township where Pointe-Bleue is. This

request was granted in 1856, and the Innu were allotted an area of 23,040 acres (9,320 ha), from then on officially known as Ouiatchouan Reserve.

“In 1867, the Hudson’s Bay Company established there its trading post. This gave the reserve some importance, attracting an Oblates' mission in 1875, and even resulting in the closure of the Metabetchouan Post in 1880. Nevertheless, the Innu showed no interest in permanent settlement. Furthermore, under insistent pressure by political and religious authorities who promoted the area's colonization by new settlers, the Innu ceded more than 15,000 acres (6,100 ha) back to the government in 1869, and another 2,400 acres (970 ha) in 1895. The reserve was reduced in size again in 1901 when more lots were sold off, in 1911 when the James Bay & Eastern Railway was built through it, and in 1933 when the Duke Price Power Company raised Lake Saint-Jean's water level by more than 15 feet (4.6 m), leaving only the lands bordering the lake.

“In 1985 and 1986, the Lac St-Jean Innu began claiming for compensation and recovery of most of these lost lands. On February 28, 2000 a settlement agreement with the Government of Canada was signed.”330

***MEMPHREMAGOG, QUEBEC***

Alan Rayburn pens: “This regional county centered on the town of Magog was named in 1982 after Lac Memphremagog. The name of the lake, which extends for 44 km from Newport, Vermont, to Magog, derives from Abenaki and means ‘at the great stretch of water’.”331

Tourism Eastern Townships scribes about the town of Magog: “Located at the northern end of Lake Memphremagog, this hamlet flourished in the 19th century thanks to the construction of flour, saw and card mills by Ralph Merry III, the founder of Magog. Arriving in the region around 1797, he constructed the first dam on the north side of the river, between an island and a stream, where the railway now lies. A born innovator, he created the Magog Manufacturing Company, locating it near the bridge linking the two parts of the road that have since borne his name. The town’s original name was ‘Outlet’, as it is located where the lake drains. For the same reason, the parish of Saint-Patrice-de-Magog, founded in 1861, carried the name Saint-Patrice-d’Outlet at the time. Outlet was the official name for many decades, although Magog started appearing on official documents in 1783. The basis of Outlet’s economy was log cutting and driving. Some small businesses complementing the local economy developed, but remained marginal. The opening in 1835 of a stagecoach inn on the Montreal-Sherbrooke corridor eased access to Magog and, around 1840, a large number of Irish Catholic immigrants settled on the eastern shore of the lake. This first half of the 19th century saw the arrival of the municipality’s resort industry (hotels, sailing). In 1850, Outlet became Magog, which was officially incorporated on January 28, 1888 as a village, and in 1890 as a town. Hydraulic and hydroelectric powers have been its driving force throughout its history. The economic weight and influence of the textile industry marked the end of the 19th century. The first factory was the Magog Cotton and Print Company, founded in 1884 by Ralph Merry’s son-in-law, AH Moore. The company was sold in 1899 to Dominion Cotton Mills, and repurchased in 1905 by Dominion Textile. Today, it is part of CS Brooks Canada. Post-war Magog saw an era of expansion and modernization that drew even more businesses.

The improvement of the road system allowed the development of a four-season tourist trade that continues to flourish. Magog became a city in autumn 2002 when it merged with Magog Township, which covers a large area divided into three districts by two shores of Lake Memphremagog and the Town of Omerville, formerly a parish attached to Magog. The merger increased the municipality’s population to 24,359 residents. In a historical context, this merger appealed to a strong sense of mutual ownership based on over 200 years of sharing and developing common land. With Lake Memphremagog in the background, surrounded by mountains that stretch over 44.5 km clear to the Vermont border, it’s easy to understand why Magog is called the ‘treasure chest of the Townships’. Throughout the year, Magog is alive with sports, cultural events and a wide variety of activities, including the Traversee Internationale du Lac Memphremagog swimming event, the Memphremagog Arts Circuit in the summer, and the Fete des Vendanges Magog-Orford grape harvest festival. In the summer, you can enjoy water sports, swimming, golf, horseback riding, tennis, cycling and in-line skating. While you’re having fun in the water, keep an eye out for Memphre, a legendary lake creature that has been making waves for over 200 years. Memphre has been seen over 225 times, with sightings dating back to 1798. A boat cruise will help you appreciate the lake’s true size. You may also be enticed by a stroll through the Baie-de-Magog Park, a bike path that connects the city to Orford Township, a walk along the trails of the Riviere-aux-Cerises marsh or through downtown Magog. In winter, outdoor enthusiasts are thrilled with an array of snow-sports (nearby downhill skiing and cross-country skiing), skating on the ice path along Lake Memphremagog, and many snowmobile trails. The Vieux Clocher de Magog, boutiques and art galleries, cafes, terraces and restaurants will help you make the most of your stay.”332

***MERCIER-HOCHELAGA-MAISONNEUVE, QUEBEC***

“In 1860, Hochelaga developed as a village counting a little more than 1,000 inhabitants. In 1874, Hudon — a cotton factory - moved in. Two years later, the North railway was extended through Hochelaga (the railway was renamed the Canadian Pacific in 1881) further catalyzing its industrial development and encouraging urbanization. In December 1883, Hochelaga was annexed to the city of Montreal against the demands of proprietors in Hochelaga. In response, they founded the village Maisonneuve and in only 15 years Maisonneuve became the 5th industrial slum of Canada. However, the area flourished. By 1918, however, the area was saddled with debt and aging factories and infrastructure. It was annexed to Montreal the same year.

“Two years later, in 1920, many factories closed and moved east to Mercier. Mercier was an agglomeration of old villages: Beau-Rivage, Longue-Pointe and Tetreaultville. It was annexed to Montreal in 1910, before Maisonneuve. In 1960, the construction of the Autoroute 25 saw the demolition of many residential buildings in Mercier and divided it into two districts: Mercier-Ouest and Mercier-Est. Factories would continue to shut down well into the 1980s, leaving the borough ridden with poverty and a high concentration of welfare, especially in Hochelaga-Maisonneuve. This has led to a population exodus, high crime rates and a general negative portrait of the area. It is, still today, often seen as the French ghetto of Montreal.”333

***MISTISSINI, QUEBEC***

“Mistissini (Cree for ‘Big Rock’) is a Cree town located in the southeast corner of the largest natural lake in Quebec, Lake Mistassini (120 km long by 30 km wide). The town is inside the boundaries of the Baie-James Municipality, and is the largest Cree community with a population of 3,427 people in 2011. The surface area of the town is 1,380 km squared (Category I land, as defined in the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement).”334

Cree Nation of Mistissini states: “The Crees of Mistissini have resided in the Mistassini Lake area since time immemorial. In the early 1800s, the community of Mistissini's actual location was just a summer encampment due to the establishment of the Hudson Bay Company fur trading post on sight. The North West Company and other fur traders were also in the vicinity and can be considered contenders in the fur trade with the Hudson Bay Company in those days.”335

***MONTMAGNY, QUEBEC***

WS Wallace alludes: “Montmagny, a town in Montmagny County, Quebec, on the south shore of the St Lawrence, at the mouth of the South River and the St Nicholas River, and on the Canadian National Railway, 32 miles east of Quebec. It was founded in 1678 and incorporated in 1845, when it was named in honor of the Sieur de Montmagny, second governor of New France, to whom part of the land which now comprises the town was granted in 1646. The surrounding district is chiefly devoted to farming, dairying, and market-gardening. The principal industrial plants of the town include saw, pulp, grist, and carding mills, foundries, sash-and-door, furniture, brush and broom, silk, and butter factories, and rolling mills. It has two colleges, two academies, a hospital, and two French weekly newspapers (Le Peuple and Le Courrier-Sentinelle).”336

***NOTRE-DAME-DES-ANGES, QUEBEC***

“The land near the Saint-Charles River was first possessed as a fief by the Recollect Friars Minor, who built the Friary of St Charles there around 1620. The seigneury then passed to the Jesuits in 1629, after the return of the friars to France. The property was returned to the Recollects upon their return to New France in 1670, at which time they dedicated their house to Notre-Dame-des-Anges (‘Our Lady of the Angels’), so named for the first community of the Franciscan Order.

“In 1692, it was purchased by Jean-Baptiste de Saint-Vallier, Bishop of Quebec, to found a hospital, which he did the subsequent year. In 1722, it was established as a civil parish and in 1855, the parish municipality was officially founded with the goal of protecting its sole occupant, the Hopital general de Quebec, from taxes.”337

***PUVIRNITUQ, QUEBEC***

Alan Rayburn communicates: “The present spelling of the name of this northern village, located on the east shore of Hudson Bay and at the mouth of the Riviere de Povungnituk, was adopted in 1995. The place was erected as the northern village of Povungnituk in 1989. It took its name from the Inuit community, first identified on maps about 1945. In Inuktitut the name means ‘it smells of rotting meat’.”338

***TEMISCAMING, QUEBEC***

Benoit-Beaudry Gourd depicts: “Temiscaming is located at the southern end of Lac Temiscamingue (spelled Timiskaming in Ontario) near the rapids that link the lake with the Ottawa River. In 1888 a sawmill was built nearby. Temiscaming was established in 1917 by the Riordan Pulp and Paper Company, which bought the sawmill and wanted a town to house the employees of its Kipawa Mills paper mill. Thomas Adams was hired as the planner and he designed the town in the Garden City style. In 1920 it was incorporated under the name of the mill (Kipawa) but was renamed the following year. The name Temiscaming is derived from an Algonquin expression meaning ‘deep water’, a reference to the lake. Incorporated into Kipawa was the hamlet of South Temiscaming, which was the Canadian Pacific Railway terminal for the area and the steamship port for goods destined for the new communities to the north of Lac Temiscamingue. The railway station built in 1927 is now a historic building.

“Temiscaming was for many years a company town. Originally owned by the Riordan Company (1917-25), it was then directly administered by the Canadian International Paper Company (CIP) until the end of the 1960s. CIP had bought the town as well as the Kipawa Mills plant. Temiscaming's economy is still based on its paper mill, which is now owned by Tembec, a company set up by management and workers of the mill after the mill was shut down by CIP in 1972. In 1988 Temiscaming was amalgamated with the municipality of Letang (incorporated 1980) to form the present town.”339

RM Martin enumerates: “The Ottawa or Grand River – has its origin in Lake Temiscaming, upwards of 350 miles northwest of its junction with the St Lawrence – reckoning however Lake Temiscaming, as but an extension of the Ottawa, in the same manner as we have done Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, etc, with regard to the source of the St Lawrence, the remotest spot whence the Ottawa issues is more than 100 miles beyond Lake Temiscaming, giving it therefore a course of nearly 500 miles. As before observed, little is known of the country generally, beyond the Falls and Portage des Allumettes, distant 110 miles from Hull. At the Allumettes, the Ottawa is divided into two channels, the one to the northeast, the other to the southwest of a large island, fifteen miles long by four broad: the southerly channel expands below the falls and rapids of the grand Allumettes to the width of three of four miles, at the head of which an arm of the river opens an entrance to the Mud and Musk Rat Lakes. Twelve miles further south the river again forms into two channels, being separated by an island twenty miles in length by seven in breath: owing to the numerous cascades and falls, the scenery on the Ottawa is here extremely wild and romantic. For ten miles, from the Cascades to the foot of the Chenaux, the Ottawa is singularly diversified by numerous beautiful islands, richly clad with trees of luxuriant foliage. Clustered in various parts of the river, these islands divide the stream into as many channels, through which the waters are impelled with a degree of violence proportioned to the narrowness of their beds, and contribute to heighten the beauty of the landscape, the effect of which is not a little enhanced by the banks of the Ottawa being here composed of white marble, which can be traced for two or three miles along the margin of the stream. This delightful district is now being colonized, and the grateful soil repays with abundance the toil of the cultivators.”340

***WHAPMAGOOSTUI, QUEBEC***

“Whapmagoostui (Cree: waapamekushtui, ‘place of the beluga’) is the northernmost Cree village in Quebec, located at the mouth of the Great Whale River (French: Grande Riviere de la Baleine) on the coast of Hudson Bay in Nunavik, Quebec, Canada. About 500 people, mostly Inuit, live in the neighboring northern village of Kuujjuarapik. The community is only accessible by air (Kuujjuarapik Airport) and, in late summer, by boat. Whapmagoostui is about 250 kilometers north of the nearest Cree village, Chisasibi.”341

**SASKATCHEWAN**

Alan Rayburn gives an account: “The district of Saskatchewan was established in the North-West Territories in 1882. The limits of the present province were decided in 1905. The name was taken from a Cree term for kisiskaciwanisipi. In the present years Cree speakers refer to the province as kisiskaciwan or saskaciwanihk.”342

WR Barry points out: “Saskatchewan’s toponymy has been drastically affected by our First Nations heritage, the name Saskatchewan itself coming from the Cree kisiskaciwan-sipiy for ‘swift flowing river’ – kisiska is ‘quick’ or ‘fast’, (pimi)ciwan is ‘to flow (along)’. The name was applied to both forks of the river well before the arrival of Europeans on the plains, and it is shown as Saskashawan on a Hudson’s Bay Company map of 1795.”343

**BATTLEFORD BANDS, SASKATCHEWAN**

WR Barry relates: “Chief Peeyahnkahnihkoosit (pihyew ka-mihkosit, ‘red pheasant’) was one of the original Cree signers of Treaty 6. He and his people settled on Red Pheasant 108 and 108A south of Battleford. A Red Pheasant post office and Canadian National siding also existing adjacent to the reserve into the 1970s.

“Adjoining Red Pheasant are three other reserves. Collectively, they were frequently referred to as the Stoney Reserve during the early years since the bands occupying them are Nokota (Stoney is the name generally applied to the Nakota now resident in Albert). The three are Mosquito 109, Grizzly Bear’s Head 110, and Lean Man 111.

“Mosquito band was originally Little Chief, but Chief Mosquito (circa 1810-90) had taken over by 1878; in August of that year he signed an adhesion to Treaty 6 at Battleford. Grizzly Bear’s Head originally adhered to Treaty 4 under Tepee Hoska (Nakota tipi hanska, ‘long lodge’) at Cypress Hills late in 1877. Tepee Hoska died sometime before May 1882; when the band migrated to the Battleford area from the Cypress Hills they were led by Chief Grizzly Bear’s Head (also known as Little Bear’s Head or simply Bear’s Head). The two bands merged in 1951 into the Mosquito Grizzly Bear’s Head First Nation.

“The Lean Man band adhered to Treaty 4 at the same time as Chief Tepee Hoska. Lean Man’s name was translated as ‘poor man’ in the Treaty 4 adhesion document, leading to confusion with the Cree chief, Kawacatoose. This band also migrated from the Cypress Hills to settle in the Treaty 6 area south of Battleford in May 1882. By 1931 the Lean Man band had dwindled to a membership of one, and it was merged with Grizzly Bear’s Head.

“The first reserves west of Battleford are Sweetgrass 113, 113A and 113B. The Cree Chief Weekaskookeeseyyin (wihkasko-kiseyin, ‘old man sweet grass’) was considered by Lieutenant Governor Morris to be the leading plains chief at the Treaty 6 negotiations at Fort Pitt in September 1876. Converted to Roman Catholicism by the famous Father Lacombe, he was also known by his Christian name, Abraham. He was killed in a shooting accident a few months after the treaty gathering, an event which was considered an extremely bad omen by the Cree.

“Sweetgrass was succeeded by Chief Nahweekahnickkahohtahmahhote (wawikanihk-k-otamahoht, ‘he who is struck on his backbone’, died 1886). He chose the main reserve site just before being deposed as chief by the government in 1884. Strike Him on the Back’s name was usually applied to the reserve in the early years. He in turn was succeeded by Sweetgrass’ son, who had the same name. Although he died relatively young from tuberculosis, it is he that is honored by today’s Sweetgrass reserves. The Sweetgrass Canadian National siding was located in the middle of the reserve until 1978.”344

**DOUKHOBORS IN SASKATCHEWAN**

WR Barry stipulates: “The Doukhobors are a fundamentalist Christian sect which developed in Russia. Their oral tradition means that their origins are obscure, but the common threads of their belief system hinge on collectivism, on the rejection of church liturgy (believing that God resides in the individual, not a church), on their disdain for secular governments, and on their refusal to bear arms. The name originated with a Russian Orthodox bishop who derisively labeled them dukhoborets, ‘spirit wrestlers’, in the sense of enemies of the Holy Spirit. However they liked the name (in the opposite sense of struggling for and on behalf of the Spirit of Christ) and adopted it.

“In the early 19th century, most of the Doukhobors lived and prospered just north of the Crimean peninsula. Forcibly resettled to the Caucasus in the 1840s, they prospered there too. As Russian control over the Caucasus was consolidated in the late 19th century, conflict with the pacifist Doukhobors became inevitable and the sect was persecuted.

“Peter Vasilevich Verigin (1859-1924) became the leader of the group in 1886, and was promptly sent into exile in northern Russia by the Tsar. However, the Doukhobors had come to the attention of powerful people. Count Leo Tolstoy, the illustrious Russian author, took up their cause, aided by sympathetic British and American Quakers. With their help Verigin determined to lead his people into exile. At least partly through the intervention of Professor James Mavor of the University of Toronto, the chosen destination was the Canadian west.

“In Verigin’s absence, Leopold Sulerzhitsky (1872-1916), a Russian theater personality, was chosen by Tolstoy to lead about 7,500 Doukhobors to Canada in 1898-9. The Canadian government set aside the Doukhobor Reserve for them. The main part of the reserve was the South Colony which included what are now the Canora-Kamsack-Togo districts. The North Colony extended north from Arran and Pelly, while the Good Spirit Annex lay north and west of the lake. At the last minute, when the number of arriving Doukhobors exceeded the government’s expectations, that Saskatchewan Colony was also set aside between what are now the towns of Langham and Blaine Lake.

“Yet again, the Doukhobors prospered. By the end of 1899 they had built 57 neat villages consisting of about 40 families each whose homes lined a single main street. In many of the villages, their activities were truly communistic; individual property or profit was virtually unknown. In other villages, particularly in the Saskatchewan Colony, there was much less emphasis on communalism.

“The homestead regulations required a settler to live on and improve his land in order to get his 160 acres for ten dollars. But Clifford Sifton, then Canada’s minister of the Interior, struck a deal which allowed the Doukhobors to register for homesteads individually, but to live communally. They also received concessions regarding education and were exempted from military service. When Frank Oliver of Edmonton took over the interior ministry in 1905, he was not so generously inclined. Officials began to enforce regulations which had been waived under Sifton.

“Matters reached a critical point when the government began to insist that the Doukhobors swear an oath of allegiance. The majority refused, and between 1908 and 1913 Verigin led about 5,000 of them to land he had purchased near Grand Forks, British Columbia. By 1917 only a dozen of the Doukhobor villages remained, and several of those were populated by Ukrainians and other east Europeans.

“Verigin, however, was not finished with Saskatchewan. In 1918 he purchased 10,000 acres of land which had formerly been part of the Fishing Lake Indian reserve. About 250 Doukhobors moved back from British Columbia to the Kylemore Colony, which was planned to give the Grand Forks Doukhobors self-sufficiency in wheat and flour. The colony flourished, but financial problems were never overcome, and the creditors foreclosed in 1928. By this time Verigin was dead, assassinated four years earlier in an unexplained time bomb explosion on a train at Grand Forks. Had it not been for the organizational and financial chaos which followed Verigin’s death, the colony at Kylemore may well have continued to thrive. As it was, most of the colonists returned to British Columbia.”345

**IRISH FOLKS IN SASKATCHEWAN**

WR Barry writes: “Many people of Irish descent settled in Saskatchewan, among them the author’s great grandfather, ‘Wild Bill’ McKenzie, who homesteaded north of Whitewood in 1881. His district was known as Forest Farm, and the old Anglican Church where he is buried still stands. However, there are no Irish names in the area. Next door was the New Finland colony, where the author’s grandmother was born, and there are several English names nearby, but nothing Irish.

“In fact, there are very few Irish names on Saskatchewan’s map, especially when viewed in the light of the volume of Irish settlement. Unlike several other ethnic groups, Irish pioneers tended to emigrate individually, rather than settling together in colonies. Also, the Irish, particularly Irish Catholics, were quite low on the social scale in the early days. For a time, ‘HELP WANTED – Irish need not apply’ signs were well known in our province.

“Nevertheless, we do have the villages of Limerick (after Luimneach, the Irish city) and Meath Park (after County Meath). Two of our rural municipalities have distinctly Irish names: Enniskillen No 3 is named after a town in Northern Ireland, while Connaught No 457 at Tisdale carries the name of one of the ancient Irish kingdoms. And the St Patrick Separate School Division at Swift Current is solidly Irish. The

first station agent at North Portal was Irish and was instrumental in having the village’s streets named Belfast, Clair, Antrim and Ulster, all northern Irish counties.

“Then of course there is Shamrock. There was significant Irish settlement in the area north of Gravelbourg, and when the rural municipality (No 134) was created there in 1912, it was given the name of the lucky shamrock in their honor. The Irish settlers established the Erinvale School District No 3271, in tribute to their homeland, at about the same time.

“The name Shamrock appears elsewhere in the province as well. The Shamrock School Division No 38 includes Foam Lake, Wynyard and Wishart. The CBC-TV affiliate in Yorkton used to be known as ‘Shamrock Television’. The Shamrock Ambulance service covered the hospitals at Foam Lake, Wynyard, Wadena, Watson and Kelvington.

“A distinguished Irish Canadian gave his name to two Saskatchewan communities. Thomas D’Arcy McGee (1825-68) was one of the youngest of the Fathers of Confederation, and a rising political star in the new nation. A poet and a fiery orator, he was a favorite of Prime Minister John A Macdonald and a member of the federal cabinet when he was assassinated in Ottawa. There is still controversy over whether the Fenian who was executed for the crime was actually guilty, but it seems certain that a promising political career was snuffed out by the assassin’s bullet. Canadian Northern Railway named two of its stations west of Rosetown in his honor – the hamlets of McGee and D’Arcy exist today.

“Another fiery Irish orator is commemorated in the hamlet of Davin just southeast of Balgonie on Highway 48. Nicholas Flood Davin (1843-1901), a native of County Limerick, was trained in the law. He served as a parliamentary reporter in London and as a war correspondent for the Irish Times. After coming to Canada he served, rather unhappily, as the literary critic for the Globe in Toronto. He came to Regina on a tour almost as soon as the Canadian Pacific Railroad began carrying passengers. Apparently he had no intention of staying, but was persuaded that the fledgling capital city needed a journalist of his talents; he started the Regina Leader, the first newspaper in the District of Assiniboia.

“Davin was denied access to the prisoner during the trial of Louis Riel. Not to be deterred, he disguised himself as a priest and scored a major coup by publishing a lengthy interview with the Metis leader. His feelings about Riel were mixed. While he supported his execution and dismissed any thought that Riel was insane. Davin described him as ‘a man of genius … who, had he been blessed with judgment might have accomplished much.’

“So highly regarded did Davin became that, when Reginans first had the vote in a federal election in 1887, he won. Like McGee, he was a Conservative and a devotee of Sir John A Macdonald. He was re-elected in 1891 and 1896, although his last election was actually a tie. Davin won because the returning officer, whom he had appointed, cast the tie-breaking vote in his favor.

“Davin sold his newspaper to Walter Scott, who defeated him to the federal election of 1900 and went on to become the first premier of Saskatchewan. The former editor mysteriously committed suicide on a visit to Winnipeg in 1901. Regina, fittingly, has schools named for both men, Davin elementary school and Scott collegiate.”346

**JEWISH FOLKS IN SASKATCHEWAN**

WR Barry articulates: “’Jew Colony’ – that is the inscription that appeared on North West Mounted Police maps in the 1880s in the area southwest of Moosomin. In 1884, about 30 Jewish families were established on homesteads with the help of the Mansion House Committee of London. The settlers were all refugees from Russia, and none of them were farmers. Their first two crops failed, and their rabbi left after having feet amputated due to frostbite, dooming the colony. A group of the original settlers started over in 1887, and adopted the name New Jerusalem for their settlement. But when their 1889 crop was destroyed by prairie fires, they gave up and by 1890 all had left, most of them resettling in Winnipeg.

“The first successful Jewish farm settlement in Canada followed soon afterwards, and was not far away. Known as the Wapella Farm, it was located west of Rocanville. Between 1886 and 1907, about 50 families of mostly Orthodox Russian Jews settled in the area. Canada’s famous Bronfman family is descendants of settlers at Wapella Farm, but by 1975 only one family of Jewish ancestry remained.

“The Wapella Farm colony was served by the aptly named Prosperity post office (1895-1917), school and rural telephone company. The district was also sometimes called Barish Lake, after a small lake on the farm of Solomon Barish who homesteaded in 1894.

“Maurice, Baron de Hirsch (1831-96), was a wealthy German financier and philanthropist. In 1891 he founded the Jewish Colonization Association (JCA) to help get Jews out of Russia to North and South America. One of the JCA’s first and most successful ventures was founded the next year east of Estevan, and appropriately named Hirsch. A post office and school (No 283) were established in 1893. Both were gone by 1970 and little remains of the hamlet today, although the Jewish cemetery is still visible along Highway 18.

“Two other schools were established in the northern part of the Hirsch colony, also in 1893. Ansell No 288 honored David Ansell, president of the Baron de Hirsch Institute of Montreal. A few miles to the east, Vineberg No 284 paid tribute to Harris Vineberg, an activist in the JCA.

“Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) was an Austrian journalist. While covering the sensational Dreyfus case in Paris, he became convinced that the only escape from anti-Semitism lay in the establishment of a Jewish homeland. He organized a conference in Vienna in 1897 which is recognized as the foundation of modern political Zionism, which eventually led to the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. A year after his death Herzl was honored with the name of a new post office. Hirzel lasted just three years before being merged into Goodeve when the railway came through. In 1906 Theodor Herzl was again honored farther west by Herzel No 1503, and the Herzel post office, which served the district from 1935-44.

“The Herzel post office and school were part of the Lipton Colony established in 1901 by the JCA. Many of the earliest settlers were Romanian refugees, and a total of 375 Jews were settled in the area. Besides Herzel, they set up two other schools, Tiferes Israel No 1442 and Jeshurun No 1913. The former translates as ‘pride of Israel’, when Jeshurun is a term of endearment for the holy land. This Jewish settlement was not destined to survive very long. By 1935 there were no Jewish families left in the

Tiferes Israel district, and the name was changed to Reindeer No 1442. One continuing Jewish influence remains in the area, however. The nursing home in Cupar was christened Shalom, Hebrew for ‘peace’, in 1792.

“In 1905-6 a group of Jewish farmers migrated to the area northwest of Star City, many of them Lithuanian Jews who had originally gone to South Africa. Edenbridge is said to derive from the Yiddish yedn, the plural for Jew, coupled with the sought for bridge over the Carrot River that would eventually became the center of the settlement. Non-Jewish settlers agree with the ‘bridge’ part, but assert that ‘eden’ was a reference to the Garden of Eden, and the lush vegetation of the Carrot River valley. In any event, the Edenbridge post office operated from 1908-45, and the district was home to Beth Israel, the only rural synagogue in Saskatchewan. The building still stands although only one Jewish family remains in the area.

“Sonnenfeld colony, south of Weyburn near the United States border, was the last Jewish group settlement, getting started in 1906. The name honored Sigismund Sonnenfeld, the Paris director of the JCA. Dravland No 947 and Schneller No 1998, both named for early settlers, were the schools in the colony. The colony prospered, its population peaking at about 150.

“When the Canadian Pacific Railroad arrived in 1927 it created the Hoffer siding in memory of Israel Hoffer, the first Jewish settler in Sonnenfeld. Israel’s son Mayer was the postmaster 1927-39. Just to the east is the hamlet of Oungre, which got its name in a rather unusual way. The Canadian Pacific Railroad had planned to name the siding Byrne, after a long-defunct rural post office in the area. However, the JCA wanted to honor Dr Louis Oungre, then its Paris director, and his brother Edward, who had been instrumental in establishing the Sonnenfeld colony. In return for a cash donation towards the erection of a town hall, the change in name was arranged.”347

**MAGYARS IN SASKATCHEWAN**

WR Barry describes: “While Count Esterhazy richly deserves the accolades he has received as the founder of Hungarian settlement in Saskatchewan, many Magyars settled far from the community which bears his name. This was not always by choice. The Esterhaz Colony was a powerful magnet for Hungarian settlers, but available homestead land had almost all been taken up by the turn of the century.

“One of the first areas to profit from the lack of space at Esterhaz was originally known as the Hazelwood Colony, after a rural post office near Kipling, named for the profusions of hazelnuts in the area. The first Hungarians settled there in 1900, and in 1904 the Bekevar post office opened to serve their needs.

“Bekevar has a double meaning in Magyar. Beke means ‘peace’; var when used as a noun means ‘fortress’, when as a verb it translates as ‘await’. In the former case the name becomes ‘fortress of peace’, in the latter ‘peace awaits (you)’, or ‘haven’. Either way, it is an attractive name that appears to have been suggested by Janos Szabo (1852-1925), one of the district’s leading settlers. The Bekevar School District No 948 was established within weeks of the post office. But when the Bekevar post office

was to last until 1930, the school’s name was changed within two years, primarily at the instigation of Kalman Kovasci (1873-1931).

“Kovasci was a missionary of the Hungarian Reformed (Calvinist) Church who had come to Canada at the turn of the century. After further studies in theology he was ordained and spent the next decade ministering to Hungarian Protestants in Saskatchewan. He was something of a poet, and in later years he and his brother edited and published A Kanadai Magyar Farmer, a Hungarian-language newspaper based in Winnipeg.

“Kovasci had been raised in the best tradition of Hungarian liberalism, and deeply admired Lajos Kossuth (1802-94), the preeminent leader of Hungary’s struggle for independence from Austria in the mid-19th century. He was fond of comparing Kossuth to the likes of Giuseppi Garibaldi, the liberator of Italy, and George Washington. So fervent was the missionary’s admiration that he persuaded the school trustees to petition for a name change and in 1906 the district became Kossuth No 948. Interestingly the rural telephone company, which was established a decade later to serve the same area, was spelled Kasuth.

“Also in the Bekevar area were the Budapest rural telephone company from 1916, named after the Hungarian capital, the Magyar School District No 1384 from 1905, and the Rakoczi No 2667 from 1910, after Francis II Rakoczy, and 18th century Hungarian hero.

“Kovasci founded other parishes in the Esterhaz Colony and, somewhat later, in the Lestock district. Many Hungarians settled southwest of Lestock, where the St Joseph and St Elizabeth Roman Catholic missions were established. The Arpad School District No 2538 was created just south of the village in 1910, and took its name from the Arpad dynasty, rulers of Hungary, 900-1300 AD.

“Two other significant groups of Hungarians located themselves between Punnichy and Cupar. The Magyar post office opened about fifteen miles southwest of Lestock in 1910 to serve the first of them. Farther to the west was the Apponyi School District No 1230, named for another noble Hungarian family, although its name was the Zala post office (1930-63), named for the Hungarian county which includes the city of Kaposvar. Balatone post office (1939-46) took its name from Lake Balaton, Hungary’s largest and most famous resort lake, located in the Zala area. The Mathyas School District No 3141 was also of Hungarian origin. These places were part of the Szekelyfold colony, after the Szekelyfold region of southern Bukovina (now Romania), home of many of the earliest settlers.

“A direct spinoff of the Esterhaz Colony was the Cana Colony, after the rural municipality in which it was located. The first Hungarian settlers arrived in the area in 1894. The Stockholm Colony had been established to the south just after the turn of the century. The eastern part of that settlement was also called Sokhalom, Magyar for ‘many hills’.

“Farther to the north, also in 1894, a group of Hungarian established the Otthon Colony. Two years later they acquired a post office and christened it Otthon, derived from the Magyar for ‘home’. Reverend Janos Kovacs from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was the first postmaster, and Kalman Kovasci was posted there in 1910. A second post office opened in the western part of the Otthon Colony in 1912. It was called Debrecan after a Hungarian city, but it lasted just four years.

“The East Otthon School District No 462 and West Otthon No 464 were both established in 1898. In 1911 the Grand Trunk Pacific’s Yorkton-Regina line passed between them, and the Otthon siding came into existence. The organized hamlet still exists on Highway 10 just south of Yorkton.

“Pinkefalva was a Hungarian settlement in the Plunkett district. Literally ‘Pinke’s village’, it was named for Irme Pinke who had originally settled in the Whitewood area about 1895. His letters in the Hungarian-American press attracted many others to the polyglot Whitewood area, prompting Pinke to establish his more cohesively Magyar colony in 1905. Pinke, by then using the Christian name of James, served as the senior trustee for the Golden Hill School District No 2236 beginning in 1908.

“Finally, Zoltan Rajcs established what he called Matyasfold, the ‘land of Matthias’, at about the same time. He planned a town to be called Idavar, but other settlers in the area had different ideas and the community came to be known as Wakaw. The Buda School District No 1722 and Dunafoldvar No 1922 were established on either side of Wakaw in 1907. Buda was half of what is now the Hungarian capital of Budapest, and Dunafoldvar is a Hungarian city between Kaposvar and Budapest. Rajcs directed overflow from Matyasfold to vacant lands to the south, and the Szent Laszlo settlement was born in the Prud’homme area. The St Laszlo School District No 2544 looked after the educational needs of their children.

“In 1921 Saskatchewan was home to two-thirds of all Hungarian Canadians; today the figure is about 12 percent. The decline resulted from the aftermath of the dramatic events of 1956. In that year, Hungarians rose in revolt against the repression of Communist rule. When the Soviet Union and its allies invaded Hungary to quell the uprising, tens of thousands of Hungarians fled. Almost 35,000 came to Canada, but fewer than a thousand of them settled in Saskatchewan. While the center of gravity of Hungarian-Canadian settlement has shifted eastward, it all began here, and the Magyars remain a vital part of Saskatchewan’s cultural heritage.

“A key date in the Hungarian calendar is 15 March, the anniversary of the beginning of the rebellion of 1848-9. Tribute is also paid to patriot Lajos Kossuth on that day.”348

***AVONLEA, SASKATCHEWAN***

WR Barry establishes: “One of Canada’s most popular authors at the beginning of the century was Lucy Maude Montgomery (1874-1942). Raised on Prince Edward Island, she married the Reverend Ewan Macdonald in 1911 and spent the rest of her life in Toronto. Her life work consisted of 22 novels, an autobiography, and hundreds of poems and short stories. Anne of Green Gables was beloved in early Saskatchewan. Anne’s home community was Avonlea, and the second of the Anne books was entitled Anne of Avonlea. The name inspired the village of Avonlea south of Rouleau in 1911.”349

***CLIMAX, SASKATCHEWAN***

Stone Diggers Historical Society portrays: “Great changes have taken place in the village of Climax, since the year the steel came in 1923 and the town sprang up in three weeks.

“The location of small prairie towns was often arbitrarily set by the Canadian Pacific Railway officials who decided that the distance of seven or eight miles between towns would provide convenient trading centers.

“Climax was incorporated into a village December 11, 1923. Previous to this all trading was done in Gull Lake to the north and Harlem, Montana, to the south (a distance of 70 to 100 miles) until 1913 when the steel came to Shaunavon.

“Of the many stopping places on the way to Shaunavon, one of the most notable was Crosthwaite’s located in the river valley on the present #37 highway. This land was later sold to Tom Icke, and then to Angus Willett, who later sold it to the present owner CB Clark.

“With the settlers came the law and a Mountie was stationed north of Climax on the Brook’s farm now farmed by Charlie Bertram.

“After many surveys and conjunctions as to where the railroad was finally to be built, the final grade was established and grading started in 1922. The steel reached Climax in 1923 and was extended to Val Marie in the spring of 1925.

“It is after their hometown of Climax, Minnesota, that Annie, Fred and Christ Fuglestad are given the credit of having named our town Climax.”

Stone Diggers Historical Society presents the poem, Celebrate Saskatchewan:

We feel like pioneers now since taking a look

Into past history for this DAMN book.

We filed on our homesteads, took pre-emptions too,

Six months on each. The inspectors looked too.

We picked up the sods and put them together.

We were warm and snug in all kinds of weather.

There was a lamp in the window when a storm did brew,

And a hot cup of tea to carry us through.

With shiplap and tar paper, we then built a shack.

The cold wind whistled through every small crack.

We went to the land office to prove up each claim.

To Maple Creek drove, got the land in our name.

We cooked on coal stoves, with dried prairie chips.

The sour dough bread tasted good to our lips.

We seeded our crops; nothing grew but the weeds,

So we asked for relief to take care of our needs.

During the thirties we tried it again

But the wind blew hard and took out the grain.

The prices of wheat, if you really must know,

In the early thirties struck an all-time low.

Burning lignite coal became quite a joke.

We hauled lots of ashes and smelled lots of smoke.

The car in the garage was without any gas,

Now pulled by a horse, the Bennett needed but grass.

Reunions in Climax with memories galore,

You’ll meet many friends with entertainment in store.

Many years have gone by, seventy-five to be sure.

Happy Birthday Saskatchewan. Let’s have many more!”350

***CUT KNIFE, SASKATCHEWAN***

Alan Rayburn portrays: “The post office in this town (1968), located west of Battleford, was established in 1905. It was named after a Tsuu T’ina (Sarsi) chief who was killed by a Cree party, possibly at the battle of Cut Knife Hill in 1885. The Cree were so proud of eliminating the famed Sarsi fighter that they thereafter called the hill after him. In 1990 the hill was named after Chief Poundmaker, who had helped Col William Otter and his troops to escape from a fight on Poundmaker’s reserve. Poundmaker is buried on this hill.”351

James Warden remarks: “Time of event estimated between 1840 and 1850 in spring – month of May.

“Participants – Crees and Sarcees from Blackfoot Confederacy.

“Large encampment of Crees camped along creek some four miles north of ‘Hill’. Large herd of buffalo had been reported on plains south of hill on previous day. Before sun-up next morning two scouts were sent out ahead of main body of mounted hunters to locate position of buffalo herd. On reaching the summit of a large hill which commanded a wide view of the surrounding country the scouts were

startled to see a man lying on the ground and looking through a telescope in the direction of the Cree encampment.

“Realizing it could only be an enemy, one of the scouts dismounted and with his gun at the ‘ready’ endeavored to get nearer to the man but the latter heard him and bounded to his feet. The scout fired but missed and the Sarcee took to his heels and ran down the eastern slope of the hill. The scout directed his companion to intercept the hunters and guide them in the direction taken by the enemy. The scout then followed the Sarcee, who was shortly joined by twelve companions who had been hiding in the bush on the eastern slope of the hill.

“The Sarcees continued on down towards the creek at the bottom of the hill with the Cree keeping a safe distance behind, all the time taunting the Sarcees as to their fate before the day was over. The Sarcees apparently did not believe the Cree warriors would have them surrounded and fed to the crows before sunset, etc, etc. They had not seen the Cree encampment and thought the scout was bluffing. Only when the large body of mounted hunters came racing down the hill in full war-cry did they realize they were trapped, and after crossing the creek they proceeded to dig themselves in, in a washout caused by the spring flood.

“The Crees, finding they had the hated Sarcees trapped and surrounded took their time and sent word to their women and children and all camp followers to come and see the extermination of the Sarcees. The Cree chief, when he had found out the leader of the Sarcee party was the famous fighting Chief Cut Knife, had given orders that no firearms were to be used, but the Sarcees were to be exterminated by hand-to-hand combat.

“Many are the stories of the individual fights that took place that day – particularly of the strength and skill of the Sarcee Chief Cut Knife.

“With evening approaching the Crees realized some of the Sarcees would escape if the fight were to continue into darkness, so a concerted effort was organized by having an all-out attack – first by rushing the Sarcee position by throwing in branches of trees, blankets, etc, on top of the defenders, followed by an all-out attack on the warriors with knives, bows-and-arrows, tomahawks, etc, until all were butchered – so the Crees thought, and with wild cries of victory they left for their encampment. But they were wrong, only twelve were in that heap of mutilated bodies – for the thirteenth member of the Sarcee party emerged from under the overhanding willows that fringed the waters of the creek, into which he had dived that morning. He lived to carry back to his people in the southwest the story of Cut Knife’s bravery – not knowing his memory would be preserved in the village, district and constituency that bear the name.”352

***EMERALD LAKE, SASKATCHEWAN***

Brad Butler shares: “Your letter asking about how Emerald Lake received its name has been forwarded to me. Unfortunately I cannot answer that question based on proven fact. What I can say is when I was a kid in the sixties I asked my Dad that question. He told me that it was believed Emerald was named for the color the Lake looked with all the green trees surrounding it. Emerald is a small lake surrounded

by forested hills. My Dad was from the area and would visit Emerald in the 1920s when he was young.”353

***ESTERHAZ COLONY IN SASKATCHEWAN***

WR Barry stresses: “Johann Baptist Packh was born in Hungary in 1831. He served in the Hungarian War of Independence (1848-9) and in the British Army (1856-66). He then returned to Hungary where, in 1867, he registered his name as Count Paul Oscar Esterhazy.

“Some of the details have yet to surface in the historical record, but it appears he claimed to have been an illegitimate son of the Esterhazys, one of Hungary’s premier noble families. Their castle, known as the Esterhaz (Eszterhaza in Magyar), was located in southwestern Hungary, and their estates were centered on the city of Kaposvar. It is this reason that Esterhazy’s name is sometimes cited as Count Post Office d’Esterhaz.

“For the rest of his life Esterhazy was dogged by controversy over his claim to nobility. From time to time he was confronted with accusations that he was an imposter. There must have been some basis for his assertion of noble status, however. There are records that he forwarded certain documents to the Marquess of Lansdowne, then governor general of Canada, which satisfied him that Esterhazy was indeed who he claimed to be. Lord Shaughnessy and William Cornelius Van Horne of the Canadian Pacific Railroad also vouched for Count Esterhazy.

“Noble or not, Esterhazy settled in New York in 1868 and almost immediately became involved in the promotion of immigration, supporting himself and his considerable family through his work as a colonizer. With his assistance and counsel, several hundred Hungarians settled in Pennsylvania where they worked in the steel industry and the coal mines.

“In the 1880s Esterhazy became attracted to Canada and the possibilities opened up by the building of the Canadian Pacific Railroad. His first colonization effort was a small settlement known as the Huns Colony (later Polonia) near Minnedosa, Manitoba in 1885. In June 1886, he led 35 families, most of whom had spent some years in Pennsylvania, to Whitewood, North West Territories. From there they set out northwards across the Qu’Appelle valley to lands that had been reserved for them – thanks to the intervention of Esterhazy – by the government of Canada.

“Esterhazy’s definition of Hungarian was very broad, and so the group he brought to the prairies was an ethnically diverse as that part of Hungary from which they hailed. The Bohemians (Czechs) and Slovaks in the party tended to congregate in the western parts of the new colony, while the Magyars (Hungarians) chose lands in the east.

“Immediately upon their arrival the Count applied for a post office, which meant the settlers had to propose a name. They quickly settled on Esterhaz to honor their patron, and the office opened near the center of the colony less than two months after their arrival. The post office was located on the quarter section that was originally reserved for Count Esterhazy’s own homestead, although he never filed on it.

It bordered a small lake, and Esterhazy had planned a town site there in the style of rural Hungarian villages.

“The colony’s first school opened near the post office in 1888. It became the Esterhaz RC Public School District No 28, the colony being predominantly Roman Catholic. The next year the Esterhaz Protestant Separate School District No 138 was established, with boundaries coterminous with those of the original district. The Protestant school was built about four miles to the southwest, closer to the Czech and Slovak settlers, among whom there were more non-Catholics.

“Although life was not easy for the early settlers, by the turn of the century the Esterhaz Colony was one of the most prosperous on the plains. It was a magnet for Hungarians from the old country as well as for those in the United States, and Count Esterhazy continued to promote immigration from both areas. For a number of years he was an immigration agent for the Canadian government, and for a time received commissions from the Canadian Pacific Railroad as a colonization agent as well.

“He returned to the colony bearing his name in 1902 under a commission from the Canadian government to prepare a pamphlet to attract even more Hungarian settlers. He received a hero’s welcome, surveyed the homesteaders, took photographs, and basked in the glory of the moment. He discussed ambitious schemes for the expansion of the colony, planning new settlements to be named Szekelyfold, Szent Istvan and Mariavolgy. Little came of these plans, however, since even with his influence, Esterhazy was unable to procure any more large blocks of land for settlement. The Department of the Interior had switched the administration of homesteads to a ‘first come, first served’ basis. The pace of settlement was accelerating and the government felt less need to bring in large, homogenous groups of settlers.

“After a few weeks Esterhazy left the colony, never to return, although he continued to promote immigration until his death in New York in 1912. He also frequently interceded on behalf of his colonists, and was known to write letters directly to the governor general when he encountered bureaucratic red tape.

“In 1891 Joseph Knourek was appointed postmaster of Esterhaz after the death of the original postmaster, Julius Vass. The office was relocated to Knourek’s farm in the western part of the colony, where he lived with his Czech and Slovak neighbors. This left the Hungarians in the east somewhat distant from mail service, so they applied for a second post office. A new name had to be found since Esterhaz was already taken. One popular suggestion was Kossuthville, after the Hungarian patriot. However, they selected Kaposvar after the Hungarian city at the center of the Esterhazy estates. Stephen Barath became Kaposvar’s only postmaster within weeks of Knourek’s appointment.

“At the same time a school was organized at the new site in the east, St Istvan Roman Catholic Public No 31. The name honors St Stephen, the first Hungarian king and the patron saint of Hungary, Istvan being the Magyar word for Stephen. The name should have been Szent Istvan, or St Stephen, rather than the English-Magyar hybrid that it was.

“In 1902, not long after Count Esterhazy’s visit to the colony, the Czech and Slovak settlers in the western part decided to change the name of the Esterhaz post office and Protestant Separate school district to Kolin, to honor a Czech city.

“The upshot of these maneuvers was that the name Esterhaz disappeared. The western part was known as Kolin, the eastern section as Kaposvar. But the Count was yet to have the last word. When the Canadian Pacific Railroad’s Pheasant Hills branch was built just north of the colony in 1904-5, the railway selected Esterhazy as the name for the siding nearest the colony to honor its former agent. The huge potash mines nearby ensure that the Count’s name will survive on Saskatchewan’s map for decades to come. The Kolin post office closed in 1910, Kaposvar the following year.”354

***EYEBROW, SASKATCHEWAN***

“The village gets its name from an eyebrow shaped hill above Eyebrow Lake. The lake is a prairie lake located in the Qu’Appelle Valley near the village of Tugaske. It is 9 km long and 1 km wide. It supports a bird sanctuary.”355

HY Hind composes: “This uniform distribution of lake and river valleys is determined by the direction of the hill and ridge ranges which characterize the country. The South Branch of the Saskatchewan, below Red Deer’s River, is separated from the Missouri by the Grand Coteau du Missouri. A continuation or spur of the Grand Coteau comes on the Qu’Appelle River at the height of land about 18 miles from the Elbow of the South Branch. Here it is called the Eyebrow Hill Range, by the Crees. It appears to terminate suddenly in the form of an isolated hill about 400 feet above the plain, called ‘The Lumpy Hill of the Woods’, a few miles beyond the point where the South Branch takes its easterly turn to join the North Branch at the Grand Forks.

“The South Branch flows for fully two hundred miles below the Elbow at the foot of this continuation of the Eyebrow Hill Range, in a northerly direction, and its deep excavated valley appears to lie at an average distance of twelve miles from it. This range is cut by several narrow, deep valleys; and from the small lakes or pools which occupy their summits, water, during spring freshets, flows to the Saskatchewan and Assiniboine.”356

***FORGET, SASKATCHEWAN***

“The village is named in honor of Amedee E Forget, the first Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan.

“Seeing as Forget is a French name, the town is pronounced more like 'For-jay' rather than the English word forget.”357

***FRENCHMAN BUTTE, SASKATCHEWAN***

Gertie Preece designates: “The very high hill north of the North Saskatchewan River, today known as Frenchman Butte, was a prominent landmark to the Indians long before the arrival of the white man. What did they call it? Certainly nothing about a Frenchman. So how did the word Frenchman become

attached to it? Since there doesn’t appear to be any official documentation we need to listen to ‘oral’ history.

“The trouble with oral history is that it leads to speculation and variations in the telling. Therefore we must look at the facts of the circumstances.

“We need to go back to fur trade days when the Hudson’s Bay Company first brought white men to the west. For many years these men went no further than the posts on the Bay. They depended on the Indians bringing their furs to them. By the mid-1700s French traders and explorers sponsored by Montreal merchants had reached the western interior. The Indians were easily persuaded to trade with them instead of making the long journey to the Bay. Thus the Hudson’s Bay Company was forced to set up inland posts. Trading posts, large and small, leap-frogged up the rivers ever further westward. In this lawless land, competition became vicious and violent. At greatest risk were men, not connected with any company, going it alone in temporary shelters. They were known as ‘free traders’.

“Such a ‘free trader’ was a certain Frenchman who arrived here in the early 1800s. His choice for a post: a well-known native gathering place near a very high hill, close to the main river highway. He must have been there for a few years; his method baiting and finding his fur packs became known to at least one other trader further west. When one of his packs was presented at that post it was recognized and aroused suspicion. A visit to his cabin revealed two murdered bodies. Since he was not connected to any company there was no investigation. That leaves many unanswered questions.

“Who was this man? Who was his companion? Why were they killed? Who was the killer?

“Although the ‘very high butte’ has become a federal historic site it is not because of the above incident. Rather, it commemorates the spot where, some 10 years later, the second-last skirmish of the Northwest Rebellion occurred. Numerous rifle pits dug by warriors and hostages can be seen there.

“In 1928 the railway came to the little settlement between the hill and the river. It seems only natural that the station was called Frenchman Butte.

“Homesteaders during the early 1900s led the economy from fur to farming. Eventually the area became part of the Rural Municipality of Frenchman Butte.”358

***GLEN MCPHERSON, SASKATCHEWAN***

Michael Sherven illustrates: “In 1913 a meeting was held in a local one room school called Tweed school northwest of Mankota, SK. The primary reason for the meeting was to name the newly formed rural municipality. Mr George Hall a Scotsman suggested Glenelg. Peter Craigen (post master at Esme) was at the meeting and suggested they adopt the name McPherson because a Mr McPherson was a prominent member in Municipal Affairs at the time and they hoped this name might garner some influence. Consensus was reached without too much debate. In those early years monthly council meetings were held at Tweed school on Saturdays.”359

***HEART’S HILL, SASKATCHEWAN***

Janet E Fisher expands: “Before 1911, Land Companies divided up Saskatchewan's vast prairies into areas to survey into sections and 1/4 sections to sell to the immigrants from Russia and Germany. These areas were then surveyed into larger areas and were later called Municipalities. When flying over these areas from the air all they could see was prairie, so they looked for specific land marks, to call the areas so they could keep these areas straight in their files; in our municipality Heart's Hill. There really is only one very large, high hill. This hill spans over nearly 10 quarter sections and is the highest point for miles and miles. But from the air this hill is shaped and looks like a very large heart. With the wider top west end boasting two rounder points with a deep ravine dividing them and then smoothening upward and the other narrower east end starting wide and narrowing to a v shape, very high up and creating a fantastic view point in three directions. This area had this name ever since it was surveyed all those years ago. A small hamlet sprouted up at the base of the hill, and they called it Heart's Hill when the train and tracks were put through in the early 1900s the railroad needed a name for the station as well and the Municipality was formed in 1911 to build roads, so the settlers could haul their grain. The government needed this municipality to be registered and since all the Municipalities in the province were numbered, once again they called it the Rural Municipality of Heart's Hill No 352.”360

***INDIAN HEAD, SASKATCHEWAN***

Alan Rayburn maintains: “This town (1902) east of Regina was founded by the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1882 and named after an Aboriginal’s skull found near the site of the railway station by the Canadian Pacific Railway survey crew. The skull was still in the possession of a farmer in 1905. In 1854, a missionary referred to a hill called Indian Head, noting its Aboriginal name was Ustiquanuci.”361

***KANDAHAR, SASKATCHEWAN***

“Kandahar is a small hamlet on Highway 16 near Wynyard, Saskatchewan, Canada, named by Canadian Pacific Railway executives in the late 19th century for a British military victory in Kandahar, Afghanistan. In 1925, Kandahar was listed as a Canadian Pacific Railway Ltd Station on the Minnedosa, Saskatoon, Edmonton Section, CPR. From 1910 to 1913, the spelling of the post office was Candahar. The hamlet is too small to be enumerated on its own, so its population belongs to the Rural Municipality of Big Quill No 308.”362

***LOVE, SASKATCHEWAN***

Village of Love presents: “The Narrow Hills of Saskatchewan is part of the west shore line of Ancient Lake Agassiz. This lake covered an area from the eastern part of the province eastward to almost the Great Lakes region of Ontario. The ‘Narrow Hills Esker’, as it was commonly called, was not a true esker. It was in fact a ‘pushmoraine’, formed of sand and gravel, believed to have been left after the last ice age several thousands of years ago. The East Side of this ridge, being that the old lake bottom is lowland, hosts a variety of trees including Black Spruce, Tamarack, and Willow. It also has many areas of open muskeg or bogs. The West Side is mostly Jack Pine, along with several small lakes called ‘kettle holes’, where it is believed that this is the location where many huge blocks of ice had lodged and subsequently melted. Among some of the other vegetation that blanketed these hills were White Spruce, Balsam

Poplar, and Trembling Aspen, along with an under covering of many varieties of wild fruits and shrubs. The ground cover is mosses typical of low-growing plants.

“The lakes boast of a variety of fish which include Northern Pike, Walleye, White Fish. And Suckers. Some have been stocked with numerous types of Trout. Big game animals, including Moose, Elk, Caribou, White-tailed Deer, and Black Bear also roam these areas. One may also discover Upland Game birds in the area.

“This unique area, with scenery that is unrivaled in Saskatchewan, is accessible by traveling north of the Village of Love. It ends at the Lower Fishing Lake, located in the Narrow Hills Provincial Park.

“The Village of Love, referred to as the ‘Gateway To The Narrow Hills’, can supply you with all your needs. More about Love later.

“Saskatchewan has a great variety of landforms, climate and vegetation ranging from the flat expanses of waving wheat fields to the thick forests and rugged, hard rock hills. We have it all!

“In the area of Fishing Lake one will find some of our most beautiful scenery. Ranging from the steep, rolling, densely forested hills to the flat, lake-strewn muskegs and small, sheltered lakes.

“Many of the hills are narrow and winding, curling its way for miles between the lakes, rivers and muskegs. It is from these hills the area takes its traditional name, the ‘Narrow Hills’.

“Some of the area lakes, such as Shannon Lake, Baldy Lake, Calder Lake, Odell Lake, Zeden Lake and the Fishing Lakes, themselves are kettleholes; believed to be depressions left when the last embedded blocks of ice finally melted from the moraine.

“Because these hills are thickly clothed with dense wooded areas and sport a variety of game and fish, this makes it a heaven for fisherman and hunter alike.

“As was previously mentioned, this region of unique glacial scenery is also the home of Narrow Hills Provincial Park. The park was established in the early 1930s when Field Officer, Garry Parker, who was a trapper and fisherman, recognized the value of the area as a source of livelihood. He realized the unique scenery and plentiful wildlife should be protected for others to enjoy.

“Parker commissioned his patrolman, Burns Matheson, to conduct a survey to support his park proposal. Matheson’s two months of traveling the area confirmed areas that were plentiful of unique scenic attractions. As a result of his findings, the Nipawin Provincial Park was officially established in January of 1934. It was to cover an area of about two-hundred and fifty-two square miles.

“There has been little permanent settlement in the Fishing Lakes region. This is largely because the main water routes of the Churchill and Saskatchewan Rivers bypass it. However, the area, with its abundant wildlife, has always been a rich source of livelihood for all who used it.

“The first records date from the early 1900s, when as many as twenty families from Fort A La Corne and Little Red River, located on the southern fringes of the forest belt, made annual winter trips up to upper

Fishing Lake by horse and travois. Others made their treks from the west, around East Trout Lake and Nipamew Lake.

“Such people as Joe and William Head, Sam Brittain and Alex Daniels used the Narrow Hills and Fishing Lakes trails to reach the area. Once there, they camped on the Jack Pine ridges to hunt, fish and trap throughout the winter months. They know the Narrow Hills as ‘Elk Mountain’ and it has been said that one hundred and thirty-five Elk were taken in one winter.

“These annual treks were continued until 1945. Often the men left their families at Upper Fishing Lake and moved North to trap the Churchill River country, bringing the furs south to sell to the traders at Fort A La Corne. These treks were not without a great price, however. One of these early trappers, a man by the name of Sam Brittain, saw his young children die of pneumonia here. He buried them close to the east shore of Upper Fishing Lake. The graves remained there up until 1974, when new rights of way were cleared to straighten the Hansen Lake road. The Department of Highways moved the graves to Fort A La Corne.

“During the great depression, when the lean years hit the prairies, more people headed north to the Narrow Hills area to trap. But even by the early part of the 1920s, several white trappers had joined the Native Indians in the area.

“Among the earliest ones to come to the area was a young Norwegian, named Olaf Hansen. Hansen arrived via British Columbia and Ontario to trap between White Gull Lake and Candle Lake over the 1919 –1920 winter.

“In 1923, he helped build Gilmor Cabin, located on the Torch River, between Snowden and Choiceland. It served as headquarters for the Federal Departments of the Interior through the late 1920s. This cabin was later destroyed in a fire in 1939.

“In the fall of 1924, Hansen left the service and settled on the Little Bear Lake. He became the first person to commercially fish the lake. He remained there for several years, trapping and fishing with partners. In 1928, he moved to Big Sandy Lake to pioneer the commercial fishing industry there. He was to move again the following winter to try his luck on Deschambault Lake and Jan Lake.

“For many years after this Olaf Hansen worked as a diamond driller out of Flin Flon, Manitoba before his retirement to Prince Albert. It was Hansen who located the route of the road which was to be named after him – the Hansen Lake road.

“Frank Clark was another early trapper. Clark and Hansen worked together as what was called then, ‘Rover Game Guardians’ in the early 1920s. In 1929, Clark also settled on the north shore of Little Bear Lake. He was to live there for the next thirty-three years, until his death in 1962. He died of a heart attack near his cabin.

“Clark was remembered as a kind, friendly man who welcomed visitors. He trapped and fished commercially during the winter months while guiding angers and hunters as well as tending to a productive flower and vegetable garden during the summer months.

“Frank Clark survived many incidents involving bears and wolves. He is said to have even survived a cougar that appeared on his cabin roof one morning. He always wore a muskrat hat and swore it once saved his hide from an angry mother bear.

“Clark’s grave can still be found close to the site of his cabin. Clark Bay, near the second narrows on the Little Bear Lake, was named after him.

“In 1930, Edward Beatty moved his family north from Kinistino, Saskatchewan to Caribou Creek. The following year they moved again, this time to the west shore of Big Sandy Lake. It was here they lived until their home was destroyed by a forest fire in the late 1940s. After this, they settled on the north shore of Big Sandy an area still trapped by the Beatty sons, Oliver, Oscar, and John.

“Edward Beatty was one tough man. His son, Oliver, recalls his father packing one hundred pounds of flour for several miles, and he would often run for about ten miles behind a dog team without resting.

“Another man, who was to figure predominately in the area, arrived in the late 1920s. Born in Quebec, Henry Fournier moved to Saskatchewan in 1917 and began fishing and trapping in the Montreal Lake area in 1920. In 1925, he settled on the West Side of Little Bear Lake. Here he trapped and fished before taking a job as Fire Patrolman during the summer months.

“Fournier was well known for raising and training sled dogs, which he supplied to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, among others. His own black lead-dog, ‘Nipper’, was part wolf.

“By 1938, Fournier was working seasonally for the department of Highways in the winter and Resources in the summer. This was in addition to his regular trapping. In 1949, he moved to Montreal Lake. Here he started a saw mill and store. Four years later, he sold his trap-line to Bert Lien, finally leaving in 1961 for a sawmill job in Williams Lake, British Columbia.

“In 1920s and 1930s saw the coming and going of various partnership combinations. Most of them had moved north to homestead the forest fringes, turning to trapping in order to supplement their meager incomes.

“The roll call presented men like Jack Forrester, Melvin Johnson, Joe Johnson, Garry Parker, Ben Griffiths, Ted Brown, Martin Lumen, Nels Martenson, Mels Perrson, Henry Millar and Ted Updike. These men spent years trapping, hunting, and fishing around the Fishing Lakes with many different partners over the years. Some of these, like Melvin and Joe Johnson, Gary Parker, Ben Griffiths and Ted Updike also worked for the Federal and Provincial Governments as Game Guardians, Forest Rangers or Fire Patrolman.

“They say that there is no better place one can be, than to be in Love. We who live here tend to agree whole-heartedly. Let's look at a few of the reasons why we think that any tour of this area is not complete unless it includes a stopover in Love.

“Although there are many colorful versions how the Village came by its name, we tend to believe it was named in honor of the first Canadian Pacific Railway conductor, Tom Love.

“In the 1940s, when lumber was king, our Village population reached a booming 250 people. As the mighty White Spruce disappeared, so did our population. The lumber industry was gradually replaced with mixed farming.

“During the years, when Love was in her prime, we had many businesses on Main Street. Today, however, there can still be found a garage, hotel, gift shop and church.

“Today our population ranges around 80 or so warm, friendly folk. Their family histories reflect origins from the British Isles, Europe, Russia, China, Japan and many other countries that, when blended, produce a true Canadian mosaic spirit.

“As was mentioned, Love takes pride in being known as the ‘Gateway to the Narrow Hills’. For anyone wishing to view nature at its best, we recommend you to take a trip through the Narrow Hills. The Tourism Committee has been very busy the past two years improving the trail so anyone can enjoy the untouched beauty the nature Esker has to offer. Upon reaching the top of this Esker, you will truly feel on top of the world. While driving the thirty mile trail there are many sights to see and lakes to stop at to perhaps cast for that trophy Northern Pike, Walleye or Trout. In the winter months the trail provides the snowmobiler and cross-country skier with some exciting, challenging and breath-taking trails.

“Our Tourism Committee has just recently completed a campsite located in the Village of Love. A lovely camp kitchen, playground area, outside toilets, and water make this a place worth stopping at for a little while before carrying on to the Narrow Hills. It is free of charge, too!

“We have many requests to construct a Chapel of Love for those wishing to seal their vows in Love. Although we are not able to complete such a project as yet, one never knows what the future might hold. There is a church in Love that will accommodate that for now.

“There is a special note about Love, however. We are pleased to present, thanks to Canada Post, our very own Cancellation Stamp in honor of our namesake and our Village symbol.

“This stamp has caught the attention of people as far away as Japan. With the wonderful success we have had with the T-shirts, we are anticipating that a larger assortment of souvenirs will soon be available.”363

***LUCKY LAKE, SASKATCHEWAN***

www.luckylake.ca renders: “Lucky Lake, formerly known as ‘Devil's Lake’, took its name from a lake which is 5 1/2 miles North of Lucky Lake called Luck Lake. It was named by the Indians because of a mysterious light that shone over it during the night. No one ever knew what caused this light, however the lake was full of alkali, which could be an explanation.

“An early settler, named Jack Swanson had an experience that would forever change the name of Devil's Lake. Jack had hobbled his oxen, but the mosquitoes were so bad that the oxen became frantic; the oxen then broke their hobbles and ran away. They started heading towards the lake where Jack was able

to catch them. He was so happy he was able to do so, he said ‘This isn't Devil's Lake, this is Lucky Lake!’ So, Welcome to Lucky Lake!

“Lucky Lake has seen many changes over the years. Within the past 13 years The Double ‘L’ Motel was built in 1996, the Tullis Co-op expanded to Lucky Lake in 2005. West Central Road and Rail followed in 2007, H2O Systems in 2008, & most recently Kens Lumber expanded on the North East end of town, all to serve the community.

“Lucky Lake has so much to offer! This website will help you to find out what the ‘must sees’ in Lucky Lake and the surrounding areas are. Whether you are here in the Summer or Winter, there are plenty of activities to keep you busy, from ice fishing to taking a ride on the beautiful Betty Lou on Lake Diefenbaker, viewing the unique Sandcastles to taking in a round of golf at one of the many freshly groomed green courses in the area. There are endless activities, be sure to check them all out!”364

***MANITOU, SASKATCHEWAN***

WR Barry shed lights on: “Manitou comes from the Algonquian for ‘creator’ or ‘spirit’. That a word of such import to the first residents of Saskatchewan should find its way onto our map is no surprise, but we came close to having three Manitou Lakes.

“A Hudson’s Bay Company map of 1795 shows God’s Lake just to the north to where Yorkton was to spring up a century later. Henry Kelsey wintered on its shores in 1691, and the name is undoubtedly a translation on the Cree manitow. But when the Doukhobors first arrived in Canada in 1899, many of them settled in the same area in what was called the Devil’s Lake Colony. That same year the Devil’s Lake School District No 514 was established at the north end of the lake, and in 1900 the Devil Lake post office opened on the east shore.

“The connotation of deviltry probably developed from intolerance. The Anglo-Saxons of the York Colony likely perceived the Indian manitow as pagan, hence the work of the devil. The name was not one with which the Doukhobors, or many of their neighbors, were comfortable. The Doukhobors quickly changed the name of their settlement to the Good Spirit Lake Annex, a name which probably at least partly derived from the translation of their own name, which means ‘spirit wrestler’ in Russian. It was also much closer to the meaning of manitow.

“Thus, a name which had changed from holy to demonic in one century, began the long process of getting back to righteousness. However, there was a lack of agreement on what the name should change to. Nor did the ‘demonists’ give up easily. A rural municipality established in the area in 1909 was named Devil’s Lake, and the Devil Lake post office lasted until 1954.

“But ‘goodness’ was in the wind. The rural municipality of Good Lake No 274 was successfully established in 1913, and an unsuccessful attempt was made to set up a rural telephone company of the same name in 1914. Another more ‘spiritual’ proposal was embodied in the Kitchi-Manitou (Cree kihci-manitow, Saulteaux kici-manito, ‘Great Spirit’) post office, which opened in the 1930s at the south end

of the lake. Fortunately for Saskatchewan toponymists, the post office name was changed to Spirit Lake in 1936; it closed 31 years later.

“Consensus was finally developing. The Good Spirit Lake provincial park, along the south and west shores of the lake, was set up in 1931, and the Good Spirit community pasture borders the park. The new resort of Spiritwood Acres near the south end of the lake also fits the pattern. Today, Good Spirit is the universally accepted name.

“The second Manitou Lake, even closer to the Alberta border than Good Spirit Lake is to Manitoba, has also had difficulty achieving consensus. The name and place had been well known to the Indians, and there are references to it as early as the 1750s. The first modern record of its use came in 1908 with the Manito Lake School District No 2218. That lasted until 1925 when the name was changed to Neilburg. The federal government set up the Manito forest south of the lake in an area that is most now community pasture, and the name survives in the Manito Cattle Breeders and Little Manito pastures, both of which date from 1951.

“According to the Gazetteer of Canada: Saskatchewan, the lake is still officially Manito. Obviously, this is not entirely acceptable to the residents. The rural municipality of Manitou Lake No 442 was established at Marsden as early as 1910, and the Manitou Lake rural telephone company followed in 1917. The Manitou Plain School District No 4204 existed east of Neilburg, 1919-25. The traditional spelling also appears at the Manitou Lake regional park south of Marsden and, as recently as 1993, Manitou was selected for the name of the health center at Neilburg.

“The Manito spelling may have been an attempt to distinguish the area from Little Manitou Lake near Watrous. The Little Manitou School District No 1668 opened southwest of the lake in 1906. The Little Manitou post office opened the next year, but changed to Young in 1909. Manitou Hill No 4174 was east of Young from 1914, and the Little Manitou rural telephone company operated out of Watrous beginning the same year.

“The curative and spiritual powers of the very heavily alkaline waters of Little Manitou were well known to the First Nations, and the lake was a popular stopover for them. It is said that whatever disputes might have been troubling competing bands, they were set aside within sight of the sacred lake. A sanatorium which was built on the lake in 1914-5 was named Muskikee Wapui, from the Cree maskihkiwapoy for ‘medicine, or healing water’.

“The resort as it exists today was established after the arrival of the Grand Trunk Pacific at Watrous in 1908. In the early years the east end was known as Martin’s Beach after Josiah Martin, who built the first bathhouse. The west end was MacLachlan’s Beach after John J MacLachlan, who homesteaded the site.

“The name Manitou returned to prominence in 1919 with establishment of the resort village of Manitou Beach and the opening of the post office. There was also a Manitou Beach School District No 4952 from 1931, but it never operated a school, preferring to convey its students the three short miles into

Watrous. The Manitou hospital was at Watrous from 1933-48 (when it changed to Watrous Union), and Manitou Lodge is still the nursing home there.

“The government broke the string when it named the provincial park at the Beach Little Manitou in 1931. Camp Easter Seal is now housed in the magnificent fieldstone park chalet, which was built as a Depression relief project. Much of the former provincial park is now the Manitou District regional park.

“The purported powers of the mineral laden water made Little Manitou Lake a popular gathering place for people from all parts of Saskatchewan. In the 1920s, Manitou Beach became a popular holiday destination for Winnipeggers. Canadian National ran excursion trains to Watrous, and it is said that as much Yiddish could be heard at the beach as English. There were two large indoor salt water pools, numerous hotels, and Danceland, with its famous ‘hardwood on horsehair’ floor, was in its heyday.

“The resort declined through the 1950s, but it has again become highly popular in the last two decades. The new Manitou Springs spa attracts visitors from far and wide, and the golf course is so busy it is almost inaccessible. All in the name, of course, of the Great Spirit.”365

***OLD WIVES LAKE, SASKATCHEWAN***

Alan Rayburn suggests: “Located 37 km southwest of Moose Jaw, this lake recalls a story of Cree hunters and their families being pursued in the early 1800s by the Blackfoot, after the Cree had a successful hunt for buffalo meat. To allow the men, younger women, and children to escape, the older women hatched a plan to give the appearance that the entire party remained camped at the lake overnight. However, the next morning the Blackfoot found that only the older women had tended the fires, and in their fury they killed them all. About 1900 the lake was named after Sir Frederick John W Johnstone (1715-74), who had hunted in the area. Nevertheless, the name Old Wives Lake persisted in local use and was officially restored in 1953.”366

***POUNDMAKER, SASKATCHEWAN***

WR Barry calls attention to: “North of Cut Knife lies Poundmaker 114. Chief Poundmaker (circa 1842-86) is referred to in documents associated with Treaty 6 as ‘Pond-maker’, Oopeetookerahhanapeweyin, but his name was transliterated as Peetookahhanupeeginew when he signed the document as a headman to Red Pheasant. The Saskatchewan Herald called him ‘Alexander, surnamed the Poundmaker’ in 1886. The Nor’Westers (1985) gives Pitikwahanapiwiyin, which is close to the modern rendition of pihtokahanapiwiyin. Whatever the form, the name is one of great distinction. The ‘poundmaker’ would have been a hunter and a leader of great skill who was in charge of setting up the pound for a buffalo hunt.

“Poundmaker was made a chief in his own right in 1880, just after he and his band settled on the reserve which bears his name. Despite the traditional Cree-Blackfoot animosity, Poundmaker was the adoptive son of the great Blackfoot chief, Crowfoot. On several occasions during the North West Rebellion of 1885, he managed to restrain his restless warriors, undoubtedly saving many lives.

“One of the most dramatic scenes in Saskatchewan history occurred at Battleford following the Rebellion when Poundmaker surrendered to General Middleton. Even avowedly anti-Indian observers felt compelled to contrast the dignity and presence of Chief Poundmaker with the boorishness of the ungallant victor. Poundmaker was arrested, found guilty of treason, and sentenced to Stony Mountain penitentiary in Manitoba. He died (apparently of an aneurism) soon after his release in 1886 while on a visit to his adoptive father at Blackfoot Crossing, Alberta. His name lives on through the reserve, its school and an historical interpretation center his people have erected in his honor.”367

***SASKATOON, SASKATCHEWAN***

Alan Rayburn connotes: “John Neilson Lake founded a temperance colony on the South Saskatchewan River in 1882, and planned to call it Minnetonka (Siouan for ‘big water’), possibly after a western suburb of Minneapolis, Minnesota. When a branch of reddish purple berries was brought to him, he was told the Cree called the misaskwatomina (‘fruit of the much wood’). It sounded like Saskatoon to him and he pronounced it the name of the new colony. It became a town in 1903 and a city in 1906.”368

WR Barry details: “The city of Saskatoon is generally assumed to be from misaskwatomin, Cree word for the berry. The name was selected by John Neilson Lake of the Temperance Colonization Society in 1883. He always asserted that it was after the berry, but his memory of how and why varied over the years. In 1919 Edward Ahenakew offered a somewhat different explanation. The city site was a common stopover for Cree who wintered at Carlton on their way to the prairie for the spring hunt. They often cut Saskatoon berry willows for arrow shafts there. The Cree for the willows is misaskwat, and the place where they were cut was manimisaskwatan. It seems likely that Lake had this phrase in mind when he chose the name.

“The name Saskatoon was the object of a tug of war in the early years. Lake’s original settlement was on the high east bank of the South Saskatchewan River, but when the Qu’Appelle Long Lake and Saskatchewan Railway came through in 1890, it built its station on the lower west side. Since the Saskatoon post office already existed on the east bank, the new post office near the station was christened West Saskatoon.”369

***SMUTS, SASKATCHEWAN***

WR Barry explains: “Smuts, a Saskatchewan place name which sometimes raises eyebrows – after all, our farmers battle various forms of smutty fungi which can affect our most important crops. The name, of course, has nothing to do with fungus. The Canadian National Railroad built its line from Melfort to Aberdeen in the late 1920s (it was abandoned a half century later). For the first station north of Aberdeen the railway chose to honor Jan Christiaan Smuts (1870-1950), the prime minister of South Africa from 1919-24 and 1939-48. Smuts fought the British during the Boer War at the turn of the century, but came to believe that cooperation within the British Empire was the best course for his country. A confirmed internationalist, he championed the League of Nations between the wars, and played a significant role in the establishment of the United Nations in 1945. The Smuts post office operated from 1930-70.”370

***SPY HILL, SASKATCHEWAN***

Florence Barker writes: “We do not know for sure how the district got its name. Historically, we do know that on John Pallister’s map of his expedition in 1857-60, Spy Hill is shown as a promontory. We also know that prior to 1787, the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company had established a trading fort on the Qu’Appelle River within the now Spy Hill municipal area.

“There are three versions as to how the district got its name. 1) That it was so named because the Indians used the hill to ‘spy out’ the surrounding country to watch for buffalo or enemy tribes. 2) Gilbert Johnson, historian, of Marchwell states – Spy Hill is the setting of a famous Indian legend. A revengeful wife, who had deserted her tribe, succeeded in her determination to massacre them. Then, discovering that her former husband, the Chief – the Wolverine – alone had escaped, sought him on the hill and there stabbed him to death. Before the survey, the hill is said to have been called Wolverine or Butte a’ Carcajar by the Indians and Metis. 3) Dr FO Gilbert, former Indian missionary and local medical practitioner at Spy Hill for 25 years writes – ‘Years ago a band of Cree Indians made camp at the Hill. A Sioux Indian was sent to steal some of their ponies. The Sioux was discovered by one of the Crees, who picking up a stone, killed the would-be thief. The Cree exclaimed Kapakamaou which means ‘I have killed a spy’ and ever after the hill called Spy Hill.”

FO Gilbert wrote a poem called The Indian Legend of Spy Hill, which follows:

“Kakapenace sat in his teepee

Dreaming of the days gone by.

For I’d asked him for the legend

Of the killing of the spy.

Long the old man hesitated,

Slowly then his answer came;

I will tell the native story

Of that Hill, and why it came.

Men in those days fought each other,

For our tribes would not agree;

Cree would fight the fierce Dacotah,

Saulteaux sometimes fought with Cree.

Once some Crees upon their travels

Pitched their camp close by that Hill;

There they loosed their tired ponies

Free to wander at their will.

Sunrise saw a young Cree hunter,

Climb the Hill to view around.

There he saw a Sioux marauder

Fast asleep upon the ground.

Kinistine, with angry visage,

Slowly crept upon the spy.

Stone in hand he struck the sleeper

Gloating as he watched him die.

From the spot beneath the dead man

All the sod he cut away.

‘Ka-pa-kam-a-ou’ he uttered

As he turned and strode away.

As a youth I journeyed thither,

Saw the place the spy had lain.

No grass then grew on the Hill top

On the spot the spy was slain.

Spy Hill. That’s the name in English

Which the white man knows it by:

Ka-pa-kam-a-ou we call it,

Meaning, ‘Here I struck a spy’.”371

***STAR CITY, SASKATCHEWAN***

Town of Star City imparts: “The first few settlers arrived in the area in 1898–9 and, in 1902, one of the first couples in the area, Mr and Mrs Walter Starkey (homestead entry May 1, 1899) opened a post office in addition to the small store they operated out of their log home. The name Star City was chosen, honoring the Starkeys and reflecting the early pioneers’ hopes for development in the area. The first

settlers came via the railway to Prince Albert and then travelled with horses or oxen and wagon from there. As the railroad progressed westward, many would find work involved with its construction. In 1904, the Star City town-site was surveyed and lots were put up for sale. The Starkeys moved in from their homestead and built a substantial general store. In 1905, many businesses were started. A hotel was built. On April 6, 1906, with a population of 109, Star City was incorporated as a village. Lumbering was big business as the parklands were cleared for agriculture. The community grew steadily and with a population of just under 600 in 1921, Star City attained Town status. The population remained fairly stable until the mid-1960s. Star City maintains a small core of essential businesses and services and has paved, tree-lined streets throughout its well-kept residential neighborhoods. Fourth Street features fine examples of pre-Depression era architecture.”372

***UNITY, SASKATCHEWAN***

Chris Martin mentions “Unity is situated on the Canadian National Rail Line and if you follow the line and the town names that go along it you will notice that they are alphabetical. So as you get close to Unity from the east there is Reford, Scott, Taco, Unity, Vera, Winter, Xander, Yonker and Zumbro, then they start again with Artland, etc… and go toward Edmonton, Alberta. This was done by the Canadian National company in the early 1900s.

“Unity was founded in 1906, and became an official town in 1909 when the rails came through and the train stations were built that same year. Unity has two rail lines that cross outside of town on the west side. The Canadian National is on the south of town and the Canadian Pacific on the north side of town. Hence we had two stations available to travel from.

“Other facts about Unity are: the drilling of exploratory west of oil in 1946 led to three discoveries – potash, natural gas and salt. The first potash mine in Canada was near the town of Vera, natural gas was discovered at the south of End Lake near Unity and just outside of Unity is the Sifto Salt mine which is still going today.”373

***URANIUM CITY, SASKATCHEWAN***

Lesley McBain puts into words: “Uranium City is located on the northern shore of Lake Athabasca, 724 km northwest of Prince Albert and 48 km south of the Saskatchewan – Northwest Territories border. Uranium ore was first discovered in northern Saskatchewan in the late 1930s. However, with the onset of World War II, the Canadian government imposed a ban on private exploration for the mineral, and created Eldorado Mining and Refining Ltd to control all uranium-related exploration activities. The lifting of the ban after the war sparked a staking rush in the Athabasca region, and the need for a convenient service center to serve the growing number of mines in the region quickly became apparent. As a result, the provincial government created the remote community of Uranium City with input from Eldorado Nuclear, specifically to support uranium mining activities in the region. Construction of the community began in 1952 with plans to accommodate and provide the necessary infrastructure for 5,000 people. Between 1953 and 1955 Uranium City developed rapidly, and by 1956 it was the fastest growing community in Saskatchewan.

“Uranium City’s history follows the same trajectory as that of other single-industry towns in Canada. The community boomed in the 1950s, nearly died in the early 1960s, and experienced a brief upswing in 1967 and 1968 when demand for uranium increased. However, the upsurge was not strong enough to absorb the area’s capacity to produce uranium, and in 1969 Eldorado Mining and Refining Ltd announced cutbacks. In 1971 Eldorado came close to shutting down as there was no market for uranium because of stockpiling. Gunnar Mines Ltd and Lorado Uranium Mines Ltd began operations in 1955 and 1957 respectively, but by the mid-1960s these operations had ceased. The uranium market recovered somewhat in 1974. New finds were discovered, and Eldorado announced a major expansion program, including plans to overhaul its operations in northern Saskatchewan. Eldorado also committed large capital expenditures to accelerate the development of new assets and refurbish existing facilities at the Beaverlodge operation. Nevertheless, in June 1982 Eldorado permanently closed its Beaverlodge operation, citing increased operating costs, falling ore grades, and a ‘soft’ uranium market as reasons for the shutdown. Although as a single-industry community the residents of Uranium City were familiar with boom/bust cycles, the announcement of the mine closure came as a shock to the townspeople and had profound effects. Businesses folded, and the population declined dramatically from almost 2,500 residents on the eve of the announcement in December 1981 to 200 in 1986. Between 1982 and 1985, water and sewer utilities were shut off to outlying residential areas; services were provided to the remaining population, who moved into the Core and Hospital Hill area of the community.

“While closure of the mines marked the beginning of the end for Uranium City, it was not the end of uranium mining as new, richer deposits were discovered in other areas of northern Saskatchewan. However, rather than constructing new resource-based communities, the labor force commuted to the mines on a seven-day-in, seven-day-out basis, a system which enabled some Uranium City residents to maintain generally well-paying mining jobs. The prime employer in Uranium City, however, became the hospital, which served the entire Athabasca region. Regardless of the hospital jobs, nearly all the people of Uranium City left and most of the businesses closed. Many of the unoccupied buildings in the community collapsed, presenting safety concerns for some residents. The struggling community suffered a further setback in 2003 with the opening of a new hospital at Stony Rapids. Many businesses relied heavily on the hospital for their operations, and the shift of regional health care services to Stony Rapids meant a considerable reduction in business for those in Uranium City. The remaining residents of Uranium City and the community itself were once again faced with a very uncertain future.”374

***XENA, SASKATCHEWAN***

“Xena was part of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway later named the Canadian National Railway alphabet railway naming system appearing between Watrous and Young.”375

**YUKON**

Alan Rayburn reports: “Yukon was established as a district in the North-West Territories in 1894. Four years later it was upgraded as a separate territory. It took its name from the Yukon River, which the Gwitch’in call Yukunah (‘great river’). The fifth longest river on the North American continent, its length,

from the head of the Nisutlin River to the mouth in Alaska, is 3,185 km. Mount Yukon (3,231 meters) in the Centennial Range of the St Elias Mountains was named in 1967 after the territory.”376

www.questconnect.org shows: “Yukon Territory takes its name from the Loucheux Native name Yu-kun-ah for the ‘great river’ which drains most of its area. Lying in the northwest corner of Canada's continental mainland, isolated by rugged mountains, it shares a common border and many characteristics with its American neighbor, Alaska. Historically, it is indelibly associated with the great Klondike gold rush. The Yukon Territory entered the Federation on June 13, 1898.”377

***BONANZA CREEK, YUKON***

JW Phillips talks about: “Stream on which George Washington Carmack staked his discovery claim, on 17 August 1896, that sparked the Klondike Gold Rush, was originally known as Rabbit Creek. Five days after the claim was filed, a miners’ meeting gave the gold-laden stream the Spanish name Bonanza, literally meaning ‘smooth sea’, hence good luck or richness in ore. Other rich streams in the immediate locale were named Eldorado, the Spanish name for a legendary treasure city in the Americas sought by early conquistadors; Hunker, after its discoverer, Andrew Hunker; and Gold Bottom, where Robert Henderson made the initial – if personally unrewarding – gold find in the Klondike River basin.”378

***CARCROSS, YUKON***

RC Coutts catalogs: “This location was first known as Caribou Crossing from the time of the earliest miners to come across the Chilkoot Pass, because of the large herds of caribou which crossed the narrows here twice a year on their annual migration. A major way point on the route to the Yukon goldfields and later to Atlin, British Columbia, the town site was pre-empted by the White Pass & Yukon Route Railway in September 1898. The largest sawmill on the Yukon was near here, owned by Mike King, who also built boats and scows from early 1897. The Caribou Hotel, built in 1898, is still in operation, the oldest hotel in continuous operation in the Yukon Territory.

“In 1903, Bishop Bompas, who had established a school here for Indian children in 1901, petitioned the Dominion government to change the name of the community to Carcross because of the confusion in mail services due to the duplication of names in Alaska and British Columbia as well as in the Klondike. The post office made the change official the following year but the good Bishop had to fight longer with the White Pass & Yukon Route Railway, which retained the name of the station until 1916.

“Numerous Yukon pioneers are buried here including Bishop Bompas, Kate Carmack, Skookum Jim Mason and Tagish Charlie.”379

***CARIBOU CITY, YUKON***

RC Coutts conveys: “A settlement sprang up here in early 1897 as a supply point and stopping place for the many miners on the adjacent creeks. Several hotels provided accommodations and amusement for the local miners, among them the Gold Run, the Driard and the Caribou Hotels. A post office was opened in November 1899 but after 1905 the settlement and post office became known as ‘Dominion’.

“The place died out during the First World War due to the end of pick and shovel mining and the outflow of young able bodied men, heading off to the war.”380

***DAWSON CITY, YUKON***

Ken Spotswood discusses: “Following the historic discovery of gold on Bonanza Creek in August of 1896, Dawson City grew out of a marshy swamp near the confluence of the Yukon and Klondike Rivers.

“In two years it became the largest city in Canada west of Winnipeg with a population that fluctuated between 30,000 and 40,000 people--not as large as Seattle, but much larger than Victoria or Vancouver.

“Its founder was Joe Ladue, a former prospector-turned-outfitter who was on the scene early. He knew from experience that merchants in gold camps prospered more than miners. He had a sawmill at the mining camp of Sixtymile and, while miners staked their claims, Ladue staked out a town site instead.

“Anticipating the coming building boom, Ladue rafted his sawmill to the new town site, which he had already named Dawson City, in honor of George M Dawson, a government geologist who helped survey the boundary between Alaska and the Northwest Territories.

“’I commenced erecting the first house in that region on September 1st, 1896,’ Ladue wrote later. ‘Within six months from that date there were over 500 houses erected, which included stores, supply stations, hotels, restaurants, saloons and residences.’

“Fortune smiled on Ladue. Everyone bought his lumber. He owned 160 acres, the government owned 22 acres, and his home doubled as Dawson's first saloon. He sold the first lots at prices ranging from $5 to $25 to $300. Town lots later fetched as much as $40,000 each. On paper, Ladue's fortune grew to $5 million.

“It happened fast, and the pace never let up as wave after wave of gold-seekers arrived. With them came the characters who transformed Dawson from a mining camp into one of the most bizarre cities in all of North America.

“Dawson's reputation as a booming, bawdy frontier town was largely the result of over-zealous writers. The rush was a phenomenon that they all hyped and exploited to sell their newspapers, guide books and magazines as gold fever swept the continent and abroad.

“Some reports contained accurate facts and descriptions while others were embellished, exaggerated or contained complete falsehoods. Later in their memoirs, many sourdoughs colored their experiences and observations the way some miners 'colored' their pokes of gold dust with brass filings.

“There were miseries and tragedies along the various trails as thousands of stampeders rushed to the Klondike. Rags-to-riches stories of miners were popular subjects. Dawson had plenty of dance halls, saloons and brothels. It had tons of gold, vats of whisky, and it had gamblers and 'scarlet women' caught up in a riotous swirl of social activity with an international cast.

“Dawson could have been a wide-open town where 'anything goes', but it also had the North-West Mounted Police. The reality is that the period of chaos lasted only for a few months in 1898.

“To many early writers, Dawson City was a great curiosity. It was a 'boomtown in a bog'. It had miners who wore filthy clothes caked with mud, miners who were also filthy rich. In contrast, some dance-hall girls wore $1,500 gowns imported from Paris.

“Some of its residents dined on champagne, oysters and caviar for breakfast, while others existed on stale bread, lard and tea. While many ate beans three times a day, many more went hungry. Society matrons held lavish tea parties and served canapes on Limoges china, while the poor and indigent perished in nearby hospitals from scurvy, typhoid and dysentery. There were plenty of doctors in Dawson, but at $200 a visit, few people consulted them.”381

***DESTRUCTION BAY, YUKON***

JW Phillips expounds: “Legend contends the name originated during the gold rush era because of the number of boats storm wrecked at this point on Kluane Lake’s shoreline. The Kluane Historical Society reports the name and the community came into being in the early 1940s during construction of the Alcan (Alaska) Highway. The name resulted from a windstorm’s destruction of a USA tent camp, the aftermath of a young lieutenant’s order to cut down all the trees at that site.”382

***GOLD BOTTOM CREEK, YUKON***

JW Phillips impresses: “So named by Robert Henderson because colors he panned from the stream led him to believe erroneously that when he sunk a mining shaft to bedrock he would find ‘the bottom like the streets of New Jerusalem’ – solid gold. Henderson abandoned his initial claim for a richer one on Hunker Creek, a fork of Gold Bottom Creek, but ill health forced him to sell it for a mere $3,000. Since Henderson had steered George Carmack toward the gold-rich Bonanza Creek and the strike that started the Klondike Gold Rush, the veteran prospector was eventually recognized by the Canadian government as the co-discoverer of the Klondike Strike and was granted a monthly pension of $200. The award in part substantiated English-Canadian claims that Henderson, a Nova Scotian, and not Carmack, an American, really discovered the riches of the Klondike.”383

***KENO, YUKON***

JW Phillips notates: “The community’s name is adopted from Keno Hill, to which miners had affixed the name of a popular gambling game which, in turn, is an adaptation of the French quine, meaning ‘five winning numbers’. The original Keno Claim staked by Louis Bouvette in 1918 was soon surrounded with diggings bearing similarly luck-tempting titles typical of prospectors: Roulette, Pinochle, Faro, Gambler, Faith, Hope, and Charity. Though the Keno-Elsa area boasts rich placer gold mines, it is one of the major silver-lead ore producers in the world.”384

***KLONDIKE RIVER, YUKON***

JW Phillips puts pen to paper: “The name of this Yukon River tributary with gold-rich feeder streams is an adaptation of the gutturally spoken Indian word, thron-diuck, meaning ‘hammer water’. It was so named by the local natives, who pounded sticks into its shallow waters to support their salmon nets.”385

***LAKE LABERGE, YUKON***

Whitehorse Public Library represents: “Name submitted by William H Dall of the US Coast and Geodetic Survey 1869. Named for Michael Laberge (1836–1909), of Conteau, Quebec, an explorer (along with Captain Frank Ketchum, Fredrick Whymper - artist) with Western Union Telegraph Co, 1856-67.”386

Lake Laberge has been immortalized in Robert W Service’s The Cremation of Sam McGee:

There are strange things done in the midnight sun

By the men who toil for gold;

The Arctic trails have their secret tales

That would make your blood run cold;

The Northern Lights have seen queer sights,

But the queerest they ever did see

Was that night on the marge of Lake Lebarge.

I cremated Sam McGee.

Now Sam McGee was from Tennessee, where the cotton blooms and blows.

Why he left his home in the South to roam 'round the Pole, God only knows.

He was always cold, but the land of gold seemed to hold him like a spell;

Though he'd often say in his homely way that ‘he'd sooner live in hell.’

On a Christmas Day we were mushing our way over the Dawson trail.

Talk of your cold! Through the parka's fold it stabbed like a driven nail.

If our eyes we'd close, then the lashes froze till sometimes we couldn't see;

It wasn't much fun, but the only one to whimper was Sam McGee.

And that very night, as we lay packed tight in our robes beneath the snow,

And the dogs were fed, and the stars o'erhead were dancing heel and toe,

He turned to me, and ‘Cap,’ says he, ‘I'll cash in this trip, I guess;

And if I do, I'm asking that you won't refuse my last request.’

Well, he seemed so low that I couldn't say no; then he says with a sort of moan:

‘It's the cursed cold, and it's got right hold till I'm chilled clean through to the bone.

Yet 'tain't being dead — it's my awful dread of the icy grave that pains;

So I want you to swear that, foul or fair, you'll cremate my last remains.’

A pal's last need is a thing to heed, so I swore I would not fail;

And we started on at the streak of dawn; but God! He looked ghastly pale.

He crouched on the sleigh, and he raved all day of his home in Tennessee;

And before nightfall a corpse was all that was left of Sam McGee.

There wasn't a breath in that land of death, and I hurried, horror-driven,

With a corpse half hid that I couldn't get rid, because of a promise given;

It was lashed to the sleigh, and it seemed to say: ‘You may tax your brawn and brains,

But you promised true, and it's up to you to cremate those last remains.’

Now a promise made is a debt unpaid, and the trail has its own stern code.

In the days to come, though my lips were dumb, in my heart how I cursed that load.

In the long, long night, by the lone firelight, while the huskies, round in a ring,

Howled out their woes to the homeless snows— O God! How I loathed the thing.

And every day that quiet clay seemed to heavy and heavier grow;

And on I went, though the dogs were spent and the grub was getting low;

The trail was bad, and I felt half mad, but I swore I would not give in;

And I'd often sing to the hateful thing, and it hearkened with a grin.

Till I came to the marge of Lake Lebarge, and a derelict there lay;

It was jammed in the ice, but I saw in a trice it was called the ‘Alice May’.

And I looked at it, and I thought a bit, and I looked at my frozen chum;

Then ‘Here,’ said I, with a sudden cry, ‘is my cre-ma-tor-eum.’

Some planks I tore from the cabin floor, and I lit the boiler fire;

Some coal I found that was lying around, and I heaped the fuel higher;

The flames just soared, and the furnace roared—such a blaze you seldom see;

And I burrowed a hole in the glowing coal, and I stuffed in Sam McGee.

Then I made a hike, for I didn't like to hear him sizzle so;

And the heavens scowled, and the huskies howled, and the wind began to blow.

It was icy cold, but the hot sweat rolled down my cheeks, and I don't know why;

And the greasy smoke in an inky cloak went streaking down the sky.

I do not know how long in the snow I wrestled with grisly fear;

But the stars came out and they danced about ere again I ventured near;

I was sick with dread, but I bravely said: ‘I'll just take a peep inside.

I guess he's cooked, and it's time I looked’; ... then the door I opened wide.

And there sat Sam, looking cool and calm, in the heart of the furnace roar;

And he wore a smile you could see a mile, and he said: ‘Please close that door.

It's fine in here, but I greatly fear you'll let in the cold and storm —

Since I left Plumtree, down in Tennessee, it's the first time I've been warm.’

There are strange things done in the midnight sun

By the men who toil for gold;

The Arctic trails have their secret tales

That would make your blood run cold;

The Northern Lights have seen queer sights,

But the queerest they ever did see

Was that night on the marge of Lake Lebarge

I cremated Sam McGee.”387

***MALEMUTE PUP, YUKON***

JW Phillips specifies: “A prospectors’ name for a small creek feeding one of the tributary streams of the Klondike River. Both words of the name are frequently used terms in the Northland, Pup was the miners’ name for feeders runs – often seasonal freshets – which they treated as separate streams since a miner was limited to only one claim per stream. Malemute is a native breed of heavily furred dogs used by Eskimos and Indians as sled pack animals. An image of the dog is on the crest of the Yukon Territory’s coat of arms.”388

***MINER’S PRAYER, YUKON***

H Plume tells: “Miner’s Prayer sprang up near a mining company town (name unknown) near the turn of the century. The mining town was supposedly ‘dry’ with very strict rules of conduct, and neighboring Miner’s Prayer provided a source of ‘entertainment’ and other diversion for the men. Though the copper mine closed down sometime in the early 1920s, Miner’s Prayer survived the demise of its neighbor for several years as prospecting for gold in the area continued for several years.

“Fewer than 80 residents. North of access is shaky and unpaved, but possible in warm weather, leaving Highway 9 (somewhere between the US/Canada customs and the sod-roofed cabin near the Sixty Mile area).

“Remains: Ruins from gold rush and pre-1920s boom time.”389

***OLD CROW, YUKON***

Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation chronicles: “If you were to look at the map of Canada’s Yukon, you will find Old Crow to be the only community located in the northern Yukon Territory. Situated on the banks of the Porcupine River, Old Crow is isolated from other surrounding communities, and is accessible only by aircraft; or if you like an adventure, Old Crow is also accessible by canoe down the Porcupine River from the Eagle River which is located off the North's Dempster Highway. It's said to be a breath-taking adventure.

“As with many other places in Canada, Old Crow derives its' name from an Indian Chief, Deetru` K`avihdik, which means ‘Crow May I Walk’. Following his death in the 1870s, his people named the river, mountain and area in his honor, thus being the community of Old Crow.

“We are called the Vuntut Gwitchin meaning ‘People of the Lakes’. We are only one group of the Gwich'in Nation that expands across the north in Alaska, USA, and the Northwest Territories in Canada. The name Vuntut Gwitchin derives from our annual muskrat trapping season, where we move approximately 27 miles north from Old Crow, for the months of April to June. The whole area of Crow Flats is covered by small and large lakes, thus giving our name. Each family group in Old Crow has their own trapping area, referred by each family as ‘their’ or ‘my country’. This is an area that has been passed down from generation to generation.

“First language of the Vuntut Gwitchin is Gwich'in, which you will see a bit more about in our Language Section.

“The Vuntut Gwitchin main source of livelihood is trapping, hunting, and fishing. The Porcupine Caribou has provided our main source of meat and hide for boots, moccasins, mitts, traditional outfits, and other decorative things, for generations. Everything of the caribou is used by our people.

“Lastly, the population of Old Crow is approximately three hundred people. We live in log homes, as you will see by the photos we provide in our web page. We have a store that provides our groceries and necessities, a Royal Canadian Mounted Police detachment, a Nursing Station, Bed n' Breakfast accommodations, First Nation Office, a Skating Arena, a Youth Center, and a Community Center, where we hold our potlatches, dances and entertainment for the community.”390

***SQUAW RAPIDS, YUKON***

JW Phillips declares: “Name of the dangerous rapids in the Yukon River immediately below Miles Canyon is one example of the frequent geographic use in the Northland of the term generally used to mean an Indian woman. Another Squaw Rapids, at the juncture of the Koyukuk and Glacier rivers in Alaska, was so named when an Indian woman drowned in the broiling water. The word was adopted by the white man from the Algonquin-speaking tribes of the East Coast of North America whose eshqua meant ‘female deer’.”391

***TOMBSTONE MOUNTAIN, YUKON***

Alan Rayburn displays: “Northeast of Dawson, at the head of Tombstone River, this mountain (2,499 meters) was named Mount Campbell in 1896 by surveyor William Ogilvie (1849-1912) after Hudson’s Bay Company trader Robert Campbell (1808-94). Unaware of that name, miners called it after a great shaft of black rock, which rises 1,600 meters above the surrounding terrain.”392

***WHITEHORSE, YUKON***

RC Coutts expresses: “Situated at the upper limits of feasible steamboat navigation on the Yukon River and the terminus of the White Pass & Yukon Route Railway, a settlement began here in 1900. As well as controlling the shipping of the territory it became a supply point and communications center for the southern Yukon. The discovery and exploitation of the rich copper ore bodies nearby, from 1899-1920, also helped to stimulate the business and growth of the town.

“Many fanciful stories have been and are being told about the origin of the name Whitehorse. It is probable that the first miners in 1880-1 fancied a resemblance to white horses’ manes in the white waters of the rapids below Miles Canyon. The name was in common use by 1887. The foot of the rapids was a natural stopping place for those who had braved their dangers. Few people dared these hazards with loaded boats, the majority preferring to unload and carry (portage) their goods around the dangerous waters. The boats were either let down on ropes or taken through by professional pilots. In either case this location made a good place to stop and reorganize outfits before going on downriver. Most landed on the east side of the river and it was there that the first town site of Whitehorse was surveyed in September 1899 by Paul TC Dumais, Dominion Land Surveyor.

“The White Pass & Yukon Route Railway had been granted 60 acres of land on the west side of the river for their terminus and in late 1899 laid out and surveyed a town site which they named ‘Closeleigh’, in honor of the Close brothers of London, England. The brothers had been instrumental in financing the construction of the railroad and the freighting operations of the company.

“An outcry by the first merchants of the new town soon led to a change of heart. The White Pass & Yukon Route Railway on 21 April 1900 announced that ‘the name of the town is to be the old, known on two continents. … White Horse.’

“The building of the Alaska Highway in 1942-3 assured the growth and permanence of the community. At the beginning of 1942 the population was about 500, which had increased to 8,000 by early summer when the US Army Engineers and some civilian contractors arrived. This population decreased to about 3,000 by 1955 but the increasing search for oil and minerals, along with the growth of tourism and government, reversed this trend and it has grown steadily since to around 20,000.

“The first post office was opened on 1 June 1900 by FW Cane. In March 1951, Whitehorse replaced Dawson as the capital of the Yukon Territory.

“The name of the town was always spelled as two words until the Geographic Board of Canada combined them on 21 March 1957.”393

JW Phillips adds: “The local Indians, unacquainted with horses at the time the rapids received their present title, called the spot Klil-has, meaning ‘very bad’.”394

Coming soon…

Interesting Place Names and History of England

Already published:

Revised Interesting Place Names and History of Australia

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymy

2 Robert Bothwell; A Traveler’s History of Canada; Interlink Books; 2010

3 Robert Bothwell; A Traveler’s History of Canada; Interlink Books; 2010

4 Robert Bothwell; A Traveler’s History of Canada; Interlink Books; 2010

5 Robert Bothwell; A Traveler’s History of Canada; Interlink Books; 2010

6 Robert Bothwell; A Traveler’s History of Canada; Interlink Books; 2010

7 Robert Bothwell; A Traveler’s History of Canada; Interlink Books; 2010

8 Robert Bothwell; A Traveler’s History of Canada; Interlink Books; 2010

9 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

10 David Petrovich, Economic Development and Events Coordinator, Town of Black Diamond, Box 10, Black Diamond, Alberta T0L 0H0, Canada; edc@town.blackdiamond.ab.ca; www.town.blackdiamond.ab.ca

11 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

12 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

13 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

14 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

15 Christine Young, Administrative Assistant, Community Services Coordinator, Town of Legal, 5021 50 Street, PO Box 390, Legal, Alberta T0G 1L0, Canada; cyoung@town.legal.ab.ca; http://www.town.legal.ab.ca/contact.php

16 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

17 Esther Elman, Clerk Receptionist, Town of Milk River, PO Box 270, 240 Main Street, Milk River, AB T0K 1M0, Canada; main.milkriver@gmail.com; http://milkriver.ca/contact-us

18 Beth Wilkins, Researcher/Curatorial Assistant, Peace River Museum, Archives and Mackenzie Center, Town of Peace River, 10302-99 Street, Peace River, AB T8S 1K1, Canada; museum@peaceriver.net; www.peacerivermuseum.com

19 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

20 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

21 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

22 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/m%C3%A9tis

23 Dorthea Calverley; How Some Indian Groups Got Their Names; provided by Aaron Lehman; aaronl@incentre.net

24 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

25 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

26 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

27 Marjorie M Hanson; Central Alberta Scandinavian Connections; provided by Kelly Cust, Municipal Intern, Town of Viking, Box 369, Viking, AB, Canada, T0B 4N0; kelly.cust@viking.ca; http://townofviking.ca/need-help

28 Ronald Kelland, Historic Places Research Officer and Geographical Names Program Coordinator, Historic Resources Management Branch, Alberta Culture, 8820-112 Street, NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P8, Canada; ronald.kelland@gov.ab.ca

29 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

30 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

31 http://www.travel-british-columbia.com/cariboo-chilcotin/cariboo/seventy-mile-house/; South Cariboo Visitor Center, Box 340, 155 Airport Rd, 100 Mile House, BC V0K 2E0, Canada; info@southcaribootourism.ca; http://www.southcaribootourism.ca

32 http://www.100milehouse.ca/history/index.html

33 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

34 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

35 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

36 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

37 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

38 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

39 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

40 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

41 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

42 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

43 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/5770.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, CanadaV8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

44 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/5771.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, CanadaV8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

45 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/5773.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, CanadaV8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

46 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

47 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

48 http://www.portrenfrew.com/botbeach.htm

49 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/435.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, CanadaV8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

50 NA Doe; Fraudulent Bay: Spanish Explorations of Boundary Bay; British Columbia Historical News; 2001; http://www.nickdoe.ca/pdfs/Webp32c.pdf

51 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/55039.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

52 Barbara Kay; The Stepford Wives of Bountiful BC; National Post; January 27, 2011; National Post, 1450 Don Mills Road, Suite 300, Don Mills, Ontario, Canada M3B 3R5; http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2011/01/27/barbara-kay-the-stepford-wives-of-bountiful-b-c/

53 Bountiful BC Religious Commune Targeted in Polygamy Investigation by Canadian Authorities; Huffington Post; April 2, 2012; http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/04/02/bountiful-bc-polygamy-investigation-canada_n_1398098.html

54 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/1094.html; ; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

55 William M Rozinkin; Brilliant History – Fading into Obscurity; http://www.doukhobor.org/Rozinkin.htm

56 Barney Mulvany; History of Burns Lake; http://burnslake2010.angelfire.com/mulvany.html

57 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

58 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

59 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/4945.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, CanadaV8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

60 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

61 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/5945.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, CanadaV8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

62 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

63 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

64 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/50400.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

65 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

66 Fairmont Hot Springs Resort; It Began with the First Explorers: http://www.fairmonthotsprings.com/the-resort/history

67 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/11400.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

68 Arv Olson; What’s in a Name? Fanny Who?; Shingles & Shells: A History of Fanny Bay; provided by Teresa Warnes, Executive Assistant, Comox Valley Regional District, 600 Comox Road, Courtenay, BC V9N 3P6, Canada; twarnes@comoxvalleyrd.ca; http://www.comoxvalleyrd.ca/

69 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

70 http://www.travel-british-columbia.com/cariboo-chilcotin/chilcotin/gold-bridge/; Bridge River Valley Economic Development Society and Tourist Information, 104 Haylmore Aven, Gold Bridge, BE V0K 1P0, Canada; bridgerivervalley@gmail.com; www.bridgerivervalley.ca

71 http://www.goldriver.ca/history/gold-river/

72 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/28894.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

73 Paula Wuorinen; A History of Goldstream Provincial Park; A Report Prepared for the Parks Branch by the Historic Parks and Sites Division; 1976; http://vipma.ca/~vipma/pdf/RICHARD_LONG_BEGINNING_OF_LEECHTOWN_SOUTHERN_VANCOUVER_ISLAND.pdf

74 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

75 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/40370.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

76 G Philip V and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997; provided by Inge Wilson, Hope Visitor Center/Museum Complex, 919 Water Ave, PO Box 370, Hope, BC V0X 1L0, Canada; destinationhope@telus.net; http://www.hellobc.com/visitorcentrelisting/4548026/hope-visitor-centre.aspx

77 Hope Visitor Guide 2013; provided by Inge Wilson, Hope Visitor Center/Museum Complex, 919 Water Ave, PO Box 370, Hope, BC V0X 1L0, Canada; destinationhope@telus.net; http://www.hellobc.com/visitorcentrelisting/4548026/hope-visitor-centre.aspx

78 Duncan George Forbes Macdonald; British Columbia and Vancouver’s Island: Comprising a Description of these Dependencies … Also an Account of the Manners and Customs of the Native Indians; Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green; 1863

79 Richard Charles Mayne; Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island: An Account of their Forests, Rivers, Coasts, Gold Fields and Resources for Colonization; J Murray; 1862

80 Inge Wilson, Hope Visitor Center/Museum Complex, 919 Water Ave, PO Box 370, Hope, BC V0X 1L0, Canada; destinationhope@telus.net; http://www.hellobc.com/visitorcentrelisting/4548026/hope-visitor-centre.aspx

81 Charles Edward Barrett-Lennard; Travels in British Columbia: With the Narrative of a Yacht Voyage Round Vancouver’s Island; Hurst and Blackett; 1862

82 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

83 Kathy Burseth, Hudson's Hope Visitor Centre, Box 330, Hudson's Hope, BC, V0C 1V0, Canada; hhinfo@pris.ca; http://www.hellobc.com/hudsons-hope/visitor-centres.aspx

84 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/14891.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

85 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

86 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

87 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

88 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

89 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/2985.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

90 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973

91 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

92 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

93 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

94 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

95 http://www.hellobc.com/mission/culture-history.aspx

96 http://www.mission.ca/community/history/; Municipal Hall, 8645 Stave Lake St, Box 20, Mission, BC V2V 4L9 Canada

97 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

98 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

99 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/20359.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

100 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

101 http://www.britishcolumbia.com/regions/towns/?townID=3440

102 http://www.hellobc.com/oliver/culture-history.aspx

103 Garnet Basque; History of Oliver; provided by Oliver Tourism Association/Visitor Center, PO Box 460, 6431 Station St, Oliver, BC, V0H 1T0, Canada; info@winecapitalofcanada.com; http://www.winecapitalofcanada.com/

104 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

105 Don Wilson, Peachland Museum, 5890 Beach Ave RR 7, Peachland, BC V0H 1X7, Canada; peachlandhistory@gmail.com; http://www.peachlandmuseum.ca/

106 http://www.britishcolumbia.com/regions/towns/?townID=3444

107 Mark Chorvinsky; Nessie and Other Lake Monsters; http://www.strangemag.com/ogopogo.html

108 Amanda Clark, Prince Rupert Visitor Centre, 100 First Ave, West Prince Rupert, British Columbia V8J 1A8, Canada; mnbccle@citytel.net; http://www.hellobc.com/prince-rupert/visitor-centres.aspx

109 http://www.princerupert.com/history

110 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

111 http://www.hellobc.com/radium-hot-springs/culture-history.aspx

112 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/23207.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

113 A Jessop; Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 5906; Natural Resources Canada

114 http://www.sunshinecoasteh.com/halfmoonbay/history.htm

115 Andrew Scott; The Encyclopedia of Raincoast Place Names: A Complete Reference to Coastal British Columbia; Harbour Publishing; 2009; Evelyn Wolfe, Archives Specialist, Saanich Archives, 3100 Tillicum Road, Victoria, BC V9A 6T2, Canada; evelyn.wolfe@saanich.ca; http://saanicharchives.ca

116 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

117 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skookumchuck,_British_Columbia

118 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

119 customer.service@bchydro.com; http://www.bchydro.com/community/recreation_areas/stave_falls_visitor_centre.html

120 Meg Stanley and Hugh Wilson; Station Normal: The Power of the Stave River; Douglas and McIntyre; 2001; provided by the Power House at Stave Falls, http://www.bchydro.com/community/recreation_areas/stave_falls_visitor_centre.html

121 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

122 David Gregory; davidgregory@shaw.ca

123 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

124 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/17664.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

125 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

126 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973

127 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/18594.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

128 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

129 http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/1654.html; BC Geographical Names Office, GeoBC, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, PO Box 9375 STN: Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9M2, geographical.names@gov.bc.ca; http://geobc.for.gov.bc.ca/bcnames/contacts.htm

130 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

131 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

132 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

133 Karen Heikkeila; Teaching through Toponymy: Using Indigenous Placenames in Outdoor Science Camps; VDM Publishing; 2008

134 Advertisement in Victoria Daily Colonist; provided by Chance Dixon, Archivist/Corporate Records Assistant, Town of View Royal, 45 View Royal Ave, Victoria, BC V9B 1A6, Canada; archives@viewroyal.ca; www.viewroyal.ca

135 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

136 G Philip V Akrigg and Helen B Akrigg; British Columbia Place Names; University of British Columbia Press; 1997

137 Lyn Hawley, Bookkeeper/Admin Assistant, Village of Zeballos, Box 127, 157 Maquinna Ave, Zeballos, BC V0P 2A0 Canada; adminzeb@recn.ca; http://www.zeballos.com/

138 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

139 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

140 http://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/louis_riel/pdf/origin_mb_name.pdf

141 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

142 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

143 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

144 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

145 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

146 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

147 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

148 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

149 Sci-Fi Lives in Northern Canada: Flin Flon, City Named for Inner Space Explorer!!; provided by Liz Donaghy, Administrative Assistant, The City of Flin Flon, 20 First Avenue, Flin Flon, MB R8A 0T7, Canada; ldonaghy@flinflon.ca; http://www.cityofflinflon.ca/

150 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

151 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

152 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

153 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

154 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

155 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

156 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

157 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

158 Raymond M Beaumont; Norway House: A Brief History, From its Beginnings to Treaty Adhesions in 1908; Frontier School Division; 1993; http://ssns.frontiersd.mb.ca/CheckFirst/Introduction/FSDresources/Publications/NorwayHouseBriefHist.pdf

159 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

160 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

161 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

162 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

163 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

164 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

165 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

166 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

167 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

168 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

169 Geographical Names of Manitoba; Manitoba Conservation; 2000; provided by Des Kappel, Provincial Toponymist, Manitoba Geographical Names Program, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Box 25 - 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg MB R3J 3W3, Canada; des.kappel@gov.mb.ca; http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/lands_branch/geo_names/index.html

170 Jaroslav Bohdan Rudnyckyj; Manitoba: Mosaic of Place Names; Canadian Institute of Onomastic Sciences; 1970

171 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

172 http://archives.gnb.ca/Exhibits/Communities/Details.aspx?culture=en-CA&community=29; Provincial Archives of New Brunswick, Provincial Archives (Bonar Law - Bennett Building), PO Box 6000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5H1, Canada; provincial.archives@gnb.ca; http://www.gnb.ca/0099/index-e.asp

173 Henry Youle Hind; A Preliminary Report on the Geology of New Brunswick: Together with a Special Report on the Distribution of the “Quebec Group” in the Province; GE Fenety; 1865

174 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

175 http://archives.gnb.ca/Exhibits/Communities/Details.aspx?culture=en-CA&community=508; Provincial Archives of New Brunswick, Provincial Archives (Bonar Law - Bennett Building), PO Box 6000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5H1, Canada; provincial.archives@gnb.ca; http://www.gnb.ca/0099/index-e.asp

176 Abraham Gesner; New Brunswick: With Notes for Emigrants. Comprehending the Early History, an Account of the Indians, Settlement …; Simmonds & Ward, 1847

177 Robert Cooney; A Compendious History of the Northern Part of the Province of New Brunswick, and of the District of Gaspe, in Lower Canada …; J Howe, 1832

178 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

179 http://waterfallsnewbrunswick.ca/?p=169

180 William B Hamilton; Places and Names of Atlantic Canada; 1996; http://new-brunswick.net/new-brunswick/names/names.html

181 http://archives.gnb.ca/Exhibits/Communities/Details.aspx?culture=en-CA&community=2071; Provincial Archives of New Brunswick, Provincial Archives (Bonar Law - Bennett Building), PO Box 6000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5H1, Canada; provincial.archives@gnb.ca; http://www.gnb.ca/0099/index-e.asp

182 St Croix Courier; A Journey Through Time Collection; http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~nbstjame/history/lawrencestationhist.htm

183 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

184 Etta Faulkner; A History of Victoria Corner: Then and Now, Carleton County, New Brunswick, Canada; 2001; http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~nbcarlet/victoria/victoria-01.htm ; pauletta@nbnet.nb.ca

185 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

186 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

187 Matt Rosenberg; Province of Newfoundland and Labrador Name Change; February 23, 2003; http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa022303a.htm

188 Wayne; Adventure Riding in Newfoundland and Labrador; September 18, 2011; http://www.ridetherock.com/forums/showthread.php?8024-Chance-Cove-History

189 neil@changeisland.com; Change Islands: A World on Its Own: History of the Islands; http://members.tripod.com/you_want_it_we_gotit/id33.html

190 Joseph Beete Jukes; General Report of the Geological Survey of Newfoundland: Executed Under the Direction of the Government and Legislature of the Colony During the Years 1839 and 1840. J Murray; 1843

191 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

192 http://www.townofcomebychance.ca/town-history.php; Town of Come By Chance, 111-117 Main Road, P.O Box 89, Come By Chance, NL, A0B 1N0, Canada; townofcbc@eastlink.ca; http://www.townofcomebychance.ca/contact.php

193 http://www.landoffirstcontact.ca/sites/6-cooks-harbour

194 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

195 http://www.cupids400.com/english/about/history.php ; An Early History of Cupids: Pride, Productivity and Pirates: A Brief History of Early Cupids; Cupids 400 Inc, PO Box 210, Seaforest Drive, Cupids, NY, A0A 2B0, Canada; info@cupids400.com

196 http://www.landoffirstcontact.ca/sites/5-flowers-cove

197 A Brief History of Fortune; Town of Fortune, Fortune, Newfoundland; http://www.townoffortune.ca/hist/history1.html ; http://www.townoffortune.ca/town/contact.html

198 Lewis Amadeus Anspach; A History of the Island of Newfoundland: Containing a Description of the Island, the Banks, the Fisheries and Trade of Newfoundland and the Coast of Labrador; printed for the author; 1819

199 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

200 Chuck Matchim; chuckmatchim@gmail.com; http://www.nlgeotourism.com/content/inn-at-happy-adventure/nfl764B848033EFA80D7

201 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

202 Rev William Wilson; Newfoundland and Its Missionaries…: To Which is Added a Chronological Table of All the Important Events that Have Occurred on the Island; Dakin & Metcalf; 1866

203 http://www.explorenewfoundlandandlabrador.com/communities/hearts-delight-islington.htm ; Explore Newfoundland and Labrador, 50 Hamlyn Road Plaza, Suite #152, St John's, NL A1E 5X7, Canada; http://www.explorenewfoundlandandlabrador.com/contact-us.htm

204 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

205 http://www.explorenewfoundlandandlabrador.com/communities/hearts-desire.htm ; Explore Newfoundland and Labrador, 50 Hamlyn Road Plaza, Suite #152, St John's, NL A1E 5X7, Canada; http://www.explorenewfoundlandandlabrador.com/contact-us.htm

206 Donald L Hutchens and Lilla Ross; Pearl, the Man and the Place: The Origin of Mount Pearl; SeaFlow Publishing; 2007; provided by Mona Lewis, Deputy City Clerk, City of Mount Pearl, 3 Centennial St, Mount Pearl, NL, A1N 1G4, Canada; mlewis@mountpearl.ca

207 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

208 http://www.townofspaniardsbay.ca/ ; Town of Spaniard’s Bay, PO Box 190, Spaniard’s Bay, NL A0A 3X0, Canada; spaniardsbay@persona.ca; http://www.townofspaniardsbay.ca/default.php?display=contact

209 Sir Richard Henry Bonnycastle; Newfoundland in 1842; 1842

210 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

211 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

212 Tom Andrews, Territorial Archaeologist, Manager, NWT Cultural Places Program, Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre, PO Box 1320, Yellowknife, NT X1A 2L9, Canada; tom_andrews@gov.nt.ca; http://www.pwnhc.ca/

213 http://fortgoodhope.lgant.ca/community/history-and-culture-11; Fort Good Hope - Charter Community of K'asho Got'ine, PO Box 80, Fort Good Hope, NT X0E 0H0, Canada

214 Tom Andrews, Territorial Archaeologist, Manager, NWT Cultural Places Program, Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre, PO Box 1320, Yellowknife, NT X1A 2L9, Canada; tom_andrews@gov.nt.ca; http://www.pwnhc.ca/

215 http://fortprovidence.lgant.ca/community/history-and-culture-9; Hamlet of Fort Providence, SAO Susan Christie, Box 290, FT PROVIDENCE, NT X0E 0L0, Canada; susanc@ssimicro.com

216 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

217 Tom Andrews, Territorial Archaeologist, Manager, NWT Cultural Places Program, Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre, PO Box 1320, Yellowknife, NT X1A 2L9, Canada; tom_andrews@gov.nt.ca; http://www.pwnhc.ca/

218 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

219 Mariah Blake, Economic Development Officer, Tsiigehtchic Charter Community, PO Box 4, Tsiigehtchic, NT X0E 0B0, Canada; edo@tsiigehtchic.ca; http://tsiigehtchic.lgant.ca/

220 Tom Andrews, Territorial Archaeologist, Manager, NWT Cultural Places Program, Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre, PO Box 1320, Yellowknife, NT X1A 2L9, Canada; tom_andrews@gov.nt.ca; http://www.pwnhc.ca/

221 http://tuktoyaktuk.lgant.ca/community/history-and-culture-28 ; Hamlet of Tuktoyaktuk, SAO Tom Matus, PO Box 120, TUKTOYAKTUK, NT X0E 1C0, Canada; tuksao@northwestel.net

222 Tom Andrews, Territorial Archaeologist, Manager, NWT Cultural Places Program, Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre, PO Box 1320, Yellowknife, NT X1A 2L9, Canada; tom_andrews@gov.nt.ca; http://www.pwnhc.ca/

223 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ulu

224 http://ulukhaktok.lgant.ca/community/history-and-culture-27; Hamlet of Ulukhaktok, SAO Lena Egotak, Box 157, ULUKHAKTOK, NT X0E 0S0, Canada; ulukhaktok_sao@airware.ca

225 Tom Andrews, Territorial Archaeologist, Manager, NWT Cultural Places Program, Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre, PO Box 1320, Yellowknife, NT X1A 2L9, Canada; tom_andrews@gov.nt.ca; http://www.pwnhc.ca/

226 http://higharc.tripod.com/yellowk.html

227 William B Hamilton; The Macmillan Book of Canadian Place Names; Macmillan of Canada; 1978; http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography-boundary/geographical-name/geoname-origins/5875#ns

228 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=2

229 Russell Fillmore; http://www.advocateharbour.org/about_advocate

230 John William Dawson; A Hand Book of the Geography and Natural History of the Province of Nova Scotia: For the Use of Schools, Families, and Travelers; J Dawson & Son; 1855

231 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

232 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=59

233 Beamish Murdoch; A History of Nova-Scotia or Acadie; 1865

234 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=171

235 Peter S McInnis; The Canadian Encyclopedia; http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/dominion-ns

236 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=191

237 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=211

238 Ryan Faulkner; The Glooscap Legend of Five Islands; July 7, 2010; http://www.novascotiablogs.com/2010/07/the-glooscap-legend-of-five-islands.html

239 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=297

240 http://www.yarmouth.org/villages/pinkney/history/index.htm

241 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=582

242 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=621

243 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=741

244 Thomas F Knight; Nova Scotia and Her Resources…; A&W MacKinlay; 1862

245 Charles Bruce Fergusson; Place-Names and Places of Nova Scotia; Public Archives of Nova Scotia; 1967; http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/places/page.asp?ID=748

246 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

247 Ann Meekitjuk Hanson; http://www.nunavut.com/nunavut99/english/name.html

248 http://www.alaskannature.com/inuit.htm

249 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

250 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

251 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

252 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Offices of the Hamlet of Gjoa Haven, Box 200, Gjoa Haven, Nunavut X0B 1J0, Canada; edo1@qiniq.com; www.gjoahaven.net

253 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

254 Courtney Dunphy, Information Counselor, Unikkaarvik Visitors Center, PO Box 1450, Iqaluit, NUNAVUT X0A 0H0, Canada; casual2@nunavuttourism.com; www.nunavuttourism.com

255 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Offices of the Hamlet of Igloolik; igloolik@magma.ca

256 Courtney Dunphy, Information Counselor, Unikkaarvik Visitors Center, PO Box 1450, Iqaluit, NUNAVUT X0A 0H0, Canada; casual2@nunavuttourism.com; www.nunavuttourism.com

257 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Unikkaarvik Visitors Center, PO Box 1450, Iqaluit, NUNAVUT X0A 0H0, Canada; casual2@nunavuttourism.com

258 http://www.kimmirut.ca/about/About.html; Hamlet of Kimmirut, PO Box 120, Kimmirut, NU, X0A 0N0, Canada; cedkimm@qiniq.com

259 Courtney Dunphy, Information Counselor, Unikkaarvik Visitors Center, PO Box 1450, Iqaluit, NUNAVUT X0A 0H0, Canada; casual2@nunavuttourism.com; www.nunavuttourism.com

260 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Offices of the Hamlet of Kugaaruk; info@nunavuttourism.com

261 Courtney Dunphy, Information Counselor, Unikkaarvik Visitors Center, PO Box 1450, Iqaluit, NUNAVUT X0A 0H0, Canada; casual2@nunavuttourism.com; www.nunavuttourism.com

262 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Kugluktuk Heritage Visitor Centre and Museum; info@nunavuttourism.com

263 Courtney Dunphy, Information Counselor, Unikkaarvik Visitors Center, PO Box 1450, Iqaluit, NUNAVUT X0A 0H0, Canada; casual2@nunavuttourism.com; www.nunavuttourism.com

264 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Offices of the Hamlet of Pangnirtung, PO Box 253, Pangnirtung, Nunavut X0A0R0, Canada; pangedo@qiniq.com; www.pangnirtung.ca

265 Courtney Dunphy, Information Counselor, Unikkaarvik Visitors Center, PO Box 1450, Iqaluit, NUNAVUT X0A 0H0, Canada; casual2@nunavuttourism.com; www.nunavuttourism.com

266 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Offices of the Hamlet of Qikiqtarjuaq; info@nunavuttourism.com

267 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

268 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Offices of the Hamlet of Repulse Bay, PO Box 10, Repulse Bay, Nunavut X0C 0H0, Canada; saorepulse@qiniq.com

269 Courtney Dunphy, Information Counselor, Unikkaarvik Visitors Center, PO Box 1450, Iqaluit, NUNAVUT X0A 0H0, Canada; casual2@nunavuttourism.com; www.nunavuttourism.com

270 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Offices of the Hamlet of Repulse Bay, PO Box 10, Repulse Bay, Nunavut X0C 0H0, Canada; saorepulse@qiniq.com

271 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

272 Courtney Dunphy, Information Counselor, Unikkaarvik Visitors Center, PO Box 1450, Iqaluit, NUNAVUT X0A 0H0, Canada; casual2@nunavuttourism.com; www.nunavuttourism.com

273 http://www.nunavuttourism.com/; Offices of the Hamlet of Resolute; cedorb@qiniq.com

274 George Johnson; Place-names of Canada; EJ Reynolds; 1898

275 http://saontario.tripod.com/id67.htm

276 Brenda Kriz, Records Manager / FOI Coordinator, Town of Ajax, 65 Harwood Ave, South Ajax, ON L1S 2H9, Canada; brenda.kriz@ajax.ca; http://www.ajax.ca/en/

277 http://www.bancroftontario.com/index.cfm?vNavID=5&vSubNavID=86&vSub2NavID=96

278 Historic sign erected by Archaeological and Historical Sites Board, Department of Public Records and Archives of Ontario; provided by John Harding, Volunteer Coordinator of the Blue Church; hardingottawa@sympatico.ca

279 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnt_River,_Ontario

280 Jeff Ball, Geographic Names Specialist, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, c/o Provincial Georeferencing, Geographic Information Branch, 300 Water St, 2nd Floor, North Tower, Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 8M5, Canada; jeff.ball@ontario.ca

281 http://www.ontarioplaques.com/Plaques_PQR/Plaque_Prince14.html

282 William Canniff; History of the Settlement of Upper Canada (Ontario): With Special Reference to the Bay Quinte; Dudley & Burns, 1869

283 http://littlepatti.wordpress.com/2007/05/12/ugly-baby/

284 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

285 Jeff Ball, Geographic Names Specialist, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, c/o Provincial Georeferencing, Geographic Information Branch, 300 Water St, 2nd Floor, North Tower, Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 8M5, Canada; jeff.ball@ontario.ca

286 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communities_in_Norfolk_County,_Ontario#Halfway_House_Corners

287 Bernard Nicholson, Honey Harbour Historical Society; nicholsonconstruction@sympatico.ca; http://www.honeyharbour.org/Links/index.htm

288 Jeff Ball, Geographic Names Specialist, Ontario Ministry of National Resources, Provincial Georeferencing, Geographic Information Branch, 330 Water St, 2nd Floor, North Tower, Petersborough, ON K9J 8M5, Canada; jeff.ball@ontario.ca

289 http://www.kspcommunityculture.ca/history.html; Chippewas of Kettle & Stony Point First Nation, 6247 Indian Lane, RR#2, Forest, Ontario, N0N 1J0, Canada; fdesk@kettlepoint.org

290 The History of the Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation; provided by Chief Bryan LaForme, 2789 Mississauga Rd, Hagersville, Ontario N0A 1H0, Canada; bryanlaforme@newcreditfirstnation.com; http://www.newcreditfirstnation.com/

291 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Woman's_River,_Ontario

292 Kirk Bergey; To the Mountains: Biking to British Columbia

293 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

294 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodom,_Ontario

295 William Canniff; History of the Settlement of Upper Canada (Ontario): With Special Reference to the Bay Quinte; Dudley & Burns; 1869

296 Jeff Ball, Geographic Names Specialist, Ontario Ministry of National Resources, Provincial Georeferencing, Geographic Information Branch, 330 Water St, 2nd Floor, North Tower, Petersborough, ON K9J 8M5, Canada; jeff.ball@ontario.ca

297 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

298 Bruce Ricketts; What's in a Name? The Story of Swastika; http://www.mysteriesofcanada.com/Ontario/Swastika.htm

299 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

300 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

301 Kelsie B Harder; Illustrated Dictionary of Place Names, United States and Canada; Van Nostrand Reinhold Company; 1976

302 http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/101/115-eng.cfm; Canadian Heritage, 15 Eddy Street, Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0M5, Canada; info@pch.gc.ca; http://www.pch.gc.ca/pc-ch/cntct/index-eng.cfm

303 Joseph Bouchette; The British Dominions in North America: Or, A Topographical and Statistical Description of the Provinces of Lower and Upper Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, the Islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, and Cape Breton. Including Considerations on Land-granting and Emigration. To which are Annexed Statistical Tables and Tables of Distances …; Vol 2; H Colburn & R Bentley; 1831

304 R Douglas; Place-names of Prince Edward Island with Meanings; Geographic Board of Canada; 1925; http://www.islandimagined.ca/fedora/ilives_book_viewer/ilives:190864-f_006

305 Alan Rayburn; Geographical Names of Prince Edward Island; Surveys and Mapping Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; 1973; http://www.islandimagined.ca/fedora/ilives_book_viewer/ilives:190999-f_000

306 Alan Rayburn; Geographical Names of Prince Edward Island; Surveys and Mapping Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; 1973; http://www.islandimagined.ca/fedora/ilives_book_viewer/ilives:190999-f_000

307 Alan Rayburn; Geographical Names of Prince Edward Island; Surveys and Mapping Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; 1973; http://www.islandimagined.ca/fedora/ilives_book_viewer/ilives:190999-f_000

308 Alan Rayburn; Geographical Names of Prince Edward Island; Surveys and Mapping Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; 1973; http://www.islandimagined.ca/fedora/ilives_book_viewer/ilives:190999-f_000

309 Alan Rayburn; Geographical Names of Prince Edward Island; Surveys and Mapping Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; 1973; http://www.islandimagined.ca/fedora/ilives_book_viewer/ilives:190999-f_000

310 Alan Rayburn; Geographical Names of Prince Edward Island; Surveys and Mapping Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; 1973; http://www.islandimagined.ca/fedora/ilives_book_viewer/ilives:190999-f_000

311 Alan Rayburn; Geographical Names of Prince Edward Island; Surveys and Mapping Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; 1973; http://www.islandimagined.ca/fedora/ilives_book_viewer/ilives:190999-f_000

312 Fred Horne, Archivist/Collections Coordinator, MacNaught History Centre & Archives, Part of Wyatt Heritage Properties & Culture Summerside, 275 FitzRoy St, Summerside, PE Canada C1N 1H9; fredhorne@wyattheritage.com; http://culturesummerside.com/

313 Alan Rayburn; Geographical Names of Prince Edward Island; Surveys and Mapping Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; 1973; http://www.islandimagined.ca/fedora/ilives_book_viewer/ilives:190999-f_000

314 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

315 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

316 George Johnson; Place-names of Canada; EJ Reynolds; 1898

317 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

318 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coucoucache,_Quebec

319 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

320 W Stewart Wallace; The Encyclopedia of Canada; University Associates of Canada; 1948; http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/encyclopedia/Kamouraska-QuebecHistory.htm

321 J Disturnell; The Traveler’s Guide to the Hudson River, Saratoga Springs, Lake George, Falls of Niagara and Thousand Islands; Montreal, Quebec, and the Saguenay River; and also, to the Green and White Mountains, and Other Parts of New England; Forming the Fashionable Northern Tour Through the United States and Canada. With Map and Embellishments; American News Company; 1864

322 Zadock Thompson; Geography and History of Lower Canada: Designed for the Use of Schools; Walton and Gaylord; 1835

323 Willis Russell; Quebec as It Was, and as It Is, or, A Brief History of the Oldest City in Canada: From Its Foundation to the Present Time, with a Guide for Strangers to the Different Places of Interest within the City and Adjacent Thereto. P Lamoureaux; 1857

324 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

325 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawawachikamach,_Quebec

326 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitigan_Zibi,_Quebec

327 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

328 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Romaine,_Quebec

329 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

330 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashteuiatsh,_Quebec

331 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

332 http://www.easterntownships.org/city/45075/magog; Tourism Eastern Townships, 20, rue Don-Bosco Sud, Sherbrooke (Quebec), Canada J1L 1W4; info@atrce.com

333 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercier%E2%80%93Hochelaga-Maisonneuve

334 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistissini,_Quebec

335 http://www.mistissini.ca/visitors.html; Cree Nation of Mistissini, 123 Main Street, Mistissini, Quebec G0W1C0, Canada; info@mistissini.ca

336 W Stewart Wallace; The Encyclopedia of Canada; University Associates of Canada; 1948; http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/encyclopedia/Montmagny-QuebecHistory.htm

337 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre-Dame-des-Anges,_Quebec

338 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

339 Benoit-Beaudry Gourd; The Canadian Encyclopedia; http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/temiscaming

340 Robert Montgomery Martin; History of Upper and Lower Canada; J Mortimer/W Nicol; 1836

341 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whapmagoostui,_Quebec

342 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

343 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

344 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

345 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

346 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

347 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

348 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

349 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

350 Prairie Wool: A History of Climax and Surrounding School Districts; Stone Diggers Historical Society; 1980; http://www.ourroots.ca/e/toc.aspx?id=9109

351 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

352 James Warden; The Origin of the Name, ‘Cut Knife’ published in Where the Cut Knife Waters Flow, 1980; provided by Lucille, Clayton McLain Memorial Museum, 101 Hill Ave, Cut Knife, SK S0M 0N0, Canada; ckmuseum@gmail.com; http://www.cmmmcutknife.ca/

353 Brad Butler; brad.butler@sasktel.net

354 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

355 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyebrow,_Saskatchewan

356 Henry Youle Hind; North-west Territory: Reports of Progress; Together with a Preliminary and General Report on the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition, Made Under Instructions from the Provincial Secretary, Canada; J Lovell; 1859

357 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forget,_Saskatchewan

358 Gertie Preece; provided by Bryson Leganchuk, Administrator, Rural Municipality of Frenchman Butte No 501, Box 180, Paradise Hill, SK S0M 2G0, Canada; rm501@sasktel.net; http://www.rmfrenchmanbutte.ca/0000pg.asp/ID/13584/SID/2400

359 Michael Sherven, Administrator, The Rural Municipality of Glen McPherson No 46, PO Box 277, Mankota, Sk, S0H 2W0, Canada; rm45.46@sasktel.net

360 Janet E Fisher, Administrator, Rural Municipality of Heart's Hill, Box 458, Luseland, Saskatchewan, S0L 2A0, Canada; rm352@sasktel.net; http://www.heartshill.ca/

361 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

362 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandahar,_Saskatchewan

363 http://www.villageoflove.ca/History.html; Village of Love, PO Box 94, Love, SK, S0J 1P0, Canada; villageoflove@sasktel.net

364 http://www.luckylake.ca/

365 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

366 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

367 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

368 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

369 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

370 William R Barry; People Places: Saskatchewan and Its Names; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina; 1997

371 Florence Barker; The Spy Hill Story; Wolverine Hobby and Historical Society; 1971; http://www.ourroots.ca/toc.aspx?id=6236&qryID=f4637983-cfa0-43dd-8e42-6829052ac658

372 http://townofstarcity.com/Home.html; Town of Star City Office, 145 4th Street, Star City, SK S0E 1P0, town.starcity@sasktel.net

373 Chris Martin, Member, Unity and District Heritage Museum, Box 852, Unity, Saskatchewan, S0K 4L0, Canada; jimsego@sasktel.net; http://www.saskmuseums.org/museums/museum_search.php?id=210

374 Lesley McBain; The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan; http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/uranium_city.html

375 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xena,_Saskatchewan

376 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

377 http://www.questconnect.org/ak_yukon.htm

378 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973

379 RC Coutts; Yukon Places and Names; Moose Creek; 2003; provided by Nick Gillen, MacBride Museum of Yukon History, 1124 First Ave, Whitehorse, YT, Y1A 1A4, Canada; info@macbridemuseum.com; http://www.macbridemuseum.com/

380 RC Coutts; Yukon Places and Names; Moose Creek; 2003; provided by Nick Gillen, MacBride Museum of Yukon History, 1124 First Ave, Whitehorse, YT, Y1A 1A4, Canada; info@macbridemuseum.com; http://www.macbridemuseum.com/

381 Ken Spotswood; http://explorenorth.com/yukon/dawson-history.html; ExploreNorth, 5 Sage Place, Whitehorse, YT, Canada, Y1A 5T9; http://explorenorth.com/yukon/contact.html

382 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973

383 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973

384 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973

385 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973

386 Whitehorse Public Library, Government of Yukon, Public Libraries (C-23), PO Box 2703, Whitehorse, Yukon Y1A 2C6, Canada; WhitehorseLibrary@gov.yk.ca; http://www.ypl.gov.yk.ca/contact.html

387 http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/174348

388 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973

389 H Plume; http://www.ghosttowns.com/canada/yukon/minersprayer.html

390 http://www.oldcrow.ca/history.htm; Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation, PO Box 94, Old Crow, Yukon, Canada, Y0B 1N0; http://www.oldcrow.ca/contact.php

391 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973

392 Alan Rayburn; Place Names of Canada; Oxford University Press; 2010

393 RC Coutts; Yukon Places and Names; Moose Creek; 2003; provided by Nick Gillen, MacBride Museum of Yukon History, 1124 First Ave, Whitehorse, YT, Y1A 1A4, Canada; info@macbridemuseum.com; http://www.macbridemuseum.com/

394 James Wendell Phillips; Alaska-Yukon Place Names; University of Washington Press; 1973