Intercultural Communicationin Context

Liisa Salo-Lee

University of Jyväskylä

Sun Tzu: The Art of War (ca. 400 B.C.)

He who has a thorough knowledge of himself and the enemy is bound to win in all battles. He who knows himself but not the enemy has only an even chance of winning. He who knows not himself and the enemy is bound to perish in all battles.

Sun Tzu

Know your enemy and yourself, and your victory will not be threatened. Know the terrain, know the weather, and your victory will be complete.

Sun Tzu

Do not repeat the tactics which have gained you one victory but let your methods be regulated by the infinite variety of circumstances.

To know myself

”To know how other people behave takes intelligence, but to know myself takes wisdom.”

John Heider, The Tao of Leadership, 1988

Professional Communication in International Settings

”Successful communication in the international workplace requires a self-reflective understanding of the processes of communication.”

”Seeing Ourselves as Others See Us”

Pan, Scollon & Scollon 2002

Communication Display Portfolio (CDP)

• Research project ”Professional Communication Across Cultures: Three-way Cross-cultural Comparison”

• Three sites: Hong Kong, Beijing, Jyväskylä

Communication Display Portfolio (CDP)

Communication Display Portfolio (CDP): ”to exchange best-case examples of one´s own professional communications with counterparts in other countries, cultural groups or organizations for reflective discussion and feedback. The purpose is to find out as directly as possible how significant counterparts perceive our own communication and to tell them how we perceive theirs, so that we can make whatever adjustments are needed to simply get on with other tasks we are trying to accomplish.” (Pan, Scollon & Scollon 2002: 5)

Presenting across cultures

Many of the crucial sites at which professional communication across cultures takes place involves formal presentations (e.g. organization presentations, product presentations, contract negotiations)

Pan, Scollon & Scollon 2002

Conflict between Belief and Action

• For ourselves

• For others

• We assume we know our own practices and those of others

Pan, Scollon & Scollon 2002

Presenting across cultures

All cultures, groups, corporations & organizations are dynamic.

Knowing how to communicate means learning how to change.

The best source of knowledge about what´s right are the people you need to communicate with.

Pan, Scollon & Scollon 2002

CDP: steps

• plan exchange of CDP

• prepare CDP

• ingroup assessment

• exchange & evaluation across sites

• reflective evaluation of all CDP´s

• final self-assessment

Salient themes: Beijing, Hong Kong, Jyväskylä

Same aspects of presentational style noticed but differently evaluated:

→ language

→ nonverbal communication, e.g. body movement

→ paralinguistic aspects

→ communication with audience

Contextualization cues

Perceptions are responses to contextualization cues which are habitual and largely out of conscious awareness (Gumperz e.g. 1977, 1982; Scollon & Scollon 1995, 2002)

Reading of behavior

In any encounter, particularly intercultural or interethnic, the correct reading of the other person´s verbal and nonverbal behavior is basic to transactions at all levels.

In fact, the correct reading of all sensory inputs and their integration into a coherent picture is one of the most important things we do.

Edward T. Hall 1977. Beyond Culture.

Reading of behavior

Behavioral systems are tied directly to the self-image system. It is therefore difficult for most of us to accept the reality of another´s system, because it involves a different image and may require us to change our own.

Edward T. Hall. 1977. Beyond Culture.

Nonverbal communication (NVC), meaning & context

Knowledge of NVC can be misused. The danger is that people will --- attach a specific meaning to parts of unconscious nonverbal systems--- NVC must always be read in context.

Context never has a specific meaning. Yet the meaning of a communication is always dependent upon the context.

Edward T. Hall. 1977. Beyond Culture.

´Cultural´ differences?

”Hong Kong style” or incompetence?”Finnish way” or lack of confidence? Perceptions:→professionalism→ competence→ confidence→ trust→ involvement→ interactiveness

CDP as a self-reflective tool

Essential: not HOW the differences are explained (cultural, national, personal) but to realize that practices are different and they can be changed – if necessary – to make them more effectiveImportant: to establish good relationships with people from another culture(s); to begin a joint learning process and establish own best communication practicesPan, Scollon & Scollon 2002

Intercultural interactions

→ joint mutual learning

→ knowledge transfer

→ experience sharing

Negotiation as a context

”Negotiating with China can be both slow and quick, the Chinese can be both friendly and hostile, and Confucian ethics can be meticulously observed by a Chinese at one moment but openly violated by the same person at the other.”

Tony Fang 1999:4

Different teachings at the same time

”The essence of traditional Chinese culture resides in the philosophical traditions of Confucianism and Taoism. The Chinese are ”intensely practical” people who can follow different teachings at the same time.”

Tony Fang 1999:35

Multiple standards

• ”--- moral capacity of Chinese culture to follow different teachings and to behave differently in different circumstances is the key to understanding the complexity of Chinese business negotiation style.”

Tony Fang 1999: 27

The Art of Non-war

Subdue the enemy without fighting Sun Tzu, The Art of War

Stratagems (Ji)

The Art of War: 15 Principles (Stratagems)

Principle 13: Flexibility (”Stratagems must be flexibly employed based on concrete situations in the battlefield” (Fang 1999:161)

Flexibility is the highest principle of Chinese strategems (Fang 1999:162 quoting Gao 1991)

Strategic tradition in Chinese culture

”Chinese stratagems as an everlasting Chinese tradition prevail in all Chinese societies, regardless of whether they are Communist or non-Communist”Fang 1999:171

Chinese strategic tradition

---”a more profound Chinese strategic concept [than emphasis on defense] has been ignored. --- Chinese strategic tradition conceives a tripartite framework: winning, losing, and neither. --- more important than, and a prerequisite to, winning is ”occupying an undefeatable position”. --- undefeatability lies solely within one´s own prudence and power.” (cf. ”primacy of man”)

Lin Chong-Pin 1988:20

Outwitting (ji mou)

• ingenuity

• wisdom

• virtue of nonviolence

• honor of altruistic self-sacrifice

Art of Ambiguity (guidao)

Manipulation of [the enemy´s] perception through a combination of massive secretiveness, concealment, and cryptic or redundant revelation

Perception (based on a core of reality) contains a margin of uncertainty and is susceptible to manipulation

Lin Chong-Pin 1988:21

Underlying Chinese strategic themes

Integration:

→ integrated multiplicity

→ integrated dualism

Indirection

→ flux & fluidity

→ negativism & minimalism

Lin Chong-Pin 1988

Flux and Fluidity

Flux = the temporal dimension of flexibility

→ the ”Art of Waiting” (cf. moon; ”no constant conditions”)

Fluidity = the spatial dimension of flexibility

→ the ”Art of Yielding (cf. water, the soft overcomes the hard

Lin Chong-Pin 1988

Water

Painting: Shen Erjia

Bambu

Painting: Shen Shijia

Yin and Yang

A good strategy is as versatile as the five elements – metal, wood, water, fire and earth – none is absolutely dominant.Like the four seasons – spring, summer, autumn, winter – they come in rotation.Like the days, sometimes long, sometimes short.There is no hard and fast rules on good strategy. It has to be as versatile as water which changes course according to the ground. There is no good formula for good troop manoeuvring.According to the Art of War.

Negotiations in a nutshell

• There is no substitute for in depth cultural familiarity or knowledge

• Plan and pursue objectives with respect to the cultural context

• Recognize the variety of your options and strategies, and use them appropriatelyStephen Weiss. 1992 (”Negotiations with the Pasific Rim: Cross-cultural Challenges and Strategies”, Pacific Region Forum, Simon Fraser University)

Information gathering strategies

• Be prepared to invest time in communication and in the intercultural learning process

• Monitor the communication process• Use local informants• Ask questions• Listen and pay attention to feedback• Accept a life with ambiguity Vasko, Kjisik & Salo-Lee 1998:101

Preparing for Asia?

• Confrontation with prejudices & stereotypes• Disconfirmed expectations• Ambiguity• Time & space• Individual & group• Hierarchies: status & authority• Values (internalized views: religion, morality, politics,

aesthetics etc.)• Language• Categorization & differentiation• Attributions

According to Brislin & Hui 1993

Intercultural competence?

A profile of an interculturally effective person (IEP)

• adaptation skills• attitude of modesty and respect• undstanding of the concept of culture• knowledge of the host country and culture• relationship-building• self-knowledge• intercultural communication• organizational skills• personal and professional commitment

(Canadian Foreign Service Institute, Centre for Intercultural Learning, 2000)

Intercultural competencies: Stahl 2001

• tolerance for ambiguity

• behavioral flexibility

• goal orientation

• sociability & interest in other people

• empathy

• nonjudgementalness

• meta-communication skills

Personal qualifications for international work

• Open-mindedness

• Flexibility

• Interaction

• Adaptational skills

• Motivation

(Petteri Niitamo, 2003)

Broad Domains of Intercultural Competence

• Other-orientation

• Behavioral flexibility

• Communication and cultural sensitivity

Competencies of the stars

”...ability to read emotional messages in people with backgrounds vastly different from their own, even when they couldn´t understand the language being spoken – a competence crucial not only for diplomats but throughout today´s work world for capitalizing on diversity.” (Daniel Coleman. 1999. Working with Emotional Intelligence)

Intercultural dialogue

• understanding

• listening

• empathy

• openess

• trust

• atmosphere

• responsibility

”Multicultural person”

• adapts when encounters difficulties, and is capable of interactions in various situations irrespective of the culture where s/he happens to be

• experiences constantly a personal process of change because s/he finds always new challenges in different situations

• is able to observe his/her own culture from an outsider perspective

(according to Nancy Adler)

No rules function in all contexts

• The knowledge of the communication rules of a culture is necessary but one should also realize that no rules function in all contexts. Intercultural sensitivity and situational adaptability are paramount in multicultural working situations.

• Culture influences people and their communication. One should, however, beware of cultural stereotyping. People are influenced by many cultures, not only one. Which influence becomes dominant in each particular situation depends on the circumstances.Vasko, Kjisik & Salo-Lee 1998:123

Beyond techniques

The wise leader´s ability does not rest on techniques or gimmicks or set exercises. The method of awareness-of-process applies to all people and all situations.

The leader´s personal state of consciousness creates a climate of openness. Center and ground give the leader stability, flexibility and endurance.

Because the leader sees clearly, the leader can shed light on others.

Heider 1988

Potent leadership

Potent leadership is a matter of being aware of what is happening in the group and acting accordingly. Specific actions are less important than the leader´s clarity or consciousness. That is why there is no exercises or formulas to ensure successful leadership.

Heider 1988

Here and Now

The wise leader knows what is happening in a group by being aware of what is happening here and now. This is more potent than wandering off into various theories or making complex interpretations of the situation at hand.

By staying present and aware of what is happening, the leader can do less yet achieve more.

Heider 1988

Critical incident: Japan A European businessman was invited to a

dinner by his Japanese collegues. Three of them picked him up at his hotel and on the way to the restaurant they were talking in the car. The Japanese hosts asked him what sort of food he liked, and he explained that his favourite was Italian cuisine but he liked Chinese cookery as well. ”What about Japanese sushi?” they asked him. ”Well I have tried it but since I don´t very much like fish, it was difficult for me to swallow raw fish.” All three of his hosts then roared with laughter, but he had hardly finished speaking this when they landed up at an exclusive sushi-bar. What was going on here? (Source: Judith Hidasi)

Critical incident: A Southeast Asian country

Your organization is interested in establishing business contacts in a Southeast Asian country which at the present is not so easily approachable. You are introduced to a representative of this culture who resides in your country. She is willing to assist you and suggests to introduce you to a medical doctor practising in that country. You reject this offer since, finally, you are interested in business contacts. What was going on? (Source: Liisa Salo-Lee)

Critical incident: Hong Kong

A Finnish company based in Hong Kong had ordered gift items from the Northern part of China for an urgent delivery to Finland. The goods arrived in Hong Kong badly damaged and could not sent further. The managing director asked a Chinese junior manager, who had recently started to work in his company, to go to the North and try to locate a supplier who would be able to fill the order immediately. He told the manager, however, not to pay for the goods before they had safely arrived in Hong Kong…

Critical incident: Hong Kong…

Through a friend of his the Chinese manager found a supplier who was willing to take the order against an instant payment. He ordered and paid for the goods. After his arrival in the office, he soon realized that his Finnish superior was very upset by the fact that his explicit instructions had not been followed. According to the Finnish director, the Chinese manager was to be financially responsible should a damage again this time occur. Both of them thought that the other person did not handle the situation properly. What was going on here? (Source: Liisa Salo-Lee)

Critical incident: Shanghai

The Chinese agent had worked for the Finnish company since the recent opening of its agency in Shanghai. Talking to one of his principals in Finland over the phone, the Chinese mentioned in passing that he had not even taken a holiday during the customary holiday time in China. ”Well, have your holiday next year!” the Finn answered. The answer greatly upset the Chinese and he remembered it for a long time. What was going on here? (Source: Liisa Salo-Lee)

Critical incident: ”Have you already eaten?”

Two young Finnish men were accompanying two Chinese businessmen to the airport in Helsinki. There was a delay in the departure, and the men went to the airport cafeteria to have a chat. It was somewhat past the Finnish lunchtime. The Finns had already had a quick lunch in their workplace canteen before picking up the Chinese from the Chinese Embassy where the Chinese had had a meeting. While looking for a table in the cafeteria, one of the Finns said: ”We have already eaten. What about you?”. The Chinese said that they are OK. They all ended up having just a beer. What was going on here? (Source: Liisa Salo-Lee)