Integrated livestock-fish farming systems · Integrated livestock-fish farming systems BY D.C. LITTLE AND P. EDWARDS ... Table 4.3 Potentials and constraints to integration of livestock

Integrated livestock-fishfarming systemsIntegrated livestock-fishfarming systems

Integrated livestock-fishfarming systemsBY D.C. LITTLE AND P. EDWARDS

INLAND WATER RESOURCES AND AQUACULTURE SERVICEANIMAL PRODUCTION SERVICE

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONSROME 2003

All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-com-mercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fullyacknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited with-out written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to the Chief, PublishingManagement Service, Information Division, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to [email protected]

©FAO 2003

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this informationproduct do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part ofthe Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning thelegal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of itsauthorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Preparation of this documentThis book was prepared by the authors under the overallcoordination of Matthias Halwart, Fishery Resources Officer (Aquaculture)and with the collaboration of colleagues from Animal Production Service,particularly Manuel Sanchez and Simon Mack, who contributed comments.The printing of the publication was supported by the InterdepartmentalWorking Group on Integrated Production Systems. Graphic design byJoanne Morgante. All photos by D.C. Little.

ISBN 92-5-105055-4

iii

Preface

Small farmers in developing countries are poorer thanthe rest of the population, often not getting enough food to lead normal, healthyand active lives. Dealing with poverty and hunger in much of the world thereforemeans confronting the problems that small farmers and their families face intheir daily struggle for survival. One option for economically and ecologicallysustainable development of farming systems is the integration of agricultureand aquaculture.

The various types of aquaculture form a critical component withinagricultural and farming systems development that can contribute to thealleviation of food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty through the provision offood of high nutritional value, income and employment generation, decreasedrisk of production, improved access to water, sustainable resource managementand increased farm sustainability.

Livestock production and processing generate by-products that may beimportant inputs for aquaculture. The main linkages between livestock and fishproduction involve the direct use of livestock wastes, as well as the recycling ofmanure-based nutrients which function as fertilizers to stimulate natural foodwebs.

On a global basis, most cultured freshwater fish are produced in Asia insemi-intensive systems that depend on livestock wastes purposely used inponds, or draining into them. Much of the vast increase in China’s recent inlandaquaculture production is linked to organic fertilization, provided by the equallydramatic growth of poultry and pig production. The use of livestock wastes isstill needed, even when high-quality supplementary feeds are available and theyare still widely used in more intensive aquaculture systems.

The objective of the publication is to provide an analysis of the evolutionand current status of integrated livestock-fish systems in Asia, particularly Eastand Southeast Asia, as well as to provide a sound technical basis for consideringtheir relevance for the planning of livestock-fish systems in Africa and LatinAmerica.

It is hoped that the conclusions and recommendations presented here willbe interesting and thought-provoking for a wide audience generally interestedin the subject of integrated agriculture-aquaculture, and particularly policymakers, planners, NGOs and senior research and extension staff. It is hoped thatthe book will stimulate these people at all levels to ensure that agriculturaldevelopment provides for reasonable rural livelihoods, a clean environment, andadequate food products.

Jiansan Jia - Chief, Inland Water Resources and Aquaculture Service

Irene Hoffmann - Chief, Animal Production Service

Contents1 Introduction 1

1.1 Rationale of the Study 1

1.2 Definitions of Integrated Farming 2

1.3 Potential Linkages Between Livestock and Fish Production 2

1.4 Relevance of Integrated Farming 4

1.5 Sustainability Issues at Micro- and Macro-Levels 51.5.1 MICRO-LEVEL 51.5.2 MACRO-LEVEL 10

2 Evolutionary Development of Integrated Livestock-Fish Farming Systems in Asia 132.1 Systems and Scale 13

2.2 Environmental Effects 15

2.3 Crop Domination 16

2.4 Integrated Crop/Livestock 20

2.5 Industrial Monoculture 21

3 Major Types of Integrated Systems in Asia 233.1 Current Status 24

3.1.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 243.1.2 MONOGASTRICS 253.1.3 RUMINANTS 293.1.4 NON-CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK 30

3.2 Upgrading Traditional Livestock Systems for Aquaculture 313.2.1 UPGRADING LIVESTOCK DIETS AND

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 323.2.2 COLLECTION OF MONOGASTRIC WASTES IN

SMALL-HOLDER SYSTEMS 333.2.3 RUMINANT SYSTEMS 343.2.4 MIXED INPUT SYSTEMS 36

3.3 Integration with Agro-Industry 403.3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 40

4 Environmental Aspects 474.1 Nutrients 48

4.1.1 NUTRIENT RECYCLING IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 494.1.2 NUTRIENT EFFICIENCY IN LIVESTOCK 524.1.3 NUTRIENT EFFICIENCY IN AQUACULTURE 524.1.4 NUTRIENT RELATIONSHIPS IN LIVESTOCK-FISH SYSTEMS 53

iv INTEGRATED LIVESTOCK-FISH FARMING SYSTEMS

1

2

3

4

4.2 Significance of Livestock and Fish Production in the Global Environment 544.2.1 GLOBAL WARMING 544.2.2 WATER USE 554.2.3 BIODIVERSITY 564.2.4 USE OF FISHERIES TO SUPPORT LIVESTOCK AND

FISH PRODUCTION 584.2.5 IMPACTS OF LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS ON FISH PRODUCTION 58

5 Design Criteria for Livestock Manured Ponds 615.1 Manured Pond Dynamics 61

5.1.1 OVERVIEW 615.1.2 PRINCIPLES OF FERTILIZATION 645.1.3 PRINCIPLES OF SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING 67

5.2 Waste Characteristics 695.2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 695.2.2 SPECIES, SIZE AND SEX 715.2.3 FEED AND WASTE MANAGEMENT 715.2.4 NUTRIENT RELEASE FROM MANURES 765.2.5 WASTE COLLECTION AND STORAGE 76

5.3 Waste Addition 79

6 Public Health and Livestock-Fish 856.1 General Considerations 85

6.1.1 PATHOGENS 866.1.2 BACTERIA AND VIRUSES 876.1.3 PARASITES 896.1.4 INSECT-VECTOR BORNE DISEASES 926.1.5 INFLUENZA PANDEMICS 92

6.2 Chemical Hazards and Associated Risks 93

6.3 Biological Hazards 95

6.4 Summary 100

7 Social and Economic Considerations 1017.1 Demand 103

7.2 Nutritional Benefits 106

7.3 Gender and Age 108

7.4 Resource issues 1117.4.1 INTRODUCTION 1117.4.2 MICRO-LEVEL 1117.4.3 MACRO-LEVEL 1177.4.4 BENEFITS 118

v

5

6

7

7.4.5 RISK 1187.4.6 LABOUR 120

7.5 Promotion of Integrated Livestock-Fish 1237.5.1 FRAMEWORK 1237.5.2 DEVELOPING HUMAN CAPACITY 1247.5.3 SYSTEMS APPROACH 1247.5.4 FARMER-FIRST 1247.5.5 CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES 1257.5.6 ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES 1267.5.7 EXTERNAL FACTORS 129

8 Transferability of Asian Experiences to Africa and Latin America 1318.1 General Considerations 1318.2 Information Needs 1358.3 Institutional Constraints 1358.4 Seed Supply 1388.5 Theft and Predation 1398.6 Demand 1398.7 Multipurpose Use and Benefits 1408.8 Beneficiaries 1418.9 Comparing the Regions 143

9 Future Directions in Livestock-Fish Integration 1459.1 Demand and Globalization 1459.2 Feed Resources 1469.3 Intensification not Concentration 1479.4 Peri-Urban Integration 1489.5 Rural Integration 1519.6 Potential 156

Acknowledgements 159References 161

vi INTEGRATED LIVESTOCK-FISH FARMING SYSTEMS

8

9

List of TablesTable 1.1 How the integration of fish culture into small-holder crop/livestock systems affects asset

accumulation and livelihoodsTable 1.2 How livestock and fish improve the sustainability of farming systemsTable 2.1 Comparison of common property management and scope for intensification in water-scarce and

flood-prone environmentsTable 3.1 Matrix of livestock waste qualities and suitability for use in aquacultureTable 3.2 Change in frequency of pond inputs before and after extension in Kapsia Thana, Gazipur District,

BangladeshTable 3.3 Impacts of the use of wastes from ducks fed supplements to scavenging, in addition to inorganic

fertilisation, on overall system feed efficiency and yield.Table 3.4 Feed and fertilizer inputs in integrated systems for three areas with different levels of production

in ChinaTable 3.5 Economic comparison of different fertilizers with respect to available nitrogen (N),phosphorous (P)

and carbon (C).Table 4.1 Efficiency of N recovery in ponds stocked with Nile tilapia and fertilised with livestock wasteTable 4.2 Water consumption of fish production integrate with livestock or as a stand-alone enterpriseTable 4.3 Potentials and constraints to integration of livestock with fish by systemTable 5.1 Factors affecting use of animal wastes in pondsTable 5.2 Input and output of poultry waste fed-aquacultureTable 5.3 Effect of feeding and management on waste characteristics of livestockTable 6.1 Main types of parasitesTable 6.2 Chemical hazards and associated risks to fish productionTable 7.1 Adoption of livestock wastes and other inputs in fish culture in NE ThailandTable 7.2 Livestock inventories and fertilisers used in an on-farm trial with farmers in Udorn Thani, Northeast

ThailandTable 7.3 Characteristics of pig production in three areas of Southeast AsiaTable 7.4 Factors that reduce smallholders' risk through production of livestock, fish or both.Table 8.1 Issues and problems from the perspective of aquaculture promoters in Africa, Latin America and

AsiaTable 9.1 Measures to intensify livestock and fish production without spatial concentrationTable 9.2 Aspects of multipurpose use of a water body involving livestock and fish production

List of BoxesBOX 1.A Checklist of key issues affecting linkages between livestock and fish productionBOX 1.B A widely used definition of sustainabilityBOX 1.C Livelihoods definedBOX 1.D Agribusiness view of sustainabilityBOX 1.E Challenges to sustainable farming in the Red River Delta, Viet NamBOX 1.F A decline in integrated farming in China?BOX 2.A Disease constrains livestock productionBOX 2.B Intensification of ruminant and macrophagous fish have similar constraintsBOX 3.A Case study of integrated farming in Central Thailand

vii

viii INTEGRATED LIVESTOCK FISH FARMING SYSTEMS

BOX 3.B Constraints to integration of traditional livestock and fish productionBOX 3.C Key indicators of the potential for upgradingBOX 3.D Upgrading scavenging poultry diets and management in EthiopiaBOX 3.E Changing integrated systems in ChinaBOX 3.F Summary of factors affecting use of inorganic fertilizer and feeds with livestock wastesBOX 3.G By-products from livestock and processing wasteBOX 3.H Green blowfly larvae used to process pig manure to fish feedBOX 3.I Chicken slaughter house waste fed to catfishBOX 3.J Feeding maize to catfishBOX 4.A Nutrient flows among village subsystems and between village and outside systems in Nguyen Xa

village, Viet NamBOX 4.B Approaches to reducing livestock wastes and environmental pollutionBOX 4.C Summary of nutrients and the environmentBOX 4.D A need for water encourages integrated fish cultureBOX 4.E Summary of factors through which livestock and fish interact with the global environmentBOX 5.A Benefits of animal manures in pond cultureBOX 5.B Fixed fertilization rates defined by experimentationBOX 5.C High loadings of ruminant manureBOX 5.D Categories of supplementary feedingBOX 5.E Disappointing results with supplementary feedingBOX 5.F Summary of key factors affecting manured pond dynamicsBOX 5.G Goat management level affects nutrients collectable for aquacultureBOX 5.H Quantity of supplementary feed affects scavenging poultry wastes and fish productionBOX 5.I Integration of duck and fish production in ricefields in the PhilippinesBOX 5.J Impacts of supplementary feed quality on waste characteristicsBOX 5.K Summary of factors affecting livestock waste characteristicsBOX 5.L Pornsak's duck slaughterhouse in Bang Lane, Central ThailandBOX 5.M Surin's use of duck manure in Nakon Pathum, ThailandBOX 5.N Factors affecting characteristics of livestock waste and its use for aquacultureBOX 5.O Questions to ask during the design of livestock-fish systemsBOX 6.A Key points to reducing public health risks from pathogens in livestock-fish systemsBOX 6.B Safety issues as aquaculture stimulates changes in household pig production in Lao PDRBOX 6.C Key points to reducing public health risk due to parasites and other biological and chemical agentsBOX 7.A Summary of key points relating to social and economic issuesBOX 7.B Building social assetsBOX 7.C Poor quality control hinders export of value-added fish productsBOX 7.D Summary of demand related issuesBOX 7.E Nutritional importance of fishBOX 7.F Access and benefits from aquacultureBOX 7.G Training women in aquacultureBOX 7.H Intra-household relationships affect production and consumptionBOX 7.I Summary of key points relating to role of gender in integrated aquacultureBOX 7.J Overcoming constraints to using livestock waste in Northeast ThailandBOX 7.K Contrasting rice land holding, rice yield and pig productionBOX 7.L Hybrid maize enhances integrated approachBOX 7.M Increasing the village pig herd in a village in Northeast Thailand-potential impacts on fish

productionBOX 7.N Summary of key resource issuesBOX 7.O Development of livestock-fish systems in Asia

BOX 7.P Development of integrated livestock-fish production in the provinces around Bangkok, ThailandBOX 7.Q "Top down" small-scale duck-fish integration failsBOX 7.R An approach to understanding constraints to fish production in rain-fed cascade tank systems in

the Dry Zone, Sri Lanka.BOX 8.A Stages in aquaculture development to serve local demandBOX 8.B Poorly targeted research for resource-poor farmersBOX 8.C Institutional issues constraining aquaculture development common to Asia, Africa and Latin

AmericaBOX 8.D Constraints to fish seed production in AfricaBOX 8.E Promoting self-sufficiency of fish seedBOX 8.F What happens to famed fish in rural Africa, Latin America and Asia?BOX 8.G Factors affecting the success of integrated livestock aquaculture in community managed water

bodies in Northeast Thailand and Lao PDRBOX 8.H Promoting community-level aquaculture in PanamaBOX 8.I A failed attempt at community aquaculture in NigeriaBOX 8.J Factors influencing the relatively lower success of rural aquaculture in Africa and Latin America

than AsiaBOX 9.A Possible policies to discourage concentration of intensive livestock and fish productionBOX 9.B Singapore phases out pig productionBOX 9.C Separation of solid and liquid fractions improves the efficiency of livestock waste use in farming

systemsBOX 9.D Changing opportunities for smallholders to integrate egg-duck and fish productionBOX 9.E Assessing efficiency of traditional, upgraded and modern livestock systemsBOX 9.F Feeding pigs on small fish

List of FiguresFigure 1: The development of sustainable aquaculture systems involves consideration of production

technology, social and economic aspects, and environmental aspects (Source: AIT, 1994).Figure 2: Potential outcomes of livestock-fish integrationFigure 3: Main and secondary linkages in livestock-fish integrationFigure 4: Asset pentagons to analyse sustainable rural livelihoodsFigure 5: Evolutionary development of integrated farming systemsFigure 6: Classification of livestock production and relationship to value of livestock waste for aquacultureFigure 7: Percentage of farms using various fertilizer and supplementary feed inputs for fish culture in

Central Thailand (a) manure (b) rice and grain products (c) waste food from human consumptionand agro-industry (d) animal by-products and animal feed (e) vegetable matter

Figure 8: Livestock present and integrated on fish farms in Central Thailand by type and number of livestock Figure 9: Percentage yield by fish species in three areas of productivity in ChinaFigure 10: Comparison of possible strategies for using livestock production and processing wastes in

aquacultureFigure 11: Percentage of farms in Central Thailand using various fertiliser and supplementary feed inputs for

fish culture (a) waste food from human consumption and agro-industry (b) animal by-products andanimal feed (c) vegetable matter

Figure 12: The two-way interaction between aquaculture and the environment involves numerous factorsthat range from positive to negative in their impact

ix

x INTEGRATED LIVESTOCK-FISH FARMING SYSTEMS

Figure 13: Nutrient cycles for an agro-ecosystem involving crops, fish and livestockFigure 14: Nutrient flows among village subsystems and between village and outside systemsFigure 15: Mean dissolved oxygen (DO) in mg I-1 at dawn for ponds receiving different levels of manure

loading. Error bars show standard deviationFigure 16: Schematic depiction of changes in the natural food organisms and fish yields, in relation to

standing crop of the cultured organism and the ensuing protein needs of the supplemental feed (s) Figure 17: Annual production of nitrogen in faeces and urine for various livestockFigure 18: Goat production and total collectable nutrients in different management systems. 1= Stall feeding

with fodders and concentrate-wastes collected daily; 2=daytime tethered grazing and ricebransupplement-wastes collected daily; 3=daytime tethered grazing and legume leaf supplement-wastes collected daily; 4=daytime tethered only, wastes collected daily; 5=daytime tethered only,wastes collected monthly

Figure 19: Egg laying rate of Khaki-Campbell x local strain fed two differents supplementary diets,T1 unhulled paddy rice and T2 village rice bran

Figure 20: Dry matter (DM), total nitrogen (N) and total phosphorous (P) in wastes of ducksFigure 21: Loss of total nitrogen in fresh egg-laying chicken manure with timeFigure 22: Rates of faecal coliform (grey line) and bacteriophage (blue line) die-off in septage loaded pondsFigure 23: Schema showing main possible resource flows in conventional mixed farming and the alternative

use of livestock wastes in fish productionFigure 24: Annual distribution by crop of labour input into the dike-pond system, Zhujiang Delta, ChinaFigure 25: Schema of the major interactions between the various subsystems in a crop/ livestock-fish

integrated farming systemFigure 26: What factors stimulate feed or waste-based aquaculture?

CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction

1

Aquaculture is the fastest growing food production sector in

the World with annual growth in excess of 10 percent over the last two decades.

Much of this development has occurred in Asia, which also has the greatest variety of

cultured species and systems. Asia is also perceived as the ‘home’ of aquaculture, as

aquaculture has a long history in several areas of the region and knowledge of

traditional systems is most widespread. Furthermore, the integration of livestock and

fish production is best established in Asia.

In this initial section we introduce the rationalefor the study and provide definitions ofintegrated livestock-fish farming. We thenexamine the current status and futureimportance of livestock and fish productionbeing integrated rather than being developedfurther as specialized, separate activities. Theirsustainability and importance in a broadercontext are then considered.

Rationale of the studyLivestock-fish production systems develop tosatisfy needs if they fit into the resource base or

environment, and if they are socially andeconomically viable. Macro-level factors may alsohave a significant influence and there are environ-mental implications, both on- and off-farm, for thedevelopment of sustainable systems (Figure 1).

The current status of livestock-fish systemsreflects their evolution in response to changingcircumstances: the past history of currentsystems is not generally appreciated; nor is theirfuture potential apparent.

The rationale for this study is to interpretAsian, especially East and Southeast Asianexperience in integrated systems throughanalysis of their evolution and current status andto consider their relevance for livestock-fishplanning in Africa and Latin America.

1.1

Definitions of integratedfarmingIntegrated farming is commonly and narrowlyequated with the direct use of fresh livestockmanure in fish culture (Little and Edwards, 1999).However, there are broader definitions that betterillustrate potential linkages. Indeed, the term‘integrated farming’ has been used for integratedresource management which may not includeeither livestock or fish components. Our focus isthe integration of livestock and fish, often withina larger farming or livelihood system. Althoughhousing of livestock over or adjacent to fish pondsfacilitates loading of wastes, in practice livestockand fish may be produced at separate locationsand by different people yet be integrated. Chen etal. (1994) distinguished between the use ofmanures produced next to the fishpond andelsewhere on the same farm. A wider definitionincludes manures obtained from off-farm andtransported in bags, e.g. poultry manure, or as a

slurry in tanks, such as for pig and large ruminantmanure.

Integrated farming involving aquaculturedefined broadly is the concurrent or sequentiallinkage between two or more activities, of whichat least one is aquaculture. These may occurdirectly on-site, or indirectly through off-siteneeds and opportunities, or both (Edwards, 1997).Benefits of integration are synergistic rather thanadditive; and the fish and livestock componentsmay benefit to varying degrees (Figure 2). Theterm “waste” has not been omitted because ofcommon usage but philosophically andpractically it is better to consider wastes as“resources out of place” (Taiganides, 1978).

Potential linkages betweenlivestock and fish productionThe main potential linkages between livestockand fish production concern use of nutrients,particularly reuse of livestock manures for fish

1.3

1.2

2 INTEGRATED LIVESTOCK-FISH FARMING SYSTEMS

The development of sustainable aquaculture systems involves consideration ofproduction technology, social and economic aspects, and environmental aspects

FIGURE 1

Production Technology

Social and Economic Aspects

Environmental Aspects

Productive

EnvironmentallyCompatible

Socially Relevant and Profitable

SustainableAquaculture

System

Source: AIT (1994)

production. The term nutrients mainly refers toelements such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorous(P) which function as fertilizers to stimulatenatural food webs rather than conventionallivestock nutrition usage such as feedingredients, although solid slaughterhousewastes fed to carnivorous fish fall into the lattercategory. There are also implications for use ofother resources such as capital, labour, space andwater (Figure 3). A variety of factors affectpotential linkages between livestock and fishproduction (Box 1.A).

Both production and processing of livestockgenerate by-products that can be used foraquaculture. Direct use of livestock productionwastes is the most widespread andconventionally recognized type of integratedfarming. Production wastes include manure,urine and spilled feed; and they may be used asfresh inputs or be processed in some way beforeuse.

Use of wastes in static water fishpondsimposes limitations in terms of both species andintensity of culture. Stimulation of natural foodwebs in the pond by organic wastes can supportrelatively low densities of herbivorous andomnivorous fish but not a large biomass of

carnivorous fish. These biological processes arealso temperature dependent. The optimaltemperature range is between 25-32°C although


Separate, stand alone operations

Integration increases level of benefit of one component and has a neutral

effect on the other

Integration results in similar levels of benefit toboth components, which increases overall benefit

Small declines for one component are compensated for the large increase in the other

Potential outcomes of livestock-fish integration

FIGURE 2

� Is there demand for fish species capable of feeding on natural foods generated byfertilization using livestock wastes?

� Are the livestock monogastrics or rumi-nants?

� Can the wastes be cost effectively collect-ed?

� Will legislation require processing ofwastes before use for fish culture?

� Do livestock wastes have a high opportuni-ty cost?

� Will low ambient temperatures (<18°C)restrict waste-fed aquaculture?

� Is fish culture already established based on conventional feeds and systems?

Checklist of key issues affectinglinkages between livestock and fish production

BOX 1.A

waste-fed aquaculture in sub-tropical andtemperate zones where temperatures riseseasonally has also been successful. Processingwastes through organisms such as earthwormsand insect larvae that feed on them andconcentrate nutrients to produce ‘live feeds’ is analternative approach to raising fish needing highlevels of dietary animal protein. Livestockprocessing can also provide a wide variety ofwastes that vary from dilute washing water tohigh value meat and bloodmeal that can be usedas high value fish feeds or feed ingredients. Ifenough of these types of feeds are available, highdensity and intensive production of carnivorousfish species can be supported. Aquaculture mayalso provide inputs and other benefits to livestockproduction. A variety of aquatic plants e.g.duckweeds and the aquatic fern Azolla haveproven potential as livestock feeds; andinvertebrates such as snails and crustaceans canbe used for poultry feeds.

Our study focuses on the integration of fishand livestock. The use of cultured fish or fish

products as livestock feeds, although currentlyuncommon, holds promise and is reviewed.Other, more minor beneficial linkages betweenfish and livestock production include use of fishculture water for drinking/bathing livestock andcooling livestock housing. Nutrients contained inculture water and sediments may be used toproduce arable crops for livestock. The viability ofthese options depends on a variety of factors,including the types of livestock and fish that canbe raised profitably and the production systemsused.

Relevance of integratedfarmingThe integration of fish and livestock production isprobably closer today, and more important thanever before (FAO, 2000). On a global basis mostcultured freshwater fish are produced in Asia insemi-intensive systems that depend on fertilizer

1.4


FIGURE 3

Feed

Livestock Human

main flows

secondary flows

Human

abattoir waste

Urine

Waste feed

Manure

Dri

nkin

gC

oolin

g

Water

Irrigation

Fish

P

P

P

P

Main and secondary linkages in livestock-fish integration (P = processing)

nutrients. Moreover, with increasing need formultipurpose use of water resources, communitywater bodies used for watering livestock areincreasingly stocked with fish seed and theirmanagement intensified. Several studies ofsmall-holder aquaculture in Bangladesh, India,Thailand and Viet Nam indicate that livestockwastes are the most commonly used input. Fishyields may not be optimized for a variety ofreasons but livestock wastes purposely used inponds, or draining into them, support theproduction of most cultured fish in Asia.

An analysis of China, the ancestral home ofaquaculture, indicates that whilst intensivepractices based on formulated pelleted feed aredeveloping rapidly, much of the vast increase inChina’s recent inland aquaculture production islinked to organic fertilization, provided by theequally dramatic growth of poultry and pigproduction. Trends in those parts of Asia whichare undergoing rapid industrialization andurbanization suggest that livestock-fish systemscan retain a relative advantage over intensiveaquaculture for production of low-cost carps andtilapias. A strong link to the use of livestockwastes remains even when high-qualitysupplementary feeds are available and widelyused.

A major issue is the potential competition for,and relative efficiency of the use of, limitedamounts of feeds between livestock and farmedfish. This has both local and global implications.Supplementary feeds, such as ricebran and oilcakes, which are traditionally fed to livestock, areoften in demand for feeding fish. Continuedgrowth in demand for livestock and fish hasraised alarm bells over the sustainability of feedsupplies and the impacts of such growth on theenvironment.

Sustainability issues atmicro- and macro-levelsSustainability may be considered at global,national, regional, community and householdlevel and from a variety of perspectives.Sustainability as defined by an ecologist, may be

very different to that by an economist, but mostcan support the essence of that in theBrundtland Report (WCED, 1987) whichincorporates social and economic as well asenvironmental concerns. Important questionsrelate to the role of integration of aquaculturewith livestock to improve sustainability of foodproduction in socially and economicallyadvantageous ways while safeguarding orimproving the environment. For this to occur, theroles of culture and institutions both have to beconsidered also since they are major forces forchange or conservatism. A major issue of thisbook is how integration, rather thanspecialization and separation, of livestock andfish production can enhance sustainability at alllevels and perspectives.

1.5.1 MICRO-LEVEL

The interpretation and measurement ofsustainability have become focal points of ruraldevelopment. In a smallholder farmer’s world, keyparameters of sustainability have been identifiedas high levels of species diversity, nutrientcycling, capacity (total production) and economicefficiency (Lightfoot et al., 1993; Bimbao et al.,1995; Dalsgaard et al., 1995). At the micro-level,watershed, community, farm, plot and pond maybe used as a basis for assessing sustainability,but the role of people is central to development.

Most poor rural people do not rely entirely ontheir own land to sustain them. Typicallivelihoods are complex and depend on a varietyof resources, many of which are off-farm (Ellis,1992). At the heart of the issue of ‘sustainability’are peoples’ livelihoods (Box 1.C). Holistic

1.5


“Sustainable development is that whichmeets the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future gener-ations to meet their own needs”

Source: WCED (1987)

A widely used definition of sustainability

BOX 1.B

thinking is required to analyse and describelivelihoods with a focus on peoples’ relativestrengths rather than ‘needs’. Building up assetsis a core component of empowerment (Figure 4).How the inclusion of intensified management ofaquatic resources can support, or detract, fromthis process is indicated in Table 1.1.

People base their livelihoods on a range ofassets in addition to financial capital thatinclude natural, human, physical and socialcapital. A pentagon can represent these fivetypes of asset or capital although in practice

there is overlap between them (Figure 4).Understanding trends in peoples’ assets overtime can indicate if positive or negativedevelopments are occurring, and if livelihoodsare deteriorating or improving. The approachcan be applied on a community, group orhousehold level to inform and guide thedevelopment process. Knowing about the assetsof different wealth and social groups in the samecommunity can allow better targeting of poorerpeople and monitoring of changes that occur.The impacts of shocks of various types, and howassets are used to reduce vulnerability, areimportant aspects of assessing livelihoods.

Forging links between ecosystem theory andfarming system analysis (Dalsgaard et al., 1995) canbe useful, provided that the results are placedwithin a broader framework of sustainabilityissues. A range of different system attributes hasbeen identified that provides measures of howlivestock and fish can improve sustainability offarming systems (Table 1.2). As sub-systems with-in the wider farming system (Edwards et al., 1988),fish culture and livestock can improve nutrientrecycling and concentration. This feature isimportant in both nutrient-rich, peri-urban systemsand nutrient-poor, rural situations (Little andEdwards, 1999). Diversity, stability and capacitycan all be enhanced through inclusion of livestock


"A livelihood comprises the capabilities,assets (including both material and social resources) and activities requiredfor a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with andrecover from stresses and shocks andmaintain or enhance its capabilities andassets both now and in the future, while not undermining the naturalresource base".

Source: Carney (1998)

Livelihoods defined

BOX 1.C

Asset pentagon to analyse sustainable rural livelihoods

FIGURE 4

Source: Carney (1998)

Human capital

Human capitalPhysical capital

Financial capital

Social capital

and fish on farms, as can both economic efficiencyand the scope for future change or ‘evolvability’.

The greater ecological similarity of lowexternal input than intensive systems to naturalecosystems reduces adverse environmentalimpacts (Kautsky et al., 1997). But very low inputsystems, especially in nutrient-poor environ-ments, may not adequately support livelihoods,driving poor people to ever more extractive andunsustainable practices off-farm. Small externalnutrient injections may enhance performance orhelp to regenerate degraded agro-ecosystems

(Kessler and Moolhuijzen, 1994). Theproductivity and stability of farming systems inMachakos, Kenya, improved considerably asincomes from off-farm employment werereinvested in agro-forestry, livestock andhorticulture. Intensification of livestock and soilmanagement have also reduced landdegradation in heavily populated parts ofUganda (Lindblade et al., 1998). Integration oflivestock and fish at a community or watershedlevel may have more potential than household-level in some situations.


How the integration of fish culture into small-holder crop/livestock systems affects asset accumulation and livelihoods

Capital Possible impacts of introduction of intensified aquatic resource managementassets Positive Negative

Natural • Reduced pressure on remaining natural •Increased pressure on natural resource stock aquatic resources can relieve pressures for water, nutrients and fish seedon biodiversity and integrity of remaining natural habitats

Social • Increased fish and other aquatic products •Increased discordance on use of resources available for enhancing social relationships within household, increased opportunities

for theft, increased conflicts over water (quantityand quality) available for other purposes

Human • Skills and knowledge developed that •Competition with more vital activities forcan be used to further diversify livelihood time and attentionstrategies •Extra labour burden and change in use of

• Improved nutrition enhances physical nutrient resources could reduce physical and mental health and mental health

Physical • Improved potential for diversification of •Reduced area available for staple cropsfarming systems and livelihoods generally through transformation of land and water holding to reduce risk to both flood and drought

• Physical assets may be multipurpose e.g. for communication and machinery

Financial • Improved overall income and regularity of •High investment cost for pond constructionincome, credit worthiness, and savings may cause indebtedness that poor subsequent

• More diversified production reduces management cannot repayfinancial risk

Framework for role of capital assets in sustainable livelihoods adapted from Scoones (1998) and Carney (1998)

TABLE 1.1


How livestock and fish improve the sustainability of farming systems

System attribute Livestock

TABLE 1.2

Nutrient recycling Feeding crop byproducts such as ricebran and terrestrial and aquaticplants to livestock increases recycling of nutrients within the farm. Pigsare used particularly for this purpose in parts of China and SE Asia

Nutrient concentration Feeding off- and on-farm feeds can allow concentration of nutrients,and act as a pathway for nutrients to be cost -effectively gathered orharvested from common property. Ruminants are important for thisaspect of enhanced sustainability

Diversity Most small-holder farms manage a range of livestock that utilize thevariety of feed resources available. Important advantages include pestcontrol, recycling, manageability, economic reasons (risk aversion andcash flow)

Stability(resistance to change)

Livestock are a stabilizing influence, reducing perturbation onhouseholds during time of physical or social stress. Their variety ofuses (draught, fertilizer, social value, fuel, cash, food) allows small-holders to better maintain productivity when faced with change

Capacity Livestock waste improves soil quality and fertility; grazing can improvespecies richness and reduce soil erosion

Economic efficiency Livestock products are often the major source of cash in small-holdersystems. Having a variety of livestock types improves versatility withrespect to investment, cash flow and risk aversion

Evolvability Dominance of commercial livestock systems threatens the scope forsmall-holder production to change in response to demand


Fish Notes

Nutrients from other sub-systems in the farm are retained infishpond sediments and water and can be used for cropproduction

Use of livestock wastes in fishponds may be the mostpractical way to reduce nutrient losses, especially N

Natural and stocked fish can harvest nutrients from commonproperty for direct human food or use in livestock diets

Overgrazing of common land by ruminants may lead todeterioration, increased erosion and declining sustainabilityof the surrounding watershed or ecosystem

Efficiency of polycultures within aquatic systems in exploitingthe range of aquatic niches. Control of livestock and humanpests with an aquatic phase within the life cycle

Increasing diversity of livestock and fish may complement orcompete within the farming system. Whereas increasedamounts of monogastric waste are valuable for planktivorousfish, grass carp and ruminants may compete for limitedamounts of grass

Maintenance of a water body necessary to raise fishimproves the stability of water availability for the wholefarming system

Livestock can be a contributing factor to destabilization,especially through deforestation, overstocking and soilerosion

Increased water and nutrient holding improves productivecapacity around the pond. Sealing of pond traps nutrientsand prevents loss to ground water

Fertile ponds may not contaminate groundwater significantlybut more research is needed

Small individual size of fish often improves localmarketability. Polyculture and perennial water increasesopportunities for strategic marketing

Returns to labour are often attractive for livestock and fishproduction, and integration is particularly favourable.Integration reduces market risk and improves flexibility

Aquaculture systems are generally recent and are evolvingrapidly around resources and markets. The dominance ofsmall-holder compared to commercial production, andimportance of aquaculture and fisheries as suppliers of fish,are major issues with policy implications

Concept coined by Pullin (1993) to describe the scope forfuture change of any system

1.5.2 MACRO-LEVEL

Sustainability viewed at a macro-level mayinclude global, national, regional and watershedcontexts. The expected dramatic increases inglobal trade following recent WTO agreementsare expected to have wide ranging impacts onthe nature of food production and viability offarming systems. Agribusiness is positive aboutthe effects such measures will have onsustainability of food product (Box 1.D) but othergroups fear a rapid undermining of poorernational economies and marginalization of small-holders with little market leverage.

Global trends in resource use for livestock andfish production, trade and consumption areimportant for understanding constraints at the

farm, or even plot or pond level. One example ofhow macro and micro-level sustainability issuescan interact, and be affected by institutions, is thechanging basis of pig and fish production in theRed River Delta of Northern Viet Nam (Box 1.E).

Pig and poultry production using modernsystems have been challenged as unsustainablein the long term on a global basis because ofdependence on concentrates, which are based onnon-renewable, fossil-fuels (Preston, 1990).Examples exist where modern systems, following‘shocks’, have collapsed. These include oilexporting countries where oil price decline, andassociated revenues made imported con-centrates and poultry production uneconomic.Cuba saw major disruption in its imported,concentrate-based livestock industry as SovietUnion support was withdrawn and favourableterms of trade shifted. Even if concentrate feedscan be used economically, and the wastesproductively reused for aquaculture, there maybe inequities in the system that proveunsustainable in the longer term. Thus, ananalysis of current systems using sustainabilityindicators can lead to the development ofrelevant research agendas. Given its complexity,some advocate the use of consensus indicators ofsustainability in aquaculture production (Caffeyand Kazmierczak, 1998).

The need for alternatives to the narrow rangeof feed ingredients used in most concentrateshas been identified as urgent, especially for thetropics where little research has been conductedso far (Preston, 1990). In China, the substitution ofsemi-intensive aquaculture integrated withinfarming systems by intensive, feedlot productionhas been advocated on the grounds of improvedproductivity and reduced negative environ-mental impacts (Box 1.F). The analysis, thoughflawed, does identify a general tendency towardsintensification of aquaculture. This may haveparticularly large impacts since intensiveaquaculture is relatively more profligate thanlivestock in its use of feed resources and is morepolluting. The major species raised intensively(salmonids and shrimp) are fed diets high infishmeal (Naylor et al., 1999) and often have largeimpacts on the local environment. Potentially theintensification of semi-intensive culture of carps


It is generally accepted that intensification oflivestock and fish production is required as lowproduction levels do not meet people’s needs.The major issue is the level of intensification thatcan support overall sustainable development.

The feed and pharmaceutical industriesmake the following claims:

Aspects of intensification that supportsustainable development:� intensive agriculture allows livelihoods to be

sustained through increased production tosatisfy needs, without the need to furtherencroach on the natural environment withlosses to biodiversity;

� removal of political and trade barriers thatartificially support agriculture and lead toexpensive surpluses:

� high yield agriculture can protect the envi-ronment by reducing soil erosion e.g. use ofminimum tillage, intensified ruminant pro-duction can reduce greenhouse gases, and

� without veterinary medicines, livestock inEurope would need to increase frombetween 25 percent to 89 percent to main-tain existing production levels.

Agribusiness view on sustainability

BOX 1.D

an tilapias will have even greater impacts on theenvironment through raising demand for suchfeeds (Naylor et al., 1999).

Difficulties in maintaining feeds or disposingof wastes will probably be only part of theproblem of sustaining intensive livestock and fishsystems on a macro-level scale. Control ofpathogens may prove a more importantconstraint and pose greater threats to humanpopulations (see 6.1.4). Densities of pigs exceed9000 animals km-2 in parts of Western Europe aseconomies of scale and demand for cheap porkfavour intensified production close toconcentrated markets. The cost of diseaseepidemics such as classical swine fever, and thedifficulties in their control at such levelsof density, are prompting a rethink andnew legislation (MacKenzie, 1998). Similarexperiences are occurring with intensively raised fish such as the Atlantic salmon and blacktiger shrimp. Control of pathogens throughisolation is particularly problematic because of

the need for water exchange in intensivesystems.

High input, export driven agriculture(agronomy, animal husbandry and aquaculture) ismore likely to be non-diverse (monoculture),highly extractive and polluting (little recycling)and unstable in the face of environmentalchange. Moreover, its economic efficiency can bedrastically affected by the vagaries of globalmarkets. Smaller livestock units spread moreevenly, based on local production of feeds anddisposal of wastes, are likely to improve thesustainability of the livestock and associatedfarming systems.

Intensification is important, however, toensure that smaller scale systems are economi-cally viable and sustainable. Improvements inproductivity at the local level have also beenshown to be important globally. Low productiveruminants have been implicated in the increasein greenhouse gases, which could underminesustained food production worldwide (see 4.2.1).


In this region of historically high populationdensity, both traditional farming systems and the‘green revolution’ have failed to sustainlivelihoods alone. Sustainable central and locallevel institutions have been critical to themaintenance of irrigation and flood preventionstructures essential to maintain productivity inthis area characterized by climatic perturbations1.Government policy changes towards a marketsystem with increased availability of inorganicfertilizers, livestock feeds and breeds and fishfarming systems are highly productive, use manyexternal inputs and recycle intensively but recentstudies indicate that sustainability is threatenedby a declining capacity as soils become acidic2.Shortages of organic inputs, and excess inorganicfertilization, may exacerbate these problems.Traditional household pig production is valued forits role in asset accumulation and provision oforganic manure for field crops. Certain

developments may further undermine thesustainability of the system by reducing theavailability of pig manure for application to theland:� Government policy change towards support

for industrial pig production, leading to con-centration of the national herd among fewer,larger producers, and

� increase in aquaculture leading to a demandfor more inputs, including pig manure.

Changes in demand are also occurring:� market for more and leaner pork, increasing

demand for balanced feeds i.e. concentratesand modern strains of pig, and

� increase in demand for tilapia3, which hasbecome dominant in other parts of Asiawhere commercial, feedlot livestock-fishoccurs.

Source: 1Adger (1999); 2Patanothai (1996); 3Binh (1998)

Challenges to sustainable farming in the Red River Delta, Viet Nam

BOX 1.E


Rapid increases in production of culturedfreshwater fish have occurred in China since 1985-86, the time of the Chen et al., study1. Economicgrowth both created demand and the resourcebase to support an estimated 400 percent increasein production between 1985 and 1995. It has beenestimated that by 1996, 40 percent of totalproduction was based on ‘aquafeeds’, completeand incomplete feeds from small and large feedmills2. This infers that the other 60 percent (6.56tonnes) were still dependent on ‘no inputs’ or‘organic farming’. This level of production is nearly250 percent of that recorded in 1985, suggestingthat integrated farming, far from being redundant,has expanded massively.

Since these systems are based primarily onwaste from livestock production, which has alsosoared, any reduction in recycling in fish culturemight further impact the wider environment thatis rapidly deteriorating. Although aquacultureitself is acknowledged as partly responsible forthe general decline in surface water quality thatthreatens further expansion, they2 suggest thattraditional manure-based integrated systems arethe ‘most significant’ contributors. This is at oddswith any other comparison of nutrient accounting

which conclude that in semi-intensive pondculture, most nutrients are retained withinsediments that can be removed occasionally andutilized locally3.

The expected rate of pond expansion2 (1-3percent annually) suggests that even asavailability of improved feeds encourages intensi-fication, semi-intensive practices will dominate inthe foreseeable future. Lack of self-sufficiency infood grains and protein concentrate couldmoderate tendencies towards intensive, feed-only based fish culture systems in China. Demandfor ‘fed’ fish species is increasing rapidly but ofthe major species in the category tilapia, as a filterfeeder, is known to be very cost effectively raisedthrough fertilization and feeding4. Filter feedingcarps still represent 38 percent of totalproduction and registered an annual increase of13 percent in 19962. These levels of growth aremore sustainable than those recorded for highpriced luxury species (>40-80 percent year-1)such as eels and turtles for which markets arequickly saturated and production costs highlysensitive to imported feed ingredients.

Source: 1Chen et al. (1994); 2Cremer et al. (1999); 3Edwards (1993);4Diana et al. (1996)

A decline in integrated farming in China?

BOX 1.F

CHAPTER 2 • EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED LIVESTOCK-FISH FARMING SYSTEMS IN ASIA 13

Evolutionary Development of Integrated Livestock-FishFarming Systems in Asia

2

Understanding how farming households meet their needs

is essential to assess the likely adoption of fish culture. A study of the evolutionary

development of farming systems provides a useful framework since the nature and

intensity of farming activities may indicate the likelihood of fish culture being

appropriate. We analyse the factors that have stimulated intensification of farming

and relate this to prospects for integration of livestock and fish production.

Agricultural development has been linked to the pressures of human population

growth and we also examine this effect, together with the impacts of changes caused

by urbanization and industrialization.

Systems and scaleA schema of the possible evolutionarydevelopment of integrated farming systems isgiven in Figure 5. Settled agriculture is dividedinto three phases to indicate the potential role ofintegrated farming, particularly with respect tosmallholder farmers in less developed countries(LDCs). Pastoral nomadism and shiftingcultivation have limited aquaculture potential.

Pastoral systems occur in arid regions in whichseasonal availability of grazing limits carryingcapacity of livestock and nomadism is anecessary part of a livelihood strategy. Thismovement of both pastoralists and shiftingcultivators has necessarily constraineddevelopment of fish culture. The limited extentand duration of surface waters in arid regionsalso constrains natural fish production; and fishconsumption is usually unimportant or absentamong peoples living in such areas. Harvestingwild stocks generally remains important foraquatic foods after settled agriculture is well

2.1

developed, whereas hunting and gatheringterrestrial food declines rapidly as agricultureevolves.

The evolutionary development of bothlivestock and fish production can be classifiedwithin a schema derived from the same broaderfarming systems context (Figure 6). Settledagriculture I is typical of many pre-industrialsocieties where there is little integration betweencrops and livestock managed principally fordraught and to meet social obligations. If fishculture occurs it is normally at a very extensivelevel and closely associated with management ofwild fish stocks. In settled agriculture II, theproduction of livestock and crops are moreintimately linked, with livestock fed on crops andcrop by-products and their manure essential formaintaining soil fertility. Use of N fixing plantstogether with other inputs such as nightsoil isalso a common strategy for maintainingproductivity. It is in this context that mosttraditional integrated fish culture is found. Thetrend towards industrial monoculture (settled

agriculture 3) is a model followed by bothlivestock and fish production and is widelyadopted in developed economies. Recentlyhowever, environmental concerns about heavyuse of agrochemicals and waste disposal,consumer pressure and legislation are leading tosome return to a more balanced approach to foodproduction.

The tendency to develop more intensivefarming systems that produce more food per unitarea per unit time has traditionally been linked toincreasing population pressure. Globalpopulation is expected to rise further from thecurrent level of 6 billion, and may double beforestabilizing, even at the most optimisticprojections. Global population is split more or lessequally between urban and rural areas but urbanareas are expected to surpass rural area inpopulation around the year 2005 and to accountfor 60 percent of the total by 2020 (UN, 2000).

Population pressure has not occurred, norexerted its impact on intensification of foodproduction evenly. Historically more fertile, well-


Evolutionary development of integrated farming systems.

FIGURE 5

Source: Modified after Edwards (1997)

Fishing Wildaquatic food

Hunting/gathering Wild terrestrial food

Shifting cultivation

Settled agriculture 1Crop dominated

Pastoral Nomads

Settled agriculture 2 Integrated crop/livestock

Settled agriculture 3 Industrial monoculture

watered environments have had greaterproductive potential and supported higherhuman populations. Thus, well-endowedfloodplain agroecosystems in Asia have becomethe site of the most intensive traditionalagricultural practices. Globalization of trade pre-dating the colonial era, industrialization andmajor changes in human medicine havefundamentally de-linked food production andhuman population densities. If the concept ofagro-climatic population, or the population interms of food production capacity is used, todaysemi-arid zones are typically under much greaterpopulation pressure relative to land endowmentsthan humid areas (Binswanger and Pingali, 1988).Although historically most of Africa has had littlepressure on land resources, by 2025 the majorityof the continent will comprise high-densitycountries requiring highly productive agriculturaltechniques.

Accelerating urbanization has stimulateddemand for industrial food production in both

developing and developed countries. Industrialfood production requires intensive applications ofresources, particularly energy, nutrients andwater and is dependent on scientific knowledge.Farming operations spanning a wide range ofintensity levels can be found increasingly withinthe same country although some doubt thatcoexistence of less intensive production systemswith industrial methods is possible over the longterm. Integration of livestock and fish, in whichone or both sub-systems does not becomeentirely agro-industrially based, may better fit thelimited resource base of smallholders and im-prove environmental sustainability.

Environmental effectsEnvironments have shaped cultures and dietarynorms and taboos that in turn explains current

2.2


Classification of livestock production and relationship to value of livestock wastefor aquaculture

FIGURE 6

SITE

FEEDINGSYSTEM

ENVIRONMENT

LIVESTOCK WASTE VALUE

LOW HIGH

Rural Peri-urban

Grazing/Scavenging

Communal

Grassland Tree crops Field crops Riceland + Wetlands Roughages Crop by

products Grains Concentrates

Individual On farm Off farm

Feedlot

Semi-feedlot

Source: Little and Edwards (1999)

distribution and dependence on livestock andfish. Recent anthropological research has shownthat the concepts of the ‘sacred’ cow and‘abominable’ pig have an environmental basis(Harris, 1997). The advantages of ruminants thatdigest cellulose and thus do not compete for foodwith humans, together with their moremultipurpose attributes, are the bases for thecultural bias. The rejection of fish as food is alsocommon among people in arid environmentswhere surface water and natural stocks ofaquatic animals are rare. The lack of largelivestock in traditional slash and burn-basedsocieties in Africa, and elsewhere, can be relatedto a low requirement for tillage, and their poorsurvival because of the tsetse fly (Binswangerand Pingali, 1988). Animal protein needs could bemet by the harvest of game and wild fish andintensification of livestock and fish productionwas unnecessary (Little and Edwards, 1997) atthe low human population densities found intypical swidden agricultural societies.

If natural supplies of wild stocks areparticularly rich, much higher populationdensities may be supported, provided humandietary energy needs are met. The rice-fishsocieties of lowland Asia are good examples ofthis situation where diets based on cultured,calorie-rich rice were balanced by diverse,aquatic plant and animal food gathered from thefloodplains. Indeed, whilst natural fish suppliesremain adequate, there is little interest in fishculture (Gregory and Guttman, 1996). Seasonalinundation of flood plains that led to dependenceon aquatic-based food sources probably alsolimited the importance of livestock because ofseasonal shortages of feed.

In contrast, arid environments havestimulated pastoral systems in which lowdensities of ruminant livestock are grazed onextensive, common property pastures. Thechallenges associated with increasingproductivity in such marginal, community-basedresources systems are similar in both water-short,livestock-based pastures and water-rich,communally exploited wetlands. Major issuesinclude how intensification can occur whilstsafeguarding equity and the environment (Table 2.1).

Crop dominationIn contrast to most shifting farming, in whichlivestock is relatively unimportant, or pastoralistsin which livestock dominate, animals fulfil smallbut important roles within the household insettled agriculture. Furthermore, settledagriculture has much greater potential foraquaculture. Most land is reserved for crops andlivestock are kept mainly for draught in settledagriculture phase I. Pigs and poultry may also bekept in small numbers, and usually scavenge andare fed wastes from the household. There is littleintegration between crops and livestock, largelybecause the number and nutritional status of thelivestock are low. Ruminants depend mainly onlimited rough grazing of harvested fields andcommon land. Limited crop diversity, as well aslittle recycling of crop residues and manures, arecharacteristics of crop-dominated systems. Suchresource-poverty is typical of most small-scalefarmers in developing countries today, exceptthose that have leap-frogged to settledagriculture III through the green revolution. Crop-dominated systems include crops grown as thedietary staple such as rice and maize, often forsubsistence, together with other crops grown forcash. Various levels of intensification may beevident e.g. irrigation, terracing, fertilization andweeding. Orchard crops and vegetables are oftengrown in home gardens.

In some parts of the developing world, such asSouthern Viet Nam, both livestock and fish arerelatively important even in crop-dominatedlivelihoods (Ogle and Phuc, 1997) but thepotential is far from realised by most householdswhich rely mainly on wild fish. One surveyindicated that farms in Central Thailand, whichhad diversified away from rice monoculture weremore likely to use animal waste for fish culturethan farms continuing to concentrate on riceproduction (Figure 7). Such intensification oflivestock in settled agricultural phase I is oftenlimited by poor feed availability. Also, draughtanimals tend to be used irregularly so althoughtheir productivity is low, farmers have little

2.3


interest in improving their performance. Paralleldevelopment of intensive feedlot operations mayalso reduce opportunities for small-scale pig andpoultry production (Little, 1995).

Widespread adoption of fish culture may nothave occurred within crop-dominated systems,even when fish are valued and consumed. Stocksof wild fish may remain at a level that satisfy ruralpeoples’ needs. Poorly developed on-farm waterstorage, or a lack of seed or knowledge may alsoconstrain adoption. Traditional aquaculture in thevalleys of upland areas of Indochina and SouthernChina, where population densities are high andwild fish stocks are very limited, suggest thataquaculture can evolve under these conditions,but that linkages between livestock and fish wererelatively weak. Intensification of fish productionbased on animal manures would be constrainedby the limited numbers of livestock and


Comparison of common property management and scope for intensificationin water-scarce and flood-prone environments

Environment

Characteristic Water-scarce Flood-prone Notes

Dominant livelihood strategy •Pastoral ruminant production •Aquatic food harvest

Density and yield area-1 •Low •Low

Stock and habitat •Disease control •Maintenance/ •High demand forenhancement •Improved water availability enhancement of habitats indigenous species

•Selective feeding •Stocking of juveniles

Indigenous species •Largely replaced but interest •Typically still dominatein return to ranching though increasingly small,

low value speciesChallenges to sustainability •Overstocking •Over-exploitation

•Range degradation •Siltation

•Irrigation structures and management

Challenges to equity •Herd accumulation by richer •Water extraction forindividuals surrounding agriculture

including aquaculture by richer individuals

•Intensification results in lack of access for the poor

TABLE 2.1

Aquaculture is a recent development amongcertain ethnic minorities, such as the Hmong inupland areas of Indochina, for whom pigproduction is both traditional and important.Under current conditions disease is a greaterconstraint to expansion of pig production thanfeed availability; more arrowroot or cassava canbe grown, or vegetables and banana stems cutfrom the forest, if supplies of maize are limited.Pig wastes are used extensively, withwastewater directed towards opium-poppygrowing plots, but the siting of pens over fishponds has been adopted by some households.

Source: Oparaocha (1997)

Disease constrains livestock production

BOX 2.A


Percentage of farms in Central Thailand using various fertilizer and supplementary feed inputs for fish agro-industry (d) animal by-products and animal feed (e) vegetable matter.

FIGURE 7

20

10

Perc

enta

ge o

f fa

rms

Perc

enta

ge o

f fa

rms

Perc

enta

ge o

f fa

rms

Pig Duck Chicken Buffalo Human

Broken rice Rice bran Milled rice Paddy Maize Cassava Flour

Purchased Domestic Soybean Bread chip Noodle Inferior gradewaste food waste food waste waste processing waste mung bean

(a)

(c)

(b)60

50

40

30

20

10

40

30

20

10


culture (a) manure (b) rice and grain products (c) waste food from human consumption and

50

40

30

20

10

40

30

20

10

Perc

enta

ge o

f fa

rms

Perc

enta

ge o

f fa

rms

Waste Duckweed Water Water Other Grassvegetables spinach hyacinth aquatic weeds

Trash fish Animal Trapped Industrial Concentrateprocessing waste insects feed chicken feed

(e)

(d)

no rice cultivation (n=146) rice cultivation (n=161)

Source: AIT (1983)

difficulties in collection and use of their waste.Livestock diseases also constrain inventories oflivestock in many instances (Box 2.A)

Integrated crop/livestock The integration of livestock with crops, or mixedfarming, is the major characteristic of settledagriculture phase II. Livestock fed arable cropsand improved pasture produced on the farm isthe main focus. Crops are intimately integratedwith livestock as manures are used to maintainsoil fertility together with N fixing legumes.Much of the farming in Western Europe andEastern USA was of this type between 1850-1945.However, the recent increased control of nutrienteffluents has begun to favour this form of farmingagain over industrial monoculture.

The origins of mixed farming lie in increaseddemand for livestock products from urbancentres. Various methods were adopted toincrease livestock such as production and

feeding of turnips to livestock during the winterand the rotation of cereal crops with legumessuch as clover. More inputs such as nightsoilfrom urban centres, followed by inorganicfertilizers and feed concentrates, increasedlivestock densities and soil fertility.

Integration of fish culture into farmingsystems has developed in areas where pondswere essential to diversification of rice-dominantsystems and livestock were relatively few andfeed limited. This has occurred in flood-proneareas, often where rice yields were low (Ruddleand Zhong, 1988) and land was raised to makedikes for planting perennial or upland crops.Increasingly, buildings and roads are constructedon raised dikes and fill is obtained from borrowpits. The ponds excavated often serve primarilyfor storing water on-farm. Expansion of on-farmreservoirs (OFRs) has also expanded in areas inwhich drought otherwise constrained any inten-sification of cropping.

Analysis of traditional integration of fishproduction within the highly diversified farms inthe Zhujiang Delta, Southern China, indicatesthat wastes from livestock (pigs, silkworms) and

2.4


Small flocks of mixed poultry, allowed to scavenge for natural feed and given small amounts of supplementaryfeed such as paddy grain or ricebran, are common in Asia

people were important inputs. Fish production,however, was mainly based on the feeding ofwild, uncultivated grasses for the macrophagousgrass carp. This fish species largely filled theniche occupied by ruminants in mixed farmingsystems in Europe. Recently other macrophagousfish species such as the silver barb have beenpromoted to utilise seasonally abundantduckweed in Bangladesh (Morrice, 1998). Thefeeding of leafy vegetable material is traditionalfor raising macrophagous giant gourami inIndonesia, and potential exists for similarsystems elsewhere based on herbivorous tilapiasand Colossoma spp.

The major constraint to fish culture withinfarming systems based on leafy vegetation is theavailability of adequate amounts to meet theneeds of growing fish. Constraints to, andopportunities for, intensification of macropha-gous fish production are similar to ruminants(Box 2.B). Opportunistic use of crop harvest by-products would not normally provide consistentlevels of feed or feed quality. Continuous

cropping of arable crops, e.g. cassava leaves hastrade-offs in terms of the main crop yield. The useof arable weeds from intensive horticulture hasunrealised potential in some situations (Moody,1995) but would normally be constrained byirregularity of supply. Where such products areavailable, there will usually be competition withlivestock.

Industrial monocultureMany ‘modern’ settled agricultural farms stages Iand II have intensified production by adoptingsome aspects of the scientific-industrial‘revolution’. Industrial monoculture (settledagriculture phase III) has evolved to supply everlarger, more concentrated markets withhomogenous products. Increasingly dependenton the fruits of science and engineering,traditional mixed farming has changed over thelast fifty years, using a greater range and volume of inputs. Improved varieties, agriculturalchemicals, feeds and mechanization are used toproduce fewer products in greater volume; manyfarm operations have become monocultures. Thetechnical complexity and economies of scalecharacteristic of industrial agriculture encouragethis tendency. In most cases the readyavailability and low cost of industrial nutrientshas reduced the need for integrating crop andlivestock production. Industrial aquaculture,often of carnivorous species, evolved from usinglocal surpluses of trash fish of little value to fattenwild fish and there were few links with land-based agriculture.

Two important reasons suggest thatindustrial monoculture will evolve towardsgreater integration with other food production.Firstly, the real costs of adverse environmentalimpacts of specialized production are nowbecoming clear and closer integration can reduceor eliminate them. Secondly, wastes fromintensive animal production can be valuableinputs into other parts of the farming system.

2.5


� Consistent quality and quantity of greenfodder required to match needs of growingstock

� Seasonality of availability

� Harvest by-products often useful only as anoccasional supplement

� Trade-offs in regular harvest of greenleaves from growing crops

� Development of ‘cut and carry’, in whichintensively grown vegetation that can becut regularly and grows back rapidly, is amajor step and requires significant land andlabour resources

� Key factor is the value of livestock and fishproducts relative to resources such as landand labour

Intensification of ruminant andmacrophagous fish have similarconstraints

BOX 2.B

Apart from maintaining soil structure in arablesystems, these include their direct and indirectuse in fish production.

In parts of Asia where concepts of wasterecycling are traditional and well understood, theindustrialization of agriculture and changingdemand are both challenging and opening newpossibilities for integration. On the one handintegrated livestock-fish systems are evolving inChina to rely increasingly on wastes from non-traditional livestock such as dairy cows andbroiler chickens. Livestock wastes are also beingused for a greater range of purposes; mushroom,maggot or earthworm production may be moreprofitable than aquaculture (Wang, 1994).However, rapid industrialization and movestowards intensive aquaculture practices can alsoundermine traditional integrated practices andthreaten ecological stability.


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Integrated livestock-fish farming systems · Integrated livestock-fish farming systems BY D.C. LITTLE AND P. EDWARDS ... Table 4.3 Potentials and constraints to integration of livestock