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InstructionalDesign
Last Week: Cognitivism and Constructivism
Why do we
lecture???
Why Lecture?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
1. To Enthuse Students
Reasons
1. To Enthuse Students How? Put yourself in their shoes, Consider, if you’ve taught the topic for years... Consider, if new to you to do...
Reasons
2. To give students the info they need
Reasons
2. To give students the info they need How? Handouts can give 10 times more material, but
must mix info with other materials (Make sure handout has lots of free space)
Reasons
3. To cover the syllabus
Reasons
3. To cover the syllabus How? In a meaningfully manner. Give the students time
to reflect and revise. So stop teaching for the last 3 weeks and get students to reflect and revise.
Reasons
Reasons
4. Give the student group a sense of identity
4. Give the student group a sense of identity How? Group work is vital
Reasons
5. Because it’s cost-effective - large groups
Reasons
5. Because it’s cost-effective - large groups How? Instead of throwing out questions to students (as
some may be intimidated) ask student to spend next 3 minutes writing down 3 most important ideas we’ve been talking about, and spend a minute comparing you’ve with your neighbour…look for 5 volunteers.
Rather than getting student to asks questions; at end of class collect on slips of paper and answer at start of next class or on-line on discussion board.
Reasons
6. To help map curriculum
Reasons
6. To help map curriculum How? Signpost the course. Show the students the
syllabus, included learning outcomes. Number the topics instead of bullet pointing them
Reasons
7. To see how the students are doing
Reasons
7. To see how the students are doing How? Look at their faces How? Handout your slides, with first slide having
questions about previous lecture - spend 5 minutes of lecture getting student to answer.
Reasons
8. To change student beliefs
Reasons
8. To change student beliefs How? By sharing your experience + Expert views +
Existing Theories + Other students ideas. Make the student’s learning active, when students
apply their ideas, it becomes their knowledge.
Reasons
9. To help students learn
Reasons
9. To help students learn How? For a few minutes ask the students to reflect on
HOW they are learning. Share with others their approaches, their triumphs and disasters.
How? Stop class for a few minutes and discuss their note-making techniques.
How? Ask student to write down 3 things they don’t yet know about a topic and want to learn…amalgamate lists and hand to lecturer
Reasons
10. To help students figure out what the lecturer is going to ask in the exam
Reasons
10. To help students figure out what the lecturer is going to ask in the exam How? Students need to be more strategic about
assessment, it is an intelligent response to their situation. But you just need to help them figure out your culture of assessment, not every little facet of it.
Reasons
What can lecturers do?
Get a notebook per course. Include attendance sheets, handouts, slides,
etc. After each lecture
Note down errors in slides and handouts Write down key points of lecture Tricky issues Good examples
What can lecturers do?
Include questions after each lecture
What did I do best? What should I avoid? What surprised me? What were the good student questions? What couldn’t the students answer?
Instructional Design
Definition
Instructional Design
Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences.
The process consists of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition.
The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed.
Instructional Design
We can divide models of instructional design broadly into two categories MARCO: Models which concern themselves with
the design and planning of an entire module or programme
MICRO: Models which concern themselves with the design and planning of an individual lecture or teaching session
Instructional Design
Models we’ve seen previously
Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction1. Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn. 2. Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the basis for
assessment. 3. Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with prior
knowledge can facilitate the learning process. 4. Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new content is
actually presented to the learner. 5. Provide “learning guidance” - use of examples, non-examples, case studies,
graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies. 6. Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an opportunity
for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.
7. Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback.
8. Assess performance - take a final assessment. 9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will have a
"performance" focus.
Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory1. Organizing Course Structure: Single organisation for complete course2. Simple to complex: start with simplest ideas, in the first lesson, and then
add elaborations in subsequent lessons.3. Within-lesson sequence: general to detailed, simple to complex, abstract
to concrete.4. Summarizers: content reviews presented in rule-example-practice format 5. Synthesizers: Presentation devices that help the learner integrate content
elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior knowledge, e.g. a concept hierarchy, a procedural flowchart or decision table, or a cause-effect model .
6. Analogies: relate the content to learners' prior knowledge, use multiple analogies, especially with a highly divergent group of learners.
7. Cognitive strategies: variety of cues - pictures, diagrams, mnemonics, etc. - can trigger cognitive strategies needed for processing of material.
8. Learner control: Learners are encouraged to exercise control over both content and instructional strategy. Clear labelling and separation of strategy components facilitates effective learner control of those components.
Instructional Design
The Classic Macro Model:
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Benjamin S. Bloom
Born Feb 21, 1913 Died Sept 13, 1999 Born in Lansford,
Pennsylvania. Educational
psychologist Editor of “Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain”
Bloom’s Taxonomy In the 1950s Bloom helped
developed a taxonomy of cognitive objectives in “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain”
Means of expressing qualitatively different kinds of thinking
Been adapted for classroom use as a planning tool and continues to be one of the most universally applied models
Provides a way to organise thinking skills into six levels, from the most basic to the more complex levels of thinking
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy(Meaning)
•Evaluation: compare and discriminate between ideas, assess value of theories, presentations make choices based on reasoned argument,
verify value of evidence, recognize subjectivity
•Synthesis: use old ideas to create new ones, generalize from given facts, relate knowledge from several areas, predict, draw conclusions
•Analysis: seeing patterns, organization of parts, recognition of hidden meanings, identification of components
•Application: use information use methods, concepts, theories in new situations, solve problems using required skills or knowledge
•Comprehension: understanding information,grasp meaning, translate knowledge into new context
•Knowledge: observation and recall of information,knowledge of dates, events, places knowledge of major ideas
Bloom’s Taxonomy(Verbs)
•Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value
•Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare
•Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine
•Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use
•Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review
•Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state
Learning Outcomes
Examples
Example Exam Paper 1
Example Exam Paper 2
Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised In the 1990s Lorin
Anderson, a former student of Bloom, led a new assembly which met for the purpose of updating the taxonomy, hoping to add relevance for 21st century students and teachers
Published in 2001, the revision includes several minor and major changes.
The revised version of the taxonomy is intended for a much broader audience.
Original Terms New Terms
Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge
•Creating
•Evaluating
•Analysing
•Applying
•Understanding
•Remembering
Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised Creating: Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing
things. Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.
Evaluating: Justifying a decision or course of action. Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging
Analysing: Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships. Comparing, organising, deconstructing, interrogating, finding
Applying: Using information in another familiar situation. Implementing, carrying out, using, executing
Understanding: Explaining ideas or concepts. Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining
Remembering: Recalling information. Recognising, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding
Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised
Creating Green Hat, Construction Key, SCAMPER, Ridiculous Key, Combination Key, Invention Key
EvaluatingBrick Wall Key, Decision Making Matrix, PMI, Prioritising.
Analysing Yellow Hat, Black Hat, Venn Diagram, Commonality Key, Picture Key, Y Chart, Combination Key.
ApplyingBlue Hat, Brainstorming, Different uses Key, Reverse Listing Key, Flow Chart.
UnderstandingGraphic Organisers, Variations Key, Reverse Listing, PMI, Webs (Inspiration).
Remembering White Hat, Alphabet Key, Graphic Organisers, Acrostic, Listing, Brainstorming, Question Key.
Instructional Design
Other Macro Models
ADDIE Model The ADDIE model is used by instructional designers
and training developers. It is composed of five phases Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation
Which represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance support tools. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix.
ADDIE Model
ADDIE Model : A = Analysis
In analysis stage of ID process, want to find out: Who are the learners or audience
Audience analysis What is the goal or intended outcome
Goal analysis
ADDIE Model : D = Design
Content of the course Subject matter analysis
Steps of instruction Lesson planning-writing objectives
Type of media or presentation mode Media selection
ADDIE Model : D = Development
Development of instruction Generate lesson plans (different from lesson
planning) and lesson materials. Complete all media & materials for instruction,
and supporting documents. End result is a course or workshop ready for
delivery.
ADDIE Model : I = Implementation
The delivery of the instruction. Purpose is effective & efficient delivery of
instruction. Promote students’ understanding of material &
objectives, and ensure transfer of knowledge.
ADDIE Model : E = Evaluation
Two related evaluations going on simultaneously in most ID situations.
Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation
ADDIE Model
The elusive origins of the ADDIE Model
Remarkably it appears that the ADDIE model wasn’t specifically developed by any single author but rather to have evolved
informally through oral tradition. The ADDIE Model is merely a colloquial term
used to describe a systematic approach to instructional development.
ASSURE model Analyze learners’ characteristics, competencies, and learning
styles State objectives for what your lesson should accomplish (ABCD
format—audience/behavior/condition/degree) Select, modify, and design methods, media, and materials Utilize methods, media and materials—implement the lesson Require learner participation in lesson Evaluate learner outcomes with objectives and revise as
necessary
From “Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning” by Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James D. Russell, Sharon E. Smaldino
The ABCD Format Audience: The audience is the group of individuals who are targeted for instruction. While
at first this seems straight forward, many times employees will ask “will I get anything out of this training?” or “should I attend this training?” or “who is supposed to go to this training?” Without a clear-cut audience in mind, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly who gains from the training and who would be better served in a different class.
Behaviour: The behaviour element of the objective indicates the desired outcome of the particular learning event. The behaviour will be stated in the following form “will be able to detail properly” or “will be able to discuss the mechanism of action (MOA) with the doctor.” The behaviour is what you want the person to be able to do as a result of the training. It is important to clarify the behaviour because training programs can get off track when the desired outcome of the training activity is not clearly defined.
Condition: The term “condition” describes circumstances under which the behaviour should occur. An example would be “when calling on a doctor,” The condition describes a trigger for the desired behaviour.
Degree: The term “degree” represents how well the employee must perform to be considered acceptable. The degree of the objective is the measurable component. Measures can be expressed as level of productivity, quantity, quality, time, internal or external customer requirements, or other criteria gained from actual or anticipated work practices.
From “Instructional Technology - A Systematic Approach to Education” by Frederick G. Knirk, Kent L. Gustafson
Dick and Carey Model
The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled “The Systematic Design of Instruction”.
It champions a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction.
Dick and Carey Model
Assess Need to IdentifyGoal(s)
Assess Need to IdentifyGoal(s)
ConductInstructional
Analysis
ConductInstructional
Analysis
AnalyzeLearners and
Contexts
AnalyzeLearners and
Contexts
WritePerformanceObjectives
WritePerformanceObjectives
ReviseInstruction
ReviseInstruction
DevelopAssessmentInstruments
DevelopAssessmentInstruments
DevelopInstructional
Strategy
DevelopInstructional
Strategy
DevelopAnd Select
InstructionalMaterials
DevelopAnd Select
InstructionalMaterials
Design andConduct
FormativeEvaluation
Design andConduct
FormativeEvaluation
Design andConduct
SummativeEvaluation
Design andConduct
SummativeEvaluation
ICARE model
Based on the Dick and Carey Model and pioneered by San Diego State University in 1997, the model has found a place in the higher education sector.
ICARE model
Introduce learners to what is to be learned Content of lesson is presented to learner
involving active participation Apply new knowledge and skills with practical
activities Reflect on what has been learned Extend learning of lesson by providing
alternative resources
ICARE model
Tripp and Bichelmeyer
Design that occurs in a rapid prototyping environment, when prototyping is specifically used as a method for instructional design.
The analysis of needs and content depends in part upon the knowledge that is gained by actually building and using a prototype instructional system.
Tripp and Bichelmeyer Tripp,Steven, Bichelmeyer,Barbara, Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional
design strategy, Educational Technology Research and Development, 38, 1, 3/18/1990, Pages 31-44
Tripp and Bichelmeyer
Diagram needs additions
Other Macro Models
There are many other macro models of instructional design, we won’t go into them, but I’ve included a few pictures for your viewing pleasure.
Hannafin & Peck Model
Knirk & Gustafson Model
Jerrold Kemp Model
Gerlach-Ely Model
Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory
Instructional Design
More in the Micro
Component Display Theory Component Display Theory (CDT) classifies learning along two
dimensions: content
facts, concepts, procedures, and principles performance
remembering, using, generalities
The theory specifies that instruction is more effective to the extent that it contains all necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a complete lesson would consist of objective followed by some combination of rules, examples, recall, practice, feedback, helps and mnemonics appropriate to the subject matter and learning task. Indeed, the theory suggests that for a given objective and learner, there is a unique combination of presentation forms that results in the most effective learning experience.
Component Display Theory
Component Display Theory
Active Learning
an umbrella term that refers to several models of instruction that focus the responsibility of learning on learners. Think-Pair-Share The Pause Procedure Fact Rounding Network Phasing Learning Cell Active Writing Team Quizzes
Active Learning Think-Pair-Share
learners take a short amount of time (e.g. one minute) to ponder the previous lesson,
Then they discuss it with one or more of their peers, finally to share it with the class as part of a formal
discussion. It is during this formal discussion that the instructor
should clarify misconceptions. However students need a background in the subject matter to converse in a meaningful way. Therefore a "think pair share" exercise is useful in situations where learners can identify and relate what they already know to others.
Active Learning The Pause Procedure We know that even the most motivated student's
concentration declines after 10-15 minutes. Teaching often requires students to play passive roles and assume all students need the same information at the same pace. By using three two-minute pauses during the lecture (about every 13 to 18 minutes), the students are given the chance to clarify, assimilate, and retain the information presented during the prior mini-class. The pause procedure can be used as a vehicle to carry into the traditional class a variety of active and collaborative learning structures.
Active Learning The Pause Procedure Examples of things do to during the 'pause' include;
Ask students to turn to their neighbour and summarize the main ideas the instructor has just presented (e.g., List three major points in the last lecture and one point you're confused on).
Ask students to read over their notes of the materials covered today and put a question mark beside anything they want either clarification on or more details on.
Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper, pose a question (either specific or open-ended), and give them one (or perhaps two - but not many more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions include: "What are the countries in Europe?", "What are 'Human Rights'?", "What is the different between adverbs and adjectives?" and so on (“one minute paper”).
Ask students "What was the 'muddiest point' in today's class?" or, perhaps, you might be more specific, asking, for example: "What (if anything) do you find unclear about the lesson?" listing topics.
Ask students to report their reactions to some facet of the course material - i.e., to provide an emotional or evaluative response to the material.
Active Learning
Fact Rounding The Fact rounding technique works as
follows, towards the end of a lesson the students are asked to recall one fact from the material covered. Another student should not repeat a fact already mentioned and the activity should continue until all the lesson material has been covered.
Active Learning Network Phasing
The activity of Phasing starts off with three groups in its first Phase. These groups will each be assigned a particular section of a larger problem. All groups are then given a specific amount of time to work on either fact finding or a solution or both. The time frame most suitable for Phasing is two hours but the approach taken can vary depending on the needs of the particular problem. After a given period of time the group elect a leader to present their findings. From this short presentation the students will learn about the different sections of the larger problem.
Phase 2 begins with the original groups being split in two halves and those halves coming to form two new groups. This formation ensures that all students get exposure to all areas of the larger problem. The two new groups will have a new solution or facts to find. Phase 2 develops in the same way as Phase 1 and the elected leader of each group present the findings.
Phase 3 takes the form of a group discussion bringing the findings of Phase 2 together to form the solution to the larger problem. This discussion should be lead by the teacher to ensure the student’s findings are correct and to give suggested improvements.
Learning Cell A learning cell is a process of learning where two students
alternate asking and answering questions on commonly read materials. To prepare for the assignment, the students will read the assignment and write down questions that they have about the reading. At the next class meeting, the teacher will randomly put the students in pairs. The process begins by designating one student from each group to begin by asking one of their questions to the other. Once the two students discuss the question. The other student will ask a question and they will alternate accordingly. During this time, the teacher is going around the class from group to group giving feedback and answering questions. This system is also referred to as a “student dyad” (or pair).
Active Learning
Active Learning Active Writing The Active Writing technique is used as follows;
at the end of the lesson students are asked to submit questions based on the material covered.
These questions are used as an introduction to the next lesson.
The purpose of this activity is to ensure that the students will have their questions answered and to reflect on the material. This activity is different to the other because it is spreads across two separate lessons. This technique can also be used to gauge students’ understanding of a subject based on the questions they submit.
Active Learning
Team Quizzes The team quizzes activity divides the class into two
groups (Group A and Group B). The groups are given an amount of time to generate questions on the material covered. The teacher aims Group A’s questions to Group B and visa versa. If the group give the correct answer a point is awarded, otherwise the other group must give the answer. The purpose of this approach is to promote the generation of well thought out questions and answers.
Six Thinking Hats
Six Hats Instructional Model
BLUE: Introduction and overview of topic
WHITE: Facts and Figures about the Topic
YELLOW: Positive outcomes of Topic
BLACK: Negative outcomes of Topic
GREEN: Interesting outcomes of Topic
RED: Personal, emotional and people-oriented aspects of topic
WHITE: Review of new facts uncovered
BLUE: Summary and finish up
Other Micro Techniques
Learning by teaching Problem-based learning Project-based learning Inquiry-based learning Action learning Progressive inquiry Service-learning
Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student achievement;
Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student achievement;
Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student achievement;
Lecturer influence
Student influence
