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This article was downloaded by: [McMaster University]On: 25 November 2014, At: 09:51Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of Geography in HigherEducationPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjgh20
Interactive online tools for enhancingstudent learning experiences in remotesensingKaren E. Joyceab, Bopelo Boitshwarelob, Stuart R. Phinnc, GregJ.E. Hilld & Gail D. Kellye
a Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, CharlesDarwin University, Casuarina Campus, Darwin, NT 0810, Australiab Office of Learning and Teaching, Charles Darwin University,Casuarina Campus, Darwin, NT 0810, Australiac School of Geography, Planning, and Environmental Management,University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australiad University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Darwin, QLD4558, Australiae AAM Pty Ltd, Level 1 Leichhardt Court, 55 Little Edward Street,Spring Hill, QLD 4004, AustraliaPublished online: 01 Jul 2014.
To cite this article: Karen E. Joyce, Bopelo Boitshwarelo, Stuart R. Phinn, Greg J.E. Hill & Gail D.Kelly (2014) Interactive online tools for enhancing student learning experiences in remote sensing,Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 38:3, 431-439, DOI: 10.1080/03098265.2014.933404
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2014.933404
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Interactive online tools for enhancing student learning experiences inremote sensing
Karen E. Joycea,b*, Bopelo Boitshwarelob, Stuart R. Phinnc, Greg J.E. Hilld and
Gail D. Kellye
aResearch Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, CasuarinaCampus, Darwin, NT 0810, Australia; bOffice of Learning and Teaching, Charles DarwinUniversity, Casuarina Campus, Darwin, NT 0810, Australia; cSchool of Geography, Planning, andEnvironmental Management, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; dUniversityof the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Darwin, QLD 4558, Australia; eAAM Pty Ltd, Level 1Leichhardt Court, 55 Little Edward Street, Spring Hill, QLD 4004, Australia
(Received 11 December 2013; final version received 26 April 2014)
The rapid growth in Information and Communications Technologies usage in highereducation has provided immense opportunities to foster effective student learningexperiences in geography. In particular, remote sensing lends itself to the creativeutilization of multimedia technologies. This paper presents a case study of a remotesensing computer aided learning (RSCAL) program, which was developed in Australiato facilitate student active engagement with foundational knowledge and skills.We demonstrate how RSCAL has evolved to become scalable and responsive to newerpedagogical perspectives and emerging learner needs. It has become a recommendedkey resource in contemporary remote sensing education and training.
Keywords: remote sensing; multimedia; pedagogy; online learning; higher education
Introduction
The rapid growth of Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) undoubtedly
provides immense potential in the teaching and learning of geography in higher education
(Lemke & Ritter, 2000; Ritter, 2012). For remote sensing specifically, the key role of the
Internet was already evident as far back as the 1990s (Stubkjær, 1997). The nature of
remote sensing lends itself particularly to multimedia technologies and as the years have
passed, it is clear that remote sensing education without these tools is fundamentally
limited.
Some of the early attempts at using ICTs within the remote sensing discipline included
collating educational resources by links through a single web page to provide a “one stop
shop” for educators and students to search for materials (Sivaprakash, Ng, Teo, Khoo, &
Liew, 1997). Recognizing the value of interactivity in education, Koenig (2000)
progressed the online materials with the development of a website that contained a number
q 2014 Taylor & Francis
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 2014
Vol. 38, No. 3, 431–439, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2014.933404
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of basic animations, as well as some java scripting to allow students to select and view a
variety of spectral reflectance signature graphs. Aspects of this historic work are still
valuable today, though their presentation needs to be updated and integrated into a more
consolidated framework of learning materials.
In more recent work, there is evidence of an increasing focus on quality of the
multimedia products developed (Konig, 2009). It would appear that earlier products were
largely deficient in interactivity and didactic strategies (Konig, 2009; Weippert & Fritsch,
2002). This interactivity and the use of didactic strategies in online multimedia has
become immensely important, in part due to an increasing number of learners studying
remote sensing at a distance (Cochrane, 2005). Owing to this trend, there are currently a
number of remote sensing educational resources available online, and several of these
have been developed by government organizations. One such resource is the Canadian
Government Fundamentals of Remote Sensing Tutorial (http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-
sciences/geography-boundary/remote-sensing/fundamentals/1430). While far more com-
prehensive than many other online resources, this remains a static source of information.
It requires the student to read large amounts of text with very little interactivity or
engagement, thus being more in line with a soft-copy text.
Against this backdrop, this paper presents an online multimedia resource known as the
remote sensing computer-aided learning (RSCAL, accessed via http://www.kejoyce.com/
education.html). It was developed in Australia to facilitate student active engagement with
foundational remote sensing knowledge and skills. The paper will demonstrate how
RSCAL has evolved over time to meet students’ emerging needs. In addition to being
cohesive, interactive and comprehensive, RSCAL is freely accessible. The paper is
motivated by the need to demonstrate good pedagogies, and at the same time openly share
educational products to advance remote sensing education globally.
Taking a descriptive case study approach, this paper will start by providing a
contextual background to RSCAL, in terms of its history and also the specific context of its
recent implementation at Charles Darwin University (CDU). Next, analysis of the design
and development of the product will be made, followed by some information on recent
preliminary evaluation thereof. Finally, future prospects, particularly anticipated
developments, will be briefly discussed, followed by a summary.
Contextual background
The RSCAL program was originally developed in the late 1980s as an initiative of the
ARC Key Centre in Land Information Studies (AKCLIS). Headquartered at the University
of Queensland (UQ), AKCLIS was one of the first key centres to be established, and was
charged with undertaking research on the rapidly developing new disciplines of remote
sensing and geographical information systems.
Driven by advances in technology and computing, remote sensing curricula that had
previously been dominated by techniques for interpretation of manual air photographs and
photogrammetric analysis required complete revision. Within the AKCLIS, a decision was
made to harness the potential of the technology itself to inspire students, enhance the
learning experience and provide the educational leadership expected of a key centre.
Consequently, RSCAL, an interactive computer-aided learning program, was created to
assist students in developing a fundamental understanding of remote sensing and the
associated complex technical skills.
Over the past 23 years, more than 1000 undergraduate and postgraduate students have
used the program, primarily at UQ and CDU (previously Northern Territory University),
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where it is now written into the course syllabus of the introductory remote sensing classes.
Here it directly supports understanding of specific topics to provide learning and active
revision of all the major concepts and skills. Recently, RSCAL was revised to make use of
more contemporary software and make it more widely accessible through the web. The
new version was implemented at CDU and UQ in early 2013.
Our context of focus in this paper is primarily on the recent implementation of RSCAL
at CDU, which is a small regional university in the Northern Territory of Australia. A large
proportion of the student cohort study via distance learning for undergraduate and
postgraduate degree qualifications. As such, a considerable amount of effort and attention
is focussed on providing high quality online learning experiences.
Between 2010 and 2013, the proportion of enrolment of external students at CDU
studying remote sensing increased from 27% to 48%. The quality and quantity of online
materials was thus required to increase accordingly. Relying solely on audio and/or video
recordings, static web pages and document download via the Learning Management
System proved insufficient to meet the needs of students who were participating
externally. Further, with many on-campus-based students increasingly relying on, and
expecting, online resources to complement lectures and practicals, it became obvious that
more sophisticated resources were needed.
Provision of online learning is challenging across all disciplines. In some cases, there
may be materials available from other institutions or organizations that can be collated for
the student. Otherwise, it remains the responsibility of the course teacher to develop and
deliver these resources. While the field of remote sensing is driven by science, technology
and visualization, a range of online resources are available, yet are not always presented in
a cohesive, comprehensive and easily digestible format. The RSCAL program forms part
of complete learning materials overhaul for remote sensing to address this requirement at
CDU.
Design and development of RSCAL
Remote sensing requires students to grasp concepts from a variety of disciplines, and to
apply their knowledge in practical settings. Like most other fields, it has traditionally been
taught with a lecture and practical/tutorial format, which is now becoming somewhat
defunct with the high demand for online learning. The rationale for creating RSCAL, and
subsequently revising it, was therefore to provide remote sensing students with a means for
more interactive, engaging and comprehensive learning that is congruent with emerging
best teaching practices. RSCAL leverages the technological developments in terms of
software that are now able to support a variety of learning tools suitable for the technology
demanding and savvy student.
The objective of developing this suite of multimedia learning tools was threefold: to
attract and engage students in the online learning space; to offer tools that break down and
explain some of the key concepts that can be challenging in understanding due either to the
scientific or industry-based terminology and processes and to meet the broad range of
learning preferences of a diverse student cohort (Hammen, 1992).
RSCAL is a program that requires the student to actively engage with the educational
content as they begin to develop basic skills in remote sensing. It presents the foundational
theory and concepts of remote sensing, while assisting students to acquire and apply basic
skills through practical applications. The intent was to move away from text-driven
resources; thus, the program uses an integrated multimedia format including graphics and
animations to scaffold learning. This format has been shown to effectively promote
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student learning (Mayer, 2003). Additionally, graphics are known to support attention,
enhance motivation and minimize cognitive load (Clark & Lyons, 2010). This approach
stimulates curiosity, motivating students to connect to the theory and practice of remote
sensing, and forming a sound basis for more advanced learning. RSCAL uses a
combination of learning tools that incorporate video, animation, narrations that align with
the lecture, interactive “play”, quizzes and encourages exploration and therefore appeals
to different mix of learner styles such as the auditory, visual or verbal styles.
The design and development of instructional multimedia to effectively meet these
multi-fold objectives is a rather complex undertaking because a multiplicity of factors is
involved. Numerous interrelated elements are known to determine the effect of
multimedia on learning and these can be grouped into four broad categories (Hede, 2002):
multimedia inputs, cognitive processes, learner dynamics, and knowledge and learning.
Of these four categories, multimedia inputs (which includes auditory, visual and learner
control inputs) is the one that is under the direct control of designers/developers of
instructional multimedia. The multimedia inputs then influence the other elements in one
way or another, or intervene between them. For example, multimedia inputs, if well
designed and organized, can enhance attention, foster engagement and lead to meaningful
construction of knowledge. An analysis of the RSCALmultimedia inputs reveals that their
design was underpinned by some key instructional media design strategies especially
those discussed by Mayer (2003):
. The multimedia effect principle, where the program uses integrated text, graphics
and sounds/audio to motivate and engage learners and hopefully facilitate deep
learning.
. The coherence effect principle also is evident as only relevant material tended to be
included while extraneous details are excluded to avoid interference with the
learning process and reduce cognitive overload.
. Effectiveness was also achieved through the spatial and temporal contiguity effect,
in which different media are physically integrated together or close to each in time
and space to avoid split attention (Moreno & Mayer, 1999).
. While the personalization effect is mildly used, the material was not too formal
either and is written in simple language, and therefore is still friendly to learners.
The content used originates from various text books, and the combined research of
authors and colleagues. It is structured into four main modules: What is remote sensing;
spectral signatures; aerial photo interpretation and digital image processing. Each module
was then broken down into between six and eight topics (Figure 1). Consistent with
Gagne’s theory around conditions of learning, which is widely used to guide effective
instructional multimedia (Deubel, 2003; Gagne, 1985; Stemler, 1997; Wild & Quinn,
1998), RSCAL facilitates the different events of learning. For example, the attractive
graphics on the front page of every module and/or topic helps to gain attention of the
students while the specific learning objectives and a list of topics used to introduce the
module creates expectancy. The way the material is chunked and structured and the use of
strategies described earlier to organize different media aid the cognitive processes such as
semantic encoding (meaning-making). Students can also choose which topic to access and
can navigate the program according to their areas of interest. This promotes inclusivity for
students with diverse needs. To elicit performance, provide feedback and assess
performance, questions are embedded within the modules which give many opportunities
for formative feedback, while each module concludes with a summative assessment,
assisting with retrieval, reinforcement and knowledge transfer.
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Themost recent version of RSCAL released in early 2014 encompasses amajor upgrade
of the software, including changing the operating platform from the original 1990s MS-
DOS to a web-based platform. In addition, some of the materials were outdated, as were
some of the learning techniques. The program therefore needed to be revised to be platform
independent, and to embrace contemporary learning styles. The current edition was
developed using primarily Adobe Captivate and Adobe Illustrator, in addition to the
Goanimate animation tools available online. It was designed to be flexible in that the content
within the modules can be easily updated, and additional modules can also be added.
When entering RSCAL, users initially select from the available learning modules, or
the optional “Games” or “Scenarios” (Figure 2(a)). Within a module, the topic selection is
then made (Figure 2(b)). The user progresses through the materials by clicking on various
links to allow new content to appear (Figure 2(c)). Within topic navigation is performed
using an expandable table of contents, or the forward and back arrows at the bottom of
each slide. A number of different styles of questions are offered as formative feedback to
the student (e.g. Figure 2(d)), and the final score is presented at the end of the module.
This, however, is not recorded in any way.
RSCAL has many advantages for educators and students in the discipline of remote
sensing. For example, course coordinators can link this resource to the main topics in any
textbooks on introductory remote sensing, as is currently done at CDU and UQ. In addition,
specific examples in the modules can be used in conventional lectures, practicals and
tutorial discussions to reinforce learning of concepts and skills. Also, if individual students
experience difficulties, they can be directed to particular modules or topics for revision and
practice. Furthermore, the program has been designed with careful attention to the
foundational concepts and skills required to understand and use remote sensing
Figure 1. The modular structure and topics of the remote sensing computer-aided learning program.
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technologies in a variety of professional applications. This critical feature extends the
program’s “shelf life” indefinitely and ensures sound learning of the basics in diverse
student cohorts and in individuals with differing abilities and preferred learning modes.
A critical aspect of the online resources is the active link between content-based learning
and direct application of fundamental concepts to image processing and interpretation at the
same time, along with the ability to obtain immediate feedback on work completed. Given
the interactive nature of image processing and understanding digital images and how they
measure and represent the environment, this use of online tools for this approach is essential.
The multimedia learning materials have also been designed to improve the learning
experience for external students who have historically had limited access to resources
beyond lecture slides and audio recordings (of variable quality) and standard text books.
The materials satisfy the broad range of learning needs and preferences that are found
within a diverse cohort of students. The range covers domestic and international students,
those with varying levels of educational, science and professional experience, and those
studying either on-campus or externally.
Evaluation
Over the past 23 years, more than one thousand undergraduate and postgraduate students
have used the program, primarily at UQ and CDU. The students’ disciplines span Arts,
Science, Planning, Geophysics, IT, Environmental Science and Management, Engineer-
ing, Marine Science and Agricultural Science. In the first semester of 2014, approximately
150 students from UQ and CDU were actively encouraged to use the program and provide
Figure 2. Example components of RSCAL: (a) module selection; (b) topic selection; (c) contentpresentation and (d) formative assessment.
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feedback. Data from Google Analytics, which was used to track usage, demonstrates the
high degree of uptake of this program. During March 2014, which represents the first
month of teaching in Australian universities, 349 unique visitors were recorded to visit
RSCAL. While the vast majority of the total 868 hits registered during this period were
from Australia, this also represented users in the USA, Algeria, Indonesia, Bahrain, Spain,
New Zealand, Turkey, Belgium and Bhutan.
In addition to acquiring usage information, an online feedback surveywas incorporated.
Thus far, the survey has been completed by a variety of people of all ages with differing
levels of experience (n¼17). This includes undergraduate and postgraduate students, as
well as industry and government employees. Those completing the survey were required to
rate their experience of the program on a scale of one to five. Most responses showed that
users were extremely likely to recommend the product to a peer or colleague (score ¼ 4.8),
and also considered that it facilitated their learning of the topic extremely well
(score ¼ 4.7). Students were equally happy with their level of engagement in the materials
(score ¼ 4.8), and experienced a high level of enjoyment in using it (score ¼ 4.6). With
only one exception, all users chose this program as their first choice for learning materials
when rated against textbooks, lecture notes and other online resources.
In addition to the numerical ratings, respondents had the opportunity to provide a
feedback comment. Figure 3 shows a selection of some of the responses, and also
demonstrates the international testing of the program.
Future directions
This current version is presented in a somewhat linear fashion that promotes self-paced
learning, but the student is somewhat limited in their direction or pathway choice. We
Figure 3. Feedback from users of RSCAL.
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would like to see further editions of the product follow more of a spider web type or mind
map structure, which would further promote student exploration into topics of interest.
However, this will require significantly more programming and design development. The
most recent release (April 2014) of the Scenarios module starts to head in the direction of
more exploratory learning.
To complement RSCAL, we have more recently created an additional tool that is
specifically focussed on addressing the types of skills that are used in a field or laboratory
situation. The new virtual lab includes considerably more interactivity, and features field
spectrometer use, visualizing colour using multi-band image displays, and experimen-
tation associated with spatial extent and resolution trade-offs. It is optimized for tablet use,
taking advantage of touch and gestures in addition to audio-visual cues. It is now available
via http://remotesensinglab.com and is receiving positive feedback from initial testing.
In a recent survey of 130 Canadian and US universities and colleges involved in
teaching remote sensing, Sader and Mueller (2012) found that only 5.6% of courses were
taught online. It will be interesting to see if this increases in the future, though one can only
expect this to be the case if the momentum of MOOCs (massive online open courses) is
indicative of this trend and students increasingly demand online education. As such, the
continued development of engaging and contemporary online resources will be critical to
recruiting and retaining students.
We will continue to collect data to ensure that the success of the past 23 years is
maintained, and will modify the program in response to feedback and our further critical
reflection. Consequently, RSCAL’s relevance and currency for higher education in
introductory remote sensing, both nationally and internationally – and for continuing
education in a variety of workplaces – will not only be maintained but will also be further
increased.
Summary
This paper has presented the developmental history and use of RSCAL, originally
designed in the late 1980s, but re-released in 2013. To our knowledge, it is the most
cohesive, comprehensive, and interactive learning tool within our discipline. RSCAL is
freely available online and targeted towards learning the fundamental principles of remote
sensing. Grounded in what is known to be effective pedagogy, it engages the student
through a range of multi-media tools including visualization, animation, and audio, in
addition to providing opportunities for both formative and summative assessments.
We encourage other educators to use the tool within their teaching programs, and
acknowledge that the proliferation of online learning opportunities can only continue to
enhance the development of similar products.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Sushana Karki for her assistance in transcribing the previous edition ofRSCAL into the current format; Leigh Findlay, Tania Stevenson and Darin Ritchie for editorialassistance; and the many people who have taken the time to provide us feedback on the program.RSCAL can be accessed here: www.kejoyce.com/education.html
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