Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence Creativity Creativity Psychometrics: tests & measurements Psychometrics: tests & measurements Cognitive approach

IntelligenceIntelligence

IntelligenceIntelligence CreativityCreativity Psychometrics: tests & Psychometrics: tests &

measurementsmeasurements Cognitive approachCognitive approach

The Psychometric The Psychometric ApproachApproach

How do you define “Intelligence”?How do you define “Intelligence”? Theorists use narrow, operational Theorists use narrow, operational

definitionsdefinitions Psychometricians do not claim that Psychometricians do not claim that

what is measured by an intelligence what is measured by an intelligence test is a good representation of “real-test is a good representation of “real-world” intelligence which is a broader world” intelligence which is a broader conceptconcept

Is it useful?Is it useful?

Does “g” exist?Does “g” exist?

One of the longest-running debates One of the longest-running debates in psychology: in psychology: global intelligence, a general ability global intelligence, a general ability specific abilities specific abilities

… …..More a matter of emphasis..More a matter of emphasis

““Intelligence is what intelligence tests Intelligence is what intelligence tests measuremeasure””

Edward BoringEdward Boring

Psychometric approach contPsychometric approach cont..

Psychometric approach focuses on Psychometric approach focuses on how well people perform on how well people perform on standardized mental tests and with standardized mental tests and with what the scores correlatewhat the scores correlate Achievement tests - based on learningAchievement tests - based on learning Aptitude tests--measure the ability to Aptitude tests--measure the ability to

acquire skills in the futureacquire skills in the future ---the difference is really one of ---the difference is really one of

degree and intended use since all are degree and intended use since all are based to some extent on experience with based to some extent on experience with words, objects, etc.words, objects, etc.

Invention of IQ TestsInvention of IQ Tests Alfred Binet: Alfred Binet: 1904 1904 Mental AgeMental Age Theodore SimonTheodore Simon Lewis Terman:Lewis Terman: 19161916 StanfordStanford

IQIQ Divided child’s mental age by the Divided child’s mental age by the child’s chronological age to yield an child’s chronological age to yield an Intelligence Quotient (IQ)Intelligence Quotient (IQ) All average children, regardless of All average children, regardless of

age,age, would have an IQ of 100would have an IQ of 100

Binet Test comes to Binet Test comes to AmericaAmerica

Lewis Terman revised Binet’s testLewis Terman revised Binet’s test Devised norms for American kidsDevised norms for American kids Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scale: 1916Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scale: 1916 Been updated many timesBeen updated many times David Wechsler: Wechsler AdultDavid Wechsler: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (WISC) Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (WISC) ---Probably the best IQ test for adults---Probably the best IQ test for adults ---Different subscales (Verbal vs.. ---Different subscales (Verbal vs..

Performance)Performance)

““He had a WAIS IQ of …..”He had a WAIS IQ of …..”

IQ tests cont.IQ tests cont.

Today’s tests based on Today’s tests based on normsnorms rather rather than MAthan MA

Average is still set at 100Average is still set at 100 SD usually 15 SD usually 15 2/3 score between 85 and 1152/3 score between 85 and 115

New uses in AmericaNew uses in America Binet thought the tests could be useful for Binet thought the tests could be useful for

identifying children with learning problems--not identifying children with learning problems--not to rank normal childrento rank normal children

In America, the original purpose was lostIn America, the original purpose was lost

The tests came to be used to categorize people in The tests came to be used to categorize people in school and in the armed services according to school and in the armed services according to their “natural ability”.their “natural ability”.

Army alphaArmy alpha Army beta (no English required)Army beta (no English required)

More harm than good?More harm than good?

Identify mentally retardedIdentify mentally retarded Identify giftedIdentify gifted Selection for jobs and schoolsSelection for jobs and schools Inappropriate use has prompted Inappropriate use has prompted

revisions in use for students placed revisions in use for students placed in special education classes--in special education classes--performance plus testsperformance plus tests

Cognitive approachCognitive approach

Intelligence, IQ, Creativity Intelligence, IQ, Creativity 11

1.1. You cannot be anything you want to You cannot be anything you want to be.be.

Sorry. We have different Sorry. We have different capabilities and weaknesses. We need capabilities and weaknesses. We need to capitalize on our strengths and to capitalize on our strengths and compensate for our weaknesses. It is a compensate for our weaknesses. It is a bad idea to tell kids this--it is not true.bad idea to tell kids this--it is not true.

Intelligence, IQ, & Creativity cont.Intelligence, IQ, & Creativity cont.

2.2. PsychometricsPsychometrics is a very sophisticated field is a very sophisticated field which uses applied mathematics to measure which uses applied mathematics to measure psychological and behavioral attributes and psychological and behavioral attributes and make predictions. make predictions. PsychometriciansPsychometricians construct, standardize, validate tests. Many construct, standardize, validate tests. Many people who criticize tests do not understand people who criticize tests do not understand test theory or the mathematics behind test test theory or the mathematics behind test construction.construction.


3. There is a difference between criticizing 3. There is a difference between criticizing a test, i.e., is a a test, i.e., is a test validtest valid, and criticizing , and criticizing its inappropriate use, i.e., should it be its inappropriate use, i.e., should it be used for a certain purpose. Science used for a certain purpose. Science issues versus values, policy, & political issues versus values, policy, & political issues. A test may be valid but you still issues. A test may be valid but you still might not want to use it for a particular might not want to use it for a particular purpose--e.g., IQ test for chefs.purpose--e.g., IQ test for chefs.


4.4. People who do not understand psychometricsPeople who do not understand psychometrics often often use tests inappropriately and even draw use tests inappropriately and even draw unwarranted conclusions and make decisions that unwarranted conclusions and make decisions that hurt people on the basis of the tests. Most trained hurt people on the basis of the tests. Most trained psychologists would not do this although psychologists would not do this although unfortunately some have. Some historical abuses unfortunately some have. Some historical abuses have given the testing industry a bad name. have given the testing industry a bad name. Feebleminded.Feebleminded.

When there is money to be made, sometimes ethics When there is money to be made, sometimes ethics are compromised. are compromised.


5. In the testing field, 5. In the testing field, bias is a bias is a statistical conceptstatistical concept and has a and has a statistical answer. Is the test equally statistical answer. Is the test equally predictive? Are the slopes the predictive? Are the slopes the same? Some historical abuses have same? Some historical abuses have clouded this issue. Political issues clouded this issue. Political issues and scientific issues get confused and scientific issues get confused here again.here again.


6. One test score is not enough. A trained 6. One test score is not enough. A trained psychometrician (and most Ph.D. psychometrician (and most Ph.D. psychologists, I hope) know better than psychologists, I hope) know better than to make an important decision about a to make an important decision about a person based on one test or a single person based on one test or a single test administration. Labeling test administration. Labeling "retarded" or college admissions. "retarded" or college admissions. Multiple pieces of evidence including Multiple pieces of evidence including performance are better.performance are better.

Intelligence, IQ & CreativityIntelligence, IQ & Creativity

7. If you don’t like the use of standardized tests7. If you don’t like the use of standardized tests, , what is a fairer alternativewhat is a fairer alternative? Often there is no ? Often there is no fairer alternative that is practical. The abuses fairer alternative that is practical. The abuses have been much greater when alternatives such have been much greater when alternatives such as interviews have been used.as interviews have been used.

8. A test is nothing more than a short sample of 8. A test is nothing more than a short sample of behavior. If you have a better sample of what behavior. If you have a better sample of what you want to understand or predict, you want to understand or predict, then use itthen use it..

Important People in the History of Important People in the History of the Study of Intelligencethe Study of Intelligence

1. Galton- -devised correlation coefficient1. Galton- -devised correlation coefficient2. Binet- -devised the first intelligence test2. Binet- -devised the first intelligence test3. Terman- -(Stanford-Binet Intelligence3. Terman- -(Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test), IQ, Study of GeniusesTest), IQ, Study of Geniuses4. Spearman--General Intelligence (g) Used 4. Spearman--General Intelligence (g) Used

factor analysis.factor analysis.

Intelligence, cont.Intelligence, cont.

5. Thurstone-- 7 Primary Mental Abilities5. Thurstone-- 7 Primary Mental Abilities6. Wechsler-- developed the WAIS, 6. Wechsler-- developed the WAIS, separate performance/verbal scalesseparate performance/verbal scales7. Robert Sternberg--Triarchic Theory of 7. Robert Sternberg--Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, practical intelligence, Intelligence, practical intelligence, creativitycreativity8. Howard Gardner--Multiple Intelligences8. Howard Gardner--Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence Testing/Creativity Intelligence Testing/Creativity 11

1. Intelligence testing is useful for predicting 1. Intelligence testing is useful for predicting academic success (i.e., grades) and predicting academic success (i.e., grades) and predicting success in some occupations.success in some occupations.

2. Intelligence tests are not perfect for predicting 2. Intelligence tests are not perfect for predicting academic success because they do not measure academic success because they do not measure motivation, creativity, social skills, and things motivation, creativity, social skills, and things such as artistic ability, musical ability, dramatic such as artistic ability, musical ability, dramatic ability, and physical abilities all of which may ability, and physical abilities all of which may contribute to academic success.contribute to academic success.

Intelligence & CreativityIntelligence & Creativity

3. Intelligence tests predict success in 3. Intelligence tests predict success in schoolschool better than success in better than success in lifelife, in part, , in part, because success in life depends on because success in life depends on social/practical intelligence. social/practical intelligence.

R. Sternberg has tried (with minimal R. Sternberg has tried (with minimal success) to measure social/practical success) to measure social/practical intelligence.intelligence.


4. Research psychologists are interested in finding 4. Research psychologists are interested in finding better ways to describe and understand the better ways to describe and understand the construct "intelligence". construct "intelligence".

Traditional tests tended to emphasize Traditional tests tended to emphasize

analytical reasoning and memory. analytical reasoning and memory.

Sternberg argues that practical intelligence and Sternberg argues that practical intelligence and creativity need to be included in the construct.creativity need to be included in the construct.

Intelligence Testing & CreativityIntelligence Testing & Creativity

5. "Intelligence is the ability to adapt 5. "Intelligence is the ability to adapt to, select, and shape environments". to, select, and shape environments". (Sternberg). What is considered (Sternberg). What is considered "intelligent behavior" and valued by "intelligent behavior" and valued by the culture, varies from culture to the culture, varies from culture to culture.culture.


6. If we didn’t have the concept 6. If we didn’t have the concept "intelligence", we would probably "intelligence", we would probably invent something like it. invent something like it.

Cognitive abilities, analytical Cognitive abilities, analytical reasoning abilities, scholastic aptitude, reasoning abilities, scholastic aptitude, etc., are all euphemisms. etc., are all euphemisms.

Intelligence Testing/Creativity cont. Intelligence Testing/Creativity cont. 33

We need to be able to determine on occasion We need to be able to determine on occasion when a person is mentally ill as opposed to when a person is mentally ill as opposed to mentally slow or suffering from brain mentally slow or suffering from brain damage, what people can do in schools and damage, what people can do in schools and jobs, when they need special help and so jobs, when they need special help and so forth. forth.

Too expensive and time consuming to Too expensive and time consuming to allow everyone to do everything and then see allow everyone to do everything and then see who can do the job or school work. We don’t who can do the job or school work. We don’t have the resources.have the resources.


7. The historical concept is too narrow. It 7. The historical concept is too narrow. It needs to be expanded.needs to be expanded.

8. 8. CognitiveCognitive psychologists want to know psychologists want to know "how" people solve problems in addition "how" people solve problems in addition to whether or not they get the right to whether or not they get the right answer (the answer (the psychometricpsychometric approach). approach).

Intelligence testing/creativity Intelligence testing/creativity cont.cont.

9. It is still debatable whether "intelligence" is best 9. It is still debatable whether "intelligence" is best thought of as a single trait that cuts across many thought of as a single trait that cuts across many different domains (analytical reasoning ability, different domains (analytical reasoning ability, e.g.,) or many separate types of abilities or e.g.,) or many separate types of abilities or intelligences. No agreement on this, even today.intelligences. No agreement on this, even today.

Intelligence testing/creativity Intelligence testing/creativity cont.cont.

10. Both genetics and the environment play 10. Both genetics and the environment play significant roles in intelligence, but how much significant roles in intelligence, but how much intelligence can be improved by enriching the intelligence can be improved by enriching the environment is not really known. Studies conflict. environment is not really known. Studies conflict. Going from an Going from an impoverishedimpoverished environment to an environment to an enriched one definitely helps. How early one enriched one definitely helps. How early one needs to intervene is not known, but the earlier the needs to intervene is not known, but the earlier the better, probably by 2 yrs. old.better, probably by 2 yrs. old.


11. Genetics:11. Genetics:(a) Over 50 different studies (a) Over 50 different studies

(Erlenmeyer-Kimling & Jarvik (1963) have (Erlenmeyer-Kimling & Jarvik (1963) have shown that the more genes people have in shown that the more genes people have in common, the more similar the IQ. MZ common, the more similar the IQ. MZ always higher than DZ.always higher than DZ.

(b) MZ Twins reared apart are (b) MZ Twins reared apart are remarkably similar in intelligence.remarkably similar in intelligence.

Correlations in IQCorrelations in IQHenderson, 1982Henderson, 1982

RelationshipRelationship rr # # of pairsof pairs

Individual with self:Individual with self: .87.87 456 456 MZ twinsMZ twins .86.86 14171417

MZ apartMZ apart .75.75 DZ twinsDZ twins .62.62 13291329 SiblingsSiblings .41.41 53505350

Sibs apartSibs apart .21.21 203 203

CreativityCreativity

Creativity is overratedCreativity is overrated Too much education can be badToo much education can be bad Different types of intelligence and Different types of intelligence and

cognitive styles are valuable for societycognitive styles are valuable for society Creativity big “C” and little “c”Creativity big “C” and little “c” Creativity occurs is all fields--business, Creativity occurs is all fields--business,

military (Alexander), sports, leadershipmilitary (Alexander), sports, leadership

Creativity cont.Creativity cont.

Creativity: personality vs. intelligenceCreativity: personality vs. intelligence Sell your ideasSell your ideas Creativity tests are not very goodCreativity tests are not very good Creativity can be trained in childrenCreativity can be trained in children Societies/culture make a differenceSocieties/culture make a difference Persistence & hard work are Persistence & hard work are

extremely important--don’t believe extremely important--don’t believe most of the legendsmost of the legends

How creativity has been How creativity has been studiedstudied

Societies that foster itSocieties that foster it Biographies of the very creativeBiographies of the very creative Different areas--science, literature, Different areas--science, literature,

inventionsinventions Development in childrenDevelopment in children Psychology of the personPsychology of the person

Cognitive processes involvedCognitive processes involved PersonalityPersonality TestsTests

Creativity cont.Creativity cont. Creative people work very hard. 70 hrs per wkCreative people work very hard. 70 hrs per wk on the average.on the average.

After IQ of about 125, increases in IQ don’t addAfter IQ of about 125, increases in IQ don’t add to creativity.to creativity.

Divergent thinking example: How many uses can Divergent thinking example: How many uses can you think of for a brick?you think of for a brick?

Overall there is no relation with mental illness Overall there is no relation with mental illness although there are exceptionsalthough there are exceptions

Creativity Creativity 11

• • Creativity is a sociocultural judgment of the novelty, Creativity is a sociocultural judgment of the novelty, appropriateness, quality, and importance of a appropriateness, quality, and importance of a product. product.

• • A person is creative when he or she regularly A person is creative when he or she regularly produces creative products. produces creative products.

• • It is closer to domain-specificity than to domain-It is closer to domain-specificity than to domain-generality (r = .37 across domains) generality (r = .37 across domains)

• • Difference between creative potential and creative Difference between creative potential and creative performance performance

Creativity Creativity 22

Six Personal ResourcesSix Personal Resources

1. Intelligence- insightful, analytical, 1. Intelligence- insightful, analytical, ability to sell one’s ideas ability to sell one’s ideas 2. Knowledge - Too much knowledge 2. Knowledge - Too much knowledge can lead to entrenched thinking. can lead to entrenched thinking. Moderate may be best although Moderate may be best although there are exceptions there are exceptions 3. Thinking styles- question the norms 3. Thinking styles- question the norms

Creativity Creativity 22 cont. cont.

4. Personality - risk takers, have the courage to stand 4. Personality - risk takers, have the courage to stand up for their beliefs in the face of ridicule (Galileo, up for their beliefs in the face of ridicule (Galileo, Freud, Semmelweiss, e.g.) Freud, Semmelweiss, e.g.) 5. Motivation - intrinsic motivation, high energy, task-5. Motivation - intrinsic motivation, high energy, task- focusedfocused6. Environmental context 6. Environmental context

Divergent thinking Divergent thinking Risk-aversion (low tolerance for failure) Risk-aversion (low tolerance for failure)

Creativity Creativity Stages in the Creative ProcessStages in the Creative Process

1. Preparation 1. Preparation

2. Incubation/frustration 2. Incubation/frustration

3. Illumination/Inspiration/Insight 3. Illumination/Inspiration/Insight

4. Verification/hypothesis testing 4. Verification/hypothesis testing

5. Communication of results5. Communication of results

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Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence Creativity Creativity Psychometrics: tests & measurements Psychometrics: tests & measurements Cognitive approach