INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE SUSTAINABLE CONTRIBUTION OF … · Fax: (237) 223 79 12 VALORIS A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirement of the award of a Master’s

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirement of the award of a

Master’s Degree in Environmental Economics, Sustainable Development and Agri-

business

OPTION

Economics of Sustainable Development and Climate Change

Professional Supervisor:

Mr. Manfred Aimé EPANDA

President of Tropical Forest and

Rural Development

REPUBLIQUE DU CAMEROUN

Paix-Travail-Patrie

UNIVERSITE DE YAOUNDE II

FACULTE DES SCIENCES

ECONOMIQUES ET GESTION BP.18 Yaoundé Cameroun

Web: http//www.universite-yde2.org Tél: (237) 221 34 41 Fax: (237) 223 79 12

REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

Peace-Work-Fatherland

THE UNIVERSITY OF YAOUNDE II

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND

MANGEMENT SCIENCE

PO Box.18 Yaounde Cameroon

Web: http//www.universite-yde2.org

Tel : (237) 221 34 41

Fax : (237) 223 79 12

ACADEMIC YEAR 2015-2016

INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE SUSTAINABLE

CONTRIBUTION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

VALORISATION ON THE LIVELIHOOD ASSETS OF LOCAL

PEOPLE: THE CASE OF THE NORTHEN PERYPHERY OF THE DJA

RESERVE.

Academic Supervisor:

Professor Fidoline NGO NONGA Environmental Economist at the University

of Yaounde II (SOA)

Presented by:

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page I

CERTIFICATION

We certify that this work was carried out by TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC under our

supervision in the Faculty of Economics and Management Science of the University of

Yaoundé II with a view of obtaining a Master’s Degree in Environmental Economics, Rural

Developmentand Agri-business (Option Economics of Sustainable Development and Climate

Change).

The Supervisor:

Pr. Fidoline NGO NONGA

Professor /Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Economics and Management Sciences at the

University of Yaoundé II - Cameroon.

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page II

Table of contents Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................... V

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... VI


LIST OF MAPS .................................................................................................................... VII

LIST OF MAPS .................................................................................................................... VII

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................... VIII

ASTRACT ............................................................................................................................... IX

RESUME .................................................................................................................................. X

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1

1.1 . CONTEXT .................................................................................................................... 1

I.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................. 5

I.3.1 Main objective ................................................................................................................... 7

I.3.2 Specific objectives ............................................................................................................. 7

I.4 HYPOTHESIS ...................................................................................................................... 7

1.4.1 Specific hypothesis: ........................................................................................................... 8

I.5 INTEREST OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................. 9

I.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 8

1.8. LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 9

1.9. ORGANIZATION/ STRUCTURE OF WORK ................................................................ 10

CHAPTER 2: DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS, CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK,

THEORITICAL AND EMPERICAL REVIEW ................................................................ 11

2.1. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS....................................................................................... 11

2.2. THEORITICAL REVIEW ................................................................................................ 17

2.2.1 SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD .................................................................................... 18

2.2.2 THE VALORALIZATION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST ASSETS ............................. 23

2.3: EMPERICAL REVIEW .................................................................................................... 24

2.3.1The contribution of non-timber forest products to man livelihood .................................. 24

2.3.1.1: The income generation contribution of NTFPs ........................................................... 25

2.3.2. REVIEWS OF SOME STUDIES CARRIED OUT BY RESEARCHERS ................... 29

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PRESENTATION OF THE

STUDY SITE .......................................................................................................................... 37

3.1 Analytical framework ......................................................................................................... 37

3.1.2. Method of analyses ......................................................................................................... 41

3.1.2.1. Populationand sample size .......................................................................................... 41

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page III

3.1.2.2. Sample technics and sampling procedure ................................................................... 43

3.1.2.4. Method of data analysis ............................................................................................... 44

3.2. Presentation of the study area ............................................................................................ 47

3.2.1. Study site ........................................................................................................................ 47

3.2.2. Socio-economic environment of DBR and its peripheral zone ...................................... 49

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS .................... 54

4.1. General overview and descriptive Analysis of Respondents’ Demographic Information 54

4.1.1. Descriptive evaluation: attribute of the respondents ...................................................... 54

4.2. Inferential Statistics ........................................................................................................... 68

CHAPITRE 5: DISCUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS and CONCLUSION ................. 78

5.1.DISCUSSIONS…………………………………………………………….……………..79

5.2RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………………….82

5.3. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 86

Bibliograhy .............................................................................................................................. 88

Appendix 1: Nature of the indicators (variables) .............................................................. 101

APPENDIX 2 : Presentation of the questionnaire ............................................................ 102

APPENDIX 3: Presentation of the different ntfps study in the work ............................. 111

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page IV

DEDICATION

To my parents TSOFACK Jean Marie and NGANFACK Elise

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page V

All glory and honor goes first to the heavenly father for giving me life, strength,

wisdomand keeping me strong since from birth up to the point of realizing this piece of work.

I extend my warm gratitude to the following persons:

To Professor Fidoline NGO NONGA, Environmental Economist at the University of

Yaounde II (SOA) who has supervised this work in spite of her multiple occupations.

Her patience in reading and correcting this work, her methodological orientations and

her advice have been very useful to me;

To Mr.Manfred AiméEPANDA, President of Tropical Forest and Rural

Development (TF-RD), who offered me the opportunity to discover the wonders of the

rural world through my internship in his institution. He provided technical, financial

and moral facilities during the course of my internship. His professional supervision

and advice have been very important in the drafting and finalization of this thesis;

To my academic elder Romeo FOPA, for all the discussions to better understand our

subject;

To Mélanie KEMO TASSE for her advises and guidance in the writing of this work;

To all the TF-RD team for the friendly welcome and the discussions that have been

made in order to have a better understanding of my subject;

A special thanks to my aunts: AYMELE TSOFACK Marie and DONFACK

Eveline for their supports, advises and encouragements

A special thanks to my friends: DONGMO Rodrigue, CHANANG Rodrigue,

WANDJI Armerl Boris, MUKAM Andre for their encouragement and advises;

Much thanks to MOUAFO Luis Marie, NGOUFACK JIOSTA Honorine and

KWEHOUO Nicole for their support and advises;

I extend much thanks to all the villagersof the 31 villages in which the work was

carried out, especially the village chiefs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page VI

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual model ...................................................................................................... 8

Figure 2 : Sustainable livelihood framework .......................................................................... 19 Figure 3 : gender distribution of the respondent ..................................................................... 54 Figure 4 : Distribution of the ages of the respondents ............................................................ 55 Figure 5 :Number of respondents by Villages involved in the survey .................................... 56 Figure 6 : Highest Education level of the respondents ........................................................... 57

Figure 7 :Number of respondents by occupation .................................................................... 58 Figure 8 : Monthly income of the respondents ....................................................................... 59 Figure 9 : NTFP extraction ..................................................................................................... 59 Figure 10 : Differents NTFP extracted .................................................................................... 60 Figure 11: Differents extractions Zones .................................................................................. 61

Figure 12 : Units of measurements of NTFP .......................................................................... 61

Figure 13 : Perception about the notion of sustainable development ..................................... 62 Figure 14: Respondent’s idea about management plan ........................................................... 62

Figure 15 :Any proposed strategy for the sustainable management of the forest ................... 63 Figure 16: Different uses of NTFPs ........................................................................................ 64 Figure 17 : Projets and activities realize with the revenue from NTFPs ................................ 66 Figure 18 : Extra projet realize with the revenu from NTFPs ................................................. 67

Figure 19 : Scree Plot .............................................................................................................. 70 Figure 20: Confirmatory factor Analysis of the Measurement Model .................................... 70

Figure 21 : Full -fledged Structural Equation Model for NTFP - SLA .................................. 74

LIST OF FIGURES

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page VII

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 : Illustration of some definitions of NTFPs by some authors and some organisations

................................................................................................................................. 14 Table 2 : Classification of NTFPs ........................................................................................... 16 Table 3: Classification of NTFPs of vegetable origin and their specifications ....................... 17 Table 4: Cross-border, sub-regional and international market of NTFP ................................ 28 Table 5 : Size of the population, the total number of households and the number of

household’s survey for each village in the study area ............................................. 42 Table 6 : Presentation of some historical specification of the Dja biosphere and wildlife

reserve ...................................................................................................................... 47 Table 7 : Main human occupation periphery around the Dja Wildlife Reserve Geographical

position of the human occupation front ................................................................... 50

Table 8 : Quantity of NTFP extracted in 2016 ........................................................................ 64 Table 9: Quantity of NTFP sold in 2016 ................................................................................. 65 Table 10: Quantity of NTFP consumed .................................................................................. 65

Table 11 : Income obtained from the commercialisation of NTFP ......................................... 66 Table 12 : KMO and Bartlett's Test ........................................................................................ 68 Table 13 : Rotated component matrix ..................................................................................... 69 Table 14 : Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model) ...................................... 72

Table 15 : Reliability Statistics ............................................................................................... 73 Table 16 : Hypothesized path coefficients .............................................................................. 75

LIST OF MAPS

Map 1: Location of the Dja biosphère reserve ........................................................................ 48 Map 2 : Location of the study area at the northern peryphery of the Dja Biosphère reserve . 49

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF MAPS

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page VIII

AMOS: Analysis of moment structures

CBD: Convention Biological Diversity

COMIFAC: Central African Forestry Commission

CF: Community Forest

CFA:Confirmatory Factor Analysis

CIRAD : Centre International de Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement

DBR: Dja Biosphere Reserve

ECOFAC: Ecosystèmes Forestiers d’Afrique Centrale

ECCAS: Economic Communities of Central African States

EDF: European Development Fund

FAO: Food and Agricultural Organisation

FORENET: Forest Reserve Network

IMF: International Monetary Fund

MEA: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

NTFP: Non-Timber Forest Product

NGOs: Non Governmental Organisation

SL: Sustainable livelihood

SMEs: Small and Medium Size enterprises

SICAC : System d’Information et de Communication d’Afrique Central

SPSS: Statistical package for social sciences

WFO: World Food Organisation

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page IX

The main objective of this work was to evaluate the contribution of NTFPs valoralization to

the livelihood assets of the local people around the northern periphery of the Dja biosphere

reserve. In other to carry out carry out this work, two specific objectives were formulated: (i)

evaluate the nature and the value of the contribution of NTFPs valoralization to livelihood and

(ii) find out how the conservative management practices contributes to the livelihood of the

local people around the northern periphery of the Dja biosphere reserve. Data were collected

from 215 householdsin 31 villages located at the northern periphery of the Dja biosphere

reserve and were analysed using both factor analysis and structural equation modelling.

Results suggest that NTFPs valoralization significantly contributes to the livelihood of local

people and that the conservative management practices both significantly contributes to

NTFPs valoralization and the revenue obtained from the commercialization of NTFPs. Also,

the income obtained from the valoralization of NTFPs and the conservative management

practices is not significant enough to predict the livelihood assets of the local people around

the northern periphery of the Dja biosphere reserve.

Key words: Dja biosphere reserve,factor analysis, livelihood, NTFPs valoralization,

structural equation modelling.

ABSTRACT

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page X

L'objectif principal de cette étude était d'évaluer la contribution de la valorisation des produits

forestiers non-ligneux (PFNL) à l’amélioration des moyens d’existence des populations

locales de la périphérie Nord de la réserve de biosphère du Dja. Pour ce faire, nous avons

formulé deux objectifs spécifiques à savoir: (i) vérifier quelle est la nature et la valeur de

cette contribution à l’amélioration des moyens d’existence des populations locales, et (ii)

examiner les pratiques de conservation actuelles et analyser leur contribution à l’amélioration

des moyens d’existence des communautés. À l'aide d’un questionnaire semi-structuré, les

données ont été collectées auprès de 215 ménages de 31villages dela périphérie Nord de la

réserve de biosphère du Dja. Ces données ont été analysées grâce à l’analyse factorielle et au

modèle d’équations structurelles avec les logiciels SPSS 21 et AMOS 21 respectivement. Les

résultats révèlentque la valorisation des PFNL contribue de manière significative aux moyens

d’existence des populations locales à la périphérie nord de la réserve de biosphère de Dja. De

plus, les pratiques de conservation contribuent significativement à la valorisation des PFNL et

aux revenus générés par les PFNL. Toutefois, les revenus issus de la commercialisation des

PFNL et les pratiques de conservation actuelles, restent faibles et ne prédisent pas assez

l’amélioration des moyens d’existence des populations locales.

Mots clés: Analyse factorielle, modèle d’équations structurelles, moyens d’existence,

pratiques de conservation, réserve de biosphère du Dja, valorisation des PFNL.

RESUME

TSAFACK DONKENG ROMARIC Page 1

This chapter present the background, the problem statement, the objective and the importance

of the study.

1.1 . CONTEXT

The forests of the Congo Basin constitute the second largest forest mass of the planet and

represent one of the richest areas of the world in terms of biodiversity (FAO & Ousseynou,

2016). The region is home to 130 million people, many of whom depend directly on forest

resources, including non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Some of these products, such as

game, fruits, seeds, roots, insects or fungi, are used as food sources and contribute both to

food security and to the nutritional balance of populations. Others serve as building materials,

medicines, or support for ancient customs and traditions. Their trade in local and international

markets contributes significantly to the creation of income for all the actors involved in the

different sectors: those who harvest them but also those who transform them, transport them,

export them and sell them (FAO& Ousseynou, 2016).

Since the end of the 20th century and at the beginning of the 21st century, the positive role of

NTFPs has been recognized for their contribution in improving the standard of living of

people in rural areas, strengthening food security and having a less negative ecological impact

than that of timber exploitation and to mention the economic potential of these products at

national and international levels (Shackleton and Shanley, 2011).

There has been a growing awareness of the significance of forest resources. The Millennium

Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) makes a clear link between biodiversity, ecosystem services

and human well-being (Millenium-Ecosystem-Assessment, 2005). The importance of tropical

forests, as ecosystems containing some of the highest levels of species biodiversity in the

world, have been highlighted as particularly critical for livelihoods, especially for the

poor(Ingram, Sunderlin, Angelsen, & Wunder, 2006 ; 2003 ; 2001 ; ). While data are scarce,

an estimated 60 million indigenous people live in, and are heavily dependent on, the

rainforests of Latin America, Southeast Asia and West Africa. Some 350 million people

living in, or close to, dense forests rely on them for subsistence or income. A further 1.2

billion people in developing countries use trees on farms to generate food and cash (World

Bank 2001). Dependent upon the community, cultural practices and location, forest products

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION


may be a major source of livelihood, or form a contribution to livelihoods, rather than

comprising whole livelihoods (Wunder, 2001) (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003).

This awareness dates back to the early 1970s (Tabuna, 1999 a), and accelerated with the

United Nation Conference of 1992 at Rio.This Conference of 1992 on biodiversity and

environment officially recognise the socio-economic and ecological interest of NTFPs in the

sustainable management of the forest. It equally recognise that the degradation of the

ecosystem that we are assisting now are essentially because of man activities which threaten

the live of the different population relying on forestry resources for their subsistence and their

livelihood (EKE Balla, 2011). It was confirmed at the United Nations Conference on

Biological Diversity (Nagoya, 2010).And through various international commitments to both

promote biodiversity conservation (objectives adopted by the Convention on Biological

Diversity in 2002) and to combat poverty on the planet.

Even though the different countries of the Congo basin ratified the RIO declaration of 1992 of

development and environment; the interests that are given to NTFPs remains smaller as

compared to timber exploitation (FAO 2. , 2006). These NTFPs includes different plants and

animal’s species from the forest. The valoralization of these NTFPs neccessarily takes into

consideration the interaction of other disciplines as social sciences, economics, ecology,

forestry etc. (Ngo Nonga, 2002).

In the 1980s, countries in Central Africa adopted the structural adjustment programs (SAPs)

under the impulses of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, In order to

reduce the economic crisis. This period was also marked by migratory movements from cities

to the countryside due to increasing impoverishment in urban areas (Sunderlin & Pokam,

1999). In Cameroon, the Government, in order to "curb the crisis" of commodities,

significantly reduced and then eliminated agricultural subsidies. Despite this suppression,

cocoa farming continued through the use of NTFPs as based natural input compositions or as

potions to control brown rot in pods and against capids (Nnama, 1998). Diversification within

cocoa plantations has also resulted in the adoption of a multi-stratified model based on a

valuation of NTFPs species present in plantations (Adesina, Sonwa, Tchatat, N kongmenec,

Ndoy, & Gockowski, 1997). Known as «Cocoa of the Women », NTFPs and food crops have

led to a diversification of income sources (Nnama, 1997).

On 12 January 1994, African countries in the franc zone decided to devalue the CFA franc by

50 per cent in order to restore their level of competitiveness. This resulted in an increase in

the competitiveness of cocoa and coffee and an increase in the price of pharmaceutical


products. This has resulted in an increased use of medicinal plants by the populations for

treatment (Ndoye & Tieguhond, 2004). Consequently, the prestige acquired by NTFPs , being

confirmed from year to year, diversifying and intensifying, so as to arouse the interest of

States and international organizations and to Agreements and projects in the Nagoya Protocol

(2010). The concept of strengthening food security on the basis of NTFPs was then endorsed

and implemented by FAO and other agencies (FAO & Ousseynou, 2016).

The drastical fall in the prices of main cash crops such as cocoa and coffee during this period

(1994) reinforced the dependency of the local people around the Dja biosphere reserve (DBR)

to the exploitation of natural resources with priorities given to the collection of non-timber

forest products (NTFPs), subsistence agriculture, the consumption and commercialization of

bush meat (ESSOUMBA, 2010).

The terms used to describe the NTFPs i.e. forest products other than timber has evolve over

time. At the beginning of the 1980’s, the term that was usually used by the authors was

« secondary forest products, special forest products, traditional agricultural products»

(Schreckenberg, 1996).

As such at the beginning of the 1990’s, these different terms used to describe the NTFPs

where progressively abandoned and the new term highly use are « Non timber forest

products » (NTFPS) and « Non Wood Forest products » (NWFPs) (Anonymous, 1993).

In 1997, peters define NTFPs as « any products whereby it exploitation does not demand a

particular investment and for which it consumption or it commercialization is directly enjoy

by the local people ». NTFPscan either be plants forest products and animal products (Peters,

1997)

Non timber forest products ( NTFPs) can be defined in the broadest sense as any biological

resources collected from wild by rural people for direct consumption /income generation on a

small scale (Shackleton, Shackleton, & Shanley, 2004 ;2011). They include wild edible foods,

,medicinal plants, floral greenery, horticulture stocks, fibre of plants, fungi resins, fuel wood ,

small diameter wood used for poles, carvings etc. ( Clain and Jones, 2005 ; Solomon , 2016).

There has been increase recognition of NTFPs contribution to household and national

economy and environmental objectives including biodiversity conservation (Arnold and

Perez, 2001). For example, a study by MEA (2005) estimated that up to 96% of the values of

forest are derived from NTFPs and services. Also , they have been recognized internationally

as important element in sustainable forest management as a key element in sustainable


economic development and set out nonbinding guidelines for sustainable forest management

with specific inclusion of NTFPs ( Jones et al , 2004) ; (Solomon, ,2016). Similarly, (Plotkin

& Famolare, 1992) ascertained it by stating that there was big concern on how to address the

increasing and expanding deforestation of tropical forest. At that time, ecologist tried to

answer how to make forest resources economically attractive to local people to reduce

deforestation.

A study carried out in southwest Ethiopia under the role of NTFPs to the livelihood of the

local people shown that NTFPs were among the options considered best strategies to raise

income for the local people from forest while addressing conservation objectives (Mohammed

& Wiersum, 2011)

With an area of around 526,000 ha, the Dja Wildlife and Hunting Reserve was created on 26

June 1950 by decree No. 319 of the French High Commissioner for Cameroon. In 1981, at the

instigation of the Cameroon branch of UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere programme, it

became a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The UNESCO World Heritage Site scheme was

extended to the Dja Reserve in 1987(Samuel, may 2001).

The Dja Reserve straddles two regions of Cameroon (the South and East region), and covers

six departments: Lomié, Abong-Mbang, Bengbis, Mintomb, Mayomessala, and Djoum. The

Dja River forms a natural boundary to the reserve, protecting it to the south, west and north.

The population density around the reserve is estimated at 1.5 people per square kilometer

(MINEF/ECOFAC, 2000:59).

Since 1992 the reserve has been managed by the ECOFAC1 project, the fruit of cooperation

between Cameroon and the European Union. The Cameroon ECOFAC Project is one

component of a regional programme, organised by the IUCN at the request of the European

Commission, with the aim of promoting: ‘the conservation and rational use of forestry

ecosystemsin Central Africa’. Financed by the EDF2 VI, the ECOFAC programme is

initiating the establishment of a network of protected areas across Central Africa, with the

goal of safeguarding important tracts of biodiversity in the face of exploitation of forest

resources in the countries concerned (Mendouga, 1999).

The NTFPs are among the main coping mechanisms that poor households and the nation

have. Thus, their importance should not be overlooked or underestimated (Solomon, 2016)

1(Central African Forestry Ecosystems)

2(European Development Fund)


I.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

For Central Africa, NTFPs are a crucial issue, because of the social, economic, cultural and

nutritional contribution it provides at the same time. They have enabled the development of

numerous barter, proximity sales and, beyond that, a system of world trade, especially at the

time of colonization by Western countries. Also since the 1980s, their importance for food

and nutrition security has been unanimously recognized. In this context, the Nagoya Protocol,

signed in 2010, represents a genuine opportunity to consolidate their development in the

region (Ndoye, Masuch, Zé, & Nnama, 2016).

In Central Africa, agricultural production is still insufficient to feed the rapidly growing

population. That is why, over the years, the direct contribution of the forest to food supply has

increased considerably. During lean periods, or as a result of adverse climatic or social

conditions, NTFPs help families to meet immediate food needs and or to earn income to meet

basic needs. The main NTFPs in the Central African region are mainly edible and medicinal

plants, bushmeat, edible insects, rattan and other fibers to build shelters (Ndoye, Masuch, Zé,

& Nnama, 2016).

Cameroon is usually considered as Africa in miniature as a result of it high vegetal and plant

diversity (A. Awono R. A., Novembre 2013). It is estimated that Cameroon contains about

8500 plants species (Betti, 2007) (Abdon et al, 2013). This establishes the importance of non-

timber forest products (NTFPs) (Ndoye et al, 1999, Awono et al 2002) for the local

population, the NTFPs have two main uses:

- It is one of the important sources of revenue for the local people;

- It is also used as a diverted source of income products such as: food, medicine,

construction materials etc.

As such it is an important source to fight against poverty (Tchata et al, 2002, A. Abdon,

2013). Never the less many NTFPs are used as construction materials and for decoration

(Awono et al, 2002, Beti, 2007). Many authors in the 1980’s demonstrated the importance of

NTFPs on the conservation of biodiversity (peter et al, 1989, Djeukam, 2007). These products

(NTFPs) are used as foods, drinks, forages, combustion and medicines and others such as

animals, birds and fish (FAO, 1995, Ingram et al 2010, Awono, et al, 2013).

In order to increase the management and contribution of NTFPS to the local and national

economy, international developments partners have been investing in the development of

NTFPs in Cameroon. In spite of numerous initiatives, very little concrete results have been


obtained so far. (A. Awono M. a., 2016). To most non-governmental organisations ( NGOs )

in charge of these initiatives , the major constraints to NTFPs development comes from the

current forestry law as it does not provide a favourable institutional environment and should

therefore be revised ( Awono, 2016).

The NTFPs has been recognised to contribute in the livelihood of the local people especially

concerning their immediate needs, but the contribution of NTFPs to the livelihood of the local

population is just partially considered in terms of the income it provides to them (Lescuyer,

2010). This is because parts of the resources exploited are used for self-consumption while

the other part are sold or given to family members as gifts.

According to Ella Ella (2016), a proper valoralization of NTFPs can not only divert the

youths, the Baka pygmies and the women from the illegal commercialization of bush meat,

but can also contribute in ameliorating their income, their livelihood and also for poverty

alleviation.

Ella Ella (2016) also did the remark that the extraction of NTFPs are not yet sufficiently

valoralized at the DBR and some of the reasons that could account for that included: The

unawareness or the complete ignorance concerning the existence of the necessary legal

documents for the exploitation and the commercialization of NTFPs in Cameroun; The lack of

proper knowledge for sustainably exploiting the NTFPs and the knowledge about the

domestication of NTFPs and the absence of periodic markets in order to permits the extractors

of NTFPs to commercialize their goods. These conditions have led to the development of a

situation whereby the producers are being exploited by the retailers who come into the

villages and buy the goods at very low prices. Attached to that the very bad state of roads

infrastructures which does not facilitate the circulation of people, good’s and information’s;

The absence of reliable markets in order to obtain information concerning the prices of the

NTFPs commercialized by the local people and retailers; The volatility of many NTFPs

markets, price fluctuations (Arnold and RuizPérez, 1998) and the boom-and-burst cycle of

many NTFPs which ends up in their substitution by domesticated species or synthetic

alternatives (Homma,1992) . These different informations brought us to develop this research

question: does the non-timber forest product (NTFPs) sustainably contributes to the

livelihood assets of the local people around the northern periphery of the DJA biosphere

reserve (DBR)?

In order to answer this question we formulated two specific questions as follows:


What are the nature and value of the non-timber forest products (NTFPs)

contribution to their livelihood assets?

Do the actual conservation management practices contribute to the

livelihood assets of the local people around the northern periphery of the

Dja biosphere reserve?

I.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

I.3.1 Main objective

The main objective of the research is to evaluate the contribution of NTFPs3 valoralization to

the livelihood assets of the local people around the Northern Periphery of the Dja Biosphere

Reserve.

I.3.2 Specific objectives

The specific objectives include the following:

1. To evaluate the nature and the value of the contribution of NTFPs valoralization to the

livelihood of the local people around the northern periphery of the Dja biosphere reserve.

2. To analyse how the actual conservation management practices contributes to the livelihood

assets of the local people around the Northern Periphery of the Dja Biosphere Reserve.

I.4. HYPOTHESIS

The valoralization of NTFPs is use as part of the conservation strategy and contributes in

enhancing the livelihoods of people living at the periphery of the Dja Biosphere Reserve. As

such in order to bring possible answers to our research questions, we formulated a

hypothesize conceptual modelfrom which we developed two specific hypotheses as shown

below.

3 Allanblackia floribunda; Penthaclethra Macrophylla; Irvingia gabonensis; Ricinodendron heudolotti and

Baillonella toxisperma


Figure 1: Conceptual model

1.4.1 Specific hypothesis:

1 The different uses of non-timber forest products significantly contribute to the

livelihood assets of the local people around the northern periphery of the DBR.

2 The actual conservative management practices influences the livelihood assets

acquisition of the local people.

I.5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In order to carry out our research, it is important to obtain relevant data concerning our

research questions.

We obtain informations from local NGOs found around the DBR, from Internet and research

documents and from the regional decentralised services of the Eastern Region.

A questionnaire has been developed in order to obtain relevant informations that constitute

our primary data. Our sample was made up of 31 villages all found in the Northern Periphery

of the Dja Biosphere Reserve. Analysis where conducted using the descriptive statistics and

the structural equation model (SEM).


1.6. DELIMITATION OF THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

In carrying out this research on the sustainable contribution of NTFPs valoralization on the

livelihoos assets of the local people, due to time and economic constraint, this work will be

centered on just the Northern Periphery of the DBR. Also the work will concern the five (05)

NTFPs which are highly valoralized by the local people found in this area that is: moabi, bush

mango, njansang, mbalaka and alambiaka.

1.7. LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY

The expected results from this study will be hindered by a host of problems encountered in

carrying out the study. Some of these problems include: inadequate secondary data, the time

to effectively carryout this study is limited,in order to effectively and efficiently carry out the

study, much money is required thus the present financial conditions will be hindrances to this

study.

This work doesn’t have a distinctive gender perspective, but what we have been able to

understand through primary and secondary sources and observing during the fieldwork at the

northern periphery of the Dja biosphere reservehas been discussed in the work in regard to the

valoralization of NTFPs by the local people.

I.8. INTEREST OF THE STUDY

The interests of this research study are mainly important for the Cameroon’s government and

specifically to non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the international organisations for

the following reasons:

- This research will permit the government, NGOs and international organisations to

have additional document containing additional information on which they can

respectively rely in taking or adjusting their decisions concerning the forestry policies

and its regulatory reforms to boost the NTFPs sector and also to direct their domains

of interventions.

- This research is also important because it will provide to the state, NGOs and

international organisation relevant informations concerning the contribution of NTFPs

valoralization to the livelihood of the local people found in the northern periphery of

the DJA biosphere reserve as this will contributes in providing efficient and quality

informations that can be used in adopting or taking measures that will have significant


impacts in the livelihood of local people in terms of income generating activities;

employment,food security and education.

- The research is also important because it will permit us to obtain information about

how sustainable are the extraction of NTFPs and the state of the forest around the

northern periphery of the Dja biosphere reserve (DBR).

1.9. ORGANIZATION/ STRUCTURE OF WORK

This chapter had as objective to give a general picture of this research work. It starts with the

context of study which highlights the importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and

how it affects the livelihood of forest base communities, from the context, the problem

statement was developed and subsequent research questions outline. General objectives and

specific objectives of the study were equally made. In order to have a direction in the

research, two hypothesis where made. A brief outline of the methodology was presented and

the general structure of the thesis (chapter one).The rest of the work will be organized into

the following chapters as fallows:

Chapter Two presents a reviewe of literature througt the general concepts on non-timber

forest products (NTFPs).

Chapter Three gives a review of the the empirical works; the methodology and the adopted

model.

Chapter Four will present the results obtained and the different necessary discussions.

Chapter Five will focus on the conclusion and recommendations based on the results of the

study and recommendations.


The extent of deriving income from NTFPs in particular is not well known due to the absence

of a systematic and rigorous data collection system at country level (FAO, 2000)4. In general,

only the resources traded on the markets are used and not all of them. In recent years, there

has been a renewed interest in non-timber forest products, that the United Nation5"increased

awareness of their contribution to the Household economy and food security, a few national

economies, and Ecological objectives, such as the conservation of biological diversity ".

About 80% of the populations in developing countries use them to treat feed. Several millions

of people are heavily dependent on these products for their Subsistence and / or income. At

the local level, forest products also provide the raw material for processing operations. Large-

scale industrial activities in particular for the manufacture of various international products,

such as: food and beverages, confectionery, flavors, perfumes, Medicines, paints or varnishes;

land use and investment in large-scale projects and ladder.

The chapter will be divided in three sections; the first section will provides definitions to the

relevant key terms of our work (2.1), while the second section deal with the conceptual

framework and the related theotical review underpinnings the concept of livelihood (2.2) and

NTFPs valoralization, the third and last section will deal with empirical studies related to

livelihood and NTFPs valoralization (2.3).

2.1. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

In this section, we are going to present the different relevant definition of key terms use in our

work.

Protected Area

A protected area is an area on land or at sea, specially dedicated to protection Biodiversity and

natural and associated cultural resources, and through legal means and other effective means

(IUCN I. U., 1994).

4FAO, 1999, « La FAO et la foresterie : Vers une définition harmonisée des produits forestiers non ligneux

»Italy-Rome

5CE-FAO - GCP/INT/679/EC, 1999, Collecte et analyse de données pour l'aménagement durable des forêts au

Cameroun, 65 p

CHAPTER 2: DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS, CONCEPTUAL

FRAMEWORK, THEORITICAL AND EMPERICAL REVIEW


Biosphere reserve

Biosphere reserves are representative areas of terrestrial and Which have been internationally

recognized for their value in conservation and The provision of scientific knowledge, skills

and human values for the Sustainable development (UNESCO, 1984 quoted by Takforian,

2001).

Sustainable development

The expression «sustainable development» can be define with respect to the Bruntland

definition as « the development that meets the needs of the present generation without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs» (WCED, 1987).

This concept took it birth as a result of the growing awareness about the imminent ecological

crisis as this could have been one of the main driving forces at the end of the 20th

century

history (JACOBUS, 2006). Jonathan6 separated sustainability (sustainable development) into

its economic, environmental, and social components/ dimensions among which conflicts and

tradeoffs may arise. According to him these components of sustainability provides the

following informations:

« The economically sustainable system (dimension) must be capable of producing goods

and services on a continueous basis, to maintain manageable levels of government and

external debt, and to prevent extreme sectoral imbalances which damage agricultural or

industrial production.

« The environmental sustainability system (dimensions) must be capable of maintaining a

stable resource base, preventing over-exploitation of renewable resource systems or

environmental sink functions, and depleting non-renewable resources only to the extent that

investment is made in adequate substitutes. This includes maintenaning the biodiversity,

atmospheric stability, and other ecosystem functions not ordinarily classed as economic

resources.

And finally, the social sustainability system (dimension) which must achieve the

distributional equity, adequate provision of social services including health and education,

gender equity, and political accountability and participation »(Harris, 2000).

Valoralization of NTFPs

The term « NTFPs valoralization » means to give more importance and do more promotion to

NTFPs by giving them great values (EKE Balla, 2011).

6 Jonathan Harris of the Global Cevelopment and Environment institute at Tufts University


There are three different ways of valuing NTFPs. We have the socio-economic, the ecological

and the social valuing methods which are attached to forest ecosystems.

- The socio-economic methods include the spilling over of the economic conditions

such as employment, the marketing of natural goods and local development.

- The ecological methods which focuses on the protection of the environment. They

include ecosystem services such as the regulating functions, services provided by the

fauna and flora species and the protection of biodiversity.

- Finally we have the social valuing method which according to the classical theory

focuses on the utility that are derived from the consumption of goods and services like

for instance: cultural, recreational, quality of life and health education.

DEFINATION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

The table below summarized some of the definitions of NTFPs given by some authors


Table 1 : Illustration of some definitions of NTFPs by some authors and some organisations

Name of

Authors and

year

Name attributed to

NTFPs

Definition/ meaning

Messerschmidt

and Hammett

(1998)

AFP : alternative forest

products

On the ground that they are not « minor », wood or

timber use should not be excluded and what is

harvested is a raw material

Falconer

(1990)

MFP : minor forest

products/ miscellaneous

forest products

Since timber is the major products, all the other

products are by definition minor.

Chandrasek

Haran (1995)

NWFB : non wood forest

benefits

Benefits equited to advantage , favourable effect,

output , profit and include non tangible products

such as recreation , landscape values etc

Chandresek

Haran (1995)

NWFP : non wood forest

products

Includes all goods of biological origin; as well as

services, derived from forest or any land under

similar use, and exclude wood in all its forms.

Lund

(1997;1998c)

NWFR : non wood forest

resources

All resources found or originating on forest land

regardless if they are currently recognised as goods,

as products or as producing a service

Vance and

Thomas(1997)

SFP : special forest

products

NWGB: non wood goods

and benefice; NWGS: non

wood goods and services;

NTRV : non-timber

resources and values

Cotton (1996) NTPP : non-timber plant

products

Mallet (1999) NTFP : non-timber forest

products

All products with the exception of timber , that can

be havested from a forest ecosystem

Arnold et

Ruiz-Perez

(1996)

NTFP : non-timber forest

product

Any non-timber product that is dependent on a

forest environment

Ros-Tonen et

al (1998)

NTFP : non-timber forest

products

All tangible animal and plant products other than

industrial wood, coming from natural forest,

including managed secondary forest and enriched

forest.

Ndoye and

Awono (2005)

NTFPs : non-timber forest

products

For Ndoye and Awono (2005), NTFPs may be of

either Vegetable or animal origin :they leaves,

roots, bark, fruit , Herbs, spices, condiments, fiber,

lianas ,Flowers, tree resin or oil that can be used as

fuel ,Nuts or almonds, mushrooms, caterpillars,

game, snails and

Other edible insects etc., coming from the forest.

Regional

Program for

Central Africa

for the

Environment

(CARPE)

NTFPs : non-timber forest

products

NTFPs as goods and services originating from the

Forest and their biomass, so as to be noticed,

acquired or consumed (FAO, 1992). They can be

tangible or non-tangible. NWFPs exclude Only the

woody stems for logging and fuel wood (Biloso,

2008).

Source: Summarised from (Wong, April 2000) and (Shango Mutambwe juin 2010.).


It is seen that the main feature that are common to all these definitions of NTFPs is that they

all exclude timber and that the products benefit or services come from the forest.

For this to be possible, an International Expert Consultation on Non-Timber Forest Products

to Yogyakarta (Indonesia) was organised, it was hosted by the Indonesian Ministry of

Forestry in 1995. During this conference, the FAO took a first step towards developing a

harmonized definition for NTFPs, in order for this to be, 120 participants coming from 26

countries, representing the NGOs and the united nations institutions agree on the following

definition of NTFPs: "NTFPs are Goods of non-wood origin, or services derived from forests

and from similar land use "(Loubelo., 2012).

On the basis of this recommendation which came out from the interdepartmental meeting

organised by the FAO, they focused on the definitions of NTFPs held in June 1999, a new

definition of NTFPs was adopted. The new definition of NTFPs was stated as fallows:"Non-

timber forest products are biological goods excluding Wood, derived from forests, other

wooded land, and trees outside forests7.

Even up still today, a harmonized definition of non-timber forest products remains not

elaborated. In our work, we are going to adopt the definition given by the FAO in ( 1999 and

2002 ) which is define as follows: NTFPs are products of biological origin , other than wood ,

derived from forest , woodlands , or isolated trees, they can be harvested in the wild, or still

produced in plantations, agroforestry perimeters or isolated trees. These different products are

used as food or as food additives (nuts, mushrooms, wild fruits, Herbs, spices, condiments,

and aromatic plants), plants (fibers, lianas, flowers) and their Extracts (raffia, bamboo, rattan,

cork, and essential oils), animals (game, bees) and their products (honey, silk).

CLASSIFICATION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

NTFPs are classified in different categories based on their different purpose of uses. They are

of animal and vegetable origin which is divided into two groups (consummable and non

consummable NTFPs). For example they can be used as food, fuel, medicine, household

utensils and farm implements (inputs). The uses also varies according to the part that are used

7FAO, 1999, "FAO and Forestry: Towards a Harmonized Definition of Non-Wood Forest Products"

Rome


(leaf, fruit, stem, and roots) and finally depending on their level of use (i.e. self supporting or

for commercial purposes (A.K.Ponday & Kumar, 2016).

The table below summarises the different types of NTFPs and their descriptions:

Table 2 : Classification of NTFPs

Products of vegetal origin Products from animal origin

Groups Description Groups Description

Consummables Food and beverages

Provided by fruits, nuts,

Seeds, roots,

mushrooms

Consummables Food and beverages

Provided by

bushmeat,

Insects, honey

Non

consummables

Forage plants, plants

Medicinal products,

perfumes and

Cosmetics, dyeing

products

And tanning, utensils,

crafts

And building materials,

Ornamental plants

And exudates

non consummables Hides and skins,

medicinal products,

Dyes, various

utensils

Source: adapted from FRA, 2000

CLASSIFICATION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS OF VEGETAL

ORIGINS

From the table above, we can also derive a table representing the NTFPs of vegetable origin

as represented in the below:


Table 3: Classification of NTFPs of vegetable origin and their specifications

NATURE OF THE

NTFPs

SPECIFICATION OF THE PRODUCT

Food Wild plants, acclimatized, semi acclimated, usable weeds,

Mushrooms, etc. And their roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, leaves, shoots,

Flowers, fruits, edible seeds, etc. Which provide cereals, vegetables,

Edible fats, spices and condiments, salt substitutes,

Sweeteners, rennet substitutes, meat tenderizers,

Drinks, cordials and infusions, refreshing drinks, etc.

Feed (fourage) Livestock and wildlife, including birds, fish and

Insects (bees, silkworms, lacquer insects, etc.).

Pharmaceutical

products

Medicines, anesthetics, balms, ointments, lotions, purgatives, etc. destined

for

Medical and veterinary use.

Toxins For hunting, poisons from various plants, hallucinogens, pesticides,

Fungicides, etc. It should be noted that some may have pharmaceutical

effects,

In particular as anesthetics.

Aromatic products Essential oils for the cosmetic and perfume industries (market

Highly specialized and vulnerable), ointments, incense, etc.

Biochemical

products

Non-food fat, waxes for ships, gums and latexes,

Dyes, tannins, biochemicals for plastics and

Coatings, the paint and varnish industry, etc.

Fibers Fabrics, mats, ropes, rack products, brooms, padding for

Cushions, cork, etc.

Products

Ornamental

Plants for horticulture and plantations,

Trade in cut and dried flowers, etc.

Wood Wood for handicrafts

Source : FAO (1992)

2.2. THEORITICAL REVIEW

In other to investigate on the research problem, we develop our approach on the foundation of

sustainable livelihood (SL) and NTFPs valoralization. These concepts form a combine

interrelated framework within which the research question of this work was brought out.

Although the sustainable livelihood approach gives enough information for achievng and

analyzing development outcome, it does not take into consideration the aspects of the

importance and promotion of NTFPs related livelihoods. Where as on the other hand, the

concepts of NTFPs valoralization takes into consideration the importance and promotion of

NTFPs. Therefore the two concepts were used to strengthen the research framework in other

to bring possible answer to the research question focusing on NTFPs valoralization and

improving rural livelihoods.


This section will be divided into two main sub-sections. In (2.2.1) we shall be presenting the

conceptual frame of sustainable livelihood and the related theory. While in (2.2.2), we shall

be presenting the theory underpining the valoralization of NTFPs.

2.2.1 SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD

A livelihhod comprises assets as capital. Access to these capitals and capital based activities

are fluenced by institutions and social relations which determine the living conditions of the

individual or household (Ellis, 2000). For Niehof (2004), it is a multifaceted concept

consisting of what people do and what they accomplish by doing it with reference to

outcomes and activities.

For the Department for International Development (DFID), for a livelihood to be considered

as sustainable, several strategies have to be taken into consideration (DFID, 1999). A

livelihood takes into considerations the capabilities, assets (including both material and social

resources) and diffeent activities needed for a means of living. It is considered as sustainable

when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks and maintain or enhance its

capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource

base ( shiba, 2010) and ( Carney, 1998).

The DFID adopted a SL approach and a framework in 1997. This approach provides the tools

for analyzing different socioeconomic and biophysical perspectives but also a platform to

identify the opportunities to better use the available capitals to the poor for increasing their

livelihood income.

2.2.1.1.Principles of sustainable livelihoods

According to (Ashley & Carney, 1999), these principles include the following:

People centered activities ;

Ensuring people’s participations in identifying their own problems an d developing

priorities ;

Dealing with multi level micro to macro and all intermediary sectors ;

Combining government and private collaborative development efforts ;

Seeking sustainable outcome concentrating on the four dimensions of sustainability :

economic, social, environmental and institutinal ;

Recognizing the dynamic nature of livelihood strategies and responding to the changes

in a flexible manner with long-term commitment.

The figure below can help us to better see the links:


Figure 2 : Sustainable livelihood framework

Source: DFID, 1999

As seen on the figure above the SL framework is used as a checklist of the livelihood issues

where more emphasis is need to be put and also provides a detail of livelihood analysis. For

(Carney., 1998), the SL framework organizes and identifies the constraints and opportunities

associated with improving livelihoods and display how they are interlinked. Whereas for

DFID (1999), the approach framework suggest what it is better to begin with that is it

represent a simultaneous investigation between people’s assets and their expected livelihood

outcomes and the strategies they uses to realize the desired livelihood outcomes. It is related

to the vulnerability contexte and structures which shall be use in developing measures in

reducing the vulnerability and enhancing livelihood outcomes.

2.2.1.2.Vulnerability context

It is consideras the external environment in which the oncern people live, as well as their

perspectives on that environment (DFID, 1999). For (shiba, 2010), people’s livelihoods and

their assets are affected by critical shocks, trends and seasonality factors on which they have

very little or no control. Shocks like flooods, cyclones, and civil conflicts can destroy the

assets of people. To these shocks are the trends such as: population growth, the declining of

forest resources including NTFPs and the economic growth can also affect the people’s

livelihood strategies and influence economic and other returns.


The Hardin’s theory8 of 1968 can be use to better understand this trend as related to the

declining of forest resources. This can be started as seen below:

2.2.1.3.The Hardin theory (the Tragedy of the Commons)

Hardin in order to present the «tragedy» use the scenario of a pasture open to all. For him, it is

to be expected that each herdsmen will try to keep as many cattle as possible on the commons.

For him this situation can continue for centuries because of tribal wars, poaching and disease

keep which keeps the number of both man and beast below the carrying capacity of the land.

This situation will continue until the day where the long-desired goal of social stability

becomes a reality. At this particular level the inherent logic of the commons will definetely

generates the tragedy (Hardin, 1968).

This tragedy starts to be generated by the rationality of the herdsmen. That is, each herdsman

will seek to maximize his gain (in a more or less conscious) manner. The herdsmen are

directed by their utility satisfaction and this utility is made up of a positive9 and negative

10

components.

At the end, the rational herdsman will conclude that his partial utility will be for him to add

another animal in his herd and another and another animal in his herd. This is the conclusion

that each herdsman sharing a commons will adopt leading to the tragedy of the commons.

Each man is locked into a system that compels him to insrease his herd without limits in a

world that is limited. As a result, for hardin « ruin is the destination toward which all men

rushes, each pursuing his own best interest in the freedom of the commons and fore freedom

in a commons bring ruin to all ».

Hardin suppose that this model is applied to natural resources , that is resources such as

oceans , air , forest resources , water etc are resources that are subjected to a high degree of

degradation and over exploitation as a result of their open access to individuals or groups of

individuals.as such Hardin conclud by saying that the community management of a natural

8Hardin 1968 : the tragedy of the common

9The positive component is explain by the fact that a functional, increase in one additional animal by a herdman

and since he will receive all the proceeds from the sale of additional animal, the positive utility will be +1.

10the negative components are generated by a functional additional overgrazing created by an additional animal.

This is because the effects of over grazing are supported by all the herdmen in the community. This negative

utility for a particular herdsman is a fraction of -1(Hardin, 1968).


resource is possible in a situation of low population density and as a result only two forms of

management are possible in the long run : privitization and institutional control.

In other to overcome the Hardin’s theory of the tragedy of the commons, three important

schools of thought emerged from the common property on the institutional arrangements.

These different schools of thoughts and their concepts are as fallows:

For the property rights school of thought, the problem of over exploitation and

degradation of common property resources can find solutions by creating and

enforcing private property rights (Demsetz, Johnson, Smith, & Cheung, 1967 ; 1972 ;

1981 ; 1970).

The second school of thought point of view is that only the allocation of full authority

to regulate the commons to an external agent i.e a state property regime can be use to

reduce the over exploitation of common property rights ( CPRs)(Hardin, 1968).

For the last school of thought, they lay their foundations in the « assurance problem

approach » based on voluntary compliance.

Also some of the criticisms that were brought by Elinor Ostrom include the following:

One of her first criticism is that she demonstrated that within communities, rules and

institutions of non-market and not resulting from public planning can emerge from the

bottom up to ensure a sustainable and shared management of resources. Some exemple

that she used to illustrate this include: the Zanjera irrigation community in the

Philippines, the huerta irrigation mechanism between Valencia, Murcia and Alicante

in Spain and the common lands in the Japanese village of Hirano and Nagaike (Felice

& Vatiero, june 2012) and one of the modern exemple that was given is the

« WIKIPEDIA community » which is a form of succefull collective institution of a

communal resource (knowledge).

Futhermore, for Ostrom the mechanisms for conflicts resolution must be local and

public in order to be accessible to all individuals of the community. Also a mutual

control of the resources among the users themselves must be established along side

with mechanisms of graduated sanctions.

Finally, the rules in addition to being clear shared and made effective by all users must

not conflict with higher level of government.


Despite the different criticisms that were brought tothis theory (tragedy of the common), we

dedided to use this theory because the extractive conditions face in our area of study is highly

related to this theory.

2.2.1.4.Capital assets

The accesses to the different types of or resources (capital) are very important for people’s

livelihood. One of the assumptions of the SL approach is that people require a range of assets

to achieve a positive livelihood outcome (Shiba P, 2010). As as it was seen in the SL

framework above, the five types of capital are represented by the form of a pentagon. They

include : human capital (like : skill, knowledge, good health etc) ; social capital (like : net

work, membershipin groups etc) ; natural capital (for exemple : land, forest, biodiversity

stocks, NTFPs etc) ; physical capital (like shelter, water supply, infrastructures etc) ; and

financial capital (like saving and money inflow).

The capital assets as seen in the figure (2) above is followed by the transforming structure and

processes which is made up of institutions such as NGOs, policies and legislations that play a

great role in shaping people’s livelihood(Carney & DFID, 2003;1999). They do this by

determining the access to capitals, strategies and decision making, identifying the extent and

the sources that influence the assets.

It should be noted also that the fluctuation of prices, employment and food availability

according to season also influences people’s livelihoods especially poor people living

strategies. This situation may put pressure on forest based people in such a way that they are

unable to earn enough to cope with the stress (Shiba P, 2010).

The livelihood strategies bring out the combination activities that people get engage to in

other to attain their livelihood goals. They vary with respects to the geographycal areas and

household involvement to different sectors (Shiba P, 2010).

2.2.1.5.2.2.1.5 Livelihood outcomes

This is the goal of the sustainable livelihood framework. They are the achievements or the

output that accrue from the people’s livelihood strategies. It is also important because it can

bring out the constraints in a given livelihood outcomes which will be helpfull to develop

solutions to this problem.some of the outcomes include: more income, improved wellbeing,


improved food security, reduce vulnerability and more sustainable use of natural resources

(Scoones, 1999; DFID, 1999).

2.2.2 THE VALORALIZATION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST ASSETS

If one were to describe the «history» of forest economics, certainly solutions to optimal

rotation under various assumptions would demand considerable attention.

The first treatment of forest management as a scientific discipline was probably the article

«Sylvicultura oeconomica» written in 1713 by Hans Carl Carlowitz. In retrospect Faustmann

correctly formulated the rotation problem and all the associated opportunity costs that fallow

from delaying harvesting in any period (Wong, April 2000).

It is after this formulation (optimal rotation) that Faustmann and other economics such as

Ohlin and Presler were collectively considered to be the founders of rigorous forest

economics thinking (Amacher, Markku, & Erkki, 2009).

The theoretical analysis of NTFPs will be carried out in a Sustainable Conservation of

Renewable Resources approach and their use as Resource Economic factors. A theoretical

approach to NTFPs focuses very often on three points which are very essential to know. They

includes: their potential for improving the incomes of the local people, their role in forest

conservation and their role in the management of forests (Loubelo., 2012).

The question of the economic sustainability of natural resources pits two visions which are

theoretically different. They includes that of the international actors of institutions supporting

the International relations, based in particular on Ricardo's theory of international exchange’

comparative advantage) and that of the "myth of green gold"(Loubelo., 2012).

The Ricardian theory has been applied by international organisations, in particular the World

Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in order to insist in the needs developing

(valoralized) natural resources in developing countries. And indeed, these organisation

Conditioned their loans towards the countries of the south to the acceptance of this mode of

development i.e. based on the valuing of their natural resources: "Economic growth centered


on the exploitation of natural resources and the domination of nature through technology

"(Rotillon 1999)11

.

Ricardo's theory states that each country has an interest in specializing in activities that

gives it a comparative advantage. Developing countries have a comparative advantage in

terms of natural resources and in accordance with this theory; they should rather export their

resources to the northern countries. Indeed, the perception of the Economists in respect with

international trade is that there are gains from trade and this means that when countries

exchange goods and services, it is for mutual benefit. In order to realize these gains, the

countries of the South must therefore market their resources with other countries, including

the industrialized countries (Loubelo., 2012).

2.3: EMPERICAL REVIEW

The emperical review of our work is divided into two sub sections. In the first sub section, we

shall be presenting the different contributions of NTFPs to man livelihood (2.3.1), while in the

second part we shall be illustrating the review of some work carried out by some researchers

(2.3.2).

2.3.1The contribution of non-timber forest products to man livelihood

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) play an important role in the livelihood of forest base

people in the world in general and that of the people of Central Africa in particular. They

contribute to their livelihood through incomes generation to the people and creates many jobs

for men and women both found in rural and urban areas. A large number of studies carried out

shows that in countries where the human development index varies between 0.361 and 0.703,

populations living around forests sides that is, about 80 % of their income come from natural

resources (Ndoye et al., 1997; Awono et al., 2009). The proportion of NTFPs in household

annual incomes is estimated to be about 40 % on average. The income from NTFPs varies

according to the regions, markets, products and their seasonality (Awono et al., 2009). At the

global level, the contribution of NTFPs to the income level is estimated to be about 25 %. In

most cases, the extractions of NTFPs are mostly dominated by the rural communities and

including it are marketing at the local and international level. The local communities rely

11Rotillon, G. 1999, Conformité aux perspectives envirronementales et son contrôle, Revue d’économie

politique, vol. 109, pp. 1-34


permanently on forest resources for healing, feeding, income earning, getting their building

materials and for rituals celebrations (Eyog et al., 2006).

2.3.1.1: The income generation contribution of NTFPs

NTFPs play a capital role to the livelihood of rural communities found in forest based zones.

This role is mainly related to the income or revenu it’s generates to the local people and to the

economy of the country. Here, we are going to present these contributions with respect to the

income it generate to the economy of some given countries in generale and that of Cameroon

in particular, to illustrate the value of self-consumption of NTFPs to the national economy,

the income it provide to the local communities, in addition, we are going to present the

income it generate to the traders and stakeholders found in the NTFPs chain and its export

value.

Values of some highly traded NTFPs from the country

The NTFPs market is estimated to worth several million of dollars. The annual value of the

nine NTFPs in the DRC and Cameroon in 2007/2008 was estimated to be over $ 38.5 million

of US dollars. The income that is generated contributes in raising the level of the economy of

the rural people and even those found in urban areas (Awono et al., 2009). Unfortunately, the

national Statistics do not always have enough reliable datas or figures on the contribution and

its estimated monetary value of this sector to the national economy. The markets of NTFPs

provide higher incomes to wholesaler’s specialized retailers who typically invest less but

spend more time on the markets.

The different informations that will be presented are relevant to a set of the market value of

some NTFPs of Vegetal origins studied in Cameroon for which we could obtain some

relevant information. Like for instance the total value of the Ricinodendron heudelotii in 7

markets from a study carried by CIFOR that is. (Sa'a, Mbalmayo, Ekondo-Titi, Mfoundi,

Abong-Mbang, Limbe, New-bell) reveals that income increased from CFAF 227 344 290 in

1997 to CFAF 323 691 865 in 1998 (Awono et al., 2002). This is also true for Ricinodendron

heudelotti for which the annual sale by 298 households in the central region of Cameroon was

estimated at about CFAF 7.3 million (US $ 14,791). Moreover, the annual value of

Ricinodendron heudelotii in the unique market of New Bell for a year (1999) was estimated

to be about 232 million CFA francs (464 235 USD) (Ngono and Ndoye 2004).


This analysis was extended to 19 priority NTFPs which generated an annual value trade of

33,566 million US $ equivalent to about 16.8 billion F CFA. For the case of Irvingia spp

(ndo’o), according to a study carried out by Awono et al (2009) which is one of the most

requested NTFPs in transactions between Cameroon and its neighboring countries. The results

of this study reveals that for the only market campaign of 2007, about 2,700 tonnes of Ndo’o

were exported to these countries with about 2 400 tonnes to Nigeria and 300 tonnes to

Equatorial Guinea and Gabon, for a total commercial value of about 4 billion CFA francs

making an average of 1,500 CFA francs per kg(Atyi, lescuyer, Ngouhouo, & T.M.Fouda,

2014).

Estimation of the share of self-consumption of NTFPs in the national economy

Apart from the financial evaluation of NTFPs, our objective is also to be able to estimate the

self consumption of NTFPs to the national economy. To achieve this, we took into

consideration an assessment of the self-consumption of these NTFPs that were carried out by

Nnama et al (2012) and Awono et al (2013). The results reveals that about 24% of the NTFPs

extracted are consumed by the producer household, 15% donated to third parties as gifts and

the rest are shared between the market and the losses (Awono et al 2009, 2010, Nnama et al.,

2012). Also, it was assumed that, from one product to another, producers have the same

behavior. We accounted for direct consumption (24%) with gifts to third parties (15%), or

39% in total. However, for NTFPs in the second category, most of which are less open to

social transactions, we limited direct household consumption and donations to 10 and 5%

respectively, a total of 15%. The estimated amount of Self-consumption therefore represents a

financial value of about 13 billion and a half CFA francs (Atyi, lescuyer, Ngouhouo, &

T.M.Fouda, 2014).

Contribution of NTFPs to Income Enhancement of the populations

In some cases, the extractioon of NTFPs contributes up to 561,000 CFAF per year,

representing almost 47% of the economy of some households (Ingram 2013). A study carried

out by Cosysn et al. (2011) shown that the extraction of Njansang has generated about 430

000 CFA francs (USD 860) to some households found in the Akonolinga area and about half

of the other households receive only between 15,000 and 54 000 F CFA (30 and 108 USD). In

addition, Tieguhong and Nkamgnia (2012) Show that the annual income from forest products

earn by the local people found arround the Lobéké National Park ranges between 44,000 and

290,000 CFA francs (87,80 USD To $ 581.40). In 2000, the total sales value of Irvingia


gabonensis in the ten major markets in Cameroon from the forest area was estimated to be

about 412 million CFAF (USD 825,714) (Tieguhong and Ndoye 2004). The harvesters of

Prunus africana arround the Mount Cameroon area derive about 70% of their total annual

income from this activity (Ndam 2004). These values cannot be negligible for a Middle-

income earner in a country like Cameroon (Atyi, lescuyer, Ngouhouo, & T.M.Fouda, 2014).

Traders and other stakeholders

The studies were carried out within the framework of the mobilization capacity building of

small and medium-sized enterprises in the production and marketing of NTFPs in Central

Africa countries. This project was conducted by FAO (code GCP / RAF / 408 / EC) and its

different partners under the financing of the European Commission. From these studies,

itclearly appears that the valoralization NTFPs generate the equivalent of 32,700 direct jobs in

Cameroon for about 250,000 other indirect jobs. Considering the case of Gnetum, Ingram

(2012) mentions that approximately 2,550 people work in the value chain of this product in

the Littoral (Douala) and South-West regions of Cameroon. Of this number, 2 150 are of

direct employment and 450 are indirectly employ. In This global workforce, there are 759

collectors. In other studies we also found that there are about 179 «buyam Sellams ". They

buy the Gnetum to collectors in the 18 villages that were studied in these two regions (littoral

and South-West). These traders earn about 759,000 CFAF (USD 1,440) per year. This is

equivalent to about 63,250 CFAF per month, i.e. more than twice the guaranteed

interprofessional minimum wage (SMIG) in Cameroon.

Value of exported NTFPs

International trades in NTFPs coming from countries in Central Africa are booming. Since the

years 1960, some of the commercialising products from forests and savannas of the Member

States of the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) are exporting these

products to Europe and North America (United States and Canada), particularly in areas

where immigrants from the ten countries of the sub-region are coming from.

A study carried out by Mialoundama et al (2008) on NTFPs showed that the trade in NTFPs

in seven Large cities of Congo generated almost two thousand (1997) jobs based on the

following proportions: the Gnetum: 1450, Marantaceous: 260, cola: 181, rattan: 106. These

figures provide ample evidence that NTFPs activity can contribute to SMEs in rural areas.

Despite the significant contribution of NTFPs to Poverty reduction, their inclusion in


economic programs and documents and also their contribution to gross domestic products

(GDP) are still not recognized (Loubelo, 2012) ; Ngo Nonga, 2012).

Ttable 4 below represents the cross-border, sub regional and international marker of NTFPs.

Table 4: Cross-border, sub-regional and international market of NTFP

Countries Cross-border

market

Sub-regional

market

Regional

market

International

market

Cameroon + + + +

Congo + + + +

Gabon + + - -

Equatorial

guinea

+ + + -

CAR + + + +

DRC + + + +

Source : Tabuna, 2007, Commerce sous-régional etinternational des PFNL et des produits

agricoles traditionnels en Afrique centrale : état des lieux et stratégie de développemeent,

GCP/RAF/398/GER, 139p.

From the diagram we can see that Cameroon export NTFPs accross the cross-border, sub

regional, regional and the international market. From the diagram we can also notice that

Gabon is the only country that those not export its goods in the regional market. One of the

reasons for this situation is that Gabon does not share borders with any countries found in the

CEMAC nor the CEEAC zones.

The contribution of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to food safety

Food security is the ability of everyone to own everything Physical and economic access to

basic food needs. A strategy National food security policy cannot be envisaged without

ensuring food security in Level of the family home (WFP, 1989). According to the FAO, food

security to all persons and at all times physical and economic access to foodstuffs (FAO /

WHO, 1992).

The Recognition of the role of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has increased sharply in

recent decades. In Central Africa, the Consumption and trade of NWFPs such as edible plants,

plants Medicines and game contribute to the food security of the population.

At the present time, there is no conceptual framework capable of shaping all aspects of the

complex process that determines food security. Many parameters are taking into account and


these vary from one country to another, between regions in the same country and between

communities and households; Specific studies are needed to be able to act on Food security

with chances of success.

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) constitute a nutritional treasure (in terms of

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins and minerals) and medicinal. Depending on their

variety and preferences food, they can be eaten as a main dish, condiment or fortifier, and

they contribute to the diversity and balance of the food supply of forest populations (FAO,

1995).

2.3.2. REVIEWS OF SOME STUDIES CARRIED OUT BY RESEARCHERS

While the valorisation of the tropical forest before the 1950s were mainly for woody

resources, it is from the 1980s, that several studies started to focused on the other Benefits of

tropical forests resources. NTFPs also known as secondary forest products were then now

included among these other forest benefits. In this section we are going to review some

studies on NTFPs that were carried out accrooss the world (2.3.2.1), in Africa (2.3.2.2) and

finally in Cameroon (2.3.2.3).

2.3.2.1. THE CASE OF THE REST OF THE WORLD

R.Hedge et al (1996) on evaluating the contribution of the extraction of NTFPs in the forest of

Biligiri Rangan Hills, India on the contribution to rural income obtained the following results:

that the contribution of NTFPs to the household gross income is significantly less in the

exterior (47.63 %) than the interior (60.44 %). Also that wage employment contribute

significantly more to household gross income of the exterior block (23.76 %) than the interior

block ( 14.66%) . the percentage of days devoted to extraction of NTFPs parallel to the

relative income derived from NTFPs were respectively 54.46 % in the interior and 39.25 % in

the exterior.a logit analysis was also carry out to capture the qualitative response of the

dependent variables, i.e the likelihood that the tribal household will earn substantial income

from the collection of NTFPs. The results obtain were as follows: the family size influences

the collection of NTFPs positively, income from other vocations has a negative influence on

the extraction of NTFPs in both the interior and the exterior block and as the percentage of

educated members in the family increases, the probability that the household will extract the

NTFPs decreases in both blocks (R.Hegde S. ,., 1996).


Tejaswi et al. (2008) present a study that assesses the contribution of NTFPs to income and

employment by ensuring food security and subsistence for the tribal economy in the Kodagu

district located in Western Ghats of Karnataka, India. This study evaluate the contribution of

NTFPs in terms of income, employment, costs and it economic returns. In addition, a Tobit

Model was estimated to determine the factors influencing the share of NTFPs income. The

results of the study indicate that most jobs have been generated by the agricultural sector

followed by the collection of NTFPs and other sectors. The results of the model Tobit indicate

a significant positive relationship between total collection hours and a Share of NTFPs

income. A negative relationship between the number of men in the household and the house

hold revenue was considered statistically significant. Although the services and activities have

been negatively impacted; these variables negatively influence the share of NTFPs returns.

Ravi et al. (2006), made an extensive analysis to determine how the occasional factors

Influences the likelihood of increased dependence on NTFPs, the study was carried out at the

Jenukuruba tribe in south India. The study used primary data that were coolected from 180

households Based on stratified two-stage sampling. Dependence on forests resources and the

factors influencing the extraction of NWFPs were estimated using the Logit model. From the

Five variables that were used for the model, only three variables i.e, family type, Family size

and ownership of land had an impact on the collection of NTFPs by the Jenuo kuruba tribes

and especially the income that flows from them. The results of the Logit analysis explained

Wage employment, land ownership and farm income considerably reduce the Probability of

tribal households involved in NTFP collection.

Alezandra Lopez-feldman (2005) examines the determinants behind the decision of

households to exploit NTFPs in an environment where natural resources are a common good.

The Results show that people with relativelly low levels of man made capital (human capital)

were more likely to rely on NTFPs extraction than others, the same results were also observed

from individuals from Poor households.

According to Verolme et al. (1999), when the socio-economic conditions are unfavorable,

activities such as hunting and gathering of NTFPs provide the villagers with the food and

income they need. These authors examined the use of NTFPs in the Krasnoyarsk region of

Siberia Based, in part, on the results of a survey carried out in 1999, interviewing more than

500 people, to illustrate the impact of NTFPs on food security of the local population.


2.3.2.2. THE CASE OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES

The major contribution of these studies is to have shown that these so-called minor products

could constitute a considerable resource for the populations that exploit them. CIRAD-

GERDAT (1997), Demanou (1997) and Joiris (1996) reserve some households' incomes in

Cameroon, the Central African Republic (CAR) and the Congo Brazzaville by correlating the

incomes of NTFPs with those of other activities. The contribution of NTFPs to household

income in relation to other activities is highly variable (BALLA, 2011).

J Kimaro and L Lulandala carry a study toto determine contribution of Non-timber Forest

Products (NTFPs) towards poverty alleviation and sustainable forest management in local

communities surrounding Ngumburuni Forest Reserve in Rufiji District, Coastal Region,

Tanzania and in other to carry their analysis aPearson correlation test was used to establish

influence of NTFPs utilization and sustainable forest management. The results obtained

shows that firewood (80%), medicine (60%), construction materials (55%) and fruits (45%)

were the most collected NTFPs at household leveland this greatly have a positive impact on

their livelihood. There were also significant benefits accruing from environmental goods and

services such as water from catchments forests and spiritual sites present in the forests. The

same observation was made in Malawi by Malinski (2008) whereby fuel wood is used by 97%

of rural household (Kimaro & Lulandala).

Similar observation was done by Maghembe (1994) who reported that wild foods from wild

plants constitute the most important groups in terms of their contribution to the economy and

well-being of rural community.

Yemiru et al (2010) on their work concerning the evaluation of forest income to poverty

alleviation in the Bale Highlands , southern Ethopia illustrated that the forest products are the

most important sources of income contributing to 34 % and 53 % of household per capita

income per capita cash income , respectivelly. Also that the forest income also helps 20 % of

the population to remain above the poverty line and it reduces inequality by 15.5 % (T.Y

emiru, 2010).

Mulenga et al (2011) demonstrated that the income from NTFPs goods such as woodfuel

represented the greatest share of income for households and it was the most commonly

reported business activity with 68 % of NTFPs household income. Also, NTFPs play an


important role in supporting rural livelihoods and food security in Zambia (Mulenga, 2011)

(Mulenga, 2011).

Kimaro and Lulandala carried a study to determine the contribution of Non-timber Forest

Products (NTFPs) towards poverty alleviation and sustainable forest management in local

communities surrounding Ngumburuni Forest Reserve in Rufiji District, Coastal Region of

Tanzania and in order to carry their analysis, a Pearson correlation test was used to establish

the influence of NTFPs utilization and sustainable forest management. The results obtained

shows that firewood (80%), medicine (60%), construction materials (55%) and fruits (45%).

The same observation was made in Malawi by Malinski (2008) whereby fuel wood is used by

97% of rural household (Kimaro & Lulandala).

Similar observation was done by Maghembe (1994) who reported that wild foods from wild

plants constitute the most important groups in terms of their contribution to the economy and

well-being of rural community.

Yemiru et al (2010) on their work concerning the evaluation of forest income to poverty

alleviation in the Bale Highlands, southern Ethopia illustrated that the forest products are the

most important sources of income contributing to 34 % and 53 % of household per capita

income per capita cash income , respectivelly. Also that the forest income also helps 20 % of

the population to remain above the poverty line and it reduces inequality by 15.5 % (T.Y

emiru, 2010).

Ouedraago et al (2013) in order to evaluate the the economic dependence of the rural people

of Boulon and Koflande on Non-timber forest products in Burkina Faso carry out a tobit

model and the cragg model. The choice of these models was that: the Tobit model will be use

to analyse the determinants of NTFPs dependecy by the local people and the cragg model will

be use to estimate the participation of NTFPs collection and contribution to the total

household revenue. The different results they obtained were as follows:

That the main revenu of the rural household was 846800 FCFA and that 60 % of the revenu

(520889 FCFA) was from agriculture, 12 % from livestock’s (100703 FCFA), 8 % (72479

FCFA) from NTFPs and 20 % (170730 FCFA) from other income sources.


The results also show that 92.8 % of the household depends on NTFPs income. The probit

and Tobit model estimation indicates that the dependence to NTFPs is globally significant at

1% (M.Ouedraogo, 2013).

Mulenga et al. (2011) demonstrated that the income from NTFPs goods such as wood, fuel

represented the greatest share of income for households and it was the most commonly

reported business activity with 68 % of NTFPs household income. Also, NTFPs play an

important role in supporting rural livelihoods and food security in Zambia (Mulenga, 2011)

(Mulenga, 2011)

Biloso and Lejoly (2006) analyzed the exploitation and commercilization of NTFPs in the

province of the urban area of Kinshasa. The results show’s that the populations of the peri-

urban areas of the province were aware and used a significant number of NTFPs. However,

the uses of the different Species are very diverse. Some NTFPs have multiple uses. Others,

On the other hand, have specific jobs. This study also provided informations on the

Consumption (food, construction, utensils, packaging, textiles, dyeing, Heating) and income

(sales).

2.3.2.3. THE CASE OF CAMEROON

A.Awono et al (2016) on a study concerning the the contribution of vegetal non-timber forest

products (NTFPs) to the cameroon economy through the lens of livelihoods, food security,

employment and financial values shows that NTFPs constitute a regular source of income

(even though not the most important) for rural households due to their diversity about 38 % of

vegatal NTFPs are use as food and the annual economic value for 16 of the is estimated at

about 32 billion CFA franc (64.7 million USD). Also that their value added is estimated at 6.4

billion CFA franc (13 million USD) representing 0.2% of the GDP of the country with at least

283,000 people involved (A.Awono, Atyi, D.Foundjem-Tita, & P.Levang, 2016).

Awono et al (2010) in evaluating the utilisation of the revenue obtain from NTFPs to the

livelihood of local communities show that 30 % of the revenue were for children education,

27 % for food, 25 % for family health, 12 % for household living expenses and the rest for

other household needs (A.Awono, Ndoye, & Preece, Empowering Women's Capacity for

Improved Livelihoods in non-timber forest products Trade in Cameroon, 2010).


D. Endamana et al on a study concerning the contribution of NTFPs to cash and non-cash

income of local communities within the jointly managed Sangha Tri-National and Dja-

Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National forest landscapes that lie between Cameroon, Republic of

Congo, Gabon and the Central African Republic in Central Africa by using respectively 172

and 158 Bantu and IP households and by applying the Poverty-Forests Linkages Toolkit

method show that more than 45% and 55% of Bantu and IP incomes are respectively derived

from NTFPs. NTFPs contribute higher to non-cash income for the Bantu and IP in Cameroon

and CAR but contribute more to cash income in Congoand also that the Bantu communities

get higher total incomes from NTFPs than IP (D.Endamana, K.A.Angu, G.N.Akwah,

G.Shepherd, & B.C.Ntumwen).

R.Malleson et al (2014) on a work concerning the Non-timber forest products income from

forest landscapes of Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria illustrated that the contribution NTFPs

make to rural livelihoods depends largely on the availability of forest resources and access to

markets, as well as socio-economic variables including wealth, gender and migration statut.

The findings also indicated that remote communities and poorer households rely more on

NTFPs – based income compared to more accessible communities and wealthier households.

A logistic regression model was fitted to the data to look at the joint effects of location

(zones), wealth category (rich/poor) and migration status on the likelihood of reporting the

source of income from NTFPs activities verses farm income(R.Melleson, 2014).

Ndjebet Ntamag (1997) pointed out that in Cameroon, very often married women

harvest and transports with their husbands a series of NWFPs including fruit and bark

From Garcinia sp. According to the latter, the reason lies in the fact that women find it too

painful the transport of fruit and bark from Garcinia lucida because we have to go further and

further into the Forest for harvesting.

Falconer and Arnold (1991) demonstrated that the money from the sale of NWFPs can

contribute in three ways to household incomes depending on the duration of the conservation

of products and the urgency of needs. Depending on whether the NTFPs is perishable or can

be kept for a long time and depending on the problem to be solved, its contribution to the

Income can be urgent, seasonal or permanent

Established in 1950, it has been register as the UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987

thanks to its diversification, the different species present in the park and the presence of


endangered species. The reserve has also been recognized as a biosphere reserve by UNESCO

since 1982 thanks to the richness and diversity of “orchids” that is a particularly remarkable

bird species.

The reserve has a rich diversity of wildlife, made of 109 species of mammals, 360 species of

birds and 61 species of fish. It is also home to the largest rocket colony in the world

(Picathartes oreas) with about 50 active nests on the same rocky cliff. Among the important

mammals on the reserve are the chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes), giant pangolin (Mani’s

gigantea), elephant (Loxodonta Africana cyclotis), guereza (Colobus guereza), leopard

(Panthera pardus) and gorilla (gorilla gorilla).

The different ECOFAC programs (I, II, III, IV, and V) where put in place to in other to

participate in the conservation of the biodiversity of the Dja reserve but also for the

development of the local people. Manay criticisms where formulated vis-à-vis of these

different programs. One of the most important pur forward was the fact that the programs

neglected or did not take into consideration the local people and this created a type of conflict

between the community and the Eco-guards (Ella, 2016).

To address this issue, the Cameroon government, the international organizations, the

international and local NGOs started to encourage the local communities around the DBR into

primary activities like agriculture, the re-habilitation of cash crop farms like cocoa and coffee

and the valorization of NTFPs. Tropical Forest and Rural Development one of the local NGOs

present at the northern periphery of the DBR has been implementing a conservation model for

several years to improve wildlife perception and household livelihoods. He undertakes this by

the valorization of agroforestry based on cocoa enriched with plantains and local trees, the

valorization of NTFPs, the training and structuring of producer groups. All this with a view to

creating a socio-economic environment that supports the empowerment of communities and

contributes to the reduction of poaching. The objective of our work has therefore be justify

the need of evaluating the contribution of sustainable NTFPs valorization on the livelihood

assets of these communities of the DBR.


Conclusion

This chapter had as objective to review the literature on livelihood assets and NTFPs

valoralization. The first step was to briefly present the definition of key terms we use in our

syudy. A conceptual framework which captures the sustainable livelihood, the different assets

and the possible livelihood outcomes was in other to for us to see the links between these

different constituents. From this conceptual framework, theoretical literature which highlights

the importance of sustainable livelihood and the valoralization of NTFPs. It equally shows

how an improper management of resources can destroy the resources and how different

schools of thought overcome this theory. The last section of this chapter permitted us to see

how the valoralization of NTFPs contributes to the people’s livelihood but also to see the

links between the empirical review and thhe reason for us carrying the study in our study site.

The sustainable livelihood framework, the theoretical literature and the empirical review

developed abive permited us to see valoralization or extraction of NTFPs in the livelihood and

livelihood assets of the local people located around zones but also how it can ameliorate the

living conditions of the people valuing NTFPs or people located in rural and urban areas.

How ever neither development research nor policy has yet fully explore the contribution of

NTFPs on the livelihood assets of local communities in central Africa and Cameroon in

particular and more specifically at the northern periphery of the DBR. The fore many

questions remains open regarding the contribution of NTFPs toward the livelihood assets of

the local people and how the local communities management practices can influences the

sustainability of the various products extracted. Our work seeks to analyse the sustainable

contribution of NTFPs valoralization on the livelihoos assets of the local people and how the

actual conservative management practices of the local people contributes to the livelihood

assets of the local people at the northern periphery of the DBR. For us to carry out our

analysis, we opted to use the structural equation model ( SEM) which have not yet been use to

carry out such analysis in central Africa and Cameroon in particular to the best of our

knowledge and on the domain of NTFPs.


In this chapter, we are going to review the method of data collection, data analysis and

variables of our study. The study area, the sample population, sample size, sampling technic

will equally be discussed in this chapter. This chapter will be divided into two sections,

section one will be based on presenting the analytical framework (3.1) that will be use in our

work, while section two will be based on presenting the study site and the research design

(3.2) and briefly describing the different NTFPs valoralize by the local people at the northern

periphery of the DBR and also taken into consideration in this research work.

3.1 Analytical framework

This section will be divided into two sub-sections. In the first sub-section, it shall be question

for us to describe the model that we shall use to carry out our analysis (3.1.1) while the

second sub-section shall be presenting the method of analysis (3.1.2).

3.1.1. Description of the model

The structural equation model (SEM) is an extension of the general linear model that permits

researcher to test a set of regression equation simulthaneously (Che Rusili, Tasmin, Takala, &

Norazlin, 2013). It is a technique used for specifying and estimating model of linear

relationships among variables (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2006).Within the academic

review of many fields, Rigdon (1998) remarks, that the structural equation model (SEM) has

taken up a prominent role in providing general and convenient framework for statistical

analyses that includes several traditional multivariate procedures which are widely used in the

behavioural sciences like for example: the factor analyses, regression analyses, discriminant

analyses and it is often visualised by a graphical path representation. Whenever researchers

deal with relations between constructs such as satisfaction, role ambiguity, or attitude, SEM is

likely to be the methodology of choice.

The goal of the SEM is to determine the extent to which the theoretical model is supported by

the sample data that is SEM test the theoretical models using the scientific method of

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND

PRESENTATION OF THE STUDY SITE


hypothesis testing to advance our understanding of the comple relationships amongs

constructs.

According to Che Rusuli et al (2013) the SEM present the following advantages:

It is able to estimate multiple and interrelated dependence relationship;

It is able to characterized unobserved conceptins in these relationships;

It is capable to correct measurement errors in estimation processes;

It is capable to identify a model that describes the whole set of relationship.

Like for instance, the study of Anna Kukla-Gryz (2006) analyzes the possible impacts of the

international trade on the shape of the so-called Environmental Kuznets Curve (E KC). Using

the estimation of the Structural Equation Model (SEM) with two factors describing structure

of economic activity and air pollution intensity. It was further assumed that there are

some causal paths between these two factors and that they are influenced by Political

Rights, Civil Liberties, per capita income and international trade intensity. The use of SEM

allows for the decomposition of the "net-effects" of the international trade and economic

growth on the air quality into their scale and structure effects. The estimation results

suggested that in the developing countries analysed the impacts of these two variables on the

air quality were mainly indirect ones, through altering the structure of economic activity

Structural equation models are generally used to investigate interrelationships amongst

variables, some of which may be latent (Bollen, 1989), Often the interest concentrates on the

relationship between latent variables of attitude and behaviour and/or behavioural propensity

regarding specific issues. The basic SEM for single samples is defined by two components,

namely the measurement model specifying the relationships between the latent variables and

their constituent indicators and the structural equation model designating the causal

relationships between the latent variables. The model is defined by the following three

equations in matrix terms (Jöreskog. K. G., Sörbom. D., 2001) :

The structural equation model: =∝ +

The measurement model for x:x =𝛬𝑥𝜉 + 𝛿

The measurement model for dependent latent variable y: y=𝛬𝑦+ 휀

where:


ηis a m x1 random vector of latent dependent variables

ξis a n x1 vector of exogenous variables

yis a p x1 vector of observed indicators of the dependent latent variables η

x is a q x1 vector of predictors or exogenous variables

ε is a p x1 vector of measurement errors in y

𝛿is a qx1 vector of measurement errors in x.

Λyis a p x m matrix of coefficients of the regression of y on η

𝛬xis a q x n matrix of coefficients of the regression of x on 𝜉

Γ is an m x n matrix of coefficients of the ξ-variables in the structural relationship

βis a m x m matrix of coefficients of the η-variables in the structural relationship

ζis a m x1 vector of equation errors (random disturbances) in the structural relationship

between η and ξ

Drawing his inspiration from a SEM where y and x are observed without error (𝛬y=I, 𝛬x=I,

Θε=0, Θ𝛿=0) then y=βy + Γx + ζ; Kaplan (2000) pointed out that from this model was major

innovation in econometric modelling, in the special case where β=0, one obtains the multiple

regression model as: y = Γx + ζ.

The use of the SEM technique in this study is the most suitable way to evaluate the fit of the

proposed model but also due to its ability to execute simulthaneously multiple assessments

comprehensively.

For the SEM to be carried out the following tests and model need to be evaluated and tested:

The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s Test of sphericity

The KMO measure the sampling adequacy used to compare the magnitudes of the observed

correlation coefficients in relation to the magnitudeof partial correlation coefficient.

KMO= (the sum of the observed correlation coefficient) (the sum of the observed correlation

coefficient) + (the sum of the partial correlation coeffient between all pairs of variables).

Where as the Bertlett’s test of sphericity is used to test the hypothesis that the correlation

matrix is an identity matrix (all diagonal terms are one and all off-diagonal terms are zero).


The Barlett’s test is significant if the result is less than 0.05 i.e correlated.

The next step after the KMO and Bartlett’s test is the principal component analysis

(PCA).

The PCA is a way of identifying patterns in data and expressing the data in such a way as to

highlight their similarities and differences. The main advantage of the PCA is that once you

have obtained these patterns in your data and you compress the data obtained, i.e by reducing

the number of dimensions without much loss of information.

The next step is the scree plot graph test

The scree test represented by a scree plot graph represents “eigen values” which guide us to

determine the number of the essential factorial axes (D.Anastasiadou, 2011).The scree plot is

a graphic that plots the total variance associated with each factor. It is a visual display of how

many factors ther are in the data. The value ranges from 0 to 1. Zero means that the common

factor doesn’t explain any variance; while one means that the common factors explains the

variance.

After these different pre-testing are carried out; the first model we carry is the confirmatory

factor analysis (CFA).

The CFA is a statistical approach that can be used to analysed interrelationships among large

number large number of variables.

The objective of the factor analysis is to consider a way with which the information contained

in a number of original variables into a smaller set of factors with a minimum loss of

information (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2006). With factor analysis it is possible to

identify the separate dimensions of the structureand then determine theextent to which

variable is explained by each dimension.

It is important to note that the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is recommended to explore

the number of factors for confirmatory factor analysis.

The exploratory factor analysis will be use in this study to explore the number of factors for

research constructs and also to address and examine the unidimensionality of the constructs

prior to the application of the CFA.

The objective of executing the exploratory factor analysis is twofold:


- To attain good constructs validity at the preliminary level;

- To only that variables with high factor loading are retained;

- Also to identify otherwise not-directly-observable factors on the basis of a set of

observable variables.

After the exploratory factor analysis have been carry out, we can know carry out the SEM in

other for us to “accept or rejet” the hypothesis of the research work.

3.1.2. Method of analyses

The study uses both qualitative and quantitative research methods. The qualitative method

was used to collect data that could not be subjected to statistical tests, quantitative method

was use. The qualitative approach uses interview, and the information recorded was transcript.

On the other hand, quantitative design was used in areas where the data collected were

capable of being subjected to statistical analysis.

3.1.2.1. Populationand sample size

Using the information from the third general population and habitat census (RGPH), we were

able to determine the total population of the study area. This number has been updated with

the annual population growth rate of 1.7% between 2005 and 2011 and 0.9% from 2011 in

rural areas (BUCREP, Rapport National Sur l'Etat De La Population, 2011). A composite

growth rate of 15.6% was therefore calculated for all 12 years between 2005 and 2017.This

rate of increase was applied to the 2005 population to estimate the current population size.

Since the study focuses on households, we have divided the total population size by the

average number of individuals per household, which is 5.5 in rural areas (BUCREP, Rapport

National Sur l'Etat De La Population, 2011) to estimate the number of households in the study

zone.

Table 5 below shows the size of the population, the total number of households and the number of

household’s survey for each village in the study area.


Table 5 : Size of the population, the total number of households and the number of household’s survey for each

village in the study area

Zones Villages Nombre d'habitants

en 2005

Nombre

d’habitants

en 2017

Nombre de

ménages en 2017

Nombre de

ménages

enquêtés

1

Doumo pierre 78 90 16 8

Malen V 111 129 24 7

Mimpala

Djassa

Neumeyong

Palestine

231

27

58

269

31

67

49

6

12

2

3

12

8

Total

Zone 1

505 586 107 40

2

Ntibonkeh 70 82 15 2

Ntoumzock 251 292 53 8

Kabilone II 42 49 9 17

Bintsina 125 145 27 15

Medjoh 108 126 23 11

Ngoulminanga 113 131 24 14

Kompia 687 800 145 10

Total

Zone 2

1396 1625 296 77

3

Mpan 149 173 31 1

Madjui II 133 155 28 7

Malen II 77 90 16 6

Bitsil 297 346 63 1

Eschou 355 413 75 1

Madjui I 166 193 35 10

Total

Zone 3

1177 1370 248 26

4

Doumo mama 368 429 78 4

Djolempoum 166 193 35 5

Ekoh 154 179 32 4

Mboumo 1072 1249 227 3

Belay 212 247 45 15

Lamakara 85 99 18 2

Palisco

Bifolone

Kabilone I

Nkoul

Malen III

Bibom

122

86

253

84

4

543

142

99

292

97

5

627

26

18

53

18

1

114

2

14

9

8

1

1

Total

zone 4

3149 3658 665 68

Total 6227 7239 1316 215

Source: adapted from the popualtion census data (bucrep, 2005).

Using the information from the 2005 RGPH and the updating technique described above, the

population size was estimated at 1239 and the number of households at 1316. The sample size


for this study was 215 households accounting for 16.34% of the total number of households in

the study area.

The population of this study included all the residents living within 31 villages of the northern

periphery of the Dja Biosphere Reserve. The members of the population included in this study

were households (or local inhabitants). Leaders, membersof GIC12

, and members of

cooperative. The total population of the study was estimated to be 215 households i.e a

household in this research was considered as a group of people living in the same house and

using the same common cooking pot.

3.1.2.2. Sample technics and sampling procedure

The roles of sampling in social sciences research cannot be over emphasized. In this work,

purposive sampling was found adequate and reasonable to be used. This was because the

members of the population were difficulty to reach, given that they are mostly farmers and

hunters. The advantages of the uses of this technique of non-probabilistic sampling are; it is

easy and convenient to rely upon the judgement of the experts to draw sample. Our study

focuses in the commune of Messamena which have an estimated population of about 32282

inhabitants (CVUC). Out of the 86 villages that count the commune, we carried our interest

on 31 villages located in the northern periphery of the DBR. The population was divided into

cluster of villages, and a purposive sample technique was applied in selecting each element

within the sample frame. The sample size of this study was 215, and the sample frame

comprises the household (local people) of the villages. The villages included in the sample

frame are; Bintsina, Bitsil, Doumo Mama, Doumo Pirre, Echou, Kabilone II, Kompia,

Madjuih II, Malen II, Mallen V, Medjoh, Mimpalla, Nemeyong, Nglouminanga, Ntibenkeuh,

lamakara, Djassa , Pallisco, kabilone I,malen III, Eko’o, Mpan, Bellay, Nkonzuh, Madjuih I ,

Palestine , Bifollone , Ntoumzok , Njolé mpoum , Nkoul , Mboumo and Bibom.

3.1.2.3. Sources of Data

There are two principal sources of data in this work. The study’s main source of data was the

primary data collected through the administering of self- design questionnaire, and interviews.

Secondary data were used to supplement the primary source. The secondary source of data

12Common Initiative Groups


used in this study included; text books, research articles, reports, magazine, from other NGOs,

the MINFOF and other related internet resources.

Instruments of data collecion

The main instrument of data collection used in this research was the development of 79 items

questionnaire. The questionnaire were divided into seven sub- sections, with question one to

eleven (Q1–Q11) designed to understand the social, the level of education and the house hold

constructive characteristics of the respondents. Question twelve to thirteen (Q12– Q13) were

related to their main source of revenue and the average amount obtained per month. question

fourteen to twenty- five (Q15 – Q25) were related to the characteristics of NTFPs collected ,

the different species collected , the different zone of collection , the quantity sold and

consumed , and the different prices at which they are bought. Question twenty-six to forty

(Q26 – Q40) are based on the different activities that are carried out by the members of a

commun initiative group (GIC), and of the characteristics of these groups. Question forty-one

to forty-five (Q41 – Q45) are also related to the contribution of the revenu obtain from NTFPs

to the local people livelihood, while question forty-six to fifty-two (Q46 – Q52) are related to

the individual knoledge concerning the notion of sustainable development. The last question,

that is question 01 to 27, were likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree (i.e

six items likert scale).

3.1.2.4. Method of data analysis

This study uses the Partial Least Square Approach structural equation modeling (SEM -PLS)

otherwise known as soft modeling. This method has several advantages which include the

normality of data distribution not assumed. Meaning that, the data with non-normal can be

used when conducting structural equation modeling. Besides, indicators (items) with fewer

than three for each constructs could be carryon on since the identification issues has been

overcome. In addition, this approach of data analysis can be includes a larger number of

indicator variables even higher than 50 items. It is used when dealing with weak theory, and

it’s more robust and relax modeling approach (Afthanorhan, 2013). This method was

accompanied by Covariance based approach of structural equation model (CB –SEM). It is

well known for its accurate measurement of goodness of fit indices. According to Hair et. al.

(1995, 2010) and Holmes-Smith (2006) recommend the use of at least three fit indexes by

including one index from each category of model fit. Lastly, the study uses the method of


descriptive statistics whereby the result is presented in the form of frequency table, bar charts,

histogram and pie chart.

3.1.2.5. Model specification

To statistically test the relationship within this theoretical framework as used in most

literature on agro- environmental issues for societal wellbeing, we first identify the latent

variables structuring the model and their constituent indicators. Then we validate the

construction of latent by means of factor analysis and finally we build and test the SEM by

assigning the relevant relationship between the different latent variables.

SEM Mathematical presentation

a) Measurement model

The measurement model for the latent variables: NTFPs valoralization, NTFPs revenue,

conservative management practices and livelihood assets acquisition could be expressed as

[𝑦𝑥] = [

𝛬𝑦 0

0 𝛬𝑥] [

𝜉] + [휀𝛿]

Where y=[ item 02, item,03, item 04, item 06 and item 08], and x= [ item 10 and item 13 ( are

the indicators for NTFPs revenue), item 09, item 15, item 24 ( are the indicators for

conservative management practices), and item 16, item 18, item 14, item 25 ( are the

indicators for NTFPs valoralization) ] ( confer appendix 01)

= [Sustainable livelihood]

𝜉= [NTFPs valoralization, NTFPs revenue, conservative management strategies],

𝛿= [𝛿1, 𝛿2,-, -, -, 𝛿14] ε= [ε1,ε2]

𝛬y=[1 00 1

]


𝛬x =

[ 𝜆1(11) 0 0

𝜆2(12) 0 0

𝜆 3(13)0 0

𝜆 4(14)0 0

0 𝜆 5(21)0

0 𝜆 6(22)0

0 𝜆7(23) 0

0 0 𝜆8(31)

0 0 𝜆9(32)

]

Where lamda of each column matrix is set to be 1 and fix

The scale of measurement of the latent variable is.

Where 𝛿1, 𝛿2, -,-,-, 𝛿14, ε1, ε2, denote measurement errors and λ1, λ2, -,-,-, λ9 denote unknown

factor loadings.

b) Structural equation model

The structural equation model for the latent variables NTFPs valoralization, NTFPs revenue,

conservative management strategies and livelihood assets is given by:

= 𝛽+ 𝛤𝜉 + 휁

Where β =[0 𝛽0 0

]

Γ=[𝛾 1𝛾2

𝛾3𝛾4]

Where β, γ1, γ2, γ3, γ4 denotes unknown regression weights(coefficients) that reflects the direct

effects of sustainable NTFPs valoralization on the livelihood assets of local people and ζ

denote the error term.


3.2. Presentation of the study area

In this section, we are goig to present the study site of our study and the research design. The

study site will be presenting the area of study (3.2.1) and the socio-economic environment of

our study site (3.2.2). The research design on the other hand will then focus in presenting the

plan and the structure of the investigation conceived to obtain the future answers to our

research question and will also include the overall research scheme (3.2.3).

3.2.1. Study site

This study was conducted in the MESAMENA Subdivision, Haut-Nyong Division of the East

Region of Cameroon. Questionnaire surveys were distributed to residents living within 28

villages at the Northern periphery of the Dja Forest Reserve. With a surface area of 526,004

ha (ministere des forets et de la faune & UICN- programme, june 2015), the Dja Wildlife and

Hunting Reserve was created on 26 June 1950. The table below presents some important

aspects of the Dja reserve.

Table 6 : Presentation of some historical specification of the Dja biosphere and wildlife

reserve

Years Important specification of the biosphere and wildlife reserve

1932 the area received somme protection

1947 Some animal species within the Dja were protected by Decree 2254

which regulated hunting in the French African territories

1950 Protected as a Réserve de Faune et de Chasse by Arrêté 75/50 by

decree No. 319 of the French High Commissioner for Cameroon

1973 Protected as a Réserve de Faune (623,619 ha) under National Forestry

Act Ordinance 73/18

1981 Designated a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man & Biosphere

Programme (526,000 ha)

1987 was Inscribed on the World Heritage List under Natural Criteria ix and

x

1999 Yaoundé Declaration on Conservation and Sustainable Management of

Forests signed by seven heads of state

2004 The TRIDOM project set up between Cameroon, Gabon and the Congo

Republic, later also Chad, the Central African Republic, Equatorial

Guinea and the Democratic Republic of Congo to coordinate long-term

transboundary conservation and ecological corridors between the seven

countries.

Source: Adapted by the author from (Ella, 2016).


The administrative area of the DBR is 526 004 ha and its geographical coordinates are as

follows: Latitude: 2 ° 40 'and 3 ° 23' North and Longitude: 12 ° 25 'and 13 ° 35' East

(ministere des forets et de la faune & UICN- programme, june 2015). The DBR is delimited

to the north, west and south that are about ¾ of its perimeter by the river Dja which gave it its

name. By adding to its administrative area the peripheral zone, the total area concerned by the

Dja Biosphere Reserve is around 800 000 ha.

In terms of administrative division, the DBR straddles two Regions (East and South) at the

rate of 4/5 and 1/5 respectively, and two departments (Haut-Nyong and Dja et Lobo). When

considering its peripheral zone, the DBR affects four districts in the department of Haut-

Nyong (East): Messamena in the North, Somalomo in the North, Mindourou in the North-

East, and Lomié in the East. In the department of Dja et Lobo (South), the Reserve covers

five districts namely: Bengbis in the North-West, Meyomessala and Meyomessi in the West,

Djoum in the South and Mintom in the South-East.

The figure locate the Dja Biosphere Reserve on the Cameroon map

Map 1: Location of the Dja biosphère reserve,

Source: Samuel Nguiffo (2001)


Also the figure below represents the thirty-one villages located at the northern periphery of

the Dja Biosphere Reserve in which the study was carried out.

Map 2 : Location of the study area at the northern peryphery of the Dja Biosphère reserve,

Source: TF-RD (2015)

3.2.2. Socio-economic environment of DBR and its peripheral zone

The overall human population density in the Dja region remains low. The most important

agglomerations apart of Lomié (3 km from the RBD) and Somalomo (500 m) are quite far

from the reserve and include: Sangmelima 70 km, Meyomessala 20 km, Djoum 30 km,

Bengbis 15 km. However, many villages surround the reserve, exerting more or less

agricultural pressure, hunting and gathering of non-timber forest products.

In addition to these sedentary populations, there is a large semi-nomadic population consisting

of the Baka pygmy families and the Kaka hunter-fishing groups. It appears that 6 ethnic

groups inhabit the reserve and its direct periphery including four sedentary groups: Badjoué,

Boulou, Fang, Nzimé, and two semi-nomadic groups: Baka and Kaka. The population density

around the reserve is estimated at 2 people per square kilometer (Nguiffo, 2001). The

Knowledge of the forest environment varies among the population and the human groups

living in and around the DBR and is guided by four main peripheries as presented in the table

below.


Table 7 : Main human occupation periphery around the Dja Wildlife Reserve Geographical

position of the human occupation front

Zones Main human groups

Northern periphery Badjoué – Baka

Southern periphery Fang – Boulou – Kaka – Baka

Western periphery Boulou – Baka

Eastern periphery Nzimé – Baka – Njem

South-east periphery Boulou – Fang – Kaka – Baka

Source: Dja Biosphere Reserve Development. Plan of 2004 revised in 2006

For the case that concerns us, i.e the northern periphery of the Dja Biosphere Reserve, the

socio-economic activities that we can present is as fallows:

Farming is the most important activity; this is in terms of the proportion of people who

practice this activity (about 80% of the population) and its contribution relative to the

household income. The Population primarily practices shifting cultivation on a fallow land

that has been allowed to fallow for about two to three years. Despite the abundance of land,

habits and cultivation techniques remained the same; thatis, traditional cultivation technique

with the use of rudimentary tools. These practices thus make productivity and the level of

income of the populations very low. It is an agriculture destined largely for self-consumption,

characterized by a diversity of crops cultivated. There are mostly; (Cocoa, coffee, oil palm)

and food crops such as: (groundnuts, maize, cassava, plantain, cocoyam etc). The absence of

connection routes, the poor state of the roads do not allow the easy sale and marketing of

these food and cash crops to improve farmers' incomes.

Livestock is not practiced much and it remains mostly traditional. They include species such

as: chickens, pigs, goats, and sheep. Most of these animals live in rambling. They are mainly

rare for self-consumption and a few for commercial purposes.

Hunting is carried here all over the communal space in defiance of the texts in existence in

Cameroon. Despite the presence of the fauna and the flora checkpoints, there is still the

commercialization of bush meat in the local market. The bush meat species that are usually

found in the local market includes grass cotter, pangolin, monkey, wild boar, hares, bush pig

etc. The means used for hunting are: traps, firearms, spears and dogs etc.

Fishing takes place in streamsand water that runs through the Commune of Messamena. But it

is to note that the Nyong River remains the favorite zone for fishing. It is done at any time of

the year and the fishing techniques commonly used are: nets, dam, trap, line. The species


usually caught includes: catfish, tilapias, captains, carp etc. The population derives a none

negligeble sources of income from it.

Fruits collection are limited to the harvesting of tree fruits such as; pawpaw, lemon, oranges,

blumes , mangoes and collection of non_timber forest products such as : bush mangoes,

various kola,moabi , mbalaka , alambiaka , Ndjangsang, (Ricinodendronheudoloti), and wine

taping

The craft activity consists of carpentry, sewing, basketry, and making rattan furniture and

raffia bamboo. Demand for handicrafts is high, but production is low because of the small

number of artisans.

The Messamena commune like most of the Communes present in Cameroon is dominated by

an informal sector. At the industrial level, there are logging industries that carry out their

forestry activities in the Communal area. There are also very few industries involved in the

transformation of cassava into cassava sticks and corn into corn flour.

The population of the Commune of Messamena carries out small retail trade, dominated by

the sale of NTFPs, foodstuffs, cash crops (cocoa, coffee) and manufactured goods; their sale

is dominated by buyers from the western region and Cameroonians who own shops in the city

center and villages. The market is supplied with food coming from these villages. Large

quantities of these foods converge towards Bertoua and Yaoundé. Yaounde, Abong-Mbang

and Bertoua are the main supply places for manufactured products that are purchased by

retaillers coming from the commune.

3.2.3. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT NTFPS IN OUR STUDY

The different informations below are summarizing some brief description of the five (05)

NTFPs we are evaluating their contributions.

Allanblackia ( Allanblackia Floribunda)

The tree can reach 30 m of height and about 80 cm of diameter with short branches. The tree

starts to produce flower from September to febuary and produces fruits almost all the year

round. The butter extracted from the grains known as Boanjo butter is use for consumption

(Vivien & Faure, 1995).The oil extracted from the grains are usually sold in the Centre, East

and South region (Walter & Sillans, 1995).


Balaka ( Penthaclethra Macrophylla)

The tree can reach a height of about 21 m of heigt and up to 6 m in girth with many branches.

It starts to produce flowers between March to April, after which the pods (brown and woody

when matured) open by explosive mechanism. The mesocarp is serve as food i.e eaten as

snack or dessert and also use as condiment. It is reach in protein (48%), amino acids and fatty

acids and carbohydrate.

The different minerals components include the following : calcium ( Ca) , magnesium ( Mg) ,

iron ( Fe) , lead ( Ld) , copper ( Cu) , manganese ( Mn) , phosphorus ( Ph) (Ikhouria,

E.Aiwonegebe, Okoli, & Idu, 2008).

Bush mango ( Irvingia gabonensis)

The tree can grow and reach a height of about 40 m with about 120 cm of diameter. The

fruits, grains, theleaves, the stem are all used. The grains are used in making sauce (Vivien &

Faure, 1995). It is used in treating diarrhea and dysentery (Walter & Sillans, 1995) .

Njansang (Ricinodendronheudelotti)

The tree of this plant can reach about 40 m of heigt with about 120 cm of diameter. The plant

starts to produce flowers from March to Mai and start to produce fuits from Mai to October. It

is use as condiments and is at time use in the place of ground nuts in making sauce. The seve

is use in healing filaments(Burkill, 1994) and have a purgative action(Laird, et al., 1994).The

stem is use as an anti-poisson or contraceptic and it is also use in healing sterility, abdominal

pains and painfull mentration(Burkill, 1994).the grains are sold in every region of Cameroon.

Moabi (Baillonella toxisperma Pierre)

Moabi is one of the great trees which dominate the dense rainforest and can Exceeding 60 m

in height. It has a very straight and cylindrical stem with no shoulders with a crackedbark.

The crown top is formed with very large branches with foliage dense.The fruit of Moabi is a

drupe containing several seeds having a Wide, ragged, scar on almost full length. Food oil, as

Product of the Moabi fruit is very used and is the subject of a flourishing trade. The Moabi

Begins to bear fruit when it reaches 70 cm of diameter.

The Moabi is used for medicinal purposes. The bark and latex of Moabi is to heal Rheumatic

pains, ailments Bronchopulmonary and gastrointestinal tracts, the Backis use for pains and the

promotion the healing of injury (J.R.Ngueguim, J.P.Dondjang, J.Onana, & P.Tataijang, 2011).


Conclusion

The objective of this chapter was to bring out the different technics and method that will be

used to answer our research questions.in other for this to possible we divided this chapter into

two section. Section one was presenting a description of the model use in our analysis in

(3.1.1) while in (3.1.2) it was presenting the methos of analysis.on the other side, the second

section of this chapter (3.2) was presenting the area of study that is presenting the

geographical situation (3.2.1), the socio-economic environment of the study site (3.2.2) and

finally a brief description of the the different NTFPs taken into account in the course of this

thesis (3.2.3)


The objectives of this chapter will be to provide the different answers to our research

question. In other for this to be possible, our work will be divided into two sections. Section

one of this chapet (4.1) will be providing the general over view of our work and the

descriptive results obtained while section two of our work (4.2) shall be base in providing

answers to our research question.

4.1. General overview and descriptive Analysis of Respondents’ Demographic

Information

In this section of our work, it shall be question for us to present the different relevant

demographique materials of the local people at the northern periphery of the DBR.that is the

gender distribution, the age distribution, the number of respondent per villages, their level of

education, the main income activities, the mainly earn income and more other relevant

informations.

4.1.1. Descriptive evaluation: attribute of the respondents

Gender distribution of the respondents

The total number of respondents sample during the survey was 215. As seen onfigure 3

below, out of the 215 participants, the majority 205 (95 %) were female and just 10 were male

(5 %).

Figure 3 : gender distribution of the respondent

Source: SPSS Output computed by the researcher, 2017

5%

95%

Fig 3 :Distribution of gender of sample population

male

female

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF

RESULTS


Age distribution of the respondents

The bar chart below shows the age range of the respondents. They are seven age groups or

ranges. The age group 46 and above recorded the highest frequency of 90 with a

corresponding percentage of 31,1% while the age group less than 17 recorded the lowest

frequency of 3 with a corresponding percentage of 1,0 %. The remaining five age groups 18-

25,26-30, 31-35, 36-40 and 41-45 each have a corresponding frequency and percentage of 29

(10%) , 32 (11,1 %) , 19 ( 6,6%) , 24 ( 8,3%) , 18 ( 6,2%) respectively. From this observation,

we can say with certaintity that the majority of the respondents are adults and well experience.

The bar chart on figure 4 below show the frequency and percentages of the age range of the

respondent.

Figure 4 : Distribution of the ages of the respondents


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

less tha17

18-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46 andabove

Fig 4 : Age distribution of the respondents

Frequency


Villages covered in the study

The survey covered a total of 31 villages spread over 4 major geographical zone. The majority

of the respondents came from Kabilone 2 with a frequency of 17 ( 5,9 %) followed by Belay

and Binstina with a frequency of 15 each, Bifolone with a frequency of 14 with a percentage

of 4,8 % and the list so continued as shown on the table above. Among the 31 villages, three

recorded the least frequency of respondents of 01 (with a respective percentage of 0, 3%) they

include: Betsil, Echu, Mpan and Malen III.

Figure 5 : Number of respondents by villages involved in the survey


The above figure clearly depicts that the maximum number of respondents came from

Kabilone 2 while the least recorded respondents came from Echu, Malen III, Bitsil and Mpan

Ech

u

Be

tsil

La

ma

kara

II

Ma

dju

ih I

I

Eko

'o

Mb

ou

mo

Ma

len

III

Mp

an

kab

ilon

e 2

bela

y

ng

ou

lmin

an

ga

me

djo

h

Ne

um

eyo

ng

kom

pia

Do

um

o p

ierr

e

ma

len

5

nto

um

zok

ntin

bonke

uh

nko

nzu

ih

do

um

o m

am

a

nko

ul

njo

leh

mp

ou

m

pa

llisc

o

kab

ilon

e 1

mim

pa

lla

Dja

ssa

ma

dju

ih 1

ma

len

2

pa

lest

ine

bin

stin

a

bifo

lone

village name

20

15

10

5

0

Co

un

t

11

2

7

4

3

11

17

15

14

11

12

10

8

7

5

2

8

4

8

5

2

9

2

3

10

6

8

15

14


Respondent levels of education

The respondents’ highest educational attainment ranges from first school leaving certificate

(FSLC or CEP) through GCE ordinary level or its equivalent BEPC. As seen on figure

6below,a better portion of the sample population indicated FSLC or CEP as their highest

educational level, with the frequency of 100 (34, 4%) out of 215 participants in the study. The

list continues with BEPC having frequency of respondents of 14 and percentage of 4,8%,

probatoire 1 and 0, 3%. It is also to be noted that high number of the respondent do not have

certificate that is100 (34, 6 %). The chart below clearly shows the frequency of the

respondents by level of education.

Main income activity of the respondents

The figurebelow shows the distribution of the respondents’ occupations among which farming

is the most popular occupation among the respondents. Among the respondents, 124 out of

215 indicated that they are Famers. That is Farmers made up to 42, 9 % of the sample

population. The remaining of the sample population were further distributed as follows;

NTFPs collector 47 ( 16,3%), sellers 17(5,9%), cocoa producers 15 ( 5,2%) , hunter 5(1,7%) ,

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

No certificate CEP/FSLC BEPC probatoire

46,5 46,5

6,5

0,5

Highest Education level


Figure 6 : Highest Education level of the respondents


fishing 4 (1,4%) , civil servant 02 (0,7%) and lastly Other like teacher 01 (0,3%). This

distribution indicated on the table below can be observed clearly on the figur below.

Figure 7 : Number of respondents by occupation

Source: SPSS Output computed by the researcher, 2017.

Monthly earn income

According to the figure below, the respondents were categorised into 7 income levels ranging

from less than 30000 franc CFA to 250,000 franc CFA. The majority143 (67 %) fell in the

first category with the lowest amount of monthly income which is only between 0 and 30000

franc CFA. This category as indicated on the figure below, was closely followed by 47 (22 %)

of the respondents who fell in the second category with monthly income between 30001-

50000. There was a tie as in the sixth and seventh category with monthly income of 151000-

200000 and 200001-250000 respectively, there were 01(0.3%) respondents each. The

remaining categories that span the table have a respondent each.These differences in the

number of respondents per category are best illustrated on the pie chart below.

47

124

4 5 15 2

17 1

NTFPcollector

farmer fishing hunter cocoaproducers

civilservant

sellers teacher

Main activities of the respondents

Frequency


Figure 8 : Monthly income of the respondents


Extraction of NTFPs

From the figure below, one can be certain to say that a high proportion of the respondents

collect NTFPs. That is from the figure we can see that about (96.7%) of the respondents

collects NTFPs, while only (3.3%) do not collects NTFPs. This can be clearly seen below :

Figure 9 : NTFP extraction


67%

22%

7%

3%

1%

0%

0%

Monthly earn income

less than 30000

31000-50000

51000-75000

76000-100000

100001-150000

151000-200000

200001-250000

3%

97%

NTFPs Extraction

no

yes


Figure 11: Differents extractions zones


The units of measurements of the NTFPs

The pie chart below clearly displays the different units of measurement of NTFPs by the local

people. Out of the 215 who participated in the study during the survey , 116 ( 40.1%)

commercialize their NTFPs using both a 5 littre buckets and a plate of 1 littre ( equivalent to 1

kg) , followed by 97 ( 36.6%) which uses plates of 1 littre and 2 ( 0.7%) which sells their

NTFPs using a kilo as their unit of measurement. This is represented in the figure below.

Figure 12 : Units of measurements of NTFP

Source: SPSS Output computed by Author from data (2017).

Any idea about the notion of sustainable development

0

20

40

60

80

100

from thevillage

forest farm forest andfarm

2,8 8,4 2,3

86,5

Different zones of NTFPs Extraction

1%

45% 54%

Units of measurement

kg plates 5 litter bucket and plates of 1 litters


Figure 13 : Perception about the notion of sustainable development

Source: SPSS Output computed.by the Author from data (2017),

The figure above illustrates the different informations concerning the idea of individuals

concerning the notionof sustainable development. From the figure, one can easily see that 182

(85%) of the respondents can give few understandings about the notion of sustainable

development, while 33 (15%) of the respondents do not have any idea about the notion of

sustainable development.

Any idea concerning the simple management plan

The pie chart below shows to us that about (78.6%) of the respondents do not have any idea

about the idea of the simple management plan of a community forest and just (21.4%) of the

Respondents have some knowledge about the simple management plan. The figure below

represents the situation.

Source: SPSS Output computed by the Author from data (2017).

Any proposed strategy for the sustainable management of the forest resources

15%

85%

Idea about the notion of sustainable development

no

yes

79%

21%

Perception about simple management plan

no

yes

Figure 14: Respondent’s idea about management plan


Figure 15 : Any proposed strategy for the sustainable management of the forest resources

Source: Author from data (2017)

The figure above presents the different answers that where given by the respondents

concerning any proposed strategy to ensure the sustainable management of the forest. From

the pie chart we can see that 96 (44.7%) of the responedts give as strategy the reafforestation

of the forest, fallowed by 36.3% of the respondents who believes that conservation can be use

as a strategy. 28 of the respondents that is (13%) things that both reafforestation and

conservation can be use as a management strategies and 6% of the respondents proposed “the

taking into consideration of the needs of the local people” can be use as a management

strategy.

The different uses of NTFPs by the local people

The figure below represents the different uses of NTFPs by the local people around the

northern periphery of the DBR.

reafforestation and

conservation; 28

reafforestation; 96

taking into consideration the needs of

the local population; 13

conservation; 78


Figure 16: Different uses of NTFPs


From the figure it can easily be seen that out of the 215 respondents, 135 of them extract

NTFPs both for consumption and for commercial purposes, fallowed by 42 of them for

commercial purposes and using it for making drugs, 9 for gifts and just 1 of them only uses it

as medicine.

Quantity of NTFPs extracted

The table below represents the different quantities of NTFPs extracted by the sample

population. From the table one can see that the average quantity of moabi extracted by the

sample population is 41.06 plates equivalent 41.06 Littres. For njansang we have 76.19 kg,

bush mango is 95.42kg, also mbalaka is 56.54 kg and finally we have alamblakia with 0.66

kg.

Table 8 : Quantity of NTFP extracted in 2016

Quantity of NTFPs extracted in 2016 Minimu

m

Maximu

m

Mean Std.

Deviation

QTY_of_moabi_collected_in_2016 .00 400.00 41.0558 68.36233

QTY_of_njansang_collected_in_2016 .00 13025.00 76.1860 887.55655

QTY_of_bush

mango_collected_in_2016

.00 12050.00 95.4186 825.83209

QTY_of_mbalaka_collected_in_2016 .00 2200.00 56.5395 173.24931

QTY_of_alambiaka_collected_in_201

6

.00 50.00 .6558 4.97025


consumption; 23

commerciale purposes; 5

medicine; 1

gift; 9

consumption and commercial purposes; 135

consumption, commercial purposes,

medicine; 42


Quantity of NTFPs sold by the sample population

The table above below represent the different quantity of NTFPs thar was sold by the sample

population. According to the table it is seen that among the different NTFPs that are

commercialized by the local people , the highly commercialized is mbalaka with an average

mean of 55.14kg fallowed by moabi 32.58kg , then we have bush mango with 31.52kg , for

njansang we have 11.87kg and finally we have alamblakia with 0.30kg.

Table 9: Quantity of NTFP sold in 2016

Quantity of NTFPs

sold

Minimum Maximum Mean Std.

Deviation

QTY_sold_moabi .00 350.00 32.5814 55.52386

QTY_sold_njansang .00 100.00 11.8674 17.91171

QTY_sold_bush

mango

.00 1000.00 31.5163 72.85723

QTY_sold_mbalaka .00 2200.00 55.1442 173.36783

QTY_sold_alambiaka .00 50.00 .3302 3.50404


Quantity of NTFPs consumed

The table below represents the quantities of NTFPs that are consumed by the sample

population.

Table 10: Quantity of NTFP consumed

Quantities of NTFPs consumed in

2016

Minimum Maximum Mean Std.

Deviation

QTY_cosumed_moabi .00 200.00 6.9384 21.31202

QTY_consumed_njansang .00 25.00 2.8581 3.34777

QTY_consumed_bush mango .00 60.00 4.9930 6.34456

QTY_mbalaka_consumed .00 200.00 1.9302 16.66379

QTY_alambiaka_consumed .00 .00 .0000 .00000


From the table one can easily see that the average mean of moabi consumed by the sapmle

population is 6.9384 littres, followed with bush mango (4.9930kg), after with have njansang (

2.8581kg), mbalaka ( 1.9302kg) and finally we have alambiaka with 0.0000 kg. The reason


why the quantity of alambiaka consumed is 0.0000 is because of the fact that all what is

extracted is sold.

Income generated from the commercialization of NTFPs

Table 11 : Income obtained from the commercialisation of NTFP

Income obtained from the

commercializatio of NTFPs

Minimu

m

Maximu

m

Mean Std.

Deviation

income_moabi .00 100000.00 5632.5163 11189.5565

4

income_njansang .00 350000.00 15764.719

6

31891.8636

6

income_bush mango .00 200000.00 28280.232

6

33128.1199

2

income_mbalaka .00 264000.00 12245.581

4

31196.4953

8

income_alambiaka .00 10000.00 126.0512 966.81839


The table above represents the different incomes that are obtained by the sample population

from the commercialization of NTFPs. From the table one can see that the mean obtained

from the commercialization of moabi is 5632.51 CFAfrancs, followed with njansang

15754.72 CFAfrancs. Also from the table we can see that the NTFPs which provide to the

sample the highest income is bush mango with an average income of 28280.23 CFA franc and

the one with the lowest income is alambiaka with an average of 126.05 CFA franc.

Different projets realize with the revenue from NTFPs

The two figures below (figure 16 and 17) represents the different projets that are realize with

the income from NTFPs

Figure 17 : Projets and activities realize with the revenue from NTFPs



Figure 18 : Extra projet realize with the revenu from NTFPs


From figure 17 above it is seen that about 46 of the respondent respectively uses the revenue

generated from the commercialization of NTFPs for buying both plates, solar and petrol

lampe and pots and for consumption needs. While just 02 of them use it for paying both

school fees, solar and petrol lampe, drugs and school fournitures. Whereas in the second

05

101520253035404550

16

46

35

5 12

8 2

14

46

6 5

20

Frequency

050

100150200

199

1 1 1 5 2 2 2 1 1

Frequency


figure that is. figure 18, 199 of the sample individual does not carry any extra projets and just

05 of them for house building materials.

These two figures permits us to see that the different things (projets or activities) that permits

the individuals to realize are falling under the first and the second stages of the Maslow’s

pyramids of needs as it was seen above.

4.2. Inferential Statistics

Here, we are going to run out our analysis using the structural equation model respecting the

different steps and procedures to run the test.

4.2.1. Measurement of the likert scale items

Table 27 shows the results of Bartlett’s test for sphericity, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)

value and follow by the communalities.

Table 12 : KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling

Adequacy.

,807

Bartlett's Test of

Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square 1118,314

Df 171

Sig. ,000


The 27 likert scale items in the questionnaire (see appendix 1) was subjected to principal

components analysis (PCA) using SPSS version 21. Prior to performing PCA, the suitability

of data for factor analysis was assessed. The inspection of the correlation matrix revealed the

presence of many coefficients of 0.3 and above. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of

Sampling Adequacy value was 0.807, exceeding the recommended value of 0.6 (Kaiser 1970,

1974) and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity was statistical significant supporting the factorability of

the correlation matrix. This result indicates that the correlations structure is significantly

strong enough to conduct a factor analysis on the items. It therefore indicates that there is no

issue of multicollinearity in the data. In addition, factor analysis assumed linear relationship

between the items.


Table 13 : Rotated component matrix

Component

1 2 3 4 5 6

Item8 ,767

Item3 ,717

Item6 ,633

Item2 ,613

Item4 ,605

Item25 ,714

Item16 ,670

Item14 ,605

Item18 ,569

Item7 ,799

Item5 ,787

Item11 ,506

Item24 ,799

Item15 ,673

Item9 ,564

Item13 ,776

Item10 ,700

Item12 ,742

Item21 ,692


Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

a. Rotation converged in 7 iterations.

The PCA revealed the presence of six components with eigenvalue exceeding 1, explaining

14.36%, 11.67%, 9.96%, 9.65%, 9.05% and 7.79% of the variance respectively. The result in

table 28 above, shows the various components extracted using the principal components

analysis. An inspection of the screen plot below revealed a clear break after the six

components. These items were subjected to further investigation using confirmatory factor

analysis.


Figure 19 : Scree Plot


The scree test represented by a scree plot graph above represents “eigen values” which guide

us to determine the number of the essential factorial axes. From the scree plot above indicates

that the components 1 and 2 capture more of the variance than the remaining components.

Figure 20: Confirmatory factor Analysis of the Measurement Model


Source: AMOS Output computed by the Author, 2017

The CFA is conducted to measure the relationship between the observed and the underlying

latent variables. Generally, four fit indices were tested to determine the fitting of the model

with the data. These are: chi-square statistic, Normed chi-square, root mean square

approximation (RMSEA) and comparative fit index (CFI). It is recommended that for the

Model to fit the data, normed chi-square (CIMDF) should be less than 5, root mean square

error of approximation (RMSEA) should be less than 0.08, and CFI values are to be above

0.9. The result of the minimum value of discrepancy between observed data and hypothesized


model divided by the degree of freedom (Cmin/df) in figure 21 above was significant (

Cmin/df = 4.43). Incremental fit indices (CFI, NFI) did not meet up the threshold criteria of

greater than 0.9 as recommended by (Bentler & Bonett, 1980).

4.2.2. Validity of the indicators

In the study, convergent validity technique was used. It refers to the degree of agreement in

two or more indicators of the same construct (Camine and Zeller, 1979). Evidence of

convergent validity was assessed by inspection of the loading factor which indicates weight of

the relationship between the indicator and the construct. In other words, it is also referred to

as regression weight. For convergent validity to be established, the regression or factor should

be 0.5 and above. As observed in the figure 21 above, we can conclude that there is evidence

of convergent validity between the indicators and the respective constructs. The variable

livelihood assets has five indicators (item 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8), NTFPs valoralization has four

manifest indicators (item 14, 16, 18 and 25), Conservative management practice (item 9, 15

and 24) and NTFPs Revenue (item 10 and 13). The validity was further assets by testing for

the significant of the item construct relationship using maximum likelihood estimates

approach. The result of the test is summarised in table 30 below.

Table 14 : Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label

Item2 <--- Livelihood Assets 1,000

Item3 <--- Livelihood Assets ,521 ,037 14,052 *** par_1




Item25 <--- NTFPs Valoralization 1,000

Item14 <--- NTFPs Valoralization ,811 ,049 16,584 *** par_5

Item18 <--- NTFPs Valoralization ,773 ,048 15,967 *** par_6

Item16 <--- NTFPs Valoralization 1,001 ,059 17,060 *** par_7

Item24 <--- Conservative Management Practice 1,000

Item15 <--- Conservative Management Practice ,945 ,055 17,100 *** par_9

Item9 <--- Conservative Management Practice ,778 ,056 14,009 *** par_10

Item13 <--- NTFP Revenue ,516 ,053 9,761 *** par_11

Item10 <--- NTFP Revenue 1,000



Table 15 above shows that, when livelihood asset changes by 1, item 3, item 4, item 6 and 8

changes by 0.521, 0,842, 0.832 and 0,918 respectively. The regression weight estimate, 0.521,

0,842, 0.832 and 0,918, has a standard error of about 0.037, 0.046, 0.044 and 0.047

respectively. Dividing the regression weight estimates by its respective standard error gives

Z statistics or critical ratio of 14.052, 18.12, 18.79 and 19.53 for item 3, item 4, item 6 and

item 8 respectively. In other words, the regression weight estimates are 14.052, 18.12, 18.79

and 19.53 standard error above zero for item 3, item 4, item 6 and item 8 respectively. The

probability of getting a critical ratio as large as 14.05, 18.12, 18.79 and 19.53 in absolute

value is less than 0.001. In other words, the regression weight for livelihood assets in

prediction of item 3, 4, 6 and 8 are significantly different from zero at the 0.001 level (two –

tailed). The same explanations hold for the NTFP valoralization and its indicators (item 14,

16, 18 and 25), Conservative management practice (item 9, 15 and 24) and NTFP Revenue

(Item 10 and 13). The regression weight of these constructs in prediction of its indicators are

significantly different from zero at the 0.001 level as seen in table 30 above.

4.2.3. Reliability of the Instrument

The questionnaire was subjected to the reliability test using the Cronbach’s alpha. The

Cronbach’s alpha value was an important measure of the internal consistent of the score. The

alpha value can lie between negative infinity and 1 (-∞ ˂ α ˂ 1). This measure the degree to

which the items that make up the scale hang together. It provides the answer to the question to

what extent are the items measuring the same underlying construct. Three decision criteria

guide the interpretation of Cronbach’s alpha as follows: For a value above 0.8, reliability is

considered good. For a value between 0.6 and 0.8, reliability is considered acceptable. For a

value below 0.6, reliability is considered unacceptable (Cronbach, 1951; De Souza & Dick,

2009). In the study, the Cronbach alpha was consistently goods (= 0.835).

Table 15 : Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's

Alpha

N of Items

,835 18


42.4. Interpretation according to research question and hypothesis

In order to provide answer to the research questions and verify the hypotheses, structural

equation modeling was fitted.

Figure 21 : Full -fledged Structural Equation Model for NTFP - SLA


In the full-fledged structural equation model in figure 22 above, it depicts all the standardized

path coefficients among the latent constructs of the hypothesized theoretical framework. It is

observed that three path coefficients prove to be statistically significant at p < 0.001, one is

significant at p < 0.05, and the rest three appear to be non-significant as evidenced by the

critical ratio.

,56

Livelihood

Assets

,32

Item2 e1,57

,30

Item3 e2,55

,45

Item4 e3,67

,47Item6 e4

,69

,49Item8 e5,70

,40

NTFPs

Valoralization

,27

Item25e6 ,52

,40Item14e7

,63

,38Item18e8

,62

,42

Item16e9 ,65

Conservative

Management

Practice,26

Item24e10

,51

,45Item15e11

,67

,35

Item9e12 ,59

,43

NTFP

Revenue,27

Item13e13

,52

,55Item10e14 ,74

chi-square=169,699

df=72

P=,000

CFI=,867

NFI=,794

SRMR=

RMSEA=,080 (,064 - ,095)

,65

,14

,01

e15

,63

e16

,65

e17


Table 16 : Hypothesized path coefficients

Exogenous

Variable Endogenous

Variable

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Decision

NTFPs

Valoralization

<--- Conservative

Management

Practice

,657 ,153 4,299 0.000 Supportive

NTFP Revenue <--- Conservative

Management

Practice

1,126 ,236 4,762 0.000 Supportive

Livelihood Assets <--- NTFPs

Valoralization

,639 ,161 3,975 0.000 Supportive

Livelihood Assets <--- Conservative

Management

Practice

,138 ,179 ,771 ,441 Rejected

Livelihood Assets <--- NTFP

Revenue

,004 ,080 ,050 ,960 Rejected

Source: AMOS Output computed by the researcher, 2017

The research question concerning what can be the nature and value of the non-timber forest

products (NTFPs) contribution to the livelihood assetsof the local people around the Northern

Periphery of the Dja biosphere reserve?

Which was futher divided into two sub research questionsprovided the given results as

fallows:

Resarch Question 1.1: What is the contribution of NTFPs valoralization to the

livelihood assets of the local people?

The result ofthe path coefficient in table 17 above shows that NTFPs valoralization

contributes positively to livelihood assets of the local people at the Northern Periphery of the

Dja biosphere reserve. In other words, the regression weight for NTFPs valoralization in

prediction of livelihood asset is significantly different from zero at the 0.001 level (two –

tailed). These can be interpreted to means that when NTFPs valoralization changes by 1,

livelihood asset change by 0.63 (63%). The significant contributions of NTFPs valoralization

to livelihood assets permit us to accept the null hypotheses one of the study.


Research Question 1.2: Do the income obtained from the commercialization of NTFPs

contributes to the livelihood Assets of the local people at the Northern Periphery of the

Dja biosphere?

The result in table 17 above indicates that, NTFPs income is not significant in explaining

prediction of the livelihood asset. In other words, the regression weight of NTFPs revenue in

prediction of livelihood asset is not significantly different from zero at the 0.001 level (two –

tailed). This permits us to reject the null hypothesis two of the study.

Research Question 2: How does the actual conservative management practice of the

local people contribute to their livelihood assets?

The actual conservative management practices are not also significant in prediction of the

livelihood asset among the local people at the Northern Periphery of the Dja biosphere.

However, forest conservative management practice was significant in the prediction NTFPs

Revenue and NTFPs valoralization as indicated in table 17 above.


Conclusion

This chapter had as objective to present and discuss the results of our study. The results shows

that: about 95% of those who extract NTFPs are female, that the hidgest proportion of the

people who extract the products are more than 45 years old, also that the highest proportion of

the sample population do not have any certificate (46%) or have the first school living

certificate ( 46%). We noticed that agriculture is the main activity fallowed by the extraction

of NTFPs and also that the highest number of the sample population have a monthly income

of less than 30000 Franc CFA (49%). The greatest different group of NTFPs extracted

included: moabi, bush mango, njansang and mbalaka (55%), that the hidhest use of these

NTFPs where both for commercial purposes and consumption. Analysing the the research

questions suggested that: the conservative management practices both significantly

contributes to the valoralization of NTFPs (0.65) and NTFPs revenue (1.22), that NTFPs

valoralization significantly contributesto the livelihood assets of the local people (0.63) and

that the conservative management practices and NTFPs revenue does not contributes to the

livelihood assets of the local people respectively (0.13) and (0.004).


In chapter four above, we saw that the revenue obtained from the valoralization of NTFPs

does not significantly contributes to the livelihood assets of the local people around the

northern periphery of the DBR. We also observe that NTFPs valoralization significantly

contributes to the livelihood assets of the people of the DBR and that the conservative

management practices are not significant enough to predict the livelihood assets of the local

people. This chapter will then have as objective to discuss the results obtained in chapter four

above (5.1), to sujest some recommendations (5.2) and finally to provide a conclusion for our

work (5.3).

5.1. Discussions

In this section, the discussion that we shall be developing here will be in respects to the results

obtained in our work as related to our specific research questions.

5.1.1. Contribution of NTFPs to the livehood assets of local people

5.1.1.1. Contributions of NTFPs valoralization to the livelihood assets of the local people

This study shows that the valoralization of NTFPs significantly contributes to the livelihood

assets of the local people around the northern periphery of the DBR. This result corroborates

with that of Rajib Biswal (2009) who studied the contribution of non-timber forest products to

rural livelihood in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve in India. We also demonstrated that NTFPs

significantly contributes to the livelihood assets of the rural communities around the Nilgiri

reserve. The contribution where classified in respect to the different components of the

livelihood assets that is: the financial, human and physical capital. This study also fall inline

with the study with the work of Shiba (2010) on non-timber forest products utilization and

livelihood development in Bangladesh. In this work, he shows that: the forest-adjacent

communities greatly depend on a variaty of NTFPs for their livelihoods, and that those who

are poor are more dependent than are the rich. His Analysis also showed that the households’

average NTFPs-related income is much higher than that of their timber income, as the forest

areas though much degraded still provide some NTFPs. A regression model reveal that a

CHAPITRE 5: DISCUSSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

CONCLUSION


household’s NTFP income could be estimated from how many members make up the

household and the value of its implements and furniture. Never the less, too, that females

collect most of the NTFPs for their households and that most of the time the households spend

collecting NTFPs is dedicated providing food for the house, which, therefore, warrant special

attention for subsistence-oriented NTFPs promotion and conservation. This result also

confirms those that were obtained by Malinski (2008) in Malawi; Maghembe (1994) and

Kimaro and Lulandala which state that the NTFPs valoralized serves for firewood; medicines;

construction materials and fruits.

This study outline the importance of the contribution of NTFPs to the livelihood of the local

people around the northern periphery of the DBR and this can be clearly seen by the

contribution to their their livelihood assets.

5.1.1.2. Contribution of the revenue obtained from the commercialization of NTFPs to

the livelihood assets of the local people

This study also shows that the income extracted from the commercialization of NTFPs is not

significant to predict the livelivelihood assets of the local people around the northern

periphery of the DBR. This results goes inhand with those that were obtained by; Arnold

(2002); Wunder (2001); and (Valkenburg, 1997) which state that: NTFPs mostly have a

subsistence value, either for food, construction purposes or household utencils and the

extraction activity is a part time activity for the people in rural ares which account for their

subsistence need and cash income. This result where also confirm by (FAO), 2011); Browder,

Pierce-Colferet al (1992) and Padoch (1987). Also this can be seen in figure (17 and 18)

above where we see that the different needs that the income generates from NTFPs permits

the local people to buy are located on the primary needs of man that it for their subsitents

needs.Ths work also corroborates with the results that was onbtained by Anshu Singh (2010)

on his work on the contribution of NTFPs in the livelihood of mangrove forest Dwellers. His

result shows that: the contribution of NTFPs is quite high as it contributes almost at 79%on an

average to the annual income of the extractor’s family. Also it was seen that not every family

of the village goes for NTFPs collection but nonetheless their number is significant. The

major NTFPs that are being collected include firewood, prawn, fishes, crab, honey and bee

wax. High livelihood vulnerability was also observed with little help from government.


In addition, some of the other research works which hold this same point of view include the

work of Iponga et al (2015) which state that: NTFPs of plant origin currently represent the

least important source of cash income and food for livelihoods of rural people. Also for

Avoce vou- Ayisso et al (2009) NTFPs are often termed as ‘‘minor’’ forest products due to

their seasonal nature compared to other forms of livelihoods. This was also cautioned by

some authors that the economic potential of most of the NTFPs are rather small (Belcher

2003; Belcher et al. 2005; Levang et al. 2015), and that from a monetary angle, NTFPs do not

guarantee high or regular income for forest people (de Beer and McDermott 1989; Ndoye et

al. 1998 ; Ros Tonen 2012,1999 ; Panayotou, 1991 ; Verhey and Reinders 1997 ; Belcher and

Schreckenberg, 2007 and Van Dijk 1998).

It should be noted that even though the revenue generated from the commercialization of

NTFPs was not significant, we notice a different between the local population constituted into

“women groups” and have been working with TF-RD and the other local population. That is,

it was observed that the revenue they obtained from the commercialization of NTFPs was

more considerable than those of the other population. Also, when the question concerning the

different things the revenue generated permit them to buy was ask, it was recorded that they

could buy things such as: electric generator, a motor bike, tailoring school fees, the creation of

a store, letting children room, generating income to build a house etc, as compare to the other

local population with which they could just afford daily bases materials.

5.1.2. Conservation management practices and the local people livelihood assets around

the northern periphery of the Dja biosphere reserve.

The above result shows that the actual conservative management practices are not significant

enough to predict the livelihood asset among the local people at the Northern Periphery of the

Dja biosphere reserve. However, the conservative management practices were significant in

predicting the NTFPs income and NTFPs valoralization as indicated in table 17 above. This

result confirms the result that was obtained by Alice Dantas et al in 2012 on which they were

evaluating the ecological effects of havesting NTFPs from natural forest.they found that the

negative ecological effects of NTFP havesting are common especially when leaves and bark

are collected, and also that the population size and population age structure were frequently

affectedby the exploitation ofdiverse types of NTFPs (Dantas.B & . Doutoronda, 2012). For

the case of our work, some of the reasons that can also expainthis results: the vulnerability of

these NTFP like for instance the Moabi which apart of being exploited for it fruits and bark


are also exploited for it timber but also because of it irregular baring rate (2 to 3 years), the

lack of knowledge concerning the sustainable way of extracting the products, poor havesting

technics and poor infrastructures.

Also,it was noticed that the commercialization of NTFPs also had negative consequences.

That is ccording to the respondents, the major negative impacts for unsustainable harvest of

NTFPs are NTFPs’ stock reduction and degradation, that is the harvesting of more NTFPs by

more people creat a situation were it becomes necessary for villagers to travel some distance

to collect the NTFPs.this result confirms the result that was obtained by Shiba (2010).

It was also reveal to us by the respondents that : although NTFPs conservation is crucial for it

sustainability, these resources are not extracted in a sustainable way. About 80% of the

respondents agree that NTFPs are not being utilized sustainably. Many reasons were given for

this answers. Out of which the undefined land rights, weak law enforcement, poverty and

need for more income, poor harvesting techniques, poor knowledge on the storage techniques,

low prices, lack of incentives, and in some cases harvesting by more people because of the

high pressure exherted on them.

5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

The recommendations shall be of two orders: the general recommendations arising from the

analysis (5.2.1) and the specific recommendations shall be made with respect to the

government, to NGOs, the local population and to the researchers (5.2.2).

5.2.1. General Recommendations

This work permitted us to see how the valoralization of NTFPs in the livelihood assets of the

local peoples of the DBR.from our results we saw that: (i) that the valoralization of NTFPs

significantly contributes to the livelihood assets of the local people around the northern

periphery of the DBR. This was explain by the fact that the local communities derives from

this products the different means for their subsistence needs such as food, gifts and a means of

generating income from the commercialization of NTFPs. The study also permitted us to see

that the income obtained from the commecialization of NTFPs is not significant enough in

predicting the livelihood assets of the people (ii). Some of the reasons to could explain this

include the fact that the income generated just permit them in purchasing their daily primary


needs such as buying drugs, paying children school fees, buying cooking oil, soap, petrol and

lampe and food.

The analysis also permited us to observe that the actual conservative management practices do

not predict enough the livelihodds assets of the local people. The factors that could explain

this include the lack of carrying out campaigns on educating the local communities on how to

sustainably manage the forest and its resources, lack of knowledge on sustainably collecting

NTFPs, lack of regeneration campaigns and valoralization programs.

These different remarks brought us to formulate the following recommendations:

It is important that campaigns and programs based on the methods of regenerating

these NTFPs should be carried out. Also that education campaigns on proper havesting

technics and sustainable forest management practices should be encouraged.

It is also important that the market channels and NTFPs value chain should be

developed and also that the communicating infrastructures should be ameliorated to

ease the movement of people and goods.

Lastly, it is very important that more NTFPs valoralization campaigns should be

carried out by the government, the local and international organizations should be

carried out in this zone in respect to it rich biodiversity and the income that its

provides to the local population.

5.2.2 Specific recommendations

The following recommendations in this sub sections are formulated with respects to

the following bodies:

5.2.2.1 For the Government

Our work permitted us to see how forest resources and particularly NTFPs play an important

role in the livelihood of the people of the DBR but also to see the different difficulties and

constrains faced by these people. An exemple could be the fact that the actual conservative

management practices are not sustainable enough to guaranty their livelihood. This can be

explain by the fact that the local individuals have very little knowledge about how to

sustainably manage the forest and it resources but also the fact that very little programs are

carried out in sensitizing the local communities on the different management practices. Also


the poor state of the infrastructures (locomotion) also permitted us to see the constrains it can

have in ameliorating the livelihood of the people of the DBR. This different observation

permitted us to suggest these different recommendations to the government:

It is important that more programs on NTFPs valoralization should be developed and

the conditions to market accessibility should be ameliorated in other to ease the

commercialization of these products.

More effort should also be put by the government to facilitate the access of these

different products to the market like for instance: organiszing seasonal or periodic

market campaigns, ameliorating the communication infrastructures into urban towns

and more importantly the creation of value chaines for these products.

More works should be undertaken in other to make the information’s under the NTFPs

available and accessible to the public as this can contribute in the development and

proposals of measures to ameliorate forest governance.

5.2.2.2. For Tropical Forest and Rural Development (TF-RD)

Support for the transformation and commercialization of NTFPs in Cameroon by the local

communities are highly noticeable.There are many techniques that are use by the local people

in processing food products. Some of these methods are being developed and popularised in

urban areas by the small and midium size enterprises. However, despite the demonstrated

dynamism of these small enterprises to transform and Store NTFPs in times of abundance, the

flow of these processed products remains a discouraging factor for them. Moreover, the

quality of these processed products still remains very doubtful for man’s health. It will

therefore be important that:

Study the impact of NTFPs processing methods on human health in order to identify

the best processing techniques to be recommended to producers and traders,

Popularize products processed from NTFPs,

Develop a national, regional and international trade strategy for NTFPs,

Develop a marketing network for processed and unprocessed NTFPs at the local, sub-

regional and international levels,

Study the most consummed products and their different trade flows and standardize

them as priscribe by the World Trade Organization.


Strenthening the Capacity building on the exploitation, the rational management and

valorization of NTFPs informations. This can be explain by the fact that one of the

problems related to several studies on the valoraization of NTFPs is the spreading out

of research and development information at the local, national and international

levels. Numerous problems in the development of this sector are noted, in addition to

the non-spreading of the available informations.

There is the need for clarifying forest laws and regulations that hinder or facilitate the

commercialization of NTFPs.

It is important that the local communities should be educated in other to ameliorate

their perceptions of the forest and it resources and the different ways with which it

can be sustainably managed.

Also, from the different informations that had been seen in from figure (16) and (17)

above, it is Claire that a good valoraliation of NTFPs can considerably ameliorate the

living conditions of the local people around the northern periphery of the DBR. we

can also add that a proper valoralization of NTFPs can contribute in driving out the

youth, men and women from the main thrait of the Dja biosphere reserve i.e the

illegal commercialization of bush meat and poaching given the fact that the income

generated from the valoralization of NTFPs can go a long way to ameliorate the

livelihood of the local people as it was also sited by Ella Ella in 2016. Additionally

for this to be possible, it is important that the value chain13

of NTFPs shoud be well

organized and also that local NGOs like Tropical Forest and Rural Development

should be accompanied in their different programs in driving the local people around

the Dja biosphere reserve from poaching, valoralization of NTFPs and development.

It is important that more effort should be put on the education of the local people on

the techniques of developing nursery for NTFPs regeneration and how to sustainably

exploit these resources.

5.2.2.3. For the local population

The results obtained above permitted us to see how the valoralization of NTFPs significantly

contributes to the livelihoods assets of the local people around the northern periphery of the

13A value chain refers to the activities needed to bring a forest product.These activities include: harvesting /

collection, cleaning, transport, treatment, Processing, packing, marketing, distribution and services

Such as finance, transport, technology.


DBR. The results shown into us that the income generated from the commercialization of

NTFPs could varie from 10000 franc CFA to 350 000 franc CFA. It also permited us to also

see that the quantity consumed by the extractors could also varie from 200 plates, 25 plates,

60 plates and 200 plates respectively for moabi, njansang, bush mango,and mbalaka. It was

also seen that the quantity extracted and sold could varie from 350 plates, 100 plates, 1000

plates, 200 plates and 50 plates respectively for moabi, njansang, bush mango, mbalaka and

alambiaka. These different results broad us to formulate the following recommendations for

the local population:

It is important that the local population should put more effort on the valoralization of

the NTFPs potential available.

It is important for that they should acquire trainings on processing techniques,

domestication and the sustainable management of the resource.

5. 2.2.4. For researchers

In carrying out our work at the northern periphery of the DBR, we had to passe accrosse a

number of difficulties. These difficulties were mainly related to the domain of getting relevant

data for work, in identying the different NTFPs that are valoralized by the local people in this

zone, in getting informations concerning the forest management practices and more

importantly the different market channels and value chain of NTFPs. This brough us to

formulaye the following recommendations to researchers:

More research and data collection should be carried out in terms of growth, the

ecological importance, regeneration techniques and their yielding.

To identifie the different NTFPs that are important to the local population and which

are highly demanded in the local, urban and the international market and more

importantly the need of developing the domestication techniques.

Toprovide additional informations on the identification of priority species for the

forest based to anticipate on the current and future markets for the identified species.

To initiate research on the collection of concrete agronomic informations on the

different NTFPs domesticated in other to encourage their adoption by local

populations.


There is the need for designing participatory forest management plans for the

exploitations of forest resources and processing techniques which add value to NTFPs.

It is important that optimal marketing channel and more equitable commercialization

patterns should be develop for NTFPs.

5.3. CONCLUSION

The main objective of our work was to examine how the sustainable NTFPs valoralization

contributes to the levelihood assets of the local people arround the northern periphery of the

Dja biosphere reserve. In other to provide an answer to this question we structure our work

into five chapters as fallows:

Chapter one introduces the background of the studywhich highlights the concept of NTFPs

valoralization to the livelihood. Frm this background literature the problem statement was

developed and subsequent research question outline. The general and the specific objectives

of the study were equally made. In other to have a direction in our research, two hypothesis

where made, a brief methodology was outline and the general structure of the thesis outline.

Chapter two had as objective to outline briefly the definition of key terms, to review literature

on livelihood, sustainable livelihood and livelihood assets and NTFPs valoralization. The first

step was to establish the sustainable livelihood framework that will permit us develop our

theoretical review, while the second step was to present the concept of NTFPs valoralization

that permit us to develop our theoretical review. The last step was to present the empirical

review of some work carried out by researchers on the contribution of NTFPs to the people’s

livelihood.

Chapter three had as objective to bring out the different technics and method that will be used

to answer our research questions. This capter showed that the main instrument used to collect

data is a structured questionnaire. The collected data was coded and entered into the computer

using SPSS version 21. The analyses were carried out by using the confirmatory factor

analysis and the structural equation modeling by using SPSS version 21 and AMOS version

21.

Chaper four and five had as objectives to to present and discuss the results of our study.The

results obtained from our study permits us to provide the following conclusions:


NTFPs valoralization contributes significantly to the livelihood assets of the local people

arround the northern of the Dja biosphere reserve. This contribution can be justified by the

commercialization and the consumption of these NTFPs.

Also, the revenu obtained from the commercialization of NTFPs are not sufficient to

significantly ameliorate the living conditions or well-being of the local people. This can be

justify by the fact that the extractionof these NTFPs are seasonal, that is the extraction are

carried out just few months in a year and also the income obtained from the

commercialization of NTFPs just permits them to afford their base primary needs of a human

being such as: purchasing what to eat (to a certain extent), paying the school fees of their

children, purchasing some clothes and some kitchen utencils.

Also, there exist a positive relationship between the conservative management practices and

the valuing of NTFPs. This can be explainined by the fact that the perception of individuals

vis-a-vis the plants changes as a result of the fact that the trees start to get more value.

In addition, it is also seen that the relationship between the conservative management

practices and the revenu obtained from the commercialization of NTFPs is highly significant.

Lastly, the actual conservative management practices do not predict enough the livelihoods

assets of the local people arround the northern periphery of the Dja biosphere reserves.


BIBLIOGRAHY

Adesina, A., Sonwa, D., Tchatat, W. ,., N kongmenec, B., Ndoy, O., & Gockowski. (1997).

Role des agroforet cacao dans la foresterie paysanne et communautaire au Sud

Cameroun. Réseau de foresterie pour le Developpement Rural.p 1-10

Adhikari, B. (2001). Literature review on the economics of common property resources . UK

Department for International development (DFID).P. 1-18

Amacher, G. .., Markku, O., & Erkki, K. (2009). Economics of Forest Resources.

Massachusetts: Massachusetts institutes of technology.P. 01-12

Amacher, G. S., Ollikainen, M., & Koskela, E. (2009). Economics of Forest Resources.

London , England: cambridge, Massachusetts institutes of technology

Angelsen and Wunder, S. (2003). Exploring the Forest-poverty link: Key concepts, Issues and

Research Implication , Bogor , Indonesia. Center for International Forestry Research

( CIFOR

Anonymous. (1993). Non-wood forest products , A regionel expert consultation for English

speaking African Countries Arusha , Tanzania. technical publication 21.

Commonwealth Science Council , London, UK, 17-22.

.Anastasiadou.D, S. (2011). Reliability and Validity Testing of a New Scale For Measuring

Altitudes toward Learning Statistics with Technology. Actadidactica Napocensia.

Anshu Singh. (2010). Contribution of Non-timber forest products in the livelihood of

Mangrove forest Dwellers of Sundarban. International Center for Community

Forestry.

Ashley, C., & Carney, D. (1999). Sustainable Livelihood: Lessons Learned from early

experience. Department For International Development (DFID).

Atyi, R. E., Lescuyer, G., Poufoun, J. n., & fouda, T. (2013). Etude de l'Importance

Economique et Social du secteur forestier et faunique au Cameroun. Yaounde;

Cameroun: MINFOF; CIFOR.


Atyi, R., lescuyer, G., Ngouhouo, J., & T.M.Fouda. (2014). Etude de l'Importance

Economique et Social du secteur Forestier et Faunique au Cameroun.Yaounde,

Cameroun: cifor.

Awono.A, M. a. (2016). will the proposed forest policy and regulatory reforms boost the

NTFPs sector in cameroon ? . international forestry review vol.18 (s1), 78-92.

Awono.A, R. A. (Novembre 2013). Etude de l'importance economique et social du secteur

forestier et faunique au cameroun. cifor.

Awono.A, Atyi, R., D.Foundjem-Tita, & P.Levang. (2016). Vegetal non-timber forest

products in cameroun , contribution to the national economy.

Awono.A, Ndoye, O., & Preece, L. (2010). Empowering Women's Capacity for Improved

Livelihoods in non-timber forest products Trade in Cameroon. International journal

for social forestry, 151-163.

A.K.Ponday, & Kumar, Y. a. (2016). Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) sor Sustained

livelihood : Challenges and strategies. Research journal of forestry, 1819-3439.

BAWA, R. S. (1996). EXTRACTION OF NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS IN THE

FOREST OF BILIGIRI RANGAN HILLS. INDIA. ECONOMIC BOTANY, 243-251.

Belcher, B.M. (2003). WHAT ISN’T an NTFP? International Forestry Review 5(2), 161-168.

Belcher, B.; Ruiz Perez, M and Achdiawan, R. (2005). Global patterns and trends in the use

and management of commercial NTFPs: implication for livelihood and conservation. World

development 33(9), 1435-1452.

Belibi, M. B., Eijnatten, J. V., Mala, W. A., & Ingram, V. (2015). Empowering Women and

Ethnic Groups to Collectively Market non Timber Forest Products from Community Forest in

Cameroon. Jpurnal of life sceance, 381-390.

Bentler, P., & Bonett, D. (1980). Significance tests and Goodness of fit in the Analysis of

CovarianceStructures. Psychological Bulletin, 588-606.


Betti, J. (2007). plan d'action / strategie pour une meilleure collecte des donnees statistique

sur les produits forestier non-ligneux au cameroun et recommendation pour les pays

de la COMIFAC.FAO COMIFAC-GTZ.

Bromley, D. (1991). Environment and Economy : Property Rights and Public Policy. OXford

University press.

BUCREP. (2005). Répetoire actualisé des villages du Cameroun.

BUCREP. (2011). Rapport National sur l'Etat de la Population.

Burkill, H. (1994). The Useful Plant of West Tropical Africa. Royal Botaniv Gardens Kew,

960.

CADMUS. (2010). A paper series of the South-east European Division of the World Academy

of A rt and Science ( SEED-WAAS).

Carney, D., & DFID, D. F. (2003;1999). Sustainable Livelihood Approach: Progress and

Possibilities for change; Sustainable Livelihood Guidance Sheet. London; London:

DFID.

Carney. (1998). Sustainable Rural Livelihood: What contribution can we make? Department

For International Development ( DFID).

Che Rusili, M., Tasmin, R., Takala, J., & Norazlin, H. (2013). Factor Rentention Decision in

Exploratory Factor AnalysisResults : Astudy type of knowledge Management process

at Malaysian University libraries. Canadian Center of Science and Education.

Cliff, S. ,. (2012). Types fo values and valuation methods for environmental resources :

Highlights of key aspects , concepts and approaches in the economic valuation of

goods and services. Journal of Horticulture and forestry.

CVUC. (n.d.). communes et villes unies du cameroun. Retrieved 2016, from

cvuc.cm/national/index.php/fr/carte.../region.../479-messamena.:

http://cvuc.cm/national/index.php/fr/carte-commune/region-du-ssud/121-

association/carte administrative/est/haut-nyong/479-messamena


Daily, G., Alexander.A. s., E. P., J., M., & al, P. e. (1997). Ecosystem Services : Benefits

Supplied to Human societies by natural Ecosystems. Issues in Ecology, 1-16.

Dantas.B, A., & . Doutoronda, C. (2012). The Ecological Effects of Havesting Non-Timber

Forest Products from Natural Foress: a Review of the Evidence.

Dasgupta, P., & Heal, G. (1974 ; 1979). Economic theory and Exhaustible Resources.

Cambridge University press.

Demsetz, H., Johnson, O., Smith, R., & Cheung, S. (1967 ; 1972 ; 1981 ; 1970). Toward a

theory of property Rights ; Economic Analysis, the Legal Framework and Land

Tenuresystems ; The Tragedy of the Commons by Creating Private property Rights in

Wildlife ; The Structure of a Contract and the Theory of a Non-exhaustible Resource.

American Economic Review ; Journal of law and economics ; CATO Journal ;

Journal of Law and Economics, 347-379 ; 259-276 ; 439-468 ; 49-70.

DFID), D. f. (1999). Sustainable Livelihood Guidance Sheets.

EKE BALLA, S. M. (,2011). la volorisation des produits forestier non ligneux au cameroun :

cas de la foret communautaire de MORIKOUALI-YE dans la region de l'Est (master

thesis).

Ella, s.-B. E. (2016). Pour un Veritable Developpement Durable de la Boucle du

DJA.Yaounde: Les presses universitaire de Yaounde.

Ellis, F. (2000). Rural livelihood and Diversity in Developing Countries. Oxford University

Press.

Endamana.D, K.A.Angu, G.N.Akwah, G.Shepherd, & B.C.Ntumwen. (n.d.). conrtibution of

non-timber forest products to cash and non-cash income in remote forest community

in Central Africa.

Enoch., L. (2012). Impact des Produits Forestiers non ligneux (PFNL) sur l'économie des

ménages et lasécurité alimentaire : cas de la République du Congo. Economies et

Finances, France; Rennes 2.

ESSOUMBA., J. (,2010). Proget ECOFAC Edition Afrique Centrale


Eurostat. ( 2011). Quality of life indicators - measuring the quality of life.

Evans, P., & Stewart, F. (2002 ; 2005). Collective capabilities culture and Amartya Sen's

development freedom ; Group and Capabilities. studies in comparative international

Development ; Journal of Human Development, 37 ( 2) , 54-60 ; 6(2) 185-204.

FAO. 1995. Non wood forest products and nutrition.

FAO. (2009). state of the world's forest 2009. Rome: Food and Agricultural organisation of

the United Nations.

FAO. (2016). Vivre et se nourir de la foret en Afrique Centrale.FAO-Rome ( P. 521)

FAO, F. A. (2011). Importance des PFNL dans la Lutte contre la pauvreté et la securité

alimentaire en Afrique Centrale. FAO-Rome.

FAO, 2. (2006). Gestion durable des produits forestiers non ligneux au Cameroun.

FAO, F. a., & Ousseynou, N. (2016). vivre et se nourrir de la foret en Afrique centrale.Rome

, Italy: FAO.

Felice, F., & Vatiero, M. (june 2012). Elinor Otrom and Solutions to the tragedy of the

commons. American Enterprise Institute ( AEI).

Gabel, H.L. a. (1999). Principles of resouce and environmental economics.

Giliba, R. A., J, Z., & Lupala, C. M. (2010). Non-timber forest products and their contribution

to poverty Alleviation and forest in Mbulu and Babati Districts-Tanzania. Forestry

Training Institute Tanzania, 73-78.

Gopalakrishnan, C., Wickramasinghe, W., Gunatilake, H., & Prabodh, I. (2004). Estimating

the demand for non-timber forest products among rural communities : a case study

from Sinharaja Rain Forest region , SriLanka. Agroforestry System, 13-22.

Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2006). Multivariate Data ANALYSIS . peron

university press.

Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. American Association for the Advancement

of Science ( AAAS), 1243-1248.


Harris, J. M. (2000). Basic principles of Sustainable Development. Global Development and

Environmental institute of Tufts University, working paper 00-04.

Heckemans, A., & Carney, D. (2001; 1998). Tranquilidad and hardship in the forest.

Livelihood and percerptions of Camba forest Dwellers in the northern Bolivian

Amazon; Sustainable Rural livelihoods. What contribution can we make? PROMAB;

DFID London-UK.

Hegde, L. A. (1996). extraction of non-timber forest products in the forest of Biligiri Rangan

Hill, India : Contribution to Rural Income. ECONOMIC BOTANY, 243-251.

Ikhouria, E. U., E.Aiwonegebe, A., Okoli, P., & Idu, M. (2008). Characteristics and

Composition of African Oil Beans Seed. Journal Of Applied Science.

Ingram, V., Sunderlin, W. ,., Angelsen, A. a., & Wunder, S. (2006 ; 2003 ; 2001 ; ). Poverty

Alleviation and Tropical forest : What scope for Synergies?; Forest and poverty

Alleviation State fo the World Forest ;The Link between Biodiversity and poverty

alleviation : Forest experiences from Cameroon Power, Poverty and Sustainability.

Norway IAIA ; FAO , Rome ;World Development 29 , 10; 1817-1833 ;.

IUCN. (n.d.). Economic valuation and Environmental Assessment.

IUCN, I. U. (1994). Guidelines For Protecred Area Management Categories.

JACOBUS, A. ,. (2006). Sustainable Development- historical roots of the concepts.

Environmental Science, 83-96.

Kimaro.J, & L.Lulandala. (n.d.). contribution of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to

poverty alleviation and forest conservation in Rufiji District-Tanzania.

Laird, S., M.Betafor, M.Enanga, C. ,., E-Litonga, J.Mafani, J.Menyoli, et al. (1994).

Medicinal plants of the Limbe Botanic Garden. Limbe botanic Garden-cameroon.

Lescuyer, & G. (2010). importance economic des produits forestier non-ligneux dans quelqus

villages du sud cameroun. Bois et forets des tropiques (304), 15-24.

Lescuyer.G. (2007). Valuation techniques applied to tropical forest environmental services:

rational , methods and outcome.


Léveque, F. (2004). Economid de le Réglementation. la Découverte.

Loubelo, E. (2012). Impacts des produits forestier non ligneux sur l'économie des ménages et

de la securité alimentaire : cas de la Republique du Congo.Rennes 2.

Millenium-Ecosystem-Assessment. (2005). Ecosystem and Human Well-being : Synthesis.

Island Press ; Washington ,D C, 155.

MEA. (2003). Concepts of Ecosystem value and valuation approaches. World resource

Institute ( Ed) Washington , DC : island press, 127-147.

Ministere des forêts et de la faune, y. c., & UICN- programme, c. U. (june 2015).

caractéristiques d'une population de grands et moyens mammiféres dans lareserve de

faune du Dja : potentiel et menaces. yaounde.

Mohammed, C., & Wiersum, K. F. (2011). The role of non-timber forest products for

livelihood diversification in Southwest Ethopia. Ethopia e-journal for Research and

Innovation foresight, 44-59.

Nadine .V, M., & Fritz-Vietta. (2016). what can forest values tell us about human well-being

? Insights from two biosphere reserves in Madagascar. landscape and Urban planing,

28-37.

Narain, U., & G. S. (2008). Poverty and resource dependence in rural India. Ecological

economics, 161-176.

Ndoye ouuseynou, e. a. (2016). vivre et se nourir de la foret en afrique centrale, deuxieme

chapitre.

Ndoye, O., & Tieguhond, J. (2004). Forest resources and rural livelihoods : the conflict

between timber and non-timber forest products in the Congo Basin . Scandinavian

journal of Forest Research, 1-9.

Ndoye, O., Masuch, J., Zé, A. A., & Nnama, A. (2016). Vivre et se nourir de la Foret en

Afrique Centrale. Rome, Italy: FAO.

Ngo Nonga, F.(2012). Economiede l'environnement: Outils de gestion économique de la

biodiversité.Paris: L'Harmattan, 304p.


Ngo Nonga, F. (2002). Gestion soutenable de la foret tropical et développement intégrée au

cameroun, Thèse de Doctorat d'Etat en science économique , Universite de Yaounde

II- Soa.Université de Yaoundé II, 387p.

Ngueguim.J.R, J.P.Dondjang, J.Onana, & P.Tataijang. (2011). Moabi (Baillonella Toxisperma

Pierre) : Arbre à usage Multiple de Foret Dense Humide du Cameroun. International

Journal of Biological and Chemical Science.

Nguiffo, S. (2001). one forest and two dream : the constraints imposed on the Baka in miatta

by the Dja wildlife reserve. yaoundé-cameroun.

Niehof, A. (2004). The Significance if Diversification for rural livelihood system. Food

Policy, 29, 321-338.

Nnama, A. (1998). Crise cacaoyère, exode rural et dégradation de l'énvironnement dans le

Sud Cameroun Forestier. Dans : Auclair, L; Gurby, P; Picouet, M; Sandron, EF.(Eds),

Régulation démographiques et environnement . Régulation démographiques et

environnement, 319-320.

Ouedraogo.M, D. T. (2013). Dépendance économique aux produits foretiers non ligneux des

forets de Boulon et de Kofladé , au Sud-Ouest du Burkina Faso. Journal of agriculture

and Environment for international development, 45-72.

Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the Commons : The Evolution of institutions for collective

Actions. Cambridge University press.

Peters;Mulenga, R. B. (2011). Contribution of non-timber forest products to Rural Household

income in Zambia. Food security research project.

Peters, C. (1997). exploitation soutenue des produits forestiers autres que le bois en foret

tropical humide : Mannuel d'initiation ecologique . WWF. Tha Natural conservancy .

World resource Institutes , 49.

Plotkin, M., & Famolare, L. (1992). Sustainable Harvest and Marketing of Rain Forest

products. Conservation international. Island press, Washington , D.C; USA.

Quickonomics. (2016). The different types of goods.


Rajib Biswal. (2009) Eploring the contribution of Non-timber forest products to Rural

livelihoods: the cacse ofNilgiribiosphere reserve ( master thesis).

République du Cameroun (1994). Loi Numero 94/01 portant régime des forets , de la faune et

de la peche.Yaoundé- Cameroun.

Melleson, S. ,.-O. (2014). Non-timber forest products income from forest landscape of

Cameroon , Ghana and Nigeria - an incidental or intergral contribution to sustaining

rurallivelihood. International forestry review.

Samuel N. (may 2001). One forest and two dreams : the constraints impose on the Baka

Miatta by the Dja wildlife Reserve. 195-214.

Schreckenberg, K. (1996). Forests, fields and markets : A study of the Indigenous tree

products in the woody savanas of the Bassila Region , Benin . School of Oriental and

African studies, 326.

Sen, A. (2009). The Idea of Justice. Cambridge , MA: The Belknap press of Havard university

press.

Shackleton, C., Shackleton, S., & Shanley, P. (2004 ;2011). Building a Holistic Picture : An

Integrative Analysis of Current and Future Prospects for Non-timber forest products in

a changing world . Non-timber forest products in the global context.

Shackleton, C., & Shanley, P. .. (2011). Non-Timber forest products in the Global context.

Tropical Forestry, Springer.

Shiba P, K. (2010). Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP) Utilization and Livelihood in

Bangladesh. The Pennsylvania State University: The Pennsylvania University.

Solomon, M. M. (,2016). importance of non timber forest production in sustainable forest

management , and its implication on carbon storage and biodiversity conservation in

Ethiopia. international journal of biodiversity and conservation, 269-277.

Stevenson, G. (1991). Common Property Economics. Cambridge University Press , New

York.


Summers.J.K, Smith, L., Case, J., & Linthurst, R. .. (2012). A Review of the Element of

Human Well-being with an Emphasis on the Contribution of Ecosystem Services.

Sunderland, R. S.-O. (2014). Non-Timber forest products income from forest landscapes of

Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria.An incidental or intergral contribution to sustaining

rural livelihood. International Forestry Review, 16, 261-277.

Sunderlin, W., & Pokam, J. (1999). l'impact de la crise économique sur les populations , les

migrations et le couvert forestier du sud Cameroun. Yaoundé , Cameroun.

Swanson, T., & OCDE. (1992 ; 2002). Economics of Biodiversity Conservation; Manuel

Dévaluation de la Biodiversié , guide a l'Intersion des decideurs. Ambio ; Organisation

de Coopération et de Dévéloppement Economiques ,Paris- France, Volume 2 250-

257.

T.Y emiru, A. B. (2010). Foret income and poverty alleviation under participatory forest

management in the Bale Highlands, Southern Ethopia. International forestry review.

Tabuna, H. .. (1999 a). le marche des produits forestiers non ligneux de l'Afrique centrale en

France et Belgique. Produits, acteurs, circuits de distributionet débouchés actuels.

Occasional paper 19. CIFOR , Jakarta, Indonésie.

Takforian, A. (2001). Chasse Villageoise et Gestion Local De La Faune Sauvage en Afrique :

une étude de cas dans une Foret de l'Est-Cameroun.

UNDP, & Development, M. o. (2010; 2009 ; 2006). Third population and housing census

2005 ; Human development report 2009 Overcoming barriers ; poverty Reduction

strategy paper progress Report Jenuary - December 2006. Yaounde - Cameroon:

Government of Cameroon Republic of Cameroon.

UNEP, & Centre, W. C. (2006). Commercialization of Non Timber Forest Products : Factors

influencing success. Cambrigde - England.

United Nations Department of Public information, U. (2015). Sustainable Development

Goals. New-York , NY 10017.

Valkenburg, V. (1997). Non-Timber Forest Products in East Kalimantan.the balance between

biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of tropical rain forest, 117-127


Vivien, F., & Faure, J. (1995). Fruitiers Sauvages d'Afrique - Especes du Cameroun. Editions

NGUILA-KEROU ? France, 416.

Wade, R. (1987). The management of Common Property Resources : Finding a cooperative

solution . Research Observer, volume 2(2) 219-234.

Walter, R., & Sillans, R. (1995). Les Plantes Utiles du Gabon. Editions sépia, 614.

WCED, B. (1987). Our Common Future . The world commission on environment and

development. OXFORD and New York: OXFORD University press.

Wikipedia. (2016.). Welfare economics.

Wong, J. (April 2000). The Biometrics of Non-timber Forest Product Resources Assesment.

United Kingdom Department For International Development ( DFID).

Wunder, S. (2001). Poverty alleviation and Tropical Forest - What scope for synergies. World

development, 1817-1833.


Table of contents Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................... V



LIST OF MAPS .................................................................................................................... VII

LIST OF MAPS .................................................................................................................... VII

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................... VIII

ASTRACT ............................................................................................................................... IX

RESUME .................................................................................................................................. X

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1

1.1 . CONTEXT .................................................................................................................... 1

I.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................. 5

I.3.1 Main objective ................................................................................................................... 7

I.3.2 Specific objectives ............................................................................................................. 7

I.4 HYPOTHESIS ...................................................................................................................... 7

1.4.1 Specific hypothesis: ........................................................................................................... 8

I.5 INTEREST OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................. 9

I.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 8

1.8. LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 9

1.9. ORGANIZATION/ STRUCTURE OF WORK ................................................................ 10

CHAPTER 2: DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS, CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK,

THEORITICAL AND EMPERICAL REVIEW ................................................................ 11

2.1. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS ....................................................................................... 11

2.2. THEORITICAL REVIEW ................................................................................................ 17

2.2.1 SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD .................................................................................... 18

2.2.2 THE VALORALIZATION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST ASSETS ............................. 23

2.3: EMPERICAL REVIEW .................................................................................................... 24

2.3.1The contribution of non-timber forest products to man livelihood .................................. 24

2.3.1.1: The income generation contribution of NTFPs ........................................................... 25

2.3.2. REVIEWS OF SOME STUDIES CARRIED OUT BY RESEARCHERS ................... 29

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PRESENTATION OF THE

STUDY SITE .......................................................................................................................... 37

3.1 Analytical framework ......................................................................................................... 37

3.1.2. Method of analyses ......................................................................................................... 41


3.1.2.1. Populationand sample size .......................................................................................... 41

3.1.2.2. Sample technics and sampling procedure ................................................................... 43

3.1.2.4. Method of data analysis ............................................................................................... 44

3.2. Presentation of the study area ............................................................................................ 47

3.2.1. Study site ........................................................................................................................ 47

3.2.2. Socio-economic environment of DBR and its peripheral zone ...................................... 49

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS .................... 54

4.1. General overview and descriptive Analysis of Respondents’ Demographic Information 54

4.1.1. Descriptive evaluation: attribute of the respondents ...................................................... 54

4.2. Inferential Statistics ........................................................................................................... 68

CHAPITRE 5: Discussions, RECOMMENDATIONS and CONCLUSION ................... 78

5.3. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 86

Bibliograhy .............................................................................................................................. 88

Appendix 1: Nature of the indicators (variables) .............................................................. 101

APPENDIX 2 : Presentation of the questionnaire ............................................................ 102

APPENDIX 3: Presentation of the different ntfps study in the work ............................. 111


APPENDIX 1: Nature of the indicators (variables)

Items Nature of the indicator

1 The sustainable management of the forest influences the quantities of

NTFPs collected

2 The different uses of NTFPs have a significant impact in the life of the

population

3 The income obtained from the commercialization of NTFPs ameliorates the

living standard of the population

4 The income obtained from the NTFPs commercialization greatly ameliorate

our well-being

5 The size of the household influences the quantity of NTFPs collected

6 The distance of the village to the forest influences the quantity of NTFPs

collected

7 The marital state(rich, poor, moderate) influences the quantity of NTFPs

collected

8 The surface area cultivated influences the quantity of NTFPs collected

9 The income obtained from NTFPs commercialization is sustainable

10 The population density in the village influences the quantity of NTFPs

collected

11 The interval of time between NTFPs collection and the other activities

influences the quantity collected

12 The marital status of the household influences the quantity of NTFPs

collected

13 The market price of NTFPs influences the quantity collected

14 The perception of the forest by the population influences forest

management

15 The collection of NTFPs contributes to forest conservation

16 The age of the household influences the quantity of NTFPs collected

17 The education level of the household influences the quantity of NTFPs

collected

18 Conservation education given by TF-RD influences the sustainability of

NTFPs

19 The collection of NTFPs does not harm the plant

20 Some NTFPs are used as drugs

21 The lack of education on sustainable management influences the

sustainability of NTFPs

22 The different cost support for the collection of NTFPs influences the

quantity collected

23 The consumption of NTFPs influences the food security

24 The lack of education on the simple management plan influences the bad

harvest of NTFPs

25 The transformation of NTFPs before it commercialization increase the

revenue

26 The technique of collection of NTFPs influences the quantity produced by

the plant

27 The valoralization of NTFPs can be an alternative to poaching


APPENDIX 2 : Presentation of the questionnaire

PRESENTATION DU QUESTIONNAIRE

Cher participant,

This is TROPICAL FOREST AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT, Yaoundé, carrying out a

study on «THE INTERGRATED MODEL OF THE SUSTAINABLE CONTRIBUTION

OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS ON THE WELL-BEING OF LOCAL

PEOPLE ARROUND THE NORTHERN PERIPHERY OF THE DJA BIOSPHERE

RESERVE». The information you provide will help us better understand the mechanism

through which NTFPs contribute in the livelihood of the local people. I request you to

respond to the questions frankly and honestly, as there are neither rights nor wrong answers.

Your response will be kept strictly confidential. Only members of the research team will have

access to the information you give. In order to ensure the utmost privacy, we will not ask the

participant to provide any identification number/ document. A summary of the results will be

mailed to your village after the data are analysed.

INSTRUCTION: You are advised to read the instruction carefully before answering the

questions. It will take you 15 minutes in answering all the questions. The questions are

divided into two major sections.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Please choose the most appropriate

answer in each of the questions that describes your position. There is no wrong answer please.

SECTION A : informations démographique : cherparticipant, nous vous prions de choisir la réponse

la plus appropriée. Il n’ya pas de mauvaise réponse.

Q1. Village name…………………………………………………..


Q2. Gender 1) male 2) fimale ……………..

Q3. Age in years

a) 18 – 25 years

b) 26 – 30

c) 31 – 35

d) 35 – 40

e) 41 – 45

f) 46 years and above 74 years

Q4. Date of arrival in the village .........................

Q5. Ethnic group ..................................

Q6. Marital statut

1) Maried) 2) divorce 3) single 4) widow ..........................

Q7. Number of children ..................................

Q8. Professional occupation:

1) Farmer 2) Hunter 3) business4) artist5) jobless 6) civilservant 7) NTFPs extractor 8) precise if

any other ..........................

Q9. Suggest the other activities your carry out

1) Farmer 2) hunter 3) business4) artist 5) jobless 6) civil servant 7) NTFPs extractor 8) precise if

any other.....................................

Q10. Level of Education: 1) primary 2) secondary 3) university / higher education

.....................................

Q11. Highest degree obtained :

1) CEP/ CEPE 2) BEPC 3) Probatoire 4) Baccalauriat 5) DEUG/ BTS/ HND 6) licence

7) precise if any other .....................................

Q12. What is your principal source of income?

1) NTFPs extraction 2) farming 3) fishing4) hunting 5) cocoa cultivation 6) civil servant 7)

business 8) precise if any other ………....................


Q1. What is the amount of revenu you gain per month?

a) Less than 30,000 CFA

b) 31,000 – 50,000

c) 51,000 – 75,000

d) 76,000 – 100,000

e) 100,001 – 150,000

f) 151,000 – 200,000

g) 200,001 – 250,000

h) 251,000 and above.

Q14. Do you collectes NTFPs? 1) yes2) no ....................................

Q15. Which are the different NTFPs your collects?

1) Moabi 2) njansang 3) mangue sauvage 4) balaka 5) alambiaka .......................

Q16. Which are the different dates you started the collection of these products?

1) Moabi........... 2) njansang ............ 3) mangue sauvage ................. 4) balaka ............. 5)

alambiaka ...............

Q17. What is the estimated distance you cover for the collection of these products?

...........................

Q18. Which are the different zones of collection?

1) Forest 2) farm 3) precise if any other............................

Q19. What are the different units of measurement for the commercialization of these NTFPs?

1) Balance (kg) 2) bucket 3) plate 4) cup 5) bag 6) bottle 8) precise if any other

................................


Q20. What are the estimated quantities of each NTFP you collected for the year 2016? 1)

Moabi.................. 2) njansang ....................3) bush mango ................ 4) balaka ............... 5)

alambiaka.......................

Q21. What are the estimated quantitiea of NTFPs you consummed?

1) Moabi ............... 2) njansang ................ 3) bush mango .....................4) balaka....................

5) Alambiaka.................................

Q22. Whar are the different quantities of NTFPs you sold during the year 2016? 1)

Moabi................. 2) Njansang................. 3) Bushmango.............. 4) Balaka…….5) alambiaka

....................

Q23. What are the different amounts you obtained from the commercialization of these NTFPs?

1) Moabi ................... 2) njansang................. 3) Bush mango ............... 4) balaka ..................

5) Alambiaka...........................

Q24. What is the estimated number of time you spend for the collection?

Q25. At which prices do you sell these products?

1) Moabi ......................... 2) njansang............................. 3) Bush mango ............................ 4)

Balaka....................... 5) Alambiaka.................................

Q26. Are you member of a group? 1) Yes 2) no .................

Q27. If yes what is the name of the group? ..........................................................

If no why?.........................................................................................................

Q28. How does your group functions...

.....................................................................................................................................................................

Q29. Do your group carries out workshops? 1) Yes 2) no ......................

Q30. If yes which are these different work shops?1) Extractiontechnics 2) methods of managing the

NTFPs collected 3) transformation technics 4) environmental education 5) reaforestation campaigns 6)

development of NTFPs nursery ............................................................

Q31. Do you have a promoter?1) Yes 2) no ...........................


Q32. If yes what is his name? .....................................................................

Q33. What are the conditions of being a member of the group? ..............................................

Q34. In which date was the group created? ……………………………………………………..

Q35. In which date did you become a member of the group? ....................................................

Q36. What attracted you in the group? 1) because the group was created for it own 2) the existence

of a common natural capital ( NTFPs) 3) precise if any other

..................................................................................................................................................................

Q37. Are you satisfied with the functioning of the group?1) Yes 2) no

Q38. If yes why? ............................................................................................................................

If no why?..........................................................................................................................

Q39. What can bring you to come out of the group?

...................................................................................................................................................................

Q40. Have the quantities of NTFPs you collects change? 1) Yes 2) no

If yes why? ......................................................................................................................

If no why? ......................................................................................................................

Q41. Does the revenu obtained from the commercialization of NTFPs contribute to the education and

health of the familly? 1) Yes 2) no

Q42. Which are the different things the revenu obtained from NTFPs commercialization permits you to

do?...........................................................................................................................................

Q43. What are the different unit prices the roadside buyers buys the NTFPs to you?

1) Moabi................. 2) Njansang ..................... 3) Bush mango....................... 4)

Balaka....................... 5) Alambiaka..............................................

Q44. What are the extra projets you realizedwith the revenu obtained from NTFPs commercialization?

....................................................................................................................................................................


Q45. What are the different uses of the NTFPs? 1) Consumption 2) source of revenu 3) medicins 4)

precise if any other....................................................................

Q46. Have you already herd about the notion of sustainable forest management? 1) Yes 2) no..............

Q47. Does the technics you uses to collects the NTFPs sustainable?1) yes 2) non

.................................

If yes how? .............................................................................................................

Of no why?.............................................................................................................

Q48. Have tou notice any differences between the quantity of NTFPs before and now

? 1) Yes 2) no .......................................

Q 49. What can explain that? .............................................................

Q50. Any idea about the notion of simple management plan?1) yes 2) no

If yes do you prectises it? ..............................................................................

If no why........................................................................................................

Q51. For you do they exist some stradegies to enable the sustainable exploitation of NTFPs in your

zone? 1) Yes 2) no .......................

If yes whaat can be these strategies?

............................................................................................................

Q52. Will you be ready to give any amount in other to enable the sustainabl extraction of NTFPs?1) Yes

2) no ...................................

If yes what is the amount yo will be ready to pay ? a) 500 b) 1000 c) 1500 d) 2000 e)

3000 ........................................

SECTION B:

The questions below are based on THE CONTRIBUTION OF NTFPs IN THE WELL-

BEING OF THE POPULATION ARROUND THE NORTHERN PERYPHERY OF THE


DJA BIOSPHERE RESERVE. There is no wrong answer, please circle or tick (only one) of

the most appropriate likert scale ranging from: Strong Disagree (SD), Disagree (D),

moderately disagree (MD), moderately agree (MA), Agree (A), , moderately agree , Strongly

Agree (SA) for each item, number 1 to 27.

Nature of the Questions SD D MD A MA SA

01 The sustainable management of the forest

influences the quantities of NTFPs

collected

02 The different uses of NTFPs have a

significant impact in the life of the

population

03 The revenu obtained from the

commercialization of NTFPs ameliorates

the living standard of the population

04 The number of children in a house

influences the quantity of NTFPs collected

05 The distance between the foresst and the

village influences the quantity of NTFPs

collected

06 The financial situation of a household (

rich poor moderate ) influences the

quantity of NTFPs collected

07 The farm size of a household influences

the quantity of NTFPs collected

08 The revenu obtained from NTFPs are

sustainable

09 The population density in a village


10 The time interval between the periode of

NTFPs collection and other activities



11 The marital statut of a household


12 The market price of NTFPs influences the

quatity of NTFPs extracted

13 The perception of the forest by the

population influences it’s management

14 The collection of NTFPs contributes to the

conservation of biodiversity

15 The age of the familly head influenies the

quantity of NTFPs collected

16 The level of education of the household


17 The conservation education that are given

in the women group influences the

conservation of biodiversity

18 The collection of NTFPs does not destroy

the plant

19 Some NTFPs are used for medicins

20 The lack of education about the technics of

managing the NTFPs influences it’s

sustainability

21 The different cost incure in extracting the

NTFPs influences the quantity collected

22 The consumption of NTFPs influences our

food safety

23 The lack of informations about the simple

management plants contributes to the bad

mnagement of the forest

24 The transformation of NTFPs before it

commercialization influences the revenu

obtained

25 The methodes of collecting NTFPs


influences it’s quantity

26 NTFPs valoralization can be an alternative

to illegal forest activities

27 The lack of knowledge about the simple

management contributes to the bad

management of the forest


APPENDIX 3: Presentation of the different ntfps study in the work

Allanblackia (Allanblackia floribunda)

(Photo: D. Ofori)

Njansand (Ricinodendron heudelotii)

Source: TF-RD

Bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis)

Source: TF-RD


Moabi (Baillonella toxisperma)

Source : TF-RD

Balaka (Penthaclethra Macrophylla)

Source: TF-RD

Documents

INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE SUSTAINABLE CONTRIBUTION OF … · Fax: (237) 223 79 12 VALORIS A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirement of the award of a Master’s