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Theoretical Foundations
Intercultural Approachesto the Teaching
of English
RRiicchhaarrdd FFaayyLecturer, University ofManchester
Theo
retic
al F
ound
atio
ns∞∞°°
°°7700//11
VOLUME 1
ISBN 978-960-538-759-4
INTERCULTURAL APPROACHES
TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH
Theoretical Foundations
NoteThe HOU is responsible for the editing of the publication and for the development of the texts in accordancewith the Distance Learning Methodology. The writers, critical readers and academic coordinators whoundertook the development of the given publication bare full responsibility for the scientific context, accuracyand standard of the work.
The project is co-funded by the European Union and the Greek State
Copyright © 2008
For Greece and the world
HELLENIC OPEN UNIVERSITYStaxtouti 16 & Ag. Andreou St., 26222 Patras
Δel: (2610) 367300 / Fax: (2610) 367350
CONTRIBUTORS OF THIS MODULE
Theoretical Foundations
Academic Coordinator of the Programme and Coordination of the Module, Academic EditingSophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra
Prof. University of Athens
WriterRichard Fay
Lecturer, University of Manchester
Critical ReaderNicos Sifakis
Lecturer, Hellenic Open University
Art DirectorArtemis Glarou
Produced by the
Project Implementation Unitof the HOU
ISBN: 978-960-538-759-4
All rights reserved N. 2121/1993No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilizedin any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
without prior permission in writing from the publishers.
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES
Master’s of Education for Teachers ofEnglish to Speakers of Other Languages
(M. Ed. in TESOL)
MODULE
Intercultural Approaches to the Teaching of English
VOLUME 1
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
PATRAS 2008
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Richard Fay studied English Language and Literature at the University of Oxford and then TESOLat the University of Manchester. In 2004, he completed his narrative-inquiry-based doctorate onintercultural aspects of distance learning projects (using the collaboration between the University ofManchester and the Hellenic Open University as a case study) at the University of Manchester wherehe has been a Lecturer in Education (TESOL and Intercultural Communication) since 1994. Hismain teaching areas for the Manchester MA TESOL programme are centred on the coursesexploring TESOL perspectives on intercultural communication and the development of researchercompetence. He has also been involved since 1998 in cultural and intercultural curriculum projectsin Bulgaria in collaboration with Leah Davcheva. His research interests include: appropriatedistance learning methodology; computer-mediated intercultural communication, and narrativeinquiry.
Richard Fay
General Introduction to the Module 21
Section 0.1Becoming intercultural explorers ....................................................................................21
0.1.1 Terminology (Key Words) .......................................................................................21
0.1.2 Decoding the module title........................................................................................22
0.1.3 Theoretical / conceptual and more practical / applied explorations.....................24
Section 0.2Aims, content, and learning outcomes.............................................................................25
Section 0.3The writing team ................................................................................................................28
0.3.1 The collaboration between the HOU and Manchester .........................................28
0.3.2 The writers.................................................................................................................28
Section 0.4Distance learning materials and methodology...............................................................30
Section 0.5Locating yourself in cultural terms .................................................................................33
0.5.1 Introducing ‘Richard’ ...............................................................................................33
0.5.1.1 A cautionary note..........................................................................................34
0.5.1.2 The enculturation process............................................................................34
Section 0.6Beginning to plan your wider reading for the module ...................................................35
7
CONTENTS
Section 0.7Assignment guidence .........................................................................................................36
References...........................................................................................................................37
Appendix 1: Initial Reading Recommendations..............................................................39
C H A P T E R 1Richard Fay
The Cultural and Intercultural Landscape 49
General Aims .....................................................................................................................49
Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................49
Key Words ...........................................................................................................................49
Section 1.1Conceptualising the module’s coverage ..........................................................................51
Section 1.2Streams of ‘Cultural / Intercultural’ Thinking...............................................................52
1.2.1 The Manchester modules........................................................................................52
1.2.2 Stream 1: The ‘Cultural Revolution’......................................................................52
1.2.3 Stream 2: Enrichment from Cultural Studies........................................................53
1.2.4 Stream 3: The British Studies movement ..............................................................54
1.2.5 Stream 4: The rise of the Intercultural Speaker....................................................54
1.2.6 Stream 5: The English language phenomenon......................................................55
1.2.7 Stream 6: Educational Technology contributions.................................................55
1.2.8 Stream 7: Study abroad ...........................................................................................56
1.2.9 Further enrichment .................................................................................................57
1.2.10 Consolidating your explorations so far ..................................................................58
Section 1.3 Mapping the cultural / intercultural literature..............................................................60
1.3.1 The map....................................................................................................................60
1.3.2 Foreign language education versus TESOL..........................................................60
1.3.3 USA-oriented versus Europe-oriented discussions..............................................61
1.3.4 Engaging with the cultural / intercultural literature .............................................63
8
1.3.5 Space 1 – USA / FLE literature ..............................................................................64
1.3.6 Space 2 – USA / TESOL literature ........................................................................65
1.3.7 Space 3 – European / FLE literature......................................................................65
1.3.8 Space 4 – European / TESOL literature ................................................................66
1.3.9 The primary concerns of this module.....................................................................66
References...........................................................................................................................67
Suggested answers...............................................................................................................73
Appendix 1: A Developmental Case Study.......................................................................74
C H A P T E R 2Richard Fay
The ‘Culture’ Challenge 81
General Aims .....................................................................................................................81
Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................81
Key Words ...........................................................................................................................81
Section 2.1Introduction........................................................................................................................83
2.1.1 Language and culture ...............................................................................................83
2.1.2 The problem with ‘culture’.......................................................................................84
Section 2.2Language teachers’ conceptualisations of ‘culture’ (I) .................................................86
2.2.1 Comparison with the definitions of other participants / authors ..........................86
2.2.2 Ingredients of ‘culture’ .............................................................................................88
2.2.3 The problem with an ingredients-approach to defining ‘culture’ .........................88
Section 2.3Language teachers’ conceptualisations of ‘culture’ (II)................................................89
2.3.1 Ideas, behaviours, and products ..............................................................................89
2.3.2 Objective and subjective culture..............................................................................90
2.3.3 Dealing with the problematic term ‘culture’ ..........................................................91
Section 2.4Three Polish stories ...........................................................................................................92
2.4.1 ‘Solving the Northern Irish problem’ – Focus on cultural content .......................92
9
2.4.2 ‘Agnieszka and me’ – Focus on intercultural communication ..............................93
2.4.3 ‘Warm-up exercise’ – Focus on context and methodological appropriacy...........95
2.4.4 The original tri-focused conceptual / organisational framework..........................96
2.4.5 The multicultural focus ............................................................................................98
2.4.6 Focusing on ICT .......................................................................................................98
References.........................................................................................................................100
Suggested answers.............................................................................................................101
Appendix 1: Alphabetical List of ‘Culture’ Ingredients.................................................105
C H A P T E R 3Richard Fay
Defining Key Terms 109
General Aims ...................................................................................................................109
Learning Outcomes ..........................................................................................................109
Key Words .........................................................................................................................109
Section 3.1Introduction......................................................................................................................111
Section 3.2Tourist Trap (Channel 4) .................................................................................................113
3.2.1 Organisational note ................................................................................................113
3.2.2 The video experience..............................................................................................113
3.2.3 Notes to accompany the Contact Session experience of the video ....................113
Section 3.3Cultural Awareness - Social Behaviour (Tomalin and Stempleski) ..........................115
3.3.1 Cultural Awareness Materials ...............................................................................115
3.3.2 The dangers of generalisation................................................................................118
3.3.3 Defining ‘cultural awareness’.................................................................................118
Section 3.4
Betting on the Bull (Cushner and Brislin)....................................................................120
3.4.1 Narratives in ICT ....................................................................................................120
3.4.2 The critical incident exemplified ...........................................................................120
10
Section 3.5
Critical Incidents in ICT perspective ............................................................................123
3.5.1 An initial taste of the world of ICT........................................................................123
3.5.2 The default ICT approach to ‘culture’ ..................................................................123
3.5.3 Critical Incidents as training tools.........................................................................124
3.5.4 The Cultural Assimilator .......................................................................................125
3.5.5 Culture-General and Culture-Specific Possibilities.............................................126
3.5.6 Terminological resonances ....................................................................................126
3.5.7 ICT and TESOL preparation for sojourners........................................................127
3.5.8 Diversity Training and TESOL courses in multicultural contexts ......................128
3.5.9 TESOL in multicultural Greek classrooms ..........................................................129
3.5.10Cultural Assimilators in ICT and Diversity Training programmes ....................129
3.5.11A final word on culture-general and culture-specific design considerations .....130
Section 3.6
Culture and Communication..........................................................................................131
3.6.1 Taking a communicational perspective ................................................................131
3.6.2 Edward T. Hall........................................................................................................131
3.6.3 Intercultural perspectives on culture-and-communication.................................132
3.6.4 Taking stock regarding the understanding of ‘culture’ ........................................133
Section 3.7
Communication and meaning attribution ....................................................................134
3.7.1 Communication as meaning attribution ...............................................................134
3.7.2 Revisiting Betting on the Bull................................................................................135
3.7.3 The methodological rationale for Critical Incidents............................................135
3.7.4 Meaning attribution and ambiguity.......................................................................135
Section 3.8
Intercultural communication .........................................................................................136
3.8.1 Louise Damen.........................................................................................................136
3.8.2 Reader-friendly definitions....................................................................................137
Section 3.9
Concluding comments .....................................................................................................138
11
References.........................................................................................................................140
Suggested answers.............................................................................................................142
Appendix 1: Richard’s Commentary on Tourist Trap ...................................................145
C H A P T E R 4Richard Fay
Possible Paradigms for TESOL 147
General Aims ...................................................................................................................147
Learning Outcomes ..........................................................................................................147
Key Words .........................................................................................................................148
Section 4.1Introduction......................................................................................................................150
4.1.1 TESOL is different .................................................................................................150
4.1.2 The paradigm possibilities for TESOL .................................................................151
4.1.3 Cultural / intercultural aspects of TESOL and FLE............................................151
4.1.4 You and your teaching context ..............................................................................152
Section 4.2Initial reflections on the underpinnings of your TESOL practices ...........................153
Section 4.3The spread of English ......................................................................................................155
4.3.1 The spread of English.............................................................................................155
4.3.2 Varieties of English ................................................................................................156
Section 4.4Circles of English users / usage and varieties of English ............................................157
4.4.1 Circles of English language users / usage..............................................................157
4.4.2 Circles of users / usage linked to varieties of English...........................................157
Section 4.5Possible paradigms for TESOL .....................................................................................159
4.5.1 Circles of English language users / usage linked to possible TESOL
paradigms ................................................................................................................159
4.5.2 Linking possible paradigms to the different circles .............................................160
12
4.5.3 Alternative paradigms............................................................................................162
4.5.3.1 An explanatory note ...................................................................................162
4.5.3.2 The linguistic strategy.................................................................................163
4.5.3.3 Revised thinking .........................................................................................164
4.5.3.4 The intercultural communication solution ...............................................165
4.5.3.5 Discussion of the newer paradigm possibilities ........................................166
4.5.3.6 Cultural content in the newer paradigms..................................................168
4.5.4 Multicultural awareness possibilities (by Maria Ntavaliagkou)..........................169
4.5.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................169
4.5.4.2 The Cross-Thematic Curriculum Framework for TESOL in Greece ....169
4.5.4.3 The multicultural profile of the Greek society ........................................170
4.5.4.4 Pedagogic possibilities................................................................................170
4.5.5 Transnational paradigm possibilities (by Richard once more) ...........................171
4.5.5.1 Taking stock ................................................................................................171
4.5.5.2 A paradigm ‘push’ .......................................................................................172
4.5.5.3 A paradigm shift?........................................................................................172
Section 4.6Comparing the TEFL and TEIC paradigms.................................................................174
4.6.1 The TEFL Paradigm ..............................................................................................174
4.6.2 The TEIC Paradigm ...............................................................................................175
Section 4.7Assignment guidance.......................................................................................................178
4.7.1 Assignment 1 options .............................................................................................178
4.7.2 Assignment Option 1: Paradigms option..............................................................178
4.7.3 Further notes on the assignment ...........................................................................179
Section 4.8Critical incidents revisited..............................................................................................180
4.8.1 Jane and John..........................................................................................................180
4.8.2 Maria José and Rosa ..............................................................................................181
4.8.3 Baxter’s contribution ..............................................................................................182
Section 4.9Concluding comments .....................................................................................................185
13
References.........................................................................................................................187
Suggested answers.............................................................................................................193
C H A P T E R 5Richard Fay
Cultural Learning 199
General Aims ...................................................................................................................199
Learning Outcomes ..........................................................................................................199
Key Words .........................................................................................................................200
Section 5.1Introduction......................................................................................................................202
5.1.1 Linking the chapter with the Contact Session ......................................................202
5.1.2 Initial terminology ..................................................................................................202
5.1.3 Cultural learning and the simulation experience .................................................203
5.1.4 Introduction to the simulation...............................................................................203
5.1.5 Assignment 1, Option 2: Simulation option .........................................................203
5.1.6 Organisation of this chapter ..................................................................................204
5.1.7 A final word of ‘warning’ ........................................................................................204
Section 5.2The life-long stages and processes of cultural learning ..............................................206
5.2.1 Terminology............................................................................................................206
5.2.2 Conceptualising the cultural learning territory ....................................................206
5.2.2.1 The stages of socialisation..........................................................................208
5.2.2.2 Childhood and enculturation.....................................................................208
5.2.2.3 Ethnocentrism.............................................................................................208
5.2.2.4 Acculturation ..............................................................................................209
5.2.2.5 Stereotypes ..................................................................................................209
5.2.2.6 Otherisation ................................................................................................209
5.2.2.7 Ethnorelativism...........................................................................................209
5.2.2.8 FLE and encounters with otherness..........................................................210
5.2.2.9 Culture shock ..............................................................................................210
Section 5.3Monocultural and multicultural contexts of cultural learning ..................................211
14
Section 5.4Adult Cultural Learning .................................................................................................213
5.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................213
5.4.2 Language learners and cultural learning opportunities.......................................213
5.4.3 Intercultural perspectives ......................................................................................214
Section 5.5Sojourner acculturation – culture shock.......................................................................216
5.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................216
5.5.2 Sojourner diaries.....................................................................................................216
5.5.3 Blogging sojourners................................................................................................218
5.5.4 The U- and W-curves of acculturation..................................................................218
Section 5.6Longer-term acculturation .............................................................................................220
5.6.1 Berry’s model ..........................................................................................................220
5.6.2 Longer-term acculturation and TESOL ...............................................................221
Section 5.7Lifelong cultural learning ...............................................................................................224
5.7.1 The Bennetts ...........................................................................................................224
5.7.2 The Developing Intercultural Sensitivity (DIS) model .......................................224
Section 5.8The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) ...................................................229
5.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................229
5.8.2 A word of caution ...................................................................................................229
5.8.3 CCAI instructions and instrument completion ....................................................229
5.8.4 Scoring.....................................................................................................................231
5.8.5 Plotting the Results ................................................................................................232
5.8.6 The four dimensions of crosscultural adaptability ...............................................233
5.8.7 Some Concluding Comments ................................................................................235
Section 5.9
Assignment guidance.......................................................................................................236
5.9.1 Assignment 1: Option 2..........................................................................................236
15
5.9.2 Linking the simulation experience to your own academic acculturation ...........236
5.9.3 Understanding the assignment design ..................................................................237
References.........................................................................................................................238
Suggested answers.............................................................................................................242
Appendix 1: Simulations in Intercultural Communication Training............................245
Appendix 2: Culture Shock ..............................................................................................250
C H A P T E R 6Richard Fay
A Cultural Dimensions Approach (to methodological
appropriacy) 263
General Aims ...................................................................................................................263
Learning Outcomes ..........................................................................................................263
Key Words .........................................................................................................................264
Section 6.1Introduction......................................................................................................................265
6.1.1 Hofstede and Holliday - tensions and connections..............................................265
6.1.2 Chapter organisation..............................................................................................266
Section 6.2Case Studies as an ICT method......................................................................................267
Section 6.3The Harold in Korea case study (Goodman, 1994) .......................................................268
Section 6.4The rationale for case studies.........................................................................................273
Section 6.5Introducing Hofstede’s research ....................................................................................274
6.5.1 Introducing the theory set ......................................................................................274
6.5.2 Hofstede and the software of the mind metaphor ...............................................274
6.5.3 Clarifying the main features of Hofstede’s research ...........................................275
6.5.4 Hofstede and cultural relativism ...........................................................................276
16
Section 6.6Hofstede’s four dimensions of cultural difference .......................................................278
6.6.1 Overview..................................................................................................................278
6.6.2 The Power Distance (PD) Dimension ..................................................................279
6.6.3 The Individualism-Collectivism (I / C) Dimension..............................................281
6.6.4 The Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) dimension......................................................283
6.6.5 The Masculinity-Femininity (M / F) Dimension..................................................284
Section 6.7Applying Hofstede’s cultural dimensions to your own contexts .................................286
Section 6.8Extending Hofstede’s dimensions ..................................................................................287
6.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................287
6.8.2 Ethnocentrism in Intercultural Research .............................................................287
6.8.3 The fifth dimension – Confucian Dynamism........................................................288
6.8.4 Extending Hofstede’s research to new contexts ...................................................289
Section 6.9Other dimensions of cultural difference .......................................................................290
6.9.1 Introductory comments..........................................................................................290
6.9.2 Hall’s High / Low Context Cultures ......................................................................291
6.9.2.1 The High / Low Context distinction ..........................................................291
6.9.2.2 Communication Strategies in High- and Low-Context Cultures ...........291
6.9.2.3 IC Discussions of the distinction ...............................................................292
6.9.3 Fons Trompenaars..................................................................................................292
6.9.4 Some other possibilities .........................................................................................293
6.9.4.1 Immediacy ...................................................................................................293
6.9.4.2 Tight and Loose ..........................................................................................294
6.9.5 The eight ‘icks’ ........................................................................................................294
6.9.6 Inductive and deductive .........................................................................................295
6.9.6.1 Scollon and Scollon.....................................................................................295
6.9.6.2 High / Low Context and Inductive / Deductive dimensions ....................295
6.9.7 Dimensions in action ..............................................................................................295
6.9.7.1 Communicating Styles................................................................................295
6.9.7.2 A love of binaries ........................................................................................296
17
Section 6.10Assignment guidance.......................................................................................................298
6.10.1Introductory comments..........................................................................................298
6.10.2The assignment itself ..............................................................................................298
6.10.3Making the assignment task more concrete .........................................................299
References.........................................................................................................................302
Suggested answers.............................................................................................................304
Appendix 1: Power Distance (PD) Rankings .................................................................308
Appendix 2: Individualism / Collectivism (I / C) Rankings ...........................................309
Appendix 3: Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) Rankings....................................................311
Appendix 4: Masculinity / Femininity (M / F) Rankings ...............................................312
Appendix 5: Cultural Dimensions in TESP Materials ...................................................313
C H A P T E R 7Richard Fay
A Small Culture Approach (to methodological appropriacy) 321
General Aims ...................................................................................................................321
Learning Outcomes ..........................................................................................................321
Key Words .........................................................................................................................322
Section 7.1Introduction......................................................................................................................324
7.1.1 An epiphany remembered .....................................................................................324
7.1.2 Working towards appropriate methodology ........................................................324
7.1.3 The problematic, default use of a large culture approach...................................325
7.1.4 Thinking small.........................................................................................................325
7.1.5 Holliday’s contributions .........................................................................................326
7.1.6 Organisation............................................................................................................327
Section 7.2
The Holliday seminar ......................................................................................................329
7.2.1 Introductory comments..........................................................................................329
7.2.2 The seminar context ...............................................................................................329
7.2.3 Holliday’s presentation ..........................................................................................330
18
Section 7.3Holliday’s two notions of ‘culture’..................................................................................334
7.3.1 Cultures large and small.........................................................................................334
7.3.2 A large culture approach (in comparison to a small culture approach) .............335
7.3.3 My summary of Holliday’s distinction...................................................................337
Section 7.4Methodological appropriacy in TESOL........................................................................339
7.4.1 Appropriate methodology .....................................................................................339
7.4.2 Methodological mismatches and divisions in the world of TESOL....................340
7.4.3 The Host Culture Complex....................................................................................344
7.4.4 Teaching spectacles and learning festivals............................................................346
7.4.5 Developing appropriate methodology ..................................................................347
7.4.6 Ethnography in TESOL .........................................................................................349
Section 7.5
Conceptualising an MEd TESOL programme in Holliday-an terms ........................351
Section 7.6
Politicising TESOL..........................................................................................................353
7.6.1 Imperialism .............................................................................................................353
7.6.2 Is TESOL culture-bound? .....................................................................................353
7.6.3 Revisiting the terms EIL / ELF..............................................................................355
7.6.4 Is TESOL imperialistic?.........................................................................................355
7.6.5 Imperialism defined ...............................................................................................357
7.6.6 Conspiracy theory? .................................................................................................359
7.6.7 Some concluding comments regarding political sensitivities ..............................360
Section 7.7Thinking small, thinking complex .................................................................................362
7.7.1 Introductory comment ...........................................................................................362
7.7.2 The culturally-complex and culturally-unique individual (Marshall Singer).....362
7.7.2.1 Identity groups ............................................................................................362
7.7.2.2 Ascriptions of identity ................................................................................363
7.7.2.3 Identity groups and culture ........................................................................363
7.7.2.4 Complexity and uniqueness .......................................................................363
19
20
7.7.2.5 Rank-ordering identity groups ..................................................................364
7.7.2.6 Rank-ordering cultural aspects..................................................................364
7.7.2.7 The fluidity of identity groups and rank-orderings ..................................365
7.7.2.8 Revisiting the Betting on the Bull critical incident ....................................365
7.7.3 Languaculture (Michael Agar) .............................................................................365
7.7.3.1 Hot issues of yesteryear ..............................................................................365
7.7.3.2 Generalist and specificist discourses .........................................................366
7.7.3.3 Linguistic (cultural) determinism and relativity.......................................366
7.7.3.4 The challenge posed by the complexity of human existence ...................367
7.7.3.5 Languaculture ..............................................................................................367
7.7.4 Other links...............................................................................................................368
7.7.4.1 Culture is a verb (Brian Street)..................................................................368
7.7.4.2 Intercultural communication as interpersonal communication..............368
7.7.4.3 Pulling the threads together.......................................................................368
Section 7.8Assignment guidance.......................................................................................................369
7.8.1 Introductory comments..........................................................................................369
7.8.2 The assignment itself ..............................................................................................369
References.........................................................................................................................371
Suggested answers.............................................................................................................375