Instructing in an International Setting, Clayton R. Wright C97 Ref09

Instructing in an International Setting:

A Handbook for Those Who Will Provide Training in Developing Countries

Clayton R. Wright, PhD November 1997

Disclaimer Although this publication provides readers with many suggestions on how to cope with an international training assignment, the author's purpose is not to provide professional medical or legal advice. Rather, the intention is to provide general information that readers can use to make more informed decisions. Before embarking on an international training assignment, please seek professional advice from certified medical personnel, lawyers, and other qualified professionals. The publisher and author do not accept responsibility for any deleterious effects that result from actions taken by people who read this publication. Copyright The author has attempted to ensure that all copyright clearances have been obtained. Please bring any errors or omissions to the attention of the author. You are free to copy, distribute, and transmit the work provided appropriate attribution is made – you must give credit to the original author. If you would like to alter, remix, transform or adapt the work, please send a written request to the author at crwr77[at]gmail.com. The author retains moral rights to this work. This publication cannot be used for commercial purposes or re‐sold to anyone. Wright, Clayton R. (1997). Instructing in an international setting: A handbook for those who will provide training in developing countries. Edmonton, Canada. Source: crwr77[at]gmail.com

Instructing in an International Setting, C. R. Wright

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Instructing in an International Setting: A Handbook for Those Who Will Provide Training in Developing Countries Contents Preface ........................................................................................................................ viii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... ix About the Author ......................................................................................................... x 1.0 International Training: Scope and Opportunities .......................... 1/1 1.1 Why Should Anyone Be Concerned with Developing Countries? ........ 1/1

Introduction......................................................................................................... 1/1 What Is a Developing Country? .........................................................................1/2 How Are Developed and Developing Countries

Interconnected? ............................................................................................. 1/9 Does Training Benefit Developing Countries?................................................. 1/11

1.2 The Needs of Developing Countries......................................................1/12

Categories of International Assistance ............................................................ 1/12 Characteristics of Good International Training Projects ............................... 1/17 The Concept of Sustainable Development ...................................................... 1/18

1.3 Your Motives and Skills........................................................................1/20

Introduction...................................................................................................... 1/20 Motives: What Contributions Can I Make?................................................... 1/20 Skills: What Skills Do You Need?....................................................................1/22 How Will Your International Training Activities Benefit a

Developing Country?....................................................................................1/25 How Will You and Your Organization Benefit?..............................................1/25

1.4 Dealing with Cultural Differences....................................................... 1/29

Defining Culture ............................................................................................... 1/29 Cultural Assumptions........................................................................................1/30 Cultural Values and Artifacts Held by Others ................................................ 1/31 Making Cultural Adaptations ........................................................................... 1/41 Sage Advice ....................................................................................................... 1/42


1.5 Preparing a Proposal for an International Education or Training Activity..................................................................................................1/44 Introduction...................................................................................................... 1/44 Writing the Proposal .........................................................................................1/45 Content of the Proposal ................................................................................... 1/47

2.0 International Training Team............................................................ ….2/1 2.1 Introduction...........................................................................................2/1 2.2 The Benefits and Challenges of Teamwork ......................................... 2/2 2.3 The Roles of the International Training Team.................................... 2/8

The Role of the Project Manager ......................................................................2/8 The Role of the Team Leader ........................................................................... 2/11 The Role of the Training Team........................................................................2/13

2.4 Selecting Training Team Members ..................................................... 2/15 2.5 Orienting Training Team Members ....................................................2/23

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 2/23 Orientation to the Training Assignment .......................................................2/24 Health, Legal, and Social Concerns................................................................2/28 Travel and Accommodation Arrangements ..................................................2/30 Team Development ..........................................................................................2/31 Country Awareness..........................................................................................2/42 Culture Awareness...........................................................................................2/43 Language of Instruction ..................................................................................2/46 Code of Conduct for International Trainers..................................................2/48

3.0 Planning Instruction for an International Audience ...................... 3/1 3.1 Introduction...........................................................................................3/1 3.2 Needs and Audience Analyses ...............................................................3/3

What Must Be Accomplished? ..........................................................................3/4 Assessing the Needs and Expectations of the Host Country and the Host Organization .......................................................................... 3/5

Needs of the Prospective Students....................................................................3/6 Student Characteristics ......................................................................................3/6 Student Expectations.........................................................................................3/10 Is Training the Solution?...................................................................................3/16 Learning From the Past.....................................................................................3/16


3.3 Goal and Objective Statements ........................................................... 3/18 Goal Statements.................................................................................................3/18 Objective Statements ........................................................................................3/19 DACUM............................................................................................................. 3/23

3.4 Blueprint the Training Program .........................................................3/26 3.5 Select Content ...................................................................................... 3/31 3.6 Identify Appropriate Instructional Strategies.................................... 3/33

Approaches to Instructional Delivery ............................................................. 3/33 Motivational Techniques ................................................................................. 3/35 Some Advice From Experienced International Instructors .......................... 3/37

3.7 Instructional Strategies ....................................................................... 3/41

Low‐Risk Instructional Strategies ....................................................................3/41 Medium‐Risk Instructional Strategies ............................................................ 3/45 High‐Risk Instructional Strategies ..................................................................3/49 Developing Ownership .................................................................................... 3/52

3.8 Locate and Select Learning Resources.................................................3/54

The Selection Process....................................................................................... 3/54 Simple Resources .............................................................................................. 3/58 Common, But Less Accessible Resources .......................................................3/62 Complex Resources...........................................................................................3/64 Adapting Learning Resources for an International Audience ......................3/69

3.9 Design Evaluation Procedures and Follow‐up Activities.................... 3/71

Evaluation Instruments.....................................................................................3/71 Test Planning .................................................................................................... 3/73 Types of Test Questions................................................................................... 3/75 Follow‐up Activities..........................................................................................3/76

3.10 Pilot Test..............................................................................................3/78 4.0 Presentation Skills ........................................................................... …. 4/1 4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................4/1 4.2 Using English in an International Setting ........................................... 4/4 4.3 Working with Interpreters and Translators ........................................ 4/6


4.4 Planning the Presentation................................................................... 4/11 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 4/11 Develop an Audience Profile........................................................................... 4/11 Review the Purpose of the Presentation ........................................................4/13 Outline the Presentation .................................................................................4/13 Select and Prepare Visuals and Other Media ............................................... 4/17 Select and Arrange Facilities .......................................................................... 4/19 Make Arrangements for Materials and Equipment...................................... 4/21 Plan an Evaluation ..........................................................................................4/22 Rehearse the Presentation..............................................................................4/23

4.5 Delivering the Presentation ............................................................... 4/24

Establish the Learning Climate ......................................................................4/24 Provide Effective Instruction..........................................................................4/27 Listen Actively .................................................................................................4/30 Use Effective Oral Questions and Provide Positive Feedback ……..…………4/32 Revitalize and Close the Presentation ...........................................................4/35

4.6 Handling Your Nonverbal Behavior ...................................................4/37 4.7 Dealing with Challenging People and Situations.............................. 4/40 4.8 Presentation Skills Checklist ............................................................. 4/49 5.0 Writing Instructional Materials....................................................... …..5/1 5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................5/1 5.2 Designing Print‐based Materials.......................................................... 5/2

Audience.............................................................................................................5/2 Objectives...........................................................................................................5/2 Outlines .............................................................................................................. 5/3 Designing Independent Study Materials ......................................................... 5/3 Preventing Inaccuracies .................................................................................... 5/5 Copyright............................................................................................................5/6

5.3 Writing Style.......................................................................................... 5/7 5.4 Readability.............................................................................................5/11

Applying a Readability Formula ...................................................................... 5/11 5.5 Editing .................................................................................................. 5/14


5.6 Formatting Instructional Materials..................................................... 5/16 Accessibility....................................................................................................... 5/16 Organization ..................................................................................................... 5/18 Legibility............................................................................................................ 5/18 Layout ................................................................................................................ 5/19 Packaging ..........................................................................................................5/20

6.0 Travel Advice…. ...................................................................................…6/1 6.1 Introduction...........................................................................................6/1 6.2 Health Advice ........................................................................................ 6/2

Introduction........................................................................................................6/2 Medical Check‐up...............................................................................................6/3 Medical Insurance ..............................................................................................6/3 Dental Check‐up................................................................................................ 6/4 Jet Lag ................................................................................................................. 6/4 Immunization .................................................................................................... 6/6 Water Precautions ............................................................................................ 6/10 Food Precautions ............................................................................................... 6/11 Diarrhea and Vomiting .................................................................................... 6/12 Other Precautions .............................................................................................6/13 When You Return Home ................................................................................. 6/15

6.3 Financial and Legal Arrangements......................................................6/16 6.4 Customs Regulations ...........................................................................6/19 6.5 What To Take....................................................................................... 6/20

Medical Supplies...............................................................................................6/20 Clothing.............................................................................................................6/24 Personal Items...................................................................................................6/27 Gifts....................................................................................................................6/30 Other Items........................................................................................................6/31

6.6 Safety Advice........................................................................................ 6/36

Introduction......................................................................................................6/36 Getting Yourself Ready.....................................................................................6/37 Airport Security ................................................................................................6/39 Hotel Security ...................................................................................................6/39 Touring ..............................................................................................................6/42 Travelling With Children.................................................................................6/47 Terrorism and Hijacking................................................................................. 6/48 Natural Disasters ..............................................................................................6/50


6.7 Culture Shock .......................................................................................6/53 Introduction .....................................................................................................6/53 Phases of Culture Shock ..................................................................................6/53 Dealing with Culture Shock ............................................................................6/54

6.8 Dealing With Stress............................................................................. 6/56

Before You Leave .............................................................................................6/56 While You Are Away .......................................................................................6/57 Upon Your Return ...........................................................................................6/58

6.9 Conclusion...........................................................................................6/60 7.0 The Last Words.................................................................................. …..7/1 8.0 References......................................................................................... …. 8/1


Preface This publication provides practical information and strategies for those individuals who want or need to plan, prepare, and deliver instructional sessions in developing countries. When I was first introduced to international training, I found that it was necessary to seek out a variety of resources and to contact a number of agencies in order to obtain the basic information I needed. It was a time‐consuming and frustrating experience. I have been preparing this publication since my first working experience in a developing country. I believe it contains most of the basic information that novice international instructors will need. In addition to reviewing the contents of this publication, those who are going overseas should research the history, politics, culture, and educational system of the country or areas in which they will be working. Although this book can be read from cover to cover, it can also be used as a trainer's reference manual. Each chapter has been designed to stand alone. A few points are repeated in each chapter, not only for emphasis, but also for ease of access. Numerous cultural illustrations are presented throughout the text. I trust that you will find this publication helpful in your international training ventures. Your comments and suggestions on how this text can be improved would be most appreciated.

Clayton R. Wright November 1997


Acknowledgements The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of the people who provided suggestions or kindly reviewed portions of this text. All the individuals listed below have participated in international and/or intercultural training activities. Paul Ancel, Chair, Travel Consultant Program, Grant MacEwan Community College, Edmonton, Alberta Debbie Ball, formerly the Supervisor, Distance Education Programs, Confederation College, Thunder Bay, Ontario L. Sandra Carlton, Coordinator, Centre for Advanced Process Technology, Lambton College, Sarnia, Ontario John Cruickshank, President, Vancouver Community College, Vancouver, British Columbia Donald McDonell, Coordinator, Distance Education, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario Patricia McWilliams, Program Officer, The Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver, British Columbia Bob Schmidt, Regional Animateur, Canadian Catholic Organization for Development and Peace, Edmonton, Alberta Richard Schwier, Professor, Curriculum Studies, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Tom Toulson, formerly the Director, International Education and Contract Development Services, Vancouver Community College, Vancouver, British Columbia. Hélène Wirzba, Medical Doctor, Cambodia and India Ouida Wright, formerly the Assistant Deputy Minister of Education, Ministry of Education and Training, Province of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario This publication would not have been possible without the encouragement and inspiration provided by Dr. T. C. Day, Ronald McDonald, Jeanette O'Brien, Kathryn Steward, and Michael Wright. A special thanks goes to Catherine Conroy who reviewed every page and provided many helpful suggestions. Additional assistance was provided by Linda Arnoldussen, Judith Johnson, and Dietlind Lefebvre, who were involved in the preparation of some of the articles referred to in this manuscript.


About the Author (1997) Clayton R. Wright, PhD, is the Coordinator for the Program and Instructional Development Department at Grant MacEwan Community College, Edmonton, Canada. He has taught a variety of subjects in junior high, secondary, and post‐secondary institutions. He won a Canadian Governor General's Award for Proficiency in the Art of Teaching. Recently, he organized and facilitated a series of international education workshops throughout Canada for the Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC) and served on ACCC's International Management Certificate Steering Committee. He has worked with educators in or from Brazil, China, Colombia, Hong Kong, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malawi, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, Uganda, and the Ukraine. Dr. Wright also presents conference sessions and workshops on topics such as total quality management strategies, computer‐based instruction, course development, distance education, international education, program design and development, and the design of independent study systems. The improvement of the quality of teaching and learning in face‐to‐face and distance education settings is his primary focus. His articles have appeared in the Alberta Association of Continuing Education Journal, Canadian Journal of Educational Communications, The College Quarterly, Educational Technology, Distance Education, Media News, Media Message, Performance and Instruction Journal, and TechTrends. For six years he and Catherine Conroy co‐authored Change, a technology newsletter, which reached 1,500 readers in Canada, Great Britain, New Zealand, and the United States. His Course Developer's Manual is used in post‐secondary institutions in Canada, the Caribbean, China, Columbia, Hong Kong, Kenya, Malaysia, New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Uganda, and the United Arab Emirates. (Since 1997, Dr. Wright has been actively involved with a number of provincial, national, and international collaborative efforts aimed at advancing educational systems through the use of learning technologies and gained additional international experience with the Association of Canadian Community Colleges, the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, the Commonwealth of Learning, the Commonwealth Secretariat, United Nations Children's Fund, and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Dr. Wright is committed to the improvement of social and economic conditions through education and has lectured, led workshops, facilitated Developing a Curriculum (DACUM) occupational profiles, and conducted educational evaluations in many countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and South America.)



1.0 International Training:

Scope and Opportunities

Contents 1.1 Why Should Anyone Be Concerned with Developing Countries?........ 1/1

Introduction......................................................................................................... 1/1 What Is a Developing Country? .........................................................................1/2 How Are Developed and Developing Countries Interconnected? ................. 1/9 Does Training Benefit Developing Countries?.................................................1/11

1.2 The Needs of Developing Countries .....................................................1/12

Categories of International Assistance ............................................................ 1/12 Characteristics of Good International Training Project ................................. 1/17 The Concept of Sustainable Development ...................................................... 1/18

1.3 Your Motives and Skills........................................................................1/20

Introduction...................................................................................................... 1/20 Motives: What Contributions Can I Make?................................................... 1/20 Skills: What Skills Do You Need?....................................................................1/22 How Will Your International Training Activities Benefit a Developing Country? .....................................................................................1/25 How Will You and Your Organization Benefit?..............................................1/25

1.4 Dealing with Cultural Differences....................................................... 1/29

Defining Culture ............................................................................................... 1/29 Cultural Assumptions....................................................................................... 1/30 Cultural Values and Artifacts Held by Others ................................................ 1/31 Making Cultural Adaptations ........................................................................... 1/41 Sage Advice ....................................................................................................... 1/42

1.5 Preparing a Proposal for an International Education or Training Activity ............................................................................................................. 1/44

Introduction...................................................................................................... 1/44 Writing the Proposal .........................................................................................1/45 Content of the Proposal ................................................................................... 1/47


International Training: Scope and Opportunities 1/1

1.1 Why Should Anyone Be Concerned with Developing Countries? Introduction People who live in North America or Western Europe may not realize that 80 percent of the world=s population live in developing countries. AOne percent of the world controls 60 percent of the resources; 80 percent of people scrabble for 15 percent of its resources@ (Vidal, 1996). Almost five billion people live in extreme poverty and under conditions that Westerners would consider unacceptable, if not deplorable. They generally have limited access to our standards of education and health care and often little hope for a better life. Because we live in a global village, the actions of a few people in other countries eventually affect all of us. For example, if large portions of the South American rain forest are removed in order to provide grazing land for cattle, the world's climate patterns are also altered. If large‐scale social unrest occurs in the Middle East or Asia, we all feel the demoralizing and negative effects of war. If goods can be made less expensively in China, Indonesia, or Mexico, then major job markets shift accordingly. We in the West cannot afford to ignore the needs of the majority of people who share our biosphere. We must share our knowledge and resources with them. We must help them to increase their choices and options in life. By doing so, we all benefit. If you are interested in working in a developing country, first take the time to learn a little about it. You may be surprised to find that people in other countries have many of the same aspirations as we do; they just have different ways of doing things. This chapter provides an overview of developing countries, identifies potential international development activities, and asks you to assess your personal skills and expertise with respect to international development activities. The information presented in this section must not be considered the definitive anthropological, historical, political, or economic statement on all or any developing country. Readers are advised to consult other sources for more in‐depth information on a particular country or world region.



What Is a Developing Country? In the mid‐1950s, the following terms were adopted to describe and categorize countries: ! First World ‐ Westernized, industrial, and politically stable countries. Most

of these countries are located in North America and Western Europe. However, it now also includes Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, New Zealand, and Singapore.

! Second World ‐ The countries that were formerly part of the communist

Soviet Bloc. Ukraine is one of the largest second world countries. ! Third World ‐ These countries are less industrialized than those mentioned

above and are primarily located close to the equator or in the southern hemisphere.

The terms Adeveloped@ and Adeveloping@ are used throughout this publication. They replace the terms Afirst,@ Asecond,@ and Athird world.@ Developed countries are those previously referred to as First World countries. Developing countries are all the remaining countries. Frequently, developing countries are characterized as being one‐dimensional countries, which are impoverished, politically unstable, and economically depressed. But are they really one‐dimensional? According to Bharadwaji (1993), India for example, exhibits the following paradoxical characteristics: ! Stability coexisting with traditional states; ! Spirituality juxtaposed with materialism; ! Scientific sophistication and high illiteracy rates; ! Constitutionally enshrined human rights coexisting with strong governmental

interventions; ! Brimming granaries while nearly one‐third of the population may not have

enough money to buy bread each day; ! Entrenched traditionalism and revivalism, assailed by a strong movement

toward modernization and ambitious dreams of a glorious future (p. 373). Do any of these paradoxes exist in your country?



Citizens of developed countries should not assume that they are better than people in developing countries. Developing countries may have a slower pace of life as well as stronger communal bonds and deeper spiritual and cultural beliefs that many materialistic societies might envy. Despite their history of economic growth and scientific progress, developed countries are experiencing an increasing number of homeless people, high divorce rates, more drug abuse and addiction problems, rising crime rates, and difficulties in providing access to universal health care for all their citizens. Where some western economies are faltering, several Pacific Rim countries are experiencing rapid economic growth. Whether they live in a developed or a developing country, all people need food and shelter, all people have aspirations, and most would want a better life for their children. Many of the challenges developing countries face may be rooted in some of the following factors: ! Severe climatic conditions. People who live in countries situated on or near

large bodies of water must often contend with climatic events such as annual floods, hurricanes, and typhoons. These severe storms can quickly destroy significant portions of low‐lying or island countries. In their aftermath, tremendous amounts of physical and monetary resources are usually spent on restructuring or rebuilding. These cycles of destruction and rebuilding can quickly deplete a country, and its people, of precious resources and motivation.

! European domination and exploitation. Throughout history, countries

such as England, France, Spain, and Portugal have conquered and ruled overseas empires. These conquered or colonized nations often became sources of raw materials as well as inexpensive labor for their European protectors. More importantly, these situations decreased the opportunities for the colony=s citizens to learn how to develop their own national goals and individual potentials. When the Europeans finally left or were forced out, the colonists had to re‐establish their culture and to readapt to self‐governance. For a number of nations this process took time, and in some cases, is still continuing.

! Industrial exploitation. In the past, nations exploited other nations.

Today, it is business and commercial industries that move in and extract a country=s raw materials such as lumber, bauxite, and rubber. These items are frequently processed and refined in developed countries and the finished goods shipped back to the developing nation and sold there. In this way, more money tends to leave than remain in developing countries. In addition, companies often hire people in developing countries to assemble or manufacture commercial products such as clothing and electronic goods



because labor rates are substantially lower in developing countries. In these situations, the industry realizes a more significant benefit than the local laborers.

! Limited economies. Many developing countries do not have diversified

economies. Some are based solely on agriculture or tourism. If these single, major economic generators fail, the country is likely to suffer severe economic hardship.

! Tribal conflicts. In a number of countries, especially in Africa and several

South Pacific islands, tribal conflicts often inhibit the establishment of a stable government. In some cases, the geographic boundaries between countries do not take into account the cultural differences between the various tribes or groups.

Despite these challenges, the citizens of developing countries, like people anywhere, have dreams and aspirations. They too want their children to be healthy, they too want good jobs, and they too want their country to prosper. It is these aspirations that keep the people of all nations working and striving to improve. Developing countries are often characterized by some of the variables outlined below. Note however, that no one variable is sufficient to categorize a country as developing. Each variable can also exist, to some extent, in developed countries. ! Extreme poverty and high unemployment. The standard of living in

developed countries is 50 times higher than in the poorest countries (Head, 1991). One billion people earn less than one U.S. dollar a day (Husain, 1993). About one‐third of the population of India earns less than $25 a month (Stackhouse, 1992, March). In 1993, the average per capita, annual income in Indonesia was $650 U.S. (New Strait Times, 1993, September 23), in the Philippines, which has a foreign debt of $32 billion U.S., the average annual income was $700 U.S. (New Strait Times, 1993, September 10), and in Afghanistan, $150 U.S. a year (Dhahlburg, 1996). Today, 36 nations, including Cambodia and Laos, are poorer than they were 25 years ago (Husain, 1993).

The population of many developing countries earn their living from some form of agriculture. In Zimbabwe, for example, 80 percent derive their living, either directly or indirectly, from agriculture (Uniworld/Unimode, 1996, October). In an effort to seek better employment, many poor people migrate to urban areas where they frequently wind up living in high‐density housing settlements that lack adequate water and sanitation. Africa is now reported to have the fastest rate of urbanization. Extremely large urban slums exist in



countries such as Bangladesh, Indonesia, Argentina, and Brazil. In Dharavi, an urban slum area of Bombay, 500,000 people live in a confined area that has open sewers and little fresh water. The average family has ten square metres of living space. It is estimated that half of Bombay's ten million residents live in slums, and this figure may increase to eight million by the year 2000 (Stackhouse, 1993, January). Not everyone who lives in developing country is poor. A few local businesspeople and entrepreneurs in Jakarta, Manila, and Buenos Aires earn substantial sums of money, and 60 percent of Thailand's wealth is owned by 15 percent of the population (The Asia Report, 1993, February). However, this wealth does not filter down to the majority of the country=s people; it is not distributed equitably. When money is spent on services for the general public, it may be spent disproportionally or on urban megaprojects. For example, some countries spend more on universities that cater to only a small segment of the population than they do on public schools that are accessible to everyone. The western world has tried to respond to the financial needs of developing countries. The World Bank, for example, has loaned $300 billion U.S. to developing countries over the last 50 years. However, the World Bank states that of the 1,870 programs they financed in 1991, 374 have developed serious problems, primarily due to the unfavorable economic conditions in Africa, Latin America, and parts of Asia (The Globe and Mail, 1993, April 27). With the collapse of the Soviet Bloc, some poor countries may find it more difficult to obtain foreign aid. Canada, the United States, and other countries have indicated that they will shift their development funding priorities to the former communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe. This shift is partly based on a belief that the effects of such funding will be more visibly apparent in Europe than in Africa. The shift in aid funding affects not only African countries but also other developing countries such as Peru. After five years of deep recession, 70 percent of Peruvians now live in poverty (New Strait Times, 1993, September 6). Consequently, the country has chosen economic development over the preservation of its culture and environment. Some would argue that Peru is selling its culture and degrading its environment. These choices will eventually affect all of us.

! Poor levels of nutrition and health. Many people in developing countries would be surprised to know that they should eat three meals a day that include selections from four basic food groups. Only 57 percent of Venezuelans, for example, can afford to eat more than one meal a day (The



Globe and Mail, 1992, February 5). Approximately 1.3 billion people around the world do not have access to safe drinking water and 1.7 billion live without adequate sanitation facilities (The Globe and Mail, 1993, December 15). According to the Washington‐based Worldwatch Institute, more than one billion people are unable to feed themselves (Kesterton, 1997). By the year 2025, in order to feed their additional two billion people, developing countries will need 75 percent more food than they consume now (Stackhouse, 1996, July 11).

In rural Somalia, women often walk up to five miles a day to obtain drinking water and firewood (International Labor Office, 1989). Many women and girls in developing countries spend an average of 5 to 17 hours a week drawing and carrying water (The Globe and Mail, 1993, December 15). Currently, about one‐quarter of Zimbabwe's nine million people require food aid (Manthorpe, 1992), and by the year 2000, it is expected that at least 37 African countries will be unable to feed their own people (Montgomery, 1993, p. A10). Life expectancy is also falling. Currently, the life expectancy in countries such as Afghanistan, Morocco, and Pakistan is only 45 years (Taylor, 1993). When people spend most of their day obtaining food and water, they often have little time or energy left to devote to training or education. A shorter life‐span also decreases opportunities for improving skills or applying knowledge. Compared to developed countries, most developing countries have high birth and infant mortality rates. However, Husain (1993) reports that for every additional year of education a woman receives, the infant mortality rate drops by ten percent (Husain, 1993). Educated women tend to marry later and have a better understanding of family planning and the needs of their children. Family planning practices are now reducing the birth rates in Africa and China (Berry, 1993) as well as Indonesia. During the last 20 years, the birth rate in Indonesia has been reduced by 45 percent and the use of contraceptives has increased from 10 percent to 49 percent (Wallace, 1993). Developing countries use foreign aid to improve the nutrition and health of their citizens. However, only eight percent of Canada's $3 billion foreign aid budget and a similar percentage of other developed nation=s foreign aid budgets are allocated to humanitarian assistance (Paris, 1992). The rest of this money is usually spent on consultants, equipment that will be sent overseas, and companies that want to establish overseas ventures.

! Immature or unbalanced economies. Although most developing countries have rural or agriculturally based economies, some also have small regions of intense industrialization. These countries often have correspondingly high military spending, inflation rates, and debt loads. Their governments usually spend up to three times more on military forces and equipment than they



spend on health and education. Defence spending and debt servicing account for 80 percent of Pakistan's annual budget (Stackhouse, 1992, March).

All nations have experienced some degree of inflation over the last ten years, but developing countries often experience frequent and more extreme bouts of inflation. For example, Peru's inflation rate was 7,650 percent in 1990 but only 57 percent in 1992 (The Globe and Mail, 1993, October 4, p. B7); Argentina had an inflation rate of 5,000 percent in 1989 and 16 percent in 1992; Brazil's inflation was running at 25 percent per month in the early 1990s; Mexico's inflation rate was 160 percent in 1987 and 22 percent in 1992 (Naisbitt, 1992); and Zaire had the top inflation rate of 1992‐‐a gigantic 4,129.2 percent (The Globe and Mail, 1993, December 31)! Most developing countries have high debt loads that will continue to be a barrier to their economic growth and development. Argentina, for example, has a national debt of $60 billion U.S. (Leduc Nisku Economic Development Authority, 1993, May). According to Corcoran (1991), developing countries have a total of $1.3 trillion in never‐to‐be‐repaid debt. Despite a general growth in the world=s economy during the late 1980s and early 1990s, almost one‐third of the world=s population has experienced a decline in their standard of living (Stackhouse, 1996, July 17).

! Unstable political climate. Political upheavals can result in positive or

negative change. However, political instability generally produces a climate of uncertainty in which it is difficult for the society or the economy to grow and develop. Since 1932, Thailand has experienced 16 successful or attempted coups. Argentina has endured four military uprisings since 1987.

During military regimes, political upheavals, or periods of authoritarian government, the right to vote is frequently restricted and/or voting fraud is prevalent. During the rule of Philippines= President Marcos, many voters did not believe that the doctrine of one man, one vote was followed. The governments of developing countries may make promises that they are unable to keep. Their justice systems may be weak, underfunded, or corrupt. Corruption and patronage may abound not only in the courts but also throughout each governmental department. It is estimated that Zaire=s president Mobutu Sese Seko has pocketed nearly 20 percent of all the official international assistance paid to his country since 1965 (Dyck, 1991).

According to The Globe and Mail (December 17, 1993), "Political rights and civil liberties are declining world wide despite an increase in the number of democracies ... Half a billion more people are living in countries ranked as



'not free' this year, although the list of nominal democracies has increased from 99 to 107 ... In all, 55 countries were declared not free."

! Low adult literacy rates. The consequences of illiteracy are far‐reaching. If

people are illiterate, they are less likely to be healthy and their ability to learn is limited. Developing countries spend only an average of $26 per capita per year on education compared to the annual $1,272 per capita spent on education in Canada (Canadian Link, 1991, November p. 19). Pakistan spends only $10 per person per year on health and education, and their school enrolment rate is only 37 percent primarily because families do not want to lose their cheapest laborers‐‐their children (Stackhouse, 1996, July 17). Some Pakistani families simply cannot afford to send their children to school; others object to schooling because of personal religious beliefs.

Generally, the literacy rate of most African countries is low; however, this low rate is due in part to the scarcity of paper and lack of reliable power. Without an abundance of paper for printing, ideas must be transmitted by word of mouth, and printing presses, photocopiers, and radio and television stations need electricity to operate. If inexpensive hydroelectric power is not available, then expensive diesel fuel must be used to run the generators. In addition, equipment such as photocopiers must usually be purchased overseas with hard currency that few developing countries possess.

In developing countries, the literate people are also those who are more likely to emigrate. The World Bank estimates that A23,000 academic staff emigrate from Africa each year in search of better pay and working conditions@ (Maser, 1996).

! Male‐oriented societies that show respect for age. In many developing

countries, men are the dominating individuals. The status of women is generally low. In countries such as India and Pakistan, girls may be neglected, undernourished, and poorly educated because they are perceived to have little value. In India, raising a girl is considered an expense. Rural families are often unable to provide girls with suitable clothing and the necessary feminine rituals or dowries that, in some cases, may cost the equivalent of 10 to 15 years of a man's wages (Primetime Live, ABC News, 1994, January 6). Therefore, the incidence of female infanticide remains high, occurring in possibly 50 percent of Indian families (Prasad, 1993). It is estimated that Aat least 400 women are tortured or killed in dowry disputes every year in Bangladesh@ (The Edmonton Journal, 1997, February 8). In many developing country societies, older people are valued, particularly older men who act as advisors or counsellors. Parents tend to live with their



adult children, and thus, strong family ties are nurtured and social traditions are maintained from generation to generation.

! Strong belief in spiritual power. A significant number of people in

developing countries tend to have very strong beliefs in spiritual power and religious traditions. Islam, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Hinduism are four major religions that affect the daily lives of many in developing countries.

! Limited respect for human rights. Many governments publicly profess

adherence to the internationally accepted human rights standards. However, few developing countries have allowed their human rights commissions to be monitored or reviewed by international agencies. To date, Burma, China, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Thailand have not signed the United Nation's International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

! Lack of a scientific infrastructure. Very few developing countries have

scientific academies or institutions that generate and test ideas. Without such institutions, creativity cannot easily be nurtured (Husain, 1993). Although science and technology are often imported from other countries, they may not be appropriate for the local culture.

How Are Developed and Developing Countries Interconnected? Many Westerners think that events that occur in developing countries may be of little concern to them. But, in reality, incidents that occur half‐way around the world may directly affect the social and physical security and affluence to which Westerners have become accustomed. Countries are interdependent. Consider the following situations: ! Population. In 1990, 14 percent of the world's population lived in Europe and

North America. According to a United Nations report, only 6.4 percent of the population will be living in these areas by 2150 (Clements, 1992, August). About 94 million children are born each year, and the majority of these births occur in developing countries. The anticipated population growth in developing countries will seriously tax our entire planet's resources.

! Debt. If developing countries fail, billions of dollars in outstanding loans will

never be repaid. If these loans are not paid, the developed countries will be forced to deal with the effects of these substantial financial loses.

! Jobs. We have a global economy. If a product can be made less expensively

in one part of the world than another, it will be. For example, designer clothes that were once made in New York or Paris are now made in Vietnam and Indonesia, where workers earn from $1 to $9 per 12‐hour day. Job markets



are constantly moving to developing countries where production costs are considerably lower, due in part to the fact that local social and environmental standards are also lower. If these standards were raised, this pattern of shifting job markets might be altered.

! Immigration. If countries do not provide job opportunities for their own

citizens, the people will be forced to seek employment elsewhere. Consider the plights of the Vietnamese boat people and Cuban refugees. Note, however, that developed countries may benefit from this migration when they welcome emigrants who are highly talented and motivated.

! Trade. World trading systems affect our economic growth. Without

international trade, many companies would not be profitable. ! Environment. Everyone should be concerned about the global environment.

When vast areas of forests and grasslands are destroyed, as they have been in parts of South America, East Africa, and North America, the world=s climate and atmospheric conditions are also altered. There may be less moisture and oxygen in the air and greater amounts of dust particles that affect our ability to breathe.

! Politics. Development can lead to democracy. When people are no longer in

a survival mode, they can spend more of their energy pursuing their dreams. In order to do so, they need some control of their environment. Democracy allows people to obtain this control. The greater the difference between the "haves" and the "have‐nots," the greater the possibility of political and social unrest. Many people in developing countries are oppressed by their own governments. However, people may soon direct their attention to the foreign governments who provide the weapons used to keep them in check. Currently, developed countries provide developing countries with military weapons valued at $39 billion U.S. per year (Head, 1991, August).

! Value of life. What does it say about the human race if we continue to allow

children to die of malnutrition and preventable diseases when we have the resources to save them?

Today, we all live in one global village. When we assist others, we may be helping ourselves. When we help others to minimize air pollution, we all get cleaner air. When we help others with their economic problems, more resources can then be used to provide better health and educational services and more opportunities for all.



Does Training Benefit Developing Countries? After years of donating and lending billions of dollars to developing countries, there is little concrete evidence of any significant return on these investments. In 1987, an estimated 75 percent of all agricultural projects audited by the World Bank were failures (Dyck, 1991, July 16). The failure rate continues to be high because developed countries receive substantial sums for supplying consultants, equipment, and materials. Nearly 60 percent of all Canadian aid money is spent in Canada (McParland, 1993). Similar figures exist for the United States and other countries. Developed countries often look only at the number of dollars spent on aid, rather than at what is actually accomplished. If this scenario is to change, it is the local recipients who need to be trained, educated, and introduced to new skills and ideas. They must be actively committed and involved in sustainable development projects that they will be able to maintain with minimal foreign assistance.



1.2 The Needs of Developing Countries Categories of International Assistance Each developing country has specific needs that must be addressed. However, developing countries generally ask for assistance in the following categories: ! Humanitarian assistance. Foodstuffs and health supplies are frequently

requested. Although developed countries are quick to provide food to less developed countries, by doing so, they do not help the needy economies to become more self‐sufficient. Medical assistance is usually requested to address short‐term problems such as outbreaks of infectious diseases or injuries due to natural disasters or man‐made catastrophes such as wars. More long‐term approaches to humanitarian aid must be sought.

! Primary and secondary education. Without suitably educated and trained

citizens, nations cannot progress. Developing countries often ask international agencies to review their educational systems and to recommend improvements. However, if the educational system is improved but employment opportunities are not available, then people become frustrated. This scenario has occurred in several countries such as Tanzania. Recently, representatives from Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, and Pakistan signed a document declaring education, particularly education for girls, their highest political priority (Stackhouse, 1993, December 16).

! English, mathematics, and science literacy. These skills are essential for

conducting business in the global marketplace. Every nation=s citizens must acquire literacy skills. Many Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand realize that it is important for their people to learn English so that they can use imported, western equipment and participate effectively in international business affairs.

! Affordable access to technical and vocational training. Developing

countries frequently ask for help to establish training programs that will lead to self‐sufficiency and assist them in achieving industrialized nation status. Due to a lack of reliable power, financial resources, skilled instructors, and primary and secondary schooling, it is often difficult to establish sophisticated technical institutions in developing countries. However, it is possible to provide technical training that is relevant to the needs of the country and provides equity in educational opportunities. Botswana, for example, has recognized that training provides political and economic independence. Consequently, it has started to establish training programs to serve the needs



of instructors, the public service, the private sector, and individual entrepreneurs. Technical and vocational education must be sustainable or else it will fail soon after the foreign advisors who established it leave the country.

! Overseas training. Many developing countries seek overseas training

opportunities for their promising citizens, particularly in the areas of technology, agriculture, natural science, and administration. People who receive overseas training may acquire new skills and ideas, but they may not be able to apply all of their expertise in their homelands; their skills may not be applicable, colleagues may resist their "foreign" know‐how, or they may not have opportunities to share their recently acquired knowledge with others. Some returning graduates may become disenchanted with their native country and decide to emigrate to a country where they can use their new skills, thereby depriving their homeland of expertise that it can ill afford to lose.

! Cooperative education programs. Developing countries often seek

partnerships with foreign businesses and industries that will allow them to have some control over their education and training programs. A developing country may also ask a foreign firm to establish factories and provide on‐site training for the local people. In return, the developing country may provide the foreign firm with inexpensive land, appropriate infrastructures such as roads, and tax concessions.

Developing countries may also make cooperative arrangements with foreign educational institutions. For example, students receive the first two years of their training at home under the guidance of the foreign institution. Those who successfully complete these studies would then be accepted at the overseas institution for their third and fourth years of education. Programs such as these are beneficial to the developing country because its expenditure on overseas training is minimized and the students who finish their training overseas are most likely to succeed.

! Linkages with business and industry. Official links with foreign business

and industry may provide developing countries not only with sophisticated technology and information, but also with access to the international marketplace through the expertise and distribution networks of multinational corporations. For instance, to gain access to world‐wide distribution networks, many companies in Mexico find it advantageous to be affiliated with a large company like General Motors.

! Technological upgrading. Developing countries usually require new

technologies. However, once these new systems are in place, developing



countries may not want to rely heavily on foreign guidance to sustain and maintain them. Further, developing countries often have resources that, although not new or sophisticated, are usually suitable to their own situation. Developing countries would like others to recognize their expertise and to incorporate it into foreign technological systems.

! Management development. Effective and efficient management processes

and systems are essential. However, these systems should be adapted to the societal imperatives and cultural norms of the developing country. For example, it can be difficult to establish collaborative management methods in countries such as Indonesia, where hierarchical structures and a high regard for older workers are part of the traditional culture.

! Rural Development. The extreme poverty often seen in some urban areas of

developing countries may also prevail in the shantytowns scattered throughout the country. Unless rural areas are developed more fully, people will continue to migrate to the cities where they will put more pressure on an already overtaxed urban landscape. In order to reduce this population migration, developing countries often seek rural development assistance that will help them to improve rural sanitation, irrigation, and agricultural practices as well as develop local enterprises. If rural areas are improved, people may be less likely to move to the tin, wood, or cardboard shacks of the urban slums, where crime is common and a factor that seriously affects the development of newly democratized countries (Vidal, 1996).

Developing countries generally ask for assistance in the areas identified above. However, Westerners may view these countries' needs somewhat differently. The following discussion identifies (from a western perspective) the possible roles that developed countries play in assisting developing countries, recognizing that each recipient of foreign assistance has different priorities, aspirations, and resources. ! Providing food and proper nutrition. Without proper food and nutrition,

children may become malnourished and unable to concentrate on their studies. Providing an adequate food supply should not only make people healthy, but should also allow them to think beyond their immediate needs and to pursue non‐survival activities such as education and training. Westerners must acknowledge, however, that some cultures do not believe in interfering with the natural order. Many tribes who live close to nature (such as the African Bushmen) consider droughts and food shortages part of the natural cycle of life.

! Protecting the environment. Many Westerners believe that the global

environment must be protected. They strongly object to clear‐cut logging in



the Philippines, Thailand, and the Amazon, air and water pollution in Asia, the excessive use of pesticides in South America, and the lack of population control in many countries. Although developing countries acknowledge these concerns, they also note that developed countries have used similar environmentally harmful methods during their transition from agricultural to industrial societies, and that they continue to do so today. Therefore, if Canada can clear‐cut its forests to provide economic growth, why can't they? If the Rhine River is full of pollutants from vast industrial complexes, and industries and households in the United States contribute to acid rain, why must developing countries adhere to strict environmental standards? What right do Westerners have to impose on the developing world standards that they continue to ignore at home?

! Securing human rights and establishing participative governance.

Many developing countries do not have individual rights and gendered equality enshrined in their constitutions. Even when they do, these policies are not always followed. Social justice and non‐corruptible, multi‐party democracy is not often found in countries that lack an enlightened, educated populace. Furthermore, their social structures tend to be hierarchical, and it is assumed that those at the top of the hierarchy know what is best for the country. Some Westerners would like to see the way of life in many developing countries change overnight. They fail to realize that the establishment of social justice and democracy often takes time and sometimes involves periods of political instability. They forget that England's equitable judiciary and parliamentary systems took several hundred years to evolve.

! Providing educational opportunities to all members of the society.

Developing countries generally spend twice as much money on defence than they do on primary education, and advanced education is frequently restricted to a few privileged individuals. Most developing countries need meaningful education that they can use immediately and an educational system that does not produce a petty bourgeois class of highly skilled but non‐functioning individuals. Westerners often introduce sophisticated training methods that are abandoned by the locals soon after the Westerners leave. Developing countries need education and training systems that are relevant and accessible to all. In order to provide accessible education, countries such as India have established an elaborate distance education system that attempts to meet the needs of many of its people.

! Facilitating the development of an effective and efficient social and

bureaucratic infrastructure. In order to foster social equality and economic prosperity, many developing countries may need to establish honest and efficient bureaucratic structures with only a few levels of authorization. However, this can be a significant challenge, as current



bureaucratic structures are often tightly woven into the fabric of the country=s society. In order to get many things done, including passing through customs, one may be required to provide a Agift.@ This Agift@ supplements the custom officials= low wages. A Canadian agricultural expert in North Africa was placed in an awkward situation when local custom dictated that he hire the brother of one of the African workers. The brother had no experience in maintaining or operating farm machinery, yet the Canadian was asked to hire him because once a relative obtained a job, he was expected to find work for other members of his family. These examples illustrate how societal norms help some people to survive in developing countries. Changing existing social practices to ones that are more efficient and effective, from a western point of view, will take time and patience. Few Westerners, however, would recommend following China=s recent approach to remodelling its society. In an effort to make bureaucratic processes more efficient, China has severe penalties for businesspeople and public service workers who accept graft or steal from their employers.

! Promoting economic development. The perceived success of capitalism

encourages Westerners to suggest that free‐enterprise systems be established in developing countries. These systems may provide economic growth, but they may also adversely affect the existing social norms that foster the sharing of scarce resources. Successful free‐enterprise systems require entrepreneurial and management expertise that developing countries may lack. In addition, the rapid industrial growth that is occurring in some Asian countries may lead to environmental degradation. Westerners have the economic and management skills that many developing countries need, but these skills must be adapted to suit the needs of the developing country.

! Providing timely, relevant information. Developing countries often need

access to information that can be used to improve health care or to produce higher agricultural yields. Westerners not only need to provide them with the hardware and software, but must also show the indigenous workers how to use databases, simulations, and expert systems. In countries where the governments control the access to and the free flow of information, it may be difficult to provide useful information to the people who actually need it.

! Establishing a scientific/research community. By establishing its own

scientific and research community, a country can offer its skilled citizens opportunities to apply and further develop their skills. If these opportunities are not provided, these skilled people may emigrate to other countries. According to various UNESCO documents, developing countries spend less than one‐half of one percent of their gross national product (GNP), or one tenth of what developing countries spend, on research and development.



The needs of developing countries are significant and diverse. If all these needs were to be addressed at once, a country may be unable to provide all the necessary resources, and those projects that were started would be completed poorly. International development efforts must be coordinated and, if feasible, linked to global issues such as environmental preservation and the prevention disease. Change does not occur quickly. Some developing countries are trying to accomplish in one or two generations what took industrialized countries 200 to 300 years to achieve. Only a few countries, such as Singapore, have succeeded without resorting to measures such as the use of child labor, which has occurred throughout history. While some developing countries yearn to be industrialized, industrialized countries are becoming information providers and brokers. Perhaps developing countries should strive to become information brokers rather than industrial heartlands. While providing assistance, industrialized countries must ensure that developing countries are not exploited. Industrialized countries should provide a neutral forum in which ideas can be discussed and solutions generated. Developed countries must recognize the existing expertise in a developing country, provide encouragement and support, and never say, "That isn't how we do it at home!" By helping others, developed countries may also help themselves. For example, if developed countries believe that immigration may have a negative impact on their own economic and social systems, then they should encourage developing countries to create job opportunities that will keep their skilled workers at home. Characteristics of Good International Training Projects In order to meet the needs of developing countries, all international training and development projects should: ! be analyzed to ensure that what is proposed will address the concerns

identified by the stakeholders; ! be relevant to the specific needs of the country and be carefully planned to

address those needs; ! take into account the cultural and societal norms of the developing country; ! recognize and use the developing country's expertise and resources; ! take into account the country's infrastructure; ! foster self‐reliance and self‐esteem;



! be of high quality; ! be mutually beneficial to the developing and developed countries; ! use appropriate technology that serves a need rather than implements showy,

capital‐intensive technology; ! integrate micro, grassroots activities into long‐term, macro plans; ! facilitate the development of indigenous businesses and industries; ! account for all funds disbursed; ! contribute to sustainable development. The Concept of Sustainable Development One of the characteristics of a successful international training activity is that it contributes to sustainable development. Sustainable development can be defined as development that meets the needs of the present, but does not compromise the needs of future generations. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) states that the concept of sustainable development can be modified to address changing conditions such as increased knowledge. According to Loubser (1993), the main characteristics of sustainable development are as follows: ! Sustainable development takes a long‐term perspective. For example,

economic, social, and education and training decisions must have a long‐term impact. A successful training program deals not only with immediate, individual needs, but also with long‐term, national needs.

! Sustainable development respects diversity and pluralism. Diversity and

pluralism contribute to resilience and flexibility. If the training program presents a variety of ways to solve a problem, it is more likely that the trainees will be able to adapt their newly acquired skills to unpredictable circumstances.

! Sustainable development uses an integrated approach. All human and

natural processes are intimately linked. Therefore, training programs must take into account how the training will affect various human and environmental factors and how these factors will affect training. For example, if the training program enables rural trainees to obtain jobs in the city, what effect will the trainees' move to the city have on their families or rural



communities? Perhaps the training that is provided should be designed to meet the needs of the local community, thereby encouraging people to remain in rural areas.

! Sustainable development requires equity and justice. Equity has three

dimensions: within countries (social classes and gender), among countries (rich and poor), and between generations. Training programs must be designed to address the needs of all people, male or female, rich or poor, and young or old. Although a specific training program may be designed for only one group of people, training opportunities for other groups of people must also be provided. Training programs designed to meet today's challenges must not affect future training endeavors. If a training program is poorly executed, it may discourage others from mounting similar programs in the future.

! Sustainable development relies on participatory approaches. People

must be involved in decision‐making. Participants in training programs must have a role in deciding how the training will proceed. If they are involved, they will assume ownership for their training and be more likely to use their new skills at the end of the training program.

CIDA is not the only agency or country promoting sustainable development activities in developing countries. The United States also seeks to sponsor projects that promote sustainable development (CNN Headline News, 1993, November 27). Sustainable development may not be possible in societies that have little regard for diversity or pluralism, or do not promote equity and justice. Further, developed countries that sponsor sustainable development projects may encounter resistance from developing countries that have had negative experiences with previous international development projects.



1.3 Your Motives and Skills Introduction You have learned from the previous sections that the needs of developing countries are often significant and varied. Perhaps you could assist by participating in training sessions in developing countries. However, before you embark on what can be a most rewarding experience, you should take the time to assess your motives and skills. You may discover that an international training activity is not for you. If you do decide to take part in international activities, you will have an opportunity not only to share your expertise and assist others, but also to sharpen your training skills and to find out more about yourself. Motives: What Contributions Can I Make? There are a number of good reasons to participate in international training activities; some are personal, some are professional, and some may be related to pressures from colleagues, family, or friends. Before you accept an international training assignment, it is important that you know why you want to go overseas. To help you to clarify your motives, answer the following questions honestly: 1. What is your view of the world?

! Do you respect the diversity and individuality of world cultures? ! Do you acknowledge the value of human beings and their aspirations as

an essential aspect of global interdependence? ! Do you recognize that change takes time and that sustained change

requires the commitment of those who will be most affected by the change?

! Do you recognize that most people want to improve their condition in

manner that is congruent with their personal beliefs and culture?

2. Why do you want to work in a developing country?

! Do you really want to assist others? ! Do you want to change the world? Is this a realistic expectation?



! Do you have specialized knowledge or skills that are needed overseas? How will your knowledge and skills help?

! Do you want to explore different cultures? ! Do you want to rejuvenate yourself or do you simply want to change your

present routine? If you are just looking for a change, could you achieve that end without travelling to another country?

! Do you hope to gain experiences that can help you later in your personal

and professional life? Can you describe what you think these experiences might be?

! Do you want to impress your colleagues or friends? ! Did your supervisor ask you to take part in this international activity?

Why did your supervisor ask you to participate? ! Do you want to prove yourself to your supervisors? ! Did an external agency contact you with regard to an international

training project? What are the goals of the agency? Are their goals congruent with your view of the world?

! Will you get a promotion if you go? ! Will other job opportunities open up for you if you go? ! How will your future job prospects be affected if you don=t go? ! Are you escaping from unpleasant work conditions or family difficulties?

When you return from your international assignment, will you still face the same difficulties?

! What opportunities exist overseas for personal and professional

development? Are these challenges available at home? 3. Does your supervisor and/or your institution/employer support your

international training activities?

! What encouragement have they given you? ! What support will they provide?



! What professional or personal recognition do you expect to receive for participating in an international training project?

4. Will your family support your international venture?

! Will they understand your motives for going? ! Will they give you emotional support? ! What effect will your absence have on your family? ! Does your family want to accompany you on your trip?

5. If you go, are you prepared to live in a non‐Western culture?

! Can you cope with rigid rules? ! Can you eat unfamiliar food? Can you do without certain foods such as

salad and milk? Can you reduce your food intake if necessary? ! Can you tolerate others' points of view on topics such as time, the family,

women's issues, politics, religion, the environment, and so forth? ! Can you do without the comforts of home? Can you tolerate conditions

that would normally be considered unsanitary? 6. If you do go, what positive and negative consequences do you anticipate?

What might happen to you emotionally, financially, physically, or otherwise? 7. If you don't participate in this international venture, how will you feel? 8. Upon your return from your international trip, how do you expect you will

feel? 9. Is this international training project something that you really want to do? Skills: What Skills Do You Need? If you want to participate in a successful international training project, you should possess a variety of skills. Answer the questions below. Do you have what it takes to be an effective international trainer?



! Do you have a genuine interest in learning about others? ! Can you gain the trust and respect of others? ! Can you respect others, despite their poverty and lack of education? ! Are you competent in an area of expertise that may be of benefit to a

developing country? ! Do you have the ability to train others? ! Do you consider yourself superior to others? ! Are you flexible? Can you adapt? When you encounter difficulties, do you

see them as a threat or as an opportunity to be creative? ! Are you resourceful? Can you work around obstacles and still accomplish

your goal? ! Do you have a wide range of knowledge? Do you have the appropriate

educational qualifications? Do you have an expertise beyond your subject area?

! Are you a realist? Do you find it difficult to translate philosophical intentions

into actions? ! Can you separate process from content? ! Are you a team player? Can you follow as well as lead? Are you organized? ! Are you curious? Are you mentally alert? ! Do you have a positive outlook? Are you enthusiastic about life? ! Do you respect others and their beliefs? ! Do you have empathy for others? Are you sensitive to the politics, customs,

and religions of others? Do you appreciate the needs of others? ! Are you humble? ! Can you act in a diplomatic and tactful manner? ! Do you listen actively? Do you talk too much?



! Are you patient? ! Do you have a sense of humour? Can you laugh at yourself? ! Are you emotionally stable? Are you able to work effectively under stressful

conditions? Do you let anxiety get the better of you? Can you cope with ambiguity and uncertainty? Are you patient?

! Can you cope with cultural isolation or homesickness? Can you be alone for

extended periods of time? ! Can you speak the language of your international clients? If not, can you

learn basic phrases? Have you worked with others who speak English as a second language?

! Are you in excellent physical and mental health? Can you cope with insects,

extreme heat or cold, high humidity, crowded places, noisy environments, unsanitary conditions, and lack of privacy?

! Have you travelled in underdeveloped or developing countries before? ! Have you worked in another country? Did you enjoy the experience? ! Can you identify the characteristics that make your country unique? Can you

identify the commonalities between your homeland and the country in which you want to work?

! What challenges might you face overseas? Can you cope with them? ! What challenges will you encounter upon your return from a foreign

assignment? Thirteen educators, who had recently returned from conducting training in various developing countries, were asked to identify the skills that international trainers should possess. Their abbreviated responses are listed below. The responses have not been prioritized.

ability to be a team player* caring attitude cultural acuity diplomacy and tact emotional stability* empathy* enthusiasm

excellent teaching skills* excellent mental health excellent physical health flexibility* language skills leadership ability motivation



patience* positive self‐image previous overseas experience sense of humour* sensitivity to cultural differences

sensitivity to religious differences*

sociability technical competence* tolerance of others' views willingness to work hard

Empathy, emotional stability, flexibility, a sense of humour, patience, teaching ability, technical competence, a willingness to work hard, the ability to function as a team player, and sensitivity to cultural and religious differences were the traits they most frequently mentioned. Of greatest importance, were flexibility and a sense of humour. International training activities do not always proceed as planned. You must be prepared to expect the unexpected and laugh at yourself when things go awry. How Will Your International Training Activities Benefit a Developing Country? ! Are you aware of what assistance is wanted or needed overseas? ! Have you accurately assessed these wants and needs? ! Have the local people accepted ownership of the solutions suggested? ! Did the local people want or ask for outside assistance? ! Can you do what is required? Do you have the expertise? Do your solutions

take into account the realities of a specific culture and environment? ! Will your solutions be effective for a long or short period of time? ! Will the local people be able to sustain your solutions after you leave? How Will You and Your Organization Benefit? There are many benefits to participating in international training projects. Consider which of the following benefits are relevant for you and your institution or employer. Please feel free to add to these lists.



Benefits for Yourself Overseas training: ! Increases your understanding of yourself. ! Encourages you to re‐examine your values and identify what is important in

your life. ! Increases your understanding and appreciation of your country. ! Broadens your experience and increases your knowledge of the world around

you. ! Expands your foreign language communication skills. ! Acknowledges your moral duty to share knowledge and skills with others,

especially those less fortunate than yourself. ! Provides you with the opportunity to train individuals who may then train

others. ! Increases your sensitivity to different cultures and values. ! Enhances your ability to adapt and be flexible when faced with unfamiliar

events and circumstances. ! Increases your understanding of global issues such as those related to the

environment and gender. ! Increases your circle of professional contacts. ! Encourages you to develop new areas of expertise. Benefits for Your Educational or Training Institution Overseas training: ! Promotes your institution's profile locally, nationally, and internationally. ! Demonstrates the willingness of your institution to help others in need. ! Opens the door for future international training activities, including student

and instructor exchanges.



! Enables your faculty to take part in a rejuvenating professional development experience.

! Provides your faculty with first‐hand knowledge about the subjects they

teach. This knowledge can then be shared with other faculty members. ! Links the institution with international training and philanthropic agencies. ! Provides information that can be used on subsequent trips or to market your

institution's services overseas. ! Enables others to follow and conduct additional training. Someone has to go

first. ! Uses and expands existing institutional resources. ! Increases the institution's and surrounding community's awareness of and

sensitivity to a multi‐cultural world and the needs of developing countries. Benefits To Your Non‐educational Employer Overseas training: ! Establishes new contacts and opens up potential markets. ! Ensures that all employees will have similar skills and work toward achieving

the same standards, if your company has offices in a foreign country. ! Provides information that can be used on subsequent trips. ! Provides knowledge of the global marketplace. ! Provides specific marketing information, especially information regarding

target audiences and their needs. ! Provides an opportunity to market your company's products and services. ! Provides information that can be used by your company to open or expand

into foreign markets. ! Increases your company's global contacts. ! Provides professional development opportunities for your staff.



Before going on an international assignment, be sure that you are comfortable with the decision to go. You will not be of help to yourself or others unless you are first satisfied that you have something to offer others and that you will benefit from the experience. Your motives and the benefits that may materialize must be realistically identified in your own mind. You must not only know that going overseas is the right thing to do, but you must also feel that it is the right thing for you to do. Be true to yourself.



1.4 Dealing with Cultural Differences Defining Culture In order to work effectively in an international environment, the most important skill that you will need is the ability to deal with cultural differences. You must be culturally sensitive and able to adapt to another way of life. Culture is the set of values and assumptions that are commonly held and acted upon by members of a particular social, geographical, or ethnic community and passed on from one generation to another. These values and assumptions are used to interpret the world and guide individual and group actions. Each culture has its own unique characteristics. What we normally associate with culture are artifacts that we can see, hear, smell, or touch. Black, Gregersen, and Mendenhall (1992) state that these artifacts are really the tip of an iceberg. Below the surface are the values and assumptions upon which the artifacts are based. Values are the principles or rules that guide the society and assumptions are the suppositions or beliefs that are commonly held by a society. Because they are taken for granted, they are difficult to understand or explain to others. They are deep‐rooted and not easily changed. Consider how you might feel if you were suddenly placed in an environment in which your cultural values and assumptions did not apply? How would you react? If you found yourself in a culture that believed that you were guilty until proven innocent, wouldn't you feel a little uncomfortable? Would you react negatively to this situation? The above is just one example of the many cultural situations in which international instructors often find themselves. They arrive with one mental map or strategy for coping with their new environment, but they must live in a place where their personal assumptions, values, and rules do not apply. They must learn to hold both forms of assumptions and values in their mind. They must learn to accept what they cannot change, to adapt to their new surroundings, and to develop new routines that make them feel more comfortable. The ability to adjust is the key to survival. One culture is neither better nor worse than another, but because of ethnocentrism, most people inherently believe that their own culture is superior to that of others. Ethnocentrism helps us to identify with people in our cultural group and to take pride in ourselves. Unfortunately, this pride may also prevent



us from understanding others and appreciating that another way of living is equally acceptable. Cultural Assumptions According to Black, Gregersen, and Mendenhall (1992, pp. 37‐41), cultures differ in their assumptions on five basic issues. ! Humanity's relationship to the environment. In some cultures, humans exist

to dominate nature and extract its wealth; in other cultures, humans are expected to coexist harmoniously with the natural world.

! Human nature. Some cultures may consider people to be basically good,

while others make the assumption that people are inherently evil and must be directed to do good.

! Human relationships. This category of assumptions describes how people

relate to each other. For example, do people exist to serve themselves or others? How much power and authority should one person have? What are the rights and freedoms of individuals?

! Human activity. Should people respond to the world in an active, passive, or

fatalistic manner? In some cultures, it is assumed that people can only do certain things; the Creator or Almighty determines the rest. In other cultures, people assume that they can determine their own destinies.

! Reality and truth. Some cultures believe that truth can be objectively

determined, while others define truth as what is socially acceptable. Now, take the time to examine the assumptions on which your culture is based. If you are an American or Canadian, your list of assumptions may look like this: ! We believe that people have the right to alter nature and use its wealth for

themselves. However, most North American Aboriginals and environmentalists would disagree with this assumption.

! We believe that people are innocent until they are proven to be guilty. In

order to prove guilt, decisions should be made based on relevant, accurate facts.

! We believe that individuals have certain rights and freedoms and have limited

obligations to others. However, commitments should be honored.



! We believe that we can determine our own destinies. If we work hard and, perhaps, have a little luck, we will realize our aspirations.

! We believe that truth can be objectively determined. Facts and evidence can

be used to help us find the truth. ! We believe that time is finite and should be used effectively, not wasted. Knowing the assumptions made by your own cultural group, consider how they might affect your daily activities. For example, if you believe that time is finite and extremely valuable, then you will most likely plan to spend your time effectively, be punctual, and lead a fast‐paced lifestyle. Others may not hold this view; they may consider time to be limitless. They may not wear watches, but instead, use the position of the sun to determine time. By examining our own cultural beliefs, we become more comfortable with ourselves. Consequently, we are better able to cope with those who challenge our beliefs. Cultural Values and Artifacts Held by Others Prior to working overseas, you should determine the cultural conventions of the country in which you will be living. You will not be an effective instructor or trainer unless you are aware of how to interact effectively with your foreign hosts and students. Remember, values generate beliefs and rules of correct behavior. If you can understand their cultural assumptions and values, you will be better able to predict their behavior. It may even be helpful to learn how these values may have originated. The following discussion of the values and beliefs of different cultures will help you to appreciate and prepare for living and working in an unfamiliar culture. After reviewing the items below, consider making a similar list focusing specifically on the culture of the country in which your training activities will take place. Although these items are listed separately, they are often interrelated and sometimes inseparable. Attitudes and Beliefs The major beliefs that members of a culture share shape their view of the world. In North America, we tend to separate church and state, yet many cultures do not make this clear distinction; religion dictates how they view the world and conduct themselves. Westerners tend to have a Judeo‐Christian tradition; the Middle East, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Malaysia have an Islamic tradition; and Oriental cultures are strongly influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism.



Each religion describes how its devotees should behave. For example, Muslims are expected to practice the five pillars of Islam. Islam was founded by the prophet Mohammed in the seventh century. Through the angel Gabriel, the teachings of Allah were made known to Mohammed and recorded in the Koran. The Koran provides the foundations for an entire way of life and covers a wide spectrum of issues including faith, rights and obligations, crime and punishment, and personal and public law. The Koran and the teachings of Mohammed were combined to form the hadith, which is the basis of the Islamic religion. It states that Muslims must actively profess their faith in Allah and Mohammed; pray five times a day; pay the zakat or contribute to the well‐being of the poor; fast between dawn and dusk during the month of Ramadan to celebrate the divine communication of the Koran to Mohammed; and, if possible, make a pilgrimage to Mecca, the heart of Islam. The Koran also dictates that Muslim women dress modestly and refrain from contact with unrelated males. Consequently, if you work in an Islamic country, your business day or instructional classes must take into account the need for your colleagues or students to pray. You may find that, even in the hottest weather, Islamic women are fully covered and expose only their faces, hands, and feet. If you will be working in China, then you should know that the teachings of Confucius, an ancient Chinese philosopher, influence daily life in this country. Confucius stressed order, the cultivation of the "superior man," the primacy of family, and the importance of cooperation. The emphasis on order means that things are often seen more in terms of "black and white" rather than shades of grey. Social etiquette is important and informality may be regarded as being disrespectful. In a Confucian culture, people are clearly ranked by their status. It is also important for Chinese people to maintain their self‐image and reputation; therefore, "saving face" or avoiding and preventing embarrassment is essential. Personal relationships are also exceedingly important, especially family ties and friendships. In China, the most successful person is the one who has the most guanxi or connections. Thus, if you teach Chinese students, whether they be in China, Hong Kong, or Taiwan, you must remember that their obligations to family and friends come before their obligations to you as an instructor. In addition, you must learn to address them formally, to refrain from singling anyone out, and to present organized, well‐structured lessons. Unfortunately, many Chinese are accustomed to rote learning and are often reluctant to try more participatory activities. Individual and Group Aspirations Westerners generally believe in, but may not practice, egalitarianism‐‐the belief in human equality, particularly with respect to social, political, and economic



rights. We encourage individual aspirations and praise individual achievements. Perhaps North Americans firmly believe in the will of the individual because we are more scientific and depend less on spiritualism than other cultures do to explain actions in the world. Americans may feel that nations are born as a result of the strong will and entrepreneurial spirit of individuals who live in a competitive environment. However, many of the world's people do not share this view; they believe that the group, whether it be family or collective, is more important. In the Philippines and Venezuela, for example, people think first about the welfare of their families, then about individual desires. In China, although the elders or heads of households or business leaders may make the decisions, they welcome advice from others (providing it is not offered in front of strangers and that appropriate respect is given to those who must make the final decisions). In many cultures, there is a hierarchy that gives order to relations and defines the status of individuals. The hierarchy determines obligations and how individuals relate to one another. For Westerners, one of the most contentious issues is the status of women in developing countries. In some countries, the women are treated as equal; in others, they are subservient and may be treated like chattel. "Although women's primary responsibility in China is still centred in the household, their roles in leadership, management, and the profession are more extensive than they are for women in the rest of East Asia. In fact, women make up 24 percent of Chinese cadresCsupervisors, bureaucrats, the professionsCand are one‐third of all scientists and engineers" (Cyr, 1993, May/June, p. 8). In many parts of India, women are not highly prized and female infanticide is common. In some Hindu and Islamic cultures, women may often live a life separate from men, yet share the same roof. Their movements may be severely curtailed and they may have limited educational opportunities. In some African countries, although women perform much of the manual labor, they may not be encouraged to participate in business decisions that affect their work. Many Westerners feel that women in these countries should enjoy the same rights as men. Not everyone would agree with this premise. Islamic fundamentalists, for example, believe that it is this emphasis on individual rights that is destroying Islamic society and family values. They want the Koran, as they interpret it, to be enforced; that means that women have a significant role in the Islamic family and society, but their role is not the same as that of men. When living and working abroad, it is important to acknowledge and respect the different cultural views regarding the aspirations of individuals and groups and the roles of men and women in a particular society. You may not have the same beliefs and values as your foreign students, but you must realize that you are a guest in their country. You must decide if you are there to try to change society or to impart knowledge and skills.



If you are there to perform the latter task, you will probably want to avoid addressing human rights and women's issues in a vocational or engineering class. However, it is possible to teach by example. If you are a member of an international instructional team, you could answer a student=s question yourself rather than defer to the team leader. By doing so, you demonstrate that it is possible to be a respected team player. If women are on the team performing the same duties as men, then the students may perceive that women are just as capable as men. However, it is important to note that female instructors may not be welcomed in some cultures. Students may not ask them questions, and female instructors may not be perceived to have the same expertise as the male instructors. People=s attitudes can change, but this change usually takes time. Spoken and Written Communication For most of us, the most noticeable feature that distinguishes one group from another is language. You might assume that, because you speak English, everyone in the English‐speaking world will understand you. However, this is not the case. In North America, the terms "hood" and "trunk" refer to the front and back of an automobile. However, the British use the terms "bonnet" and "boot" to refer to these same parts. The English word Apreservative@ translates to Acondom@ in many languages, and when British people use the phrase Aknock someone up,@ they mean Awake someone up.@ The differences in terminology relate to differences in culture. A language is deeply rooted in a specific culture. Each culture has its own slang, colloquialisms, jargons, accents, and so forth. Not only are different dialects of the same language spoken in various countries, but several languages may be spoken within one country. For example, will your Chinese students speak Cantonese or Mandarin? English is thought to be a precise language because a single word can convey an idea. In languages such as Chinese, the meaning of a word is determined by its context. The context may be ascertained by listening to the tone of voice or considering the other words or characters in a phrase or sentence. Therefore, other cultures (particularly those in Asia and the Middle East) may pay more attention to how you say or write something than to what you actually say or write. Do remember that many cultures punctuate their speech with varying lengths of silence. This custom is usually disconcerting for most Westerners, who like to fill every silent pause with a word or two. Other cultures use silence to think, to reflect on what has been said, to read your reception of their message, and to exchange non‐verbal messages with their colleagues. After some experience and practice, you may be able to decipher what is occurring during these periods of silence. You may also use silence yourself to allow students time to think. This is particularly important if English is the students' second or third language.



Non‐verbal Communication In many cultures, non‐verbal cues such as eye contact, facial expressions, hand gestures, silence, and body stance convey more than the spoken word. Many cultures place a much greater emphasis than Westerners do on the effective and correct use of gestures and body language. Arab, French, Italian, and Latin American cultures tend to be more flamboyant with their physical gestures, while the Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Southeast Asian cultures tend to be more conservative. In the Middle East, Latin America, and many Asian countries, people stand close together when they speak; they allow less interpersonal space between people than Westerners are accustomed to having. Many Westerners believe that they have a right to personal space and privacy; many Asian cultures would wonder why Westerners would want to be alone. They acknowledge the need for privacy during meditation and study, but Asians prefer not to isolate themselves from others, especially family members. Direct eye contact may be minimal. Some Asian and Arab students would not feel comfortable looking directly at an elder, an authority figure, or anyone who has a higher social status. Therefore, you would never say, as we do in the West, "Look at me when I am talking to you!" In some Asian cultures, direct eye contact may be considered rude and aggressive; in Spanish and Portuguese cultures, extended eye contact may signify romantic interest. Gestures are a not a universal language. The "thumbs up" gesture commonly used in North America to signify success or that everything is OK is considered extremely rude in West Africa. In North America, you might pat young students on the head to acknowledge their good work or to encourage them to proceed. However, in Thailand, if you pat anyone on the head, you may offend them. There, the head is sacred and should not be touched. In Islamic countries, women should never be touched. You should never point with your toes in Thailand or with your finger in Malaysia. In the Middle East, it may be acceptable to for men to touch each other, but such contact will be chastised or frowned upon in other cultures. The list of questionable physical gestures and motions is endless. Do make an effort to determine which gestures are acceptable in the country in which you will be working, and refrain from using a gesture until you know how it will be interpreted. A warm smile is usually accepted almost everywhere, but note that it may indicate embarrassment, nervousness, or anger in China and parts of Southeast Asia.



Negotiation Negotiation is an important part of everyday life throughout the world, and it is especially so in developing countries, where bargaining is an accepted way of determining the cost of a taxi ride or the price of fruit at the local market. You may need to negotiate your overseas subsistence allowance, your accommodation arrangements, the place in which you will conduct your workshops, the number of breaks your students are entitled to, the list of topics to be covered in your lesson, and so forth. When the stakes are high, you must pay closer attention to conducting effective negotiations. Frank (1993, p. 34) identifies the following "commonly made mistakes which should be avoided in international negotiations." ! "Insufficient understanding of different ways of thinking." Some think of

negotiation as a "win‐lose" situation while others may see it as a "win‐win" situation. Some want to discuss the substantive issues immediately, while others must ensure that all procedural and relationship issues are discussed in detail prior to debating the substantive issues.

! "Insufficient attention paid to the other party's need to preserve face"

(especially in China and Southeast Asia). ! "Insufficient knowledge of the domestic background of the country ... its

history, culture, government, status of business, image of foreigners, etc." ! "Insufficient recognition of political and other criteria," such as religious and

cultural requirements. ! "Insufficient recognition of the other side's decision‐making process, i.e. who

is really making the decisions, who is implementing them?" Has the negotiator been selected because of his knowledge of what is being discussed and/or of the negotiating process, or because of his relationship to someone else? Will decisions be made by consensus, in a democratic manner, or by an authoritarian ruling?

! "Insufficient understanding of the importance of personal relationships and

personalities." Does the negotiator represent herself or a group of individuals? Will the negotiations satisfy individual or group aspirations? Are any inter‐team dynamics being played out during the negotiations?

! "Insufficient allocation of time for negotiations." North Americans often do

not take into account the need of others to spend time to develop a relationship and a degree of trust. Others may regard negotiations as



a process that is valuable in its own right, not merely as a means to an end. ! "Insufficient attention to planning, to international communications and

procedures." Protocol is exceedingly important to many cultures. North Americans may fail to take proper protocol seriously or take it seriously only during the beginning phase of negotiations.

! "Insufficient attention to the twofold role of the negotiators on the other side

who have to defend their positions and 'sell' any compromises internationally."

Time North Americans tend to be time conscious; we are always aware of the hour of the day and the time spent to complete an activity. Our lives are fast‐paced. Foreign visitors who tour New York, Los Angeles, or Toronto are often overwhelmed by the tempo of our lives and the punctuality we expect. In other cultures, time is less important. Many people in Latin America have a more flexible attitude toward time; they may arrive an hour late for classes or meetings. In African countries such as Ethiopia, people may arrive in the afternoon for a morning appointment; they have stopped en route to help a cousin or friend. In several African countries, time is considered plentiful; one does not need to set limits on it. Some cultures expect only low‐status individuals to arrive at a stated time, while high‐status or older individuals may arrive later. When setting appointments, it may be wise to ask, "Will that be North American time or local time?" However, this question may lead to a discussion regarding different cultural values. North Americans often refer to seasons in reference to time. For example, "We'll meet again in the fall, or we=ll complete that project during the winter." Westerners understand what is meant by spring, summer, fall, and winter, but the terms wet season or dry season may be more meaningful to people of other cultures. Do consider how your concept of time may be perceived by others. Social Interactions and Customs North Americans tend to have a casual attitude toward protocol and appearances, but this may not be the case in other countries where people are expected to act and dress according to their station and age. A person whose behavior and appearance are unconventional by local standards may be considered disrespectful. Greetings vary from country to country. A firm handshake may be expected in North America, but a limp handshake is often given in Middle Eastern countries.



A bow may be an acceptable form of greeting in the Orient; the depth of the bow varies according to the status of the individual being greeted. In Thailand, individuals put their palms together in front of their chest in the prayer position or wai, then bow slightly. The placement of the palms and the depth of the bow are determined by the status of the person being greeted. In Algeria, kissing both cheeks is an acceptable greeting used by both men and women. Folding your arms while speaking with a person in Fiji shows respect; this same action may be considered arrogant behavior in many western cultures. Different cultures express appreciation in different ways. For example, many French, Spanish, and Middle Eastern people tend to openly and spontaneously express appreciation. Many Asians, on the other hand, rarely express their feelings in an open or expressive manner. They may not express appreciation for an expected level of service. Clothing also varies from country to country. Climate does not always dictate whether or not the body should be fully covered. Muslim women, regardless of whether they live in tropical or temperate regions, are expected to cover most of their bodies. A sarong may be acceptable dress in some South Pacific countries and a colorful batik shirt may be worn to semi‐formal events in Malaysia. Westerners who try to adopt the local dress may embarrass themselves and offend their hosts if they wear the local costume in an unacceptable manner. Unless they have been invited by their hosts to wear local apparel and then instructed on the proper arrangement of these garments, North Americans should wear North American‐style clothing that is appropriate to their situation. Religion plays an important role in many countries. Many religions require visitors to leave their shoes at the door of the church, temple, or mosque; women may also need to cover their heads with a hat or scarf and wear dresses rather than shorts or pants. You may also be expected to remove your shoes before entering the home of your host. In Thailand, guests first remove their shoes and avoid stepping on the doorsill (where a spirit lives) when entering a home. Gift giving provides a way of introducing oneself, showing respect, or solidifying a friendship or a business deal. Flowers are an acceptable gift in Bolivia, Jordan, and Indonesia. However, in Kenya, they are appropriate only when expressing condolences. Flowers may be given as gifts in Brazil, but they should not be purple, as that color reminds local people of death. Timepieces such as watches and clocks are favorite Western gifts, because they are small, can range from inexpensive to extravagant, and can be engraved with a name or company logo. However, in China, clocks carry connotations of bad luck or death. Further, any significant gift to a Chinese person may cause him or her embarrassment as well as trouble with colleagues or the law. Gifts given to overseas hosts should be chosen carefully. A pen, for example, is small, inoffensive, and can be used by



everyone. Consider giving a small gift, brought from your homeland, to the eldest, high‐status host or give one gift to a group of people. It is obvious that social customs vary a great deal from country to country and even within a country. A wise international instructor finds out as much as possible about the customs of a specific country, carefully observes interactions overseas, and when in doubt, asks for advice. Food and Eating Habits Westerners are accustomed to a variety of restaurant chains where familiar foods can be obtained quickly. After all, time is money! But elsewhere, meals are to be savored and enjoyed. In Morocco, you may be invited to your host's home for a sumptuous feast, and in Latin America, you may attend an elaborate dinner that begins serving at 9 or 11 p.m. As the guest of honor, you may be served sheep's eyeballs in the Middle East or fish‐head curry in Malaysia. (In those countries, food must be eaten only with the right hand, as the left hand is considered unclean.) Chinese hosts may invite you to dine on dog meat and ask you to use chopsticks and a spoon, while hosts in countries previously associated with the British colonial period may provide you with a knife and fork. Hindus will not serve beef and Muslims will not serve pork. Meals are also the time for people to propose toasts to one's health and family and to friendship. It is always advisable to have a few toasts prepared to honor your hosts. Except in Islamic countries, alcoholic beverages are usually provided for toasting. In Russia, toasting with a little vodka can continue throughout the evening. Work Habits and Practices People work to accomplish tasks, to provide food and shelter for themselves and their family, and to acquire possessions, recognition, and power. How people work can vary from culture to culture or from country to country. People in western, industrialized societies may work in a competitive environment in which decisions are made by a few. Workers may be praised or criticized individually or collectively as a group. Non‐monetary rewards are appreciated, but monetary rewards are usually sought. People may move from one company to another in order to obtain the recognition and income that they believe they deserve. Workers are recognized for their skills, and their relationship to others in their company may not significantly affect their job status. Decisions are frequently made according to personal motives and the need to earn a profit. Religious and political factors may not be involved in the corporate decision‐making process.



Many other cultures have a collective view of work. People work in a cooperative manner to attain family or group goals and to achieve balance and harmony. In North Korea, individuals labor collectively to accomplish political goals. In China, traditional workers are devoted to their employers and do not question their decisions. In Tanzania, hiring and promotion are based primarily on family connections. You would not openly criticize or disagree with anyone in a Southeast Asian country, as the individuals being addressed would lose face in front of their colleagues. You too would lose face because you had treated them in an insensitive and disrespectful manner. It is also not acceptable to raise your voice or to show anger. Consequently, you must convey all your concerns in private and carefully point out what should be done. You may receive a "yes" in response, but the yes may only mean that "I heard what you said, but I may not understand you, and I may not do what you asked." Asians rarely give definitive, negative answers; instead, they offer explanations or avoid responding to the questions posed. They may not admit error or failure. Because it can be difficult to obtain definite answers from members of certain cultural groups, Westerners may feel frustrated. However, the reason for this apparent evasiveness is often simply the need to save face. Money may be the ultimate reward for many individuals in the West, but a change in status or the recognition that one is better serving the ACreator@ may be the preferred reward in other cultures elsewhere. People like to receive recognition and move up in the social hierarchy. However, there may be limits as to how high they can climb. In some parts of Africa, your position in the community or company may be determined by your tribal affiliations, status, or education. Your ability to perform a job well may not be considered in promotions. Money may not be the ultimate reward, because once some Africans have enough funds to support their extended family and friends, they may not be motivated to earn more money. In Tanzania, many people have no real concept of saving for the future or putting profit back into their business. Any excess money they receive may be siphoned off by local administrators, the government or politicians, or must be shared with less fortunate family members. People may be rewarded for hard work but they may also be rewarded simply because they are lucky or because they have influential friends or relations. The decision‐making process can be a lengthy procedure, especially in countries where there is a strong need to get to know a client before business is discussed, where it is deemed essential to avoid uncertainty or risk, where politics and religion play a significant role in people's lives, or where decisions are made by a centralized authority. In the Middle East, where religion and authority are important variables in everyday life, it may take hours, days, or weeks to reach a



decision. In several countries, personal decision making and self‐management are unacceptable ways of conducting business. Some developing countries are still heavily dependent on resources provided by hunting, farming, and/or fishing. Others have become industrialized and produce manufactured goods. Still others have embraced technology and have become information providers and service specialists. Developing countries tend to be involved in harnessing natural resources and in the production of goods that are exported to developed countries. As developing countries become more technologically oriented and establish free‐market economies, more competitive and self‐reliant characteristics may be incorporated into their culture. Note the dramatic changes in Hong Kong and Singapore over the last thirty years. No culture is static; each changes and evolves over time. Making Cultural Adaptations With so much to learn about another culture, how does one cope when it is necessary to work overseas? If you are open‐minded and perceptive, you will be able to discern the small or subtle details that will help you to communicate and interact effectively with others. Of course, you must leave your ideological baggage at home, or at least put it aside for a time. It is difficult to examine a new culture if you are constantly comparing it with your own ideology. Below are a series of steps that may help you adapt to a different culture. 1. Be aware of your own culture. We all like a level of predictability that

allows us to deal effectively with our environment. Try to learn a little more about your own culture before learning about others.

2. Recognize that you must make changes. Prepare yourself by anticipating

the changes you must make in order to cope with your new environment. Frequently, ego, self‐esteem, and frustration get in the way of making changes. It will take time for you to adapt to new surroundings in which many of your regular routines have been disrupted. You will need to establish new reference points that will help you get through each day.

3. Observe the behaviors of your foreign hosts and students. Note the

sequence of their behaviors and their consequences. Develop some new guidelines for dealing with your new environment without destroying the criteria that provided guidance in your own country. Try to understand why people do what they do. Conflicts may exist between your native and newly‐acquired guidelines. If the conflicts involve ethics, then it is likely that the



native guidelines will predominate. You must be at peace with your conscience.

4. Practice the new behavior until you are confident that you can do it.

Persistence is important. Practice will strengthen your use of the new guidelines.

5. Use the behavior in a real situation and be confident that you can actually

perform it. Even if mistakes are made, you must persevere and avoid making the same mistakes again. You must be willing to try. You learn by making mistakes, recognizing the mistakes, and observing others; continue making corrections until your actions become routine and predictable.

Black, Gregersen, and Mendenhall (1992, p. 99) identified the regions of the world that present the most adjustment problems for Canadians and Americans. These areas are listed below in order of decreasing adjustment difficulty. 1. Africa

2. Middle East

3. Far East

4. South America

5. Eastern Europe and Russia

6. Western Europe and Scandinavia

7. Australia and New Zealand Prior to your departure, learn as much as possible about the cultural assumptions and values held by people in your host country. Are you willing and prepared to adapt to these beliefs? Sage Advice Although this section has emphasized the differences among cultures, remember that people are more alike than they are different. We all eat, breathe, and care for our loved ones. We all work, play, and laugh. We all develop friendships with others; sometimes these friendships last for years and change our lives. When you travel overseas, be careful not to stereotype your foreign hosts. Do not expect everyone with the same culture or nationality to hold the same assumptions or to act in a similar manner. You wouldn't expect your next‐door neighbour to believe in exactly the same things that you do or to act just like you.



It is impossible to learn everything about a culture in a short period of time and even if you could, you might not fit in because you would still be regarded as a foreigner. However, do your best; be flexible, patient, non‐judgmental, and exhibit empathy for others. This may sound simplistic, but a smile is an almost universal sign of warmth and welcome. It will help you to get through even the most difficult and uncomfortable situations. Never give up on your quest to understand others and always be sensitive to different points of view. In addition to the references noted in this section, you may also want to consult the following publications: Brislin, R & Yoshida, T. (1994). Intercultural communication training: An

introduction. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Condon, J. C. & Yousef, F. (1987). An introduction to intercultural

communication. New York, NY: MacMillan Publishing Company. Finkelstein, B. & Tobin, J. (Eds.). (1991). Transcending stereotypes. Yarmouth,

ME: Intercultural Press. Fisher, G. (1980). International negotiation: A cross‐cultural perspective.

Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations. New York, NY: McGraw‐Hill. Kohls, R. (1984). Survival kit for overseas living. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural

Press. Pye, L. W. (1985). Asian power and politics: The cultural dimensions of authority.

Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Storti, C. (1990). The art of crossing cultures. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Tyler, V.L. (1987). Intercultural interacting. Provo, UT: Brigham Young

University for International Studies.

You can also ask for a publications list from your government=s External or Foreign Affairs Department or from Intercultural Press (P.O. Box 700, Yarmouth, ME 04096), which is an excellent source of cross‐cultural and international skills materials and information.



1.5 Preparing a Proposal for an International Education or Training Activity Introduction After reviewing the needs of developing countries, determining that you have skills that can help others, and assessing your motives, you may decide that working overseas is something you want or must do. Therefore, you need to find a suitable overseas assignment. If you work for an educational institution or a company with an international focus, you can inform the personnel in the international education or training office or division that you would be willing to work overseas. If no opportunities are available through your current employer, you may decide to contact an external agency. With a little help, you can even draft your own overseas project proposal or respond to a request for proposals (RFP). RFPs are usually issued by companies, agencies, or organizations that are seeking experts to tell them what they would do to address a specific problem or challenge. Whether you participate in an overseas venture sponsored by your employer or agency or respond to an RFP announcement, you must take time to speak to people who have been involved in similar projects and to those who have worked in the country in which your project will be conducted. If possible, speak to the actual client who wants or would be interested in your services. Personal contact with the overseas client or funding agency is definitely advantageous, and you will be better able to ascertain if the project is appropriate for you. Further, if you are accepted for the overseas venture, you would already be familiar with your foreign host. Never underestimate the power of personal contact. It is often assumed that you approach an international training activity in a different manner than you would approach a local training project. In reality, the approach is the same regardless of whether you deliver the training overseas or at home. You need to ask the same questions and to address the same concerns: ! What are the needs of your foreign hosts and your potential students? ! What are the problems or challenges that must be addressed? What evidence

can you provide that these needs are important or relevant to your foreign hosts and students?

! What are the desired outcomes of your proposed activities? What are the

goals and objectives of your activities? What criteria will be used to judge the success or benefits of the activities?



! How will you address the needs of the hosts and students? What have you done to date? Are there special or unique circumstances that must be considered?

! What resources do you need? What resources do you expect the host to

provide? What will you provide? Are there any in‐kind contributions? ! Who will be involved in the project? What will they do? Are they qualified

for their assignments? ! How will you evaluate the success of your activities? What formative and

summative evaluations will be conducted? ! What future or follow‐up activities could you recommend? ! What are the timelines for the various activities? ! How much will your proposed activities cost? What makes an overseas venture, such as an international training activity, appear to be different is our unfamiliarity with the foreign environment, culture, and context. As you learn more about other cultures, overseas ventures lose their mystique. Writing the Proposal A proposal is a professional document that describes how you would address the needs of your foreign hosts and students. It represents you as if you were personally presenting this information. A professional proposal can take considerable time to prepare. You need to gather a lot of information, organize it, and then write and edit the document according to pre‐set standards. You must then translate the document, print and bind the proposal, and deliver it on time. These activities often require a major investment of your energy, time, and money. Therefore, before you begin to write, ask yourself the following questions: ! Do you know what your client, agency, or host actually wants or needs? Are

these requests realistic? ! Do you have the skills and resources to address their needs? If you are a

member of a company or institution, determine if the proposed activity is congruent with your company's or institution's mission and/or mandate.



! Do you have, or can you acquire, the financial resources to prepare and implement your proposal?

! Do you know anything about the country in which you will be working? Will

you enjoy the challenges you will face in this particular country? How will people overseas receive you? Will you feel safe?

! If you are competing with others for funding, do you know who your

competitors are? What must you do to compete successfully? What criteria will be used to select the successful proposal?

! If your proposal is approved or accepted, can you afford to go at the

determined time? How will the proposed activities impact on your current commitments? Perhaps there are impending personal events, such as a wedding, anniversary, or the birth of a child, which you may want to take into consideration.

! Have you considered the benefits as well as the disadvantages of taking part

in the proposed activity? ! Do you really want this project? If you feel comfortable with your answers to the above questions, then write the best proposal that you can. Do not waste your time sending out second‐rate work or preparing proposals for projects that you do not really want to do. Do your best, and ask your colleagues for assistance. Before putting pen to paper or fingers to keyboard, gather as much information as you can about the country in which you would be working, your host, your students, and the sponsoring organization. If you are going to submit your proposal to an organization or agency, obtain a copy of its funding guidelines. If you are going to send your proposal directly to an overseas client, ascertain if they want a long or short document, a proposal written in expressive language with many illustrations, or one written concisely and to the point. Your proposal may have more appeal if it contains current, popular buzzwords or phrases such as "sustainability" and "environmental viability." If possible, determine if your proposal will be reviewed by a social expert, technical expert, or layperson, then write at a level appropriate for the intended reader. Most readers like proposals that have a simple writing style, numerous graphics, pertinent and up‐to‐date facts, and summaries inserted throughout the document. Once the proposal is written, ask a colleague to review the document to ensure that it contains no content or technical lapses. Provide your reviewer with a copy of the proposal evaluation criteria. All factual data should be verified. Ask an



editor to edit your proposal. The editor should not only check for grammar but should also make sure that the proposal is well organized, understandable, and interesting. Always review the editor's comments as he or she may inadvertently introduce a meaning that was not intended. You may also need to have the proposal translated into two or more languages. Do provide your foreign clients with a document written in their native language. Remember that the English, French, or Spanish spoken in one country may differ considerably from that spoken in others. Therefore, hire a professional translator who is familiar with the language as it is spoken and read in your client's country. Print the proposal on high‐quality paper. If two languages are used, rather than printing two separate documents, consider printing the original and the translated version on alternate pages or placing the English version on the bottom half of each page. Different typefaces and color can be used to highlight titles or key words in the proposal. However, the use of a second or third color can cost a substantial amount of money. In addition, you could inadvertently make a blunder if you use a color that is offensive to your clients or is restricted to royalty. Colors have specific meanings in different countries; unless you know the significance of a particular color for your intended audience, restrict yourself to black printing on white paper. Bind rather than staple your proposal. A professionally bound document indicates that you cared enough to present the best. If your document will be going to a country with a tropical climate, consider having it coil bound; the heat may melt the glue and loosen the pages. Provide a cover letter with your proposal. The letter should briefly introduce yourself and your skills, outline the content of your proposal, and indicate why you are interested in the project. If you have spoken to someone overseas or key members of the sponsoring agency or organization, mention their names and titles here as well. Make sure that your proposal arrives on time. Send it by registered mail and/or by courier. You may elect to deliver the proposal yourself, not only to ensure that it arrives on time, but also because you may have the opportunity to meet the person who will make the final decision regarding the suitability of your proposal. Content of the Proposal Although different clients, agencies, and organizations may have their own proposal requirements, all proposals usually contain the items described below.



Title Page The title page should reflect the scope of the project. Include an RFP or agency reference number, your name, your organization, and the date. Executive Summary This summary, comprising no more than two pages, is a concise overview of the proposal. It identifies the project location, the organizations involved and their relationship to other organizations the client may be familiar with, the contact person, the goal or purpose of the project, the benefits of the project and its relation to other projects, and the project's major activities, inputs, outputs, time frames, and overall cost. The executive summary is usually written after the rest of the proposal has been prepared. Remember that the executive summary may be the only part of your proposal that is thoroughly examined by the proposal evaluators. Therefore, ensure that it contains the 'essence' of your complete report. Project Need, Purpose, or Goal Indicate the overall purpose of the project. What do you hope to accomplish? There may be several goals, but each goal should subsume more specific, measurable objectives. The overall goal statements may not be quantifiable, but they should be directly related to the needs of the client. Objectives Objectives are precise statements of what will be accomplished. Active verbs are frequently used and the results that are specified are usually measurable. However, qualitative objectives that state, for example, that the students will gain confidence are difficult to measure. You may want to include the number of people involved, the training materials that will be produced, and the time frames for each objective. From three to seven objectives are usually stated. Check that all your objectives are realistic and attainable. Project Benefits Outline the benefits of the project to your clients and students. How will the people or their actions change? What benefits will accrue to the community or country? How will the project sustain the development efforts of the country? If the sponsoring agency or organization has a specific focus, such as environmental impact, be sure to emphasize the issue and indicate how your project will address it. How will your project complement previous or existing regional development projects? Background Provide a context for the training activities. Describe national and regional concerns that may influence your proposed activities. Note the conditions or environment in which your potential students live. For example, describe the



current cultural, social, political, and economic influences on their lives, and state how appropriately designed training activities could enable students to respond effectively to these influences and how these activities are congruent with national and regional goals. If possible, conduct a thorough needs assessment prior to writing your proposal. Frequently, however, the needs assessment will be the first activity that you conduct following the acceptance of your proposal. You should also describe existing overseas projects and indicate how your proposed project addresses a training need that is not currently being met. If politically and ethically acceptable, identify the people who provided your background information. List their names, titles, company or agency associations, and their contributions. If you have not done so already, you must convince the proposal evaluators that you and/or your organization have the ability to mount the project and are able to apply lessons learned from previous situations to the tasks that need to be completed. Include information about your experience and skills, especially those that are applicable to the international project under consideration. Provide facts. Indicate the number, size, and dollar value of other international training projects with which you have been involved. If you will be mounting the project in collaboration with another person and/or organization, then you must provide information about them as well. In the proposal appendices, be sure to include letters from them indicating their willingness to participate in the overseas activity. Audience Although you may have provided some information about the people you will train overseas in the background section, carefully describe your potential audience in the audience section of your proposal. Identify the cultural and religious beliefs that may affect your training activities. If possible, note the current skills of your potential students, including their oral and written English or other language skills. If instruction will be in English, try to assess your students' command of English, keeping in mind that accurate information may not be available until you reach the training site. In many countries, people with different social or job statuses expect to be treated differently. Therefore, it is important to ascertain the social or job status of your potential students. Training Activities Briefly outline your proposed training activities and indicate how each activity addresses the concerns and/or needs of the audience. Your training plan should outline who will do what, when, where, and how. It should include: ! the proposed training dates;



! a description of the training site, including the criteria for selecting the particular site;

! a list of instructional or training objectives; ! a list of training activities that are congruent with these objectives; ! a flexible time allotment for each activity; ! an indication of how you will ensure that your audience develops ownership

for the training activities and the project outcomes; ! lists of the materials and equipment you will need; ! the evaluation instruments that you intend to use to assess the audience's

attainment of new skills; ! the names and titles of the personnel involved in facilitating the training

activities, including all qualified personnel from the developing country. Although not required in your proposal, you may want to consider preparing a list of back‐up or alternative activities that you could use in case your planned training activities do not proceed as smoothly as you had anticipated. Project Inputs Make a detailed list of all the materials and equipment you will need to complete your training activities. Specify which items you intend to provide and which must be provided by your foreign hosts or agency. Be sure to include operating supplies and spare parts. If you will require electrical power, verify that it will be available and reliable. Any electrical equipment you use must be compatible with the foreign current, which may be different from that which you are now using. Human resource needs should also be specified. List all the people who will facilitate the training sessions and those who will provide support. For example, you may need an interpreter, a translator, and a driver. Provide a brief job description for each of these positions and specify the necessary qualifications. If you intend to use a collaborative approach to training activities, you may want to involve other organizations and agencies. Rather than identifying specific individuals, provide a general description of the organization's or agency's capabilities. If you list specific individuals and they are not available when funds for your project are approved, you may be embarrassed or, worse, the contract with the sponsoring agency may be declared null and void because you promised to provide specific personnel who are now unavailable. If you do identify specific



individuals, you could say, "If the project is accepted, at least two of the five people listed below will be involved in the training." Allow yourself some flexibility. Include the résumés of your project managers, trainers, and key support personnel in the appendices of your proposal. Depending on the size of the project, you may also want to provide information about major equipment and material suppliers as well. Expected Results and Possible Deviations Describe the anticipated project results by elaborating on the project benefits already identified. These results must be directly related to each project objective. Based on your previous experiences, state the measurable results and list the project=s products such as training handbooks and student workbooks. Most projects do not proceed exactly as planned; therefore, identify and plan for possible deviations from the expected. For example, if you are told or assume that your students' command of English is excellent, you may plan to use only English‐language material. However, if you discover that your students' command of English is rather poor, then your training activities may not proceed as planned. Therefore, in your proposal, you may state, "If the students have an excellent command of English, we will be able to . . .. However, if their command of English is poor, we can expect to accomplish only the following . . .." Evaluation Procedures The effectiveness of each training project should be evaluated. The purpose of the evaluation is to determine the extent to which the project activities are achieving success. A good evaluation examines both the operation and the products or outcomes of the project. Formative evaluations are used to monitor and revise the project while it is in progress; summative evaluations are conducted after the project is concluded to assess its impact, evaluate the attainment of its objectives, and suggest follow‐up activities. Describe the criteria that will be used to judge the success of your project, how the evaluation will be conducted, and who will conduct it. Although a sponsoring organization or agency may also perform a summative evaluation, you should conduct your own or collaborate with external evaluators. Your intimate knowledge of the project will help in the development of the evaluation instruments. Further, you need to determine for yourself what worked and what did not. Follow‐up Activities Rarely does one international training project cover all the training that is needed. Therefore, suggest appropriate follow‐up activities that could be mounted. For example, suggest advanced or specialized programs, or recommend that once the initial training is completed, the best students be sent



overseas for additional training. Or, if your training project focused only on technical skills, such as motor vehicle repair, you might recommend that a follow‐up session that involves developing entrepreneurial skills that students need to establish businesses such as automobile or motorcycle repair shops be initiated. Final Report The final report should summarize project activities and anticipated results. Briefly describe the content of the final project report. Indicate who will prepare the report and whether or not drafts will be available for the clients to review. Timelines Unless your client or sponsoring organization has specified the project timelines, you should list all project events in chronological order. Graph your project=s timeline so that you can illustrate how activities may overlap. Constructing a realistic timeline that demonstrates your efficiency but allows for some flexibility is a fine balancing act. You could provide alternative schedules or a range of time required to complete each part of the project. If you can, identify possible obstacles or delays and estimate how long it may take to overcome them. Budget A project budget must include all direct expenses, overhead or administrative costs, and in‐kind contributions. In addition, the procedures for handling financial matters should be outlined. For example, when should funds be disbursed, in what currency should funds be provided, who will be the signing authority, and who will audit the financial statements? Most funding agencies have their own guidelines for completing budget statements. Some ask for minute details, while others want only an overall figure. However, once a proposal is accepted, all funding agencies will require detailed budget or financial statements. If you are responding to an RFP and you know that the competition will be fierce and that there is a range of possible ways to complete a project, you may not want to submit a detailed budget; you may choose to submit only an overall budget figure. However, you could instead provide details such as the number of person‐hours required to complete specific tasks. You might also indicate that, if the proposal is accepted or under serious consideration, then the cost of the training program can be discussed during the proposal negotiations. Regardless of the guidelines provided by your client or funding agency, a project budget usually includes the following expense categories: ! personnel costs, including salaries, wages, or honoraria for the project

coordinator, international trainers or workshop facilitators, interpreters,



translators, secretaries, graphic designers, media and/or computer software designers, hardware technicians, drivers, and, if necessary, security personnel;

! personnel benefits, including items such as health insurance, disability

insurance, and vacation pay; ! travel and accommodation costs, including an allocation for travel within a

foreign country and a subsistence or per diem allowance for those who will travel overseas;

! operating supplies, such as paper, printing and duplicating, training supplies,

film, videocassettes, and software; ! hospitality; ! equipment purchases, such as microcomputers; ! equipment rentals, including the renting of office, audiovisual, or technical

equipment; ! postage, freight, and telephone costs; ! facilities rental for office and/or training activities. Once your budget is complete, review it carefully to ensure that there are built‐in contingencies to cover legitimate unforeseen costs such as gifts for overseas contacts. If the project will be conducted over a lengthy period of time, or if it takes several months before your project is approved, remember to account for inflation. Some organizations, such as educational institutions, charge an administration fee or a percentage of the funds allocated to manage project finances. You may not enter a line on the budget statement for gifts, inflation, or administrative costs, but you could add a portion of these costs to each line of the budget. For example, if your educational institution or business charges a ten percent administrative fee, then add that ten percent in with the personnel costs. Review your budget carefully. Have you included contributions provided or promised by other agencies, organizations, or people? Are letters of support included in the appendices? Is your project financially viable? Are the costs reasonable for the benefits your project will produce? Appendices The appendices contain additional information that supports your proposal. Consider including the items described below in the appendices.



! A description of the organization or persons sponsoring the international venture. In order to provide credibility to your proposal, outline the skills and experience of those with whom you will be collaborating. Show that their capabilities are congruent with the project objectives. You may want to include brochures or other forms of publicity material that describe your company or those of your collaborators.

! Résumés of project managers and trainers. Carefully review each résumé and

ensure that it does not mention confidential projects or include work in countries that your client is in conflict with. For example, those who have previously worked in South Korea may not be looked upon favorably by North Korean clients.

! Sample project materials. Provide samples of work that you have produced

for similar projects. ! Reference letters and letters of support. It is always advisable to include

letters that indicate that others are interested in and willing to provide assistance to further your international training venture. Sometimes, funding agencies ask that you obtain part of your funding from another source. The proof of this support is provided in the appendices.

Writing a successful proposal can be an art. However, if you take the time to do your homework, you increase the chances that your proposal will be accepted. Contact your overseas client and others who have worked in the country in which you would be working. Speak to people who have prepared similar proposals. Follow the guidelines provided by the funding agency or by your client, and ask them for any necessary clarification as you complete your proposal. Follow the suggestions provided here and submit your proposal on time! Remember that the proposal represents you and your ideas; therefore, write a proposal that reflects your best attributes. When the proposal evaluators accept your proposal, they also accept you and your capabilities. Sources of Possible Funding Listed below are a few organizations and agencies that provide funding for international development projects. In addition, you should consider contacting federal government agencies, external affairs departments, economic development banks, post‐secondary institutions with international offices, religious organizations, and your public library.



African Development Bank P.O Box 1387 Abidjan 01 Ivory Coast Tel: 320711 Asian Development Bank P.O. Box 789 Manila Philippines Tel: 831‐72‐11

Caribbean Development Bank P.O. Box 408 Barbados West Indies Tel: 61152 The Overseas Education Fund 2101 L Street, N.W., Suite 916 Washington, DC 20037 Tel: (202) 466‐3430

United Nations Development Program 1 United Nations Plaza New York, NY 10017 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7 Place de Fontenoy 75700 Paris, France

The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20433 Tel: (202) 477‐1234 World Health Organization Avenue Appia 1211 Geneva 27 Switzerland Tel: 91 21 11

The following publications provide information about international jobs, careers, and associations: Beckmann, D., Mitchell, T., & Powers, L. (1991). The overseas list: Opportunities

for living and working in developing countries. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Publishing.

Cumyn, A. (1996). What in the world is going on? A guide for Canadians wishing

to work, volunteer or study in other countries. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Bureau for International Education.

Hachey, J. (1992). The Canadian guide to working and living overseas for entry‐

level and seasoned professionals. Ottawa, ON: Intercultural Systems. Hubb, C. (Ed.). Transitions Abroad: The Magazine of Overseas Opportunities.

Denville, NJ: Transitions Publishing. Irvin, L. (Ed.). (1992). Encyclopedia of associations: International organizations.

Detroit, MI: Gale Research Inc.



Leppard, D. (1990). The directory of work and study in developing countries. West Hill, ON: Henry Fletcher Services Ltd.


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2.0 The International Training Team

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Contents 2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................2/1 2.2 The Benefits and Challenges of Teamwork .......................................... 2/2 2.3 The Roles of the International Training Team..................................... 2/8

The Role of the Project Manager.......................................................................2/8 The Role of the Team Leader............................................................................2/11 The Role of the Training Team.........................................................................2/13

2.4 Selecting Training Team Members ...................................................... 2/15 2.5 Orienting Training Team Members .....................................................2/23

Introduction...................................................................................................... 2/23 Orientation to the Training Assignment ........................................................2/24 Health, Legal, and Social Concerns.................................................................2/28 Travel and Accommodation Arrangements ...................................................2/30 Team Development ...........................................................................................2/31 Country Awareness...........................................................................................2/42 Culture Awareness............................................................................................2/43 Language of Instruction ...................................................................................2/46 Code of Conduct for International Trainers...................................................2/48

The International Training Team 2/1 ---------


2.1 Introduction International training or instruction can be conducted by one individual or by a group. Frequently, a small team of trainers is assembled to present international training in a developing country. The delivery of international training usually requires the following personnel: ! a project manager/coordinator who performs administrative tasks;

! a team leader who deals with the instructional content and manages the team;

! a training team who deliver the training. In some cases, one person is designated as both the project manager and the team leader. Although the training team may comprise one person, there is still a need for a project manager. The individual who functions as the project manager may be a skills training and transfer manager, a staff member of the national or international funding body, or a person from the agency or company sponsoring the training team. Experience shows that it is useful to appoint an in‐house project manager regardless of whether or not a project manager from the funding body or external agency has been appointed. The delivery of international training requires a fair amount of work in coordinating the project and also in dealing with matters outside of the instructional parameters such as handling protocol or arranging tours. The project manager provides this additional support and allows the training team to concentrate on matters that pertain to instruction. A team leader acts as the spokesperson and decision maker in negotiations with the host institution. The training team delivers the actual training sessions in the foreign country. This section provides an overview of an effective international training team and outlines the roles of the project manager, the team leader, and the training or instructional team. It also describes how to select and orient team members. Throughout the chapter, emphasis is placed on the need for individual team members to contribute their skills toward the accomplishment of shared goals.



2.2 The Benefits and Challenges of Teamwork Although one individual may conduct international training sessions, frequently a small group is involved. Providing international training activities usually requires the expertise of several individuals. Further, most of these projects require trainers or instructors to work long hours; many developing countries have a five‐and‐a half or six‐day work week. The actual composition of a training team is determined by a number of factors. For example, when funds are limited, a decision must be made: Should one person go overseas for six months or should three people go for two months? The answer to this question is not clear‐cut. If one person goes for a longer period of time, he or she will benefit from the extra time and learn about the country's culture, more accurately determine the training needs of the country, and develop trust and contacts. A stronger personal relationship between the international trainer and overseas contacts may be established. However, if this individual is incompetent or becomes ill, the time and resources invested in the project may be wasted. As well, if a follow‐up training session is required, it may not be possible to send the same person back to the international location. Conversely, sending a team of trainers costs more than sending one person. Therefore, in order to stay within a specified budget, training teams usually stay overseas for shorter periods of time than an individual would. However, an international training team can accrue the following benefits: ! Each team member can be a specialist, thereby focusing a wider range of

expertise on a country's training needs. ! The overseas activity has a greater chance of succeeding because it is not

dependent on one individual. ! Because team members can take turns instructing or consulting, no one

becomes stressed to the limit. Team members can support each other. ! While one member of the team is instructing, the others may assist and

observe. ! Team members can provide each other with constructive feedback. This

input is particularly important in foreign countries where solo trainers can feel extremely isolated.

! While some members of the team are instructing, the others can clear

political hurdles and obtain the resources needed for future activities.



! If a team member is unavailable due to illness, another team member can act as a substitute.

! If the project is extended, or if follow‐up activities are to be conducted, the

project manager can select from a number of people who have previously worked in the country. Because people are familiar with what has gone before, time will not be lost in reviewing the history of the project, establishing new contacts, and gaining respect and trust of the foreign project participants.

! If a host organization needs access to diverse or sophisticated skills, one

person may not be able to meet these needs. Therefore, a team must be sent overseas.

It is not only international projects that benefit from a team approach. The team approach can be used to address a variety of challenges. The advantages of using a training team are listed below. ! Teams have access to a variety of different knowledge and skills. ! Different expertise can be focused on a problem. ! Complex problems can be addressed more successfully. Numerous solutions

to a problem can be generated. A team is more likely to develop more risky and creative solutions than one person working alone.

! A synergy, as result of group interaction, is developed. This synergy helps the

group to generate new ideas based on previously developed ideas, which often leads to inventive yet workable solutions. Synergy occurs when a group achieves more than the sum of its parts, when members go beyond their normal capabilities.

! A collegial spirit is fostered among the team members. ! High expectations can be set and met. ! High quality solutions or products can be designed and delivered. The team approach can also have several disadvantages. Teams may: ! be difficult to manage. The larger the team, the more difficult it is to

communicate effectively, to coordinate efficiently, to share responsibility



equally, to make decisions, and to avoid personality conflicts. A negative team member may adversely affect other members of the team.

! be time consuming. Because everyone needs to express an opinion, and

group decisions are usually made by consensus, the decision‐making process can be lengthy.

! not get to the root of a problem. In order to solve problems effectively, the

various aspects of an issue must be probed. Because of the potential hidden agendas of team members, only surface level issues may be examined. With the assistance of the team manager, team members must look beyond politics and personal biases and determine the cause of a problem. In successful groups, all ideas should be presented and challenged.

! find it difficult to acknowledge individual contributions. Personal ownership

of an idea and recognition for generating a solution to a problem is contrary to the effective operation of a team. The team gets credit for the solution, not an individual. A person who wants to own an idea and receive recognition for it may find it difficult to work in a team.

! challenge the security of the individual participants. People who have

difficulty accepting criticism or having their ideas rejected may not contribute their very best to the team's efforts.

! result in a loss of personal individualism. Each team member is unique and

possesses personal knowledge, experience, energy, and motivation. In an ineffective team, these unique attributes may be suppressed.

! encourage others to minimize their contributions. Because the work of a

specific individual is not highlighted, some participants may feel that they can 'hide' in the group and 'take it easy.' Others may hold back because they do not want to offend anyone or they fear their ideas may be rejected.

! suffer from poor leadership. It can be difficult to find individuals who have all

the attributes necessary to make them effective team leaders. Despite these drawbacks, teamwork can be effective. Teams do work. Teams can produce a better product, develop a better solution, or conduct a better international training session than one individual operating alone. The shortcomings of teamwork can be easily addressed, and in many cases, avoided. In international training, many of these problems are sorted out during



orientation sessions that emphasize interpersonal communications. These orientation sessions are described later in this section. It is the responsibility of the training team leader and every training team member to strive to become a well functioning team. An optimized team has several characteristics, and every successful team will exhibit most of these traits. An optimized team is effective when it: ! has a definite, shared purpose or vision of what its members must

accomplish. Members must feel that the purpose is worthy of their efforts. A team may be assembled to focus on a particular challenge such as how to improve the classroom skills of technical instructors in Malaysia. However, until the team forms and shares a clear vision as to what must be accomplished, the team will not work effectively and efficiently. A vision gives direction to all team activities; it acts as a motivating force. A vision drives the generation of realistic, achievable goals that will require team members to stretch and to meet specific timelines. A vision helps teams to face challenges that may impede goal attainment.

! has a mixture of multidimensional members who are committed to the

team's purpose and goals. An optimized team is comprised of a mixture of individuals who are confident, competent, and professional. In many cases, they are respected in their fields of endeavor. If it becomes necessary, they can assume the responsibilities of other team members. Effective team members learn to trust and respect others; they are enthusiastic about life and enjoy meeting and working with others. Persistence and patience are two additional qualities effective team members possess. Individuals who have high standards and who are willing to contribute their best to a focused endeavor make excellent team members. They are also flexible and able to adjust to changes. If the situation warrants, they can compromise without feeling that they or their ideals have been compromised.

! has an effective leader. In addition to the above attributes, shared by every

member of the team, a team leader possesses the unique ability to skilfully handle people, to adjust the dynamic nature of team growth, and to direct the maturation of a project. An effective team leader is fully aware of the multidimensional nature of the team and is able to integrate the skills of the team members to balance both individual members= roles and relationships. However, the leader is always willing to share the leadership with other members of the group and to allocate time for team building. Concurrently, the leader must recognize that not all members of the team may want to be leaders; some may simply want to be given direction.



An effective team leader has the clearest vision of the project's outcome and sets high standards, and he or she rewards those who take risks to achieve these standards. If these standards are not met, the leader will allow for variances and provide honest, constructive, and private criticism. Because the team leader must deal with the unfamiliar and with events that may change quickly, he or she must be flexible, yet decisive, and able to handle stress. In international projects, these latter attributes are extremely important. The leader of an international training team must always be ready to deal with the unexpected. All effective leaders lead by example, know their limits, and take responsibility for their actions.

! generates a trusting and harmonious climate. A team is optimized when

its members feel they belong to a cohesive group that fosters dignity, respect, understanding, growth, and risk taking. Team members accept and recognize individual differences and respect different roles. Everyone knows that they can speak freely in a non‐judgemental setting where constructive criticism and cooperation is the norm. By sharing ideas, which are considered by the group, trust develops. In an optimized team, all members feel not only a sense of personal accomplishment, but also a sense of belonging to something greater than themselves. Their morale is high. Because of the cooperative climate, team members are willing to learn about each other and to support one another in order to achieve the goals of the project.

! exhibits open communication. In an optimized team, all communication

channels are open. Anyone can speak to anyone else, irrespective of their authority outside the group. Different points of view are respected. Conflicts do arise, but they are resolved in a win‐win manner. Honest and direct feedback is accepted in a non‐defensive manner. All team members are effective listeners. By communicating openly, teams are able to readjust their activities so that common goals are attained.

! has an effective decision‐making process. An effective team is flexible and

creative. The team can tolerate ambiguity and is open to new approaches to solving problems. Each member of the team feels empowered; each can contribute to the team's success; each can make decisions. The team's success not only depends on the actions of the individual but also on the actions of the group. Every team member partakes in the decision‐making process. After all opinions are considered, major decisions are based on consensus. As the team works together, it becomes more efficient and the potential of the team is maximized. Once made, decisions are acted upon quickly. This decision‐making process takes time to mature. Unless adequate



orientation time is scheduled, international training teams will not achieve an efficient, high‐level, decision‐making process until the end of their overseas trip.

! produce high quality results. Optimized teams produce workable solutions

and products that meet standards that may exceed the predetermined, acceptable criteria. Effective teams can produce solutions that are better than those generated by an individual or an ineffective team. Effective teams achieve high‐quality output because they have a definite, achievable vision, and they are comprised of multidimensional team members who generate a trusting environment that employs open communication and a consensus decision‐making process.

! allocates time to critique its operations. Effective teams take time to

ascertain their strengths and weaknesses and to determine how they can improve their operation.

It takes time and effort for an optimized team to mature. Frequently, this maturity is obtained only after the team has taken part in an overseas activity. However, the team is then ready to tackle its next overseas assignment.


2.3 The Roles of the International Training Team Several personnel roles are involved in conducting international training. This section describes each of these roles in detail. The Role of the Project Manager In the initial stages of the international training project, the role of the project manager or coordinator may vary. In some instances, before an institution or an employer agrees to undertake an international project, a project manager is appointed to study the project's feasibility. During this stage, the project manager identifies: ! the objectives of the project and the measures that will be used to determine

the success of the completed project; ! the assumptions or givens of a project; ! the human and other resources required; ! the availability of such resources, either internally or externally; ! the timelines required for the successful delivery of the project, which include

the logistics of advertising for interested participants, the selection process, the preparation of appropriate materials, necessary travel arrangements, and so forth;

! the estimated costs for the successful delivery of the project; ! the feasibility of undertaking the project, and if applicable, writes the

proposal. In instances where the decision to undertake the project has already been made, a project manager is appointed to oversee the entire project. The project manager then proceeds to: ! identify how the training project fits in with other projects that are occurring

within the country; ! refine the project's objective, verifiable measures of success;



! list and sequence the project tasks and outline the method of their accomplishment;

! ensure that the tasks and timelines are realistic, well articulated, and

understood by team members; ! develop and/or monitor training budgets and, if necessary, seek the

additional funds required to complete the overseas assignment; ! identify and select the training team (if not already done); ! appoint the training team leader and ensure that the role of the leader is

accurately defined and clearly understood by the training team; ! ensure that all members of the training team are aware of their roles and

responsibilities as well as the terms and conditions of their appointment; ! ensure that the contracts reflect the expectations of the training team and the

host organization, and that all contracts are signed appropriately; ! meet with the training team to review the timelines, the tasks to be

accomplished, and the methods used to accomplish these tasks; ! provide the training team with information pertaining to the characteristics

of the overseas audience; ! facilitate the preparation of quality instructional materials; ! eliminate roadblocks or distractions that may prevent team members from

focusing on the success of their overseas assignment; ! coordinate the training team's cultural, academic, and other orientation

sessions; ! chair the training team's orientation sessions or co‐chair these sessions with

the team leader; ! coordinate the collection and distribution of all materials to be prepared,

ordered, or distributed; ! act as the content and instructional consultant, if appropriate, or facilitate the

availability of such support for the training team;



! provide editorial support for the preparation of instructional materials and ensure that all copyright clearances are obtained;

! facilitate the development of a team spirit among the members of the training

team; ! coordinate all travel arrangements including special travel requirements such

as immunizations, visas, and so forth; ! obtain, from each member of the training team, the names of their doctors

and contact persons as well as details regarding any particular health problems such as allergies;

! arrange for or ensure that health and other appropriate insurance has been

obtained for each team member; ! anticipate challenges that the training team may encounter and suggest ways

to address these challenges; ! contact the appropriate embassy or consulate and inform them about the

details of the project; ! maintain contact with the training team while they are delivering their

overseas sessions and monitor the success of the overseas assignment; ! assess whether or not the needs of the funding and host agencies or

organizations have been met; ! coordinate wrap‐up sessions upon the completion of the project; ! write the interim and final project reports; ! share the experience of managing the overseas training project with others. In addition to the above, the project manager must be aware of, and sensitive to, the cross‐cultural issues and potential problems inherent in training in a foreign country. Ideally, the project manager should be familiar with the culture of the foreign country, know the contact person at the foreign organization personally, and have previously lived or worked in that country. Despite all preparations, a project manager must always be prepared for surprises. There will always be situations that cannot be controlled or predicted. The project manager may or may not be part of the actual training team. Experience indicates that it may be difficult for the manager to also be involved



in delivering the training sessions. The logistics of, and the preparations for, overseas training sessions are often subject to changes beyond the control of either the project manager or the training team. The project manager, in consultation with the host organization and the training team, must have the authority to shorten or cancel an international project. The Role of the Team Leader If two or more individuals comprise the training team, a team leader should be appointed. In most developing countries, one spokesperson represents the host organization and/or the participants in the training session. In the same manner, the team leader acts as the spokesperson for the training team and deals with the host organization and it appointees. This procedure helps to avoid any misunderstandings about the roles and obligations of the training team. Disagreements among the training members can then be dealt with in‐camera, without the possibility of the host organization misinterpreting the situation. The team leader also acts as a buffer between the host organization and the members of the training team; he or she ensures that a team member's request receives the benefit of a second opinion before it is forwarded to the host organization. The team leader must help remind the members of the team that the success of the training project depends on a group effort. Prior to their departure to their destination, team members must recognize that, while abroad, some of their individual rights and academic freedoms may become secondary to the interests of the group. An effective team leader knows the limits of the democratic process when standards are to be maintained and timelines and resources are restricted. An international training team leader must: ! provide leadership to the training team and nurture an effective team; ! handle people skillfully and manage the dynamic nature of team growth; ! encourage open communication among all members of the training team; ! be aware of cross‐cultural differences and supervise the manner in which

activities are carried out in the host country; ! be able to conduct intercultural negotiations and handle situations

diplomatically;



! be well organized in order to handle a variety of tasks and individuals; ! support the needs of the members of the team and minimize team

distractions; ! encourage all team members to do their best and to assume ownership for the

team's efforts; ! help resolve differences that may arise among the members of the training

team because of politics, philosophy, game playing, manipulation, or dishonesty;

! supervise the development of instructional materials and delivery systems

and ensure that they are congruent with the objectives of the overseas project; ! act as the training team's representative; ! keep the members of the training team informed of the requirements and

concerns of the host organization; ! obtain regular feedback from the host organization and students regarding

the training sessions and provide this information to the members of the training team;

! ask members of the team about their concerns and work to resolve possible

difficulties or conflicts; ! ensure that quality training sessions are presented and that the concerns of

the host organization, the training participants/audience, and the training team are addressed;

! approve any changes that members of the training team may wish to make to

the instructional content, before they deliver a session; ! monitor the overseas budget; ! confer with the project manager and prepare any reports required during the

course of the training session as well as at the end of the project; ! recommend future, follow‐up training activities; ! send thank‐you letters or cards to all key personnel who were involved in the

project.



Usually, one training team member is appointed team leader. Ideally, the team leader is familiar with the culture of the host country as well as the host organization. The team leader must be flexible, sensitive, personable, and credible; he or she will have the most contact with the host organization and must be able to work closely with his or her local counterparts. The team leader must be a good listener; he or she will be the recipient of all complaints and concerns. A team leader must be able to resolve differences without causing the conflicting parties to lose face. The Role of the Training Team The primary role of the training team is to ensure that the objectives of the international training project are met. Therefore, the training team members must: ! review the objectives of the project and prepare the appropriate training

materials; ! ensure that courses and/or workshops do not overlap but form a whole; ! be sensitive to the host country's culture when preparing handouts,

determining instructional strategies, and forming methodologies; ! understand that the delivery of a successful training session requires a group

effort; ! facilitate the transfer of technology, that is, content and methodologies; ! be flexible and attend to the requests of the host institution, even when such

requests seem to be irrelevant in the context of the training session; ! maintain the goodwill between his or her country and the host country; ! try to work effectively within the local culture; ! be available, beyond classroom hours, to exchange information and ideas or

to discuss other related matters; ! be prepared to work during the host institution's hours of operation; ! be available to attend social functions as required by the host organization; ! try to influence change where appropriate;



! provide other team members with academic, social, and moral support; ! be tolerant of the needs of other team members as well as the needs of the

participants; ! not alter the contents of the training sessions without first informing the

other members of the training team and obtaining the approval of the team leader.

The training team members must be sensitive to local requirements and objectives. It is not unusual to find that the stated project objectives do not fully reflect those of the host institution or that the objectives have changed over time. Team members will also find that many members of the host organization will take full advantage of their presence to obtain information about matters that often appear to be extraneous to the objectives of the project or the host organization. Team members should anticipate intrusions on their personal time, particularly if they are living among the local participants or within the physical confines of the hosting institution or business. Training team members are often regarded as experts, and the participants as well as the officials of the host organization may seize this opportunity to obtain as much information as possible. Team members may also be asked to speak to other local organizations even though they are under no contractual obligation to do so. Members of the training team will find that they will rely on each other for professional and social support while working within the unfamiliar environment. Friendships as well as animosities will develop. Occasionally, some members will not speak to each other after the project. However, during the project, they must learn to accept personal differences and to maintain a professional demeanor. They must consider the advice of the project manager and heed the directions given by the team leader.



2.4 Selecting Training Team Members The process for selecting international trainers must be fair both in intent and perception. Opportunities to work overseas should be publicized and everyone should be aware of the selection criteria. If management decides not to publicize an international training activity and informs only a few individuals, some potentially good people may be missed. Why? Because in every work force, there are people with skills that could be useful on an overseas training activity. For example, an employee may not have all the technical skills required but may have been born and raised in the country in which the training will be conducted. This employee may know the culture and speak the language. Such experience and knowledge is crucial for the success of any overseas project. In addition, if this employee joined the international training team, it might not be necessary to employ an overseas interpreter or trainer. Prior to the selection interview, potential applicants (and perhaps their families) should be invited to an orientation session that describes the proposed international training project. The session should be designed so that people can ask open‐ended questions and have a chance to interact with others who have worked overseas, especially those individuals and teams who have worked in the country where the proposed training sessions will be conducted. Each potential applicant could be provided with a series of self‐questions similar to those presented in the motives and skills section at the end of Chapter One. Potential international trainers must be given the opportunity to reflect upon the information they receive during the pre‐selection orientation sessions. Selecting team members for an international training assignment is more difficult than selecting new employees. In addition to the standard trainer assessment criteria, you must also be able to assess how potential international trainers will work overseas in an unfamiliar environment and how they will work with other team members, whom they may not meet prior to their departure overseas. Although you want to choose the best candidates, the primary consideration must be compatibility with team members. Prior to conducting applicant interviews, you must: ! determine, as precisely as possible, the objectives of the proposed

international training; ! list any factors that may help you select the best candidates such as specific

skills, experience, and knowledge;



! determine the mix of personalities and competencies that you require. Ensure that the team is made up of just enough people to get the job done. The more people you have, the greater the cost and the higher the possibility that inefficiencies will occur. You will also need to determine if you need to select and prepare one or two alternate team members; a core team member may get ill prior to departure;

! prepare a "short" list of possible candidates; ! distribute the selection criteria to all applicants. During the interviews, you should ask the applicants questions that will provide you with the answers to the following: ! What are their personal goals? ! Do they have a genuine interest in working overseas? Do they want to learn

about others? ! What do they hope to achieve by going overseas? ! What special skills do they have that may enhance the international training

project? Can they be effective team members? Do they exhibit good interpersonal skills? Will they be able to work well with other training team members? Do they have a sense of humour?

! What expertise do they have? Is this expertise required in the international

project? Are they competent in their own field of specialization? Can these skills be strengthened prior to travelling overseas?

! Can they cope with change? Are they flexible? Can they handle the

unexpected? Can they adapt easily to new and different environments? Can they operate efficiently in situations with minimal resources?

! What language skills do they have? ! Do they have experience working in a non‐North American or western

environment? Will they be able to work in a different culture? Can they accept cultural differences? Have they had any cross‐cultural training?

! Do they understand key principles in international development such as

sustainable development? ! How do they cope with stress? Are they prepared to handle culture shock?



! Do their families feel comfortable about them going overseas? Are they worried about leaving their families behind?

! Will their supervisors support their overseas venture? ! Are they physically and mentally fit? ! Do they have a realistic conception of what an overseas training assignment

actually involves? ! When are they available to travel overseas? Will they be able to participate in

all orientation sessions? While you are listening to the applicants= responses to these questions, try to determine whether or not they have what it takes to be successful international trainers. A number of these attributes are outlined below. Note that no potential international trainer will have all of these attributes; however, all attributes should be present in the team you assemble for an overseas training assignment. Successful international trainers: ! have a genuine interest in learning about others. Successful international

trainers respect and accommodate local culture and traditions. They do not want to experience western culture overseas; if they did, they would stay at home. Instead, they relish the differences and similarities between western and foreign cultures. They are curious. They listen and observe more than they talk. They understand that success in developing countries comes only after personal trust is developed (usually through many face‐to‐face encounters). This process may take longer to establish overseas than it does in North America. Time usually means money in North America; however in many other cultures, time is plentiful and meant to be savored.

! exhibit empathy and caring for others. Those who want to work

effectively overseas must be sensitive to individual, cultural, social, political, and religious differences. They must be caring and intuitive. They must be able to understand that what we consider to be appropriate behavior in our culture may be considered inappropriate in other cultures. For example, if North American trainees do not like an aspect of a training session, they are likely to say so. The trainer is then able to address the concern. Conversely, Thai trainees will not make any negative statements, only positive ones. In Thai culture, it is not considered appropriate to criticize or question instructors or their ideas. Therefore, unless the trainer can read the situation from the Thais' point of view, it can be difficult to ascertain the true factors affecting a training problem.



! are flexible and resilient. International trainers become accustomed to accommodating the unexpected, coping with changes, and adjusting to different ideas and beliefs. Frequently, in developing countries, regional airlines do not fly on schedule. In fact, a trainer may find that his or her reserved seat has been sold to someone else. Prior to the overseas departure, a trainer may be told that microcomputers and other audiovisual equipment are available. Upon arrival, there may be only one microcomputer, and the available audiovisual equipment may not work. Successful international consultants learn to adjust, to keep going despite the setbacks.

! have self‐confidence. International trainers have a strong belief in their own

self‐worth, their knowledge, their skills, and their limitations. The international trainers' professional strengths and weaknesses are constantly tested in situations that stretch the limits of their expertise. Trainers who have confidence in their knowledge and abilities can achieve miraculous results. Those who lack self‐confidence will find it difficult to tap into their internal resources; they may be unable to deliver the type and quality of training that their clients expect. They may also find it difficult to deal with the ambiguity that frequently occurs during overseas assignments.

! have technical competence in their field of expertise. Overseas trainers are

perceived as experts. Therefore, they must have the depth and breadth of knowledge that their overseas clients will expect and put to the test. In some cases, trainers must have specific academic qualifications or professional designations. The knowledge and skills presented by the international trainer must be accurate and practical. If incorrect information is provided and improper skills are taught, the limited resources of a developing county will be spent needlessly. The developing country may take a long time to recover from inaccurate and inappropriate training and may be reluctant to participate in future international training activities.

! are excellent instructors. They know how to help others to improve their

skills. International instructors are adept at identifying learning needs, selecting and organizing content, using appropriate delivery strategies, assessing achievement, and providing relevant feedback and encouragement.

! have knowledge of English as a second language. Although English may

be the language of business, it is a second or third language to the majority of the people in the world. English‐speaking international trainers must speak slowly, use simple words, and avoid colloquialisms and acronyms. They must not be seen as patronizing. Good international trainers also know that nonverbal communication can be as important as verbal communication. In Muslim countries, for example, one should never offer the left hand as a sign of greeting or give an item with the left hand. The left hand is considered



unclean. Only the right hand should ever be extended. International trainers should have an interest in learning new languages.

! listen actively. In order to identify their learners' problems and then

determine practical, relevant solutions, trainers must listen carefully. In training situations, consultants must listen not only to what is being said, but also to what remains unsaid. The manner in which people respond to a question is as important as the substance of their response. If a person's response seems hesitant, a trainer must listen and observe the verbal and nonverbal clues that may reveal the cause of the hesitancy. These clues often provide insights into, and occasionally, the answer to the training problem.

! exhibit excellent questioning techniques. Good trainers are curious. In

order to ferret out the facts, to determine which facts are relevant, and to gain an accurate and comprehensive view of the training problem, trainers must frame their questions intelligently. They must ask a variety of questions that will help them to define the problem as well as the potential solutions. Although questions that yield yes and no responses may be appropriate, trainers must also ask questions that encourage people to provide information, express their opinions, and offer suggestions. If participants do not respond to a question, trainers must be careful not to assume that the participants do not know the answer. Frequently, participants are reluctant to speak candidly about their thoughts to foreign trainers.

! demonstrate persistence and assertiveness. Trainers must not be deterred

by resistance. Once beyond the reticence, they often discover the real problem and possible solutions. Frequently, in the quest for truthful information, trainers must exhibit assertive, but polite, behavior.

! are patient. Most developing countries have a slower pace of life than that

exhibited in western countries. Decision‐making processes may be convoluted and lengthy. International trainers must be patient. In Southeast Asia and in several African countries, displays of frustration and anger will not endear a trainer to the local populace.

! are objective and precise. Although we all have our biases, international

trainers must ensure that their personal likes and dislikes do not interfere with the collection and distillation of training facts and data. They must obtain, verify, and analyze information without becoming personally, emotionally, or politically involved in the situation. On the other hand, trainers who lack empathy may find it difficult to provide their international learners with practical or appropriate instruction.



! are self‐motivated and disciplined. Good overseas trainers are self‐starters; they do not procrastinate, and they eagerly anticipate new and challenging situations. Trainers must design their own agendas and be sufficiently disciplined to complete the many detailed tasks within the allotted timeframe. Effective trainers are instructional leaders.

! excel at problem solving. An international trainer's job is to solve problems.

Therefore, trainers must not only be able to focus on specific problems, they must also be able to see the "whole picture." In addition to making correct assessments of the past and present, trainers must be accurate forecasters. The training they give will be implemented in the future, not the present.

! set high standards. Professional trainers have high personal standards for

quality, and they deliver their expert training (within the given constraints of the project) to the best of their ability. Poor training, which often results from low standards, can produce adverse affects.

! have a sense of humor. Mistakes can happen overseas as easily as they do at

home. Although trainers must be able to laugh at themselves, they must take care not to offend anyone or give others the impression that the training team is incompetent. Trainers must also be aware that humor is culture specific. What is humorous in one culture may be offensive in other cultures.

! develop and maintain trust. In order to ascertain the essentials of the

training problem and to develop realistic and practical instruction, trainers must gain, and then maintain, the trust of others. Developing trust and forming solid relationships with their international audience are essential parts of the training process. Trust is enhanced when team members keep their promises. However, due to time, cultural, and language barriers, developing trust can be a difficult task.

! can function as a team player. Most international training projects involve

a team of trainers. However, even if only one trainer travels abroad, he or she must work with an overseas contact and perhaps an interpreter. This small team is then responsible for delivering the training. A trainer must be able to work effectively with others in collaborative settings.

! give credit where it is due. The success of a training project depends on a

number of people, and good trainers know this. They always thank others for their help, not because it is the professional thing to do, but because they genuinely feel that it is the right thing to do.

! work to the best of their abilities with limited resources. Conducting

training in a developing country is not a paid vacation. Many developing



countries, such as China, have a five and‐a‐half or a six‐day work week. During their overseas assignment, trainers must be able to work in an environment where support services and/or physical resources, such as chalk, are limited or nonexistent.

! are mentally and physically healthy. Effective international training team

members require stamina in order to deal with a variety of challenges including anxiety, stress, culture shock, extreme heat and humidity, and the unknown. One positive factor, which helps the mental well‐being of potential overseas trainers, is knowing that their families support the overseas training activity. If team members are extremely apprehensive about their families' concerns, it will be difficult for them to function successfully abroad.

! have previous overseas training experience that can be effectively applied

to the upcoming international training project. Note that portions of the above section have appeared in Wright, C. R. (1992), Educational Consulting in Developing Countries, Media News, 19(4). Additional information on the attributes of excellent trainers may be obtained from the article "Characteristics of Excellent Trainers: A Psychological and Interpersonal Profile" by James A. Leach in Performance Improvement Quarterly, 4(3), 1991. Although the article is based on questionnaires completed by managers of Fortune 500 companies, many of the characteristics mentioned also apply to international trainers. The following publication provides selection procedures for international advisors: Cross‐cultural Effectiveness: A Study of Canadian Technical Advisors Overseas by Daniel J. Kealey, (1990). Kealey notes that if a spouse will accompany the trainer, then the spouse should also be interviewed. "Although this is not common practice, it is a well established fact that the adaptation of the spouse and family can make or break an overseas assignment. While the profile of the effective spouse is generally the same as that of an effective advisor, the characteristics most critical for ensuring an overall effective adaptation for the non‐working spouse are initiative, resourcefulness, interest in cultures, and a readiness to put one's own career on hold" (Kealey, 1990, 65). The above list of characteristics will help you select quality overseas trainers. If you select the best, many of the problems international training teams experience will be minimized. If you must decide between someone who is exceptionally competent in a chosen field and someone who is good with people, select the person with the people skills. You can teach technical competence, but it is extremely difficult to improve human relationship skills in a short period of time. Take care not to let politics affect your trainer selection. Individuals selected on the basis of political expediency may not be the best people to address your overseas training needs. If some of your potential candidates need strengthening



in specific areas such as technical competence, determine whether or not these deficiencies can be corrected during an orientation program.



2.5 Orienting Training Team Members Introduction Although there is no greater teacher than experience, you should establish an orientation program that prepares your team for their overseas assignment. The program should be designed to ensure that the trainers know all the facts about their international assignment. They should know: ! what they are expected to do; ! the health, legal, and financial concerns that will affect them both at home

and abroad; ! the travel and accommodation arrangements to and from the country and

within the country; ! who they will be working with; ! who they will be responsible to and for what; ! the history, geography, and politics of the host country and the host

organization; ! the differences and similarities between their culture and the overseas

culture; ! the language(s) of the host country; ! the specifics of the training assignment such as objectives, budgets, and

evaluation procedures; ! the basic guideline for working in an international setting. During the orientation program, your international instructors should have an opportunity to meet and develop relationships with people they will be working with abroad. You must not assume that once you assemble a group of people, they will automatically work efficiently and effectively together. Team members must develop shared assumptions, values, and expectations. They must become familiar with each other's skills and attitudes. It is also important to involve the families of international trainers in the activity, especially if the families will be accompanying their spouses overseas.



The orientation program should include a variety of instructional delivery strategies. Use simulations and case studies that present situations similar to those that the instructors will encounter overseas. Besides presenting information via films, videotapes, books, magazines, and individualized learning materials, ask people who have lived or worked overseas if they could share their experiences with the international training team. To be successful, the orientation program should be conducted in a comfortable and neutral environment that allows the trainers to honestly express their concerns about their international assignment. Encourage them to discuss their different points of view as well as creative solutions to problems they may raise. Although it is difficult to teach, international trainers must learn to become sensitive to cultures that are different than their own. Usually during orientation programs, time is at a premium. There are a lot of topics to cover, yet little time to cover them well. One solution to this problem is to have each member of the international training team investigate a specific topic and present their findings to other team members during the orientation program. For example, one team member could research the geography and history of the country, and another could find out how instruction is conducted overseas. By sharing the responsibilities of the orientation program in this manner, team members will have an opportunity to share project leadership and to demonstrate their ability to help others. Because this document was designed to meet the needs of those who are going overseas for a short duration, the orientation program described here will have to be adjusted to suit longer international training assignments. For example, if your training team plans to be overseas for a year, then parts of the orientation program, such as language training, should be greatly expanded. Orientation to the Training Assignment It is absolutely essential that everyone who is involved in the international training activity has a clear vision of the purpose of the training activity. The tasks to be accomplished must be delineated in detail and the acceptable level of variances for completing each task specified. Everyone must know what is expected and how the success of the overseas assignment will be measured. Although more details will be learned as the training program develops, initially, team members should receive the following information: ! background to the project. Trainers must know how the proposed training

session fits into the country's and your institution's or organization's long‐term goals. If other projects are taking place in the host country, the trainers



need to know how their assignment dovetails with these projects. Each agency or organization associated with the project will have expectations for the proposed overseas training assignment. If these expectations are unclear or not readily available, the project manager should contact the appropriate persons and ask them to stipulate their expectations. If their expectations are unrealistic because of the lack of resources or time, then the project goals must be redefined. The project manager must ensure that training is the appropriate solution to the problem others want them to address. If the purpose of the training activity is not made clear at the beginning of the orientation program, trainers may not only waste time and resources, but they may also become frustrated with the entire assignment. They may lose their self‐esteem because they realize that what they are trying to do is inappropriate or cannot be accomplished through training sessions.

! identification of overseas contacts. All overseas contacts should be

identified and their responsibilities and duties in their own country as well as their roles in the training assignment. Their chain of command for decision making must be determined. Who are the key people? Who can make decisions? Who has influence? Many countries have highly structured chains of command, which international trainers must be aware of. Who is responsible for inviting and informing the potential trainees about the training sessions?

The authority of the training team and the manner in which the team will relate to the chain of command in the host country must also be delineated. Prior to going overseas, the international training team should communicate with their foreign hosts and ensure that all members of the team receive written confirmation of the proposed activities. Always confirm any verbal conversations with your overseas host with a written letter. The letter could be faxed. ! the instructional objectives. What skills must be taught, under what

conditions, and to what level of proficiency? What skills must the trainees demonstrate at the end of the course that they could not do at the beginning of the training sessions?

! audience profile. What skills do they currently possess? What are their

training expectations? Did the trainees request the training or did their supervisors tell them to take it? What are their interests, abilities, attitudes, motivations, and previous experiences? What skills do they possess? Are they fluent in English or will interpreters and translators be needed?

You must determine the impact the local culture will have on your training program. For example, in Muslim countries, training activities must be designed to accommodate the Muslim's daily prayer schedule. Trainers



should also know which topics or issues may adversely affect their relationships with their overseas clients. For example, many people in Southeast Asia and Southeast Africa are sensitive to discussions on the environment, particularly topics related to the logging of the jungle. In other countries, people may be unwilling to discuss issues related to the role of women in society.

! overseas training methods. How is training conducted overseas? Are there

training methods favored by the overseas clients? How will the proposed training affect not only the individual but also the host organization?

! ownership development. How can you help your trainees to develop

ownership for their training? ! availability of resources and working conditions. What resources are

available overseas? Is electricity available and reliable? If so, what voltage or special electrical connectors are needed? What equipment is available? Does the equipment work? Is it accessible to trainees? Are print and non‐print materials available and up‐to‐date? Is the training room soundproofed? Can sunlight be blocked out? Is air‐conditioning available? Are breakout rooms available for small group discussions? Can the facility be modified to meet specific training needs? How will refreshments and meals be provided? What type of washroom facilities is available?

! training schedule. What must be covered in what time frame? Is this

schedule reasonable? Remember that everything will not proceed as planned, and that the pace of life in many developing countries is slower than in North America.

! instructional strategies. What strategies will be effective? Some strategies

such as role plays may not work well in many Pacific Rim countries, while other strategies such as the lecture, demonstration, and case studies will be well‐received. Always plan to provide abundant practice and effective feedback.

! preparation of instructional material. Should the potential trainees

receive a substantial amount of reading material? Should the material be translated into a foreign language? Can culturally neutral visuals be prepared? List each task to be performed along with a suggested time frame and the resources needed to complete it. It should be acknowledged that trainers may not have adequate time to develop the best possible materials or to establish the ideal training facility overseas.



! evaluation instruments and procedures. How will trainees be evaluated? Do evaluation instruments exist, or must they be developed?

! project success. What measures will be used to ascertain the success of the

project? Although this item is stated in the pre‐planning phase of the overseas project, it should be restated here.

Finally, during the initial phases of the orientation program, each international trainer must understand his or her personal role in the overseas assignment. They should know why they were selected and what they are expected to contribute to the assignment. Overall project timelines and procedural details, such as the handling of honoraria, copyright, and travel expenses, must be outlined. By providing your training team with this information, they will be able to get a sense of what is expected of them. They will be able to decide what they can contribute, what they need to learn, and the possible timelines for each phase of the project. As the team prepares for their trip, they should continually re‐evaluate what they are doing and make appropriate adjustments every two weeks. If possible, they should pilot their instructional strategies, materials, and evaluation instruments prior to their departure. Upon their return from their overseas assignment, the team should discuss what worked and what did not. Debriefing is extremely important for the individuals and their institution or employer. Information revealed during the debriefing can be used to evaluate the current experiences and to plan for the next training session. A copy of the debriefing report should be sent to the overseas host organization. Under ideal conditions, one or two members of the training team would travel overseas to complete the preliminary research and to conduct advance planning. These team members would meet with their international contacts, assess their needs, meet some of the potential training participants, assess their needs and skills, determine what resources are available, and ascertain the conditions under which the training team will be working. On their return, these team members would be able to provide the rest of the team with first‐hand information that could be used to develop the training program and materials. If your personnel will be going overseas for an extended period of time, you may want to use the "So, You're Going Abroad Survey" in Managing Cultural Differences by P. R. Harris & R. T. Moran (1991, 557‐571). It provides a comprehensive list of key issues that need to be addressed prior to departure abroad. The authors recommend that the survey be completed over a six‐month period.



Health, Legal, and Social Concerns In this phase of the orientation program, training team members need to address any health and legal concerns that may affect their overseas assignment. Health concerns should be reviewed early as trainers may find that they require a series of vaccinations, which must be taken over a two or three‐month period, or they may find that the country's hot and humid conditions may be detrimental to their health. Team members should be asked to review the health advice section included in the travel advice chapter at the end of this publication. For safety's sake, team members should know about each other=s dietary restrictions, food and other allergies, or religious obligations that may have an adverse effect on their overseas activity. Team members must learn to recognize the signs of stress and know how to help reduce stressful situations. Team members must know how to help each other in cases of medical emergencies or other life‐threatening situations. For example, are special medications required? What can be done to relieve pain? Who should be contacted in cases of emergency? Is there a list of local medical doctors and embassies? Does a member want to be sent home if he or she becomes seriously ill? If someone must be sent home prior to the termination of the project, how will this action be handled? Who must be contacted and who will pay for this unscheduled trip home? These questions should be discussed openly among all team members. Occasionally, some members will not want everyone to know about their personal health concerns. However, the team leader must have this information along with any actions that should be taken. One way to handle confidentiality would be to put all such information into sealed envelopes. Each team member would have an envelope. If an emergency does occur, the team members would be allowed to open the appropriate envelope and follow the instructions contained within. If no emergency occurs, at the end of the trip, all envelopes are collected and destroyed. Although it is preferred that every team member be aware of the potential medical emergencies that may occur, the envelope method permits people to maintain their privacy, yet ensures that a crisis can be addressed. The financial and legal matters that must be attended to prior to going overseas are discussed in detail in the travel advice chapter. Like the health concerns, legal concerns should be addressed early in the orientation program. Most legal arrangements, both individual and corporate, take time to complete. It takes time to obtain passports, visas, and custom clearances. Those who travel overseas should ensure that personal documents such as wills and insurance policies are updated and, where necessary, that a power of attorney is assigned to someone who will attend to their financial and legal affairs while they are abroad.



This information should be provided to the project manager. Trainers should also determine if their employer will guarantee them a position upon their return. Will they guarantee the same job or any job? Who will replace the international trainers while they are away? What will happen to the replacement staff when the trainers return? Instructors need to know what, if any, remuneration they will receive for taking part in the international training activity and what expenses will be covered by their employer, international agency, and/or foreign contacts. In most cases, airfare, land travel, accommodation, meals, and medical services will be paid for. However, instructors may need to pay out‐of‐pocket for the clothes and other personal items they will need for their overseas assignment. These out‐of‐pocket expenses can add up to a sizeable sum. Instructors must know what items they will be reimbursed for and what they must pay for. Instructors should also know how their overseas assignment expenses will be handled. Will they receive all funds up front or must they submit expense claims? Will funds be distributed on an expense‐expended basis, or will they receive funds at a per diem rate? What funds will be provided to cover overseas expenses such as interpreter and translator services, clerical services, telephone and/or facsimile transmissions, instructional materials, social obligations, and so forth? In countries where bribery is commonplace, how should these situations be handled? Frequently forgotten when addressing health and legal arrangements is a discussion on the merits of contacting home on a regular basis. By making regular calls home, team members can feel more comfortable with the health, financial, and legal arrangements they made prior to their departure. They can keep informed regarding the activities of family and friends. Consequently, their stress levels are reduced. All trainers should make arrangements for contacting home on a regular basis. Members of the training group can take turns calling home once a week. The contact at home may then pass on messages to the family members of the other trainers. If instructors will be overseas for an extended period of time, make arrangements for them to receive professional, institutional, and/or company newsletters as well as relevant articles or clippings from the local newspapers. These items will help the instructors to keep in touch with home‐base and facilitate the readjustment process when their overseas assignment is completed. To help them readjust to their home environment, provide them with mentoring, counselling, and re‐orientation programs as well as opportunities to use their recently acquired training skills.



Unless the personal needs of instructors are discussed, the instructors may become ineffective. Do discuss overseas living and social conditions. Ensure that your instructors are familiar with overseas transportation, medical, and banking systems and procedures. Travel and Accommodation Arrangements Prior to making their travel and accommodation arrangements through a reputable travel agency, instructors should ask their overseas contacts to determine when and where the training will be conducted and the availability of appropriate accommodation. Usually these arrangements are made by the project manager or team leader. Frequently, the dates of an overseas training session have been set by the host organization and cannot be substantially adjusted. However, instructors should be aware of national, provincial/state, or municipal holidays in the country in which they will be working. These holidays can seriously affect the training schedule. For example, the Chinese New Year, which occurs in February, is not celebrated to a significant degree in North America. But in parts of Asia, this holiday may cause government departments and businesses to close for up to five working days. Your potential trainees are not likely to attend training sessions during such holidays. In southern hemisphere countries, summer vacations are frequently taken in December and January; consequently, conducting training there during these months may not be feasible. If possible, adjust the overseas training schedule to allow time for flight delays and time for the international training team to adjust to their new climate, to recover from jet lag, and to visit the client's training and working facilities. This latter experience will enable trainers to become familiar with the environment in which their students work. In addition, note that the pace in many foreign countries is much slower than at home. Extra time may be needed to accomplish simple things such as obtaining bottled drinking water. It is not wise to schedule the first training session for the day following a 21‐hour flight from North America to Bangkok. The trainers will not work at their best. The extensive amount of time and money invested to get them there will yield better results if two or three days are scheduled for acclimatization. Trainers need to know where they will be working and the condition of the facilities in which they will be working. This information will help them determine where they want to stay and what they need to maintain their composure during their overseas assignment. Because time is usually at a premium, most instructors like to be located close to their place of work. Others, who wish to separate their working lives from their leisure time, may prefer to



reside some distance from their workplace. Depending on a variety of factors, including financial factors, instructors may be lodged at five‐star hotels, tourist lodgings, institutional residences, or billeted to local homes. If team members will be working in conditions where privacy is minimal or where air conditioning is not available, they may need separate rooms and electric fans. Team Development Unless some time is spent developing an esprit de corps or on team building, effective international training will not occur. Members of the overseas training group must learn to act as team players rather than individuals. Team players have shared values and assumptions and mutually acceptable goals; they work together, as a unit, to provide the end‐product or outcomes of the project. During the orientation phase, the activities described below should be conducted. Stages of Team Development Team development is a continuous, non‐linear process that occurs not only during project orientation, but also during project implementation. The process has several sequenced stages. Although different authors have different names for each stage of the team development cycle, the following terms are used here: initiation, testing, organizing, performing, and maturation. The characteristics of each stage are outlined below. Initiation ! Members are introduced to each other. ! Members come to know each other on a superficial basis. ! Individuals have a general idea of why they are part of a team,

but they are unclear of the team's goals and values. They seek specificity.

! Members try to ascertain the common goals of the group and

look for evidence of group leadership.

! Members attempt to determine how they fit into the group and how they relate to others? Do they have attributes that are shared by others? Can they contribute to the group's activities? Do they feel that they belong?



! Members usually act in a cordial, but superficially pleasant manner.

Testing ! Members aggressively seek to discover the attitudes, values,

and skills of the other team members.

! Members attempt to ascertain their influence and power within the group. Who will listen to them? Who will trust their opinions? Who will follow them? Can they form alliances with others? Can they develop a workable relationship with the members of the group?

! Because team members attempt to ascertain their place within

the group, this stage is characterized by infighting. The infighting may be prolonged and stressful.

! Members challenge the leaders. They want to know if the

designated leader has the qualities and competencies required to lead them. Can the leader control the team? How are differences among team members handled? Is the leader decisive? Is the leader knowledgeable? Unless each team member answers these questions satisfactorily, these concerns will continue to be raised throughout the team's activities.

! Team leaders must listen to and address as many of the team

member's concerns as possible. At the beginning, it may be possible for leaders to share leadership duties, but it is the team leaders who are accountable for the success or failure of their teams.

Organizing ! Initial roles are clarified.

! Team goals are redefined. ! Members design efficient procedures and may develop their

own verbal shorthand. ! Operating procedures are specified, yet these procedures

allow for flexibility. ! Members respect the contributions of others. ! Individuals are concerned with personal performances.



! The team develops its own unique identity. ! The majority of or all team members re‐affirm their

commitment to the team's goals.

Performing ! Problem solving becomes a shared activity.

! Discussion is lively, but purposeful. ! The team works effectively. Members work together as a

group rather than as a collection of individuals. ! Progress is made. Tasks are being completed. The team's

raison d'etre is being realized. Maturation ! Team members feel close to one another. Bonds may develop

that are demonstrated outside of team activities.

! Members feel comfortable together. As a group, they are willing to act and speak informally.

! Members take ownership of team accomplishments.

Members respect each other's contributions and are willing to defend the activities of individual members as well as those of the team.

! Tasks are completed. ! Members seek new goals. They want to know "What's next?"

All teams pass through the stages outlined above. Some stages, especially the testing stage, may be repeated throughout the team development process. It is the responsibility of the project managers and team leaders to prepare for each stage. They should be ready to respond to the concerns raised by team members and to allow members time to become comfortable with their new relationships. Team members must also be willing to progress through these stages. They must keep a positive attitude and demonstrate a willingness to accept new people and ideas. Additional ideas for developing teams are presented in the article "Team Basics: How To Develop Teamwork In Training Organizations" by Bragg (1992) and in Team Games for Trainers by Nilson (1993).



Learning about Others Team members need time to learn about each other. Although, this process can be accomplished informally, it may be best if a formal approach is taken first. Ask each member to describe to the others their personal experiences, competencies, accomplishments, and if possible, their likes and dislikes on how they prefer to work. This latter activity may be difficult to accomplish. However, the Myers‐Briggs IndicatorJ can help to define the psychological and behavioral orientations of people. This test identifies 16 classifications of people. Although the test reveals what people are like, it does not reveal how individuals may react in unfamiliar situations. You can use the Myers‐Briggs IndicatorJ as a starting point for assisting team members to interact positively with others. Initially, it can be uncomfortable for some individuals to talk about themselves in front of a group of strangers. However, team members can meet with each other individually and in small groups. In small group settings, they can demonstrate their individual accomplishments, describe their contributions to professional associations and/or union activities, distribute their publications, and discuss their families, hobbies, and anecdotes. As team members become more comfortable with each other, they will be more willing to address the entire group. It is important for the international project manager or team leader to describe why each team member was selected. Then team members should each outline the competencies that they bring to the team and state what they hope to accomplish. If possible, these skills should be written on flipchart paper and then posted on the walls in the meeting room. This visual presentation will help reinforce the fact that each member brings special experiences and skills to the team and that, as a team, they have a wealth of resources at their disposal. Develop a Mission Statement Once the team members have become familiar with each other, they need to jointly develop a mission statement. A mission or vision statement is more than a description of the group's purpose, final product, or outcome; it also describes the why and the how of a project. An effective mission statement provides all team members not only with guidance on how to achieve their desired results but also inspires them to action. One method used to develop such mission statements requires members of the team to each write out what they hope to accomplish and to indicate how they expect to feel at the conclusion of the project. How do they want to feel when they return from their overseas assignment? They must clearly specify the criteria they will use to measure the success of the project and the role each will



play in achieving this success. All these ideas are shared among the team members. Then, the team generates a mission statement that every team member fully supports. This statement will be referred to throughout the international project and must be adhered to by all team members, including the team leader. The team leader can draft a mission statement and distribute it to the team members. This mission statement can be reviewed and adopted quickly. However, this procedure is not recommended; it demonstrates a top down approach to team management rather than a collaborative effort. If team leaders want their members to work at an optimal level, they must be allowed to have ownership in the development of the mission statements. Consequently, team members must jointly develop mission statements rather than simply rubber‐stamp a statement prepared by the team leader. Determine Appropriate Decision‐making Processes Training teams need to develop their own decision‐making processes. Members need to develop, and be comfortable with, rules for brainstorming, evaluating ideas, and reaching consensus. The Desert Survival GameJ, Wilderness SurvivalJ, or other simulation activities, which cultivate team building skills, can be used to develop the rapport and rules needed to foster collaborative decision making. Team members should know the differences among the following decision making models: unanimity, consensus, compromise, majority, and unilateral. There are times when a unilateral decision must be made by the team leader. Prior to going on an overseas venture, determine when unilateral decisions are appropriate. Remember, if no decision is made, everyone loses. Develop Trust The international training team's success depends on all team members contributing their best. People perform best when they work within an atmosphere of trust; an environment in which open communication, idea sharing, belonging, and empathy are highly prized. When members trust each other, they are willing to take on reasonable risks and to address complex problems. Mink, Mink, and Owen (1987, 63‐113) state that the following behaviors help develop trust: ! Accept ideas.

! Tolerate faults.

! Maintain eye contact while speaking and listening.

! Avoid interrupting others while they are speaking.

! Criticize the idea, not the person.



! Give negative feedback in private.

! Keep the confidences of others.

! Include others in activities.

! Offer to help others.

! Ask for genuine feedback.

! Play together.

! Provide accurate information.

! Do what you promise.

! Give credit when credit is due.

In an international setting, it may not be possible to exhibit all of these behaviors. For example, establishing and maintaining eye contact may be difficult to do in some Asian cultures. However, determine which behaviors are appropriate for the cultural context in which the training team will be working. Provide Effective Feedback and Deal with Criticism Effective feedback allows team members to re‐examine the ideas and actions that will lead to the successful completion of their mission. It is essential that members learn how to provide feedback and to give and receive criticism. In overseas situations, team members may experience extreme stress. Conflicts may arise quickly. During any team activity, ideas are generated that may be accepted, rejected, or modified. The manner in which ideas are generated and implemented depends on the quality of feedback provided by team members. Team members can provide effective feedback when they listen attentively to what is being said, ask for clarification, and respond to the positive ideas first. If criticism must be given, it should be provided in a timely, specific, and factual manner. Although it may be difficult, only the ideas expressed should be criticized, not the person. After presenting this type of feedback, team members should re‐affirm their appreciation for the good aspects of all ideas expressed and their positive support for the individual. A definite resolution to any conflict should be clearly indicated. If appropriate, individuals should shake hands; this gesture formally concludes the session and reinforces the team members' support for one another. Team members must also learn how to accept criticism. They must listen attentively, without interrupting, to what is being said, ask for clarification, paraphrase what was said, find something to agree with, and thank their teammates for their contributions.



Time is always at a premium during an overseas training assignment. Prolonged conflict situations, which adversely affect the overall operation of the international training team, must be addressed efficiently and effectively. Manage Conflict Conflict is an inevitable part of team work. When you assemble a group of experts, persons with strong viewpoints, and individuals who are not accustomed to working together for extended periods of time, conflicts are likely to occur. Conflicts can be detrimental. They can be stressful and reduce the overall effectiveness of the team. If your team members know that the success of the international training project depends on a team effort and that the contribution of each team member is vital to the project's success, then conflicts can be dealt with effectively. During an overseas assignment, team conflicts must not be displayed in public. In order to manage conflicts, it is essential to determine the source of the conflictCthe idea or feeling that initiated the strong reaction between two or more team members. Sometimes, disagreements become so emotional that neither party can calmly state the problem. Therefore, other team members may be asked to describe what they saw, heard, or felt when the disagreement began. Issues surrounding the conflict should be discussed openly, time to discuss the issue must be adequate, and a win‐win solution should be sought. It is not imperative that the team leader resolve the conflict. What is important is that members have the opportunity to explore different points of view and to generate a solution that seems to address the different positions. In international training projects, conflicts frequently develop over the purpose of the project, the distribution of resources, the project outcomes, and/or the manner in which these outcomes will be achieved. Sometimes, conflicts are the result of differences in personal values. In order to minimize conflicts, before the project gets rolling, ensure that all team members are comfortable with the project's mission, objectives, procedures, and outcomes. Involve all team members in the formation of these items. Start slowly. Give people time to adjust. Have the team deal with simple challenges before asking them to cope with the more complex ones. Accept that some conflicts, such as those involving personal values, may never be satisfactorily resolved. Contrary to popular belief, conflict can be good. Conflict can lead to the discovery of new approaches to problem solving. Team members are able to explore different aspects of an issue. Some members may reconfirm their previously held beliefs, while others may change their points of view. Finally, successfully resolved conflict can re‐energize a team.



Learn to Negotiate Negotiating is a give and take strategy that every international trainer must master. For example, upon arrival, the overseas organization may want to change your project goals and activities. In North America, many goods and services have a fixed price and there are a number of written and unwritten rules that one adheres to. Overseas, many products and services such as taxi fares or the price of fruit are negotiable. During a training trip to Southeast Asia, the training team did not expect to have to pay for refreshments for their workshop participants. From their point of view, they were the invited guests. The overseas organization was the host; therefore they would organize and provide refreshments. At the end of the training session however, the team leader found himself embroiled in a discussion as to who would pay for tea break refreshments and lunches. He had never experienced nor expected this situation, nor did he fully appreciate the values held by the host organization. Following a lengthy negotiation, the training team agreed to cover the cost of the tea breaks and the host organization paid for the lunches. These and other, similar overseas experiences make it necessary for you to learn more about the skill and art of negotiating and to hone your negotiating skills so that win‐win situations can be achieved. Effective overseas trainers must learn to negotiate. Negotiating is a part of everyday life in many foreign countries. This skill must be mastered not only by the international training team leader but also by members of the training team. Effective negotiators are honest, patient, persistent, flexible, tactful, excellent communicators, and knowledgeable about the product or service under discussion. In order to negotiate effectively, you may want to follow the steps outlined below. Prior to the negotiating session: ! Be aware of, and sensitive to, the cultural norms that may affect the

negotiating process, such as respect for status and loss of face. For example, the Chinese expect that members of your negotiating party will have the same status as members on their team.

! Ensure that what you want to negotiate is negotiable. ! Determine what is important to you. What personal and societal values are

nonnegotiable? ! Where appropriate, determine your physical, security, belonging,

recognition, and comfort needs. For example, your host organization may ask you to travel to one of their rural sites. Will you feel more secure



travelling by local taxi, hotel limousine, bus, train, or airplane? If you fear for your life while travelling in a local taxi through a country where terrorist attacks are common, how will this additional stress affect your ability to deliver effective training? If recognition is important to you, must your name appear next to the name of the senior official of the overseas organization you are negotiating with?

! Determine the protocol requirements of the other party. ! Determine your long and short‐term goals. Use these goals as your internal

guide throughout the negotiation process.

! Determine your bottom line position. What is it that is unacceptable to you? What does winning mean to you? If your bottom line position is not met, be prepared to walk away from the negotiating table.

! Determine your preferred position or negotiating stance. What concessions

are you willing to make? ! Know the values held by those you are negotiating with. What are their

physical, security, belonging, recognition, and comfort needs? ! Determine the positions most likely to be held by your opponents. What

are their nonnegotiable items? What will winning mean to them? How can you help them to "save face," (an important aspect of relationships in many Asian countries)? Do they practice a win‐win or win‐lose paradigm? Do they use a competitive or collaborative negotiation strategy?

! Determine how you will approach the negotiations. Be prepared to begin

negotiations in a cooperative manner. Many foreign nationals expect North Americans to be bullish and competitive. They may be disarmed by a genuine show of cooperation. Decide if you will seek commitment on smaller items before addressing the larger issues, or decide to get an agreement on the major issue first, then address the smaller issues.

! Determine what concessions you are willing to make that will appeal to

others. If you concede something, what will you expect in return? During the negotiating session: ! Try to establish a rapport with your opponents. Generally, overseas

negotiators tend to take time to get to know their opponents first, whereas in North America, we like to get down to business as quickly as possible. In



an overseas setting, you are often not only negotiating a deal or reading a settlement, but also developing a relationship. During the early stages of negotiating, offer information that will help others to know you better, but do not provide information that could be used against you later. Try to develop trust during the early stages of negotiation. Do not appear to be overbearing or overly aggressive.

! Observe the verbal and nonverbal cues that describe the atmosphere in

which the negotiations will occur. Adjust your negotiating strategy accordingly.

! Restate the problem to be negotiated in terms that both you and your

opponents understand. Include in your restatement the priorities expressed by both sides.

! Find ways to address the two different points of view. Look for a win‐win

solution. Put a position on the table that inspires trust and respect. ! Address the problem under negotiation; do not make personal attacks on

your opponents. ! Be prepared for surprises. New information will always be brought to your

attention. However, when surprises occur during the negotiations, do not look surprised.

! If necessary, ask for a recess so that you can consult with your team

privately. Prior to reaching the final agreement, this recess can be an effective ploy. But, if you have already achieved what you want, taking a break may arrest your negotiating momentum.

! Be flexible! At the end of the negotiation, when an agreement has been reached: ! Verbally summarize the decisions made. ! Smile and shake hands or bow, whichever is appropriate. ! As soon as possible, put the agreement in writing. Send copies to

everyone involved and, if appropriate, to everyone who may be affected by the agreement.

! Do what you agreed to do during the negotiations.



Acuff (1993, 97) states that there are ten negotiating strategies that tend to be effective throughout the world. These strategies are: ! Plan the negotiation.

! Adapt a win‐win approach.

! Maintain high aspirations.

! Use language that is simple and accessible.

! Ask lots of questions, then listen with your eyes and ears.

! Build solid relationships.

! Maintain personal integrity.

! Conserve concessions.

! Be patient.

! Be culturally literate and adapt negotiating strategies to the host environment.

For additional information regarding intercultural negotiations, refer to: Acuff, F. L. (1993). How to negotiate anything with anyone anywhere around the

world. New York, NY: AMACOM. Copeland, L. & Griggs, L. (1985). Going international: How to make friends and

deal effectively in the global marketplace. New York, NY: Random House. Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture's consequences. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Publications. Weiss, S. & Stripp, W. (1985). Negotiating with foreign businesspersons. New

York, NY: New York University Press. The following journal also contains articles describing intercultural negotiation methods: International Management, McGraw‐Hill Publications, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. If you would like to obtain additional information about team development or a description of a number of activities that teams can use to develop their skills, you can refer to several team building and team management books published by Pfeiffer and Company/University Associates (8517 Production Avenue, San Diego, CA 92121‐2280, USA). For example, The Encyclopedia of Team‐development Activities and The Encyclopedia of Team‐building Activities together contain 94 activities that develop and nurture effective teams.



Plan for the Future Time should be allocated to discuss what will occur once the international training project is completed. In order to bring closure, the project should be formally concluded. Team members must know if they will be asked to continue with stage two of the current international project, if they will return to their previous duties, or if they will work on different, perhaps more complex projects. Additional information regarding follow‐up project activities is discussed in the final chapter of this publication. Country Awareness Prior to their departure to a foreign country, the international training team must learn about their destination's history, geography, climate, economy, religion, social customs, language, politics, and working conditions. Primary sources of such information include: ! individuals who have previously travelled to that country. Especially,

helpful are those who have worked overseas in the environment your team will be working in.

! letters from the host organization that provide specific details pertaining to

the training assignment. ! public libraries have numerous books that describe your destination as well

as publications such as Lonely Planet, Insight Guides, and the National Geographic. Remember to search out non‐print media such as photographs, slides, videotapes, and compact optical discs such as CD‐ROMs. Libraries at post‐secondary institutions, which offer intercultural and international business management or trade programs, are likely to have extensive collections on foreign topics.

! international centres at colleges or universities. ! embassy or consulate officials. Many countries have official offices, which

are located in Ottawa, Ontario or in Washington, DC. Some countries have local offices, which can be found in larger cities such as New York, San Francisco, Toronto, and Vancouver.

! international development agencies such as the Peace Corps (806

Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20526) and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA, 200 Promenade du Portage, Hull, Quebec, K1A 0G4).



! international publishers such as Kennedy Center Publications at Brigham Young University (P.O. Box 24538, Provo, UT 84602‐4538). They produce 108 Culturgrams, which provide essential information on countries throughout the world.

! local international associations. Many foreign immigrants like to maintain

contact with others from their native country. Consequently, they have established local associations that provide support and sponsor activities that keep their cultural heritage alive.

! educational consultants can be found in major cities. Refer to the Yellow

Pages of your local telephone company. You may also find private organizations, such as International Orientation Resources in Northbrook, Illinois, or the Business Council for International Understanding, Washington, DC that provide orientation to those who will be working overseas.

! travel agents. Note that travel agencies can provide helpful information

about climate and other topics of interest to the tourist, but they may not be able to provide information that is appropriate for those who must work in a foreign country.

Culture Awareness There is more to a country than its history, geography, climate, and economy. Culture is a multifaceted attribute that distinguishes one country from another (Wright, 1997, p. 35). In order to conduct effective training, the international training team must determine how cultural differences may affect their training methods. Trainers must acknowledge the similarities and differences between their culture and the culture in which they will be working. Emphasis needs to be placed on learning about the values, customs, personal communication systems, politics, laws, education, religion, social systems, and power structures that exist not only within the country but also within the host organization. For example, if trainers need to resolve problems with their trainees, they must know if the decisions or outcomes will be determined by an authoritarian figure, a collaborative group, or fate. Knowing which decision‐making process to use will help the trainer to determine the correct approach to resolving a problem. Although people in other countries may envy the North American lifestyle, they may also consider North Americans to be wealthy, rude, loud‐mouthed, impatient, disrespectful of authority, disrespectful of beliefs different than their own, self‐centered, and wasteful of resources. International trainers must know if their potential trainees hold these impressions and then develop ways to



counteract these negative impressions. For example, international trainers must learn to be flexible, to tolerate ambiguity, to display sensitivity, and to show empathy for others and their way of living. Trainers must learn to be polite, patient, respectful of authority and different beliefs, conservative in their display of wealth, and careful not to do everything the "North American way." Frequently, people who travel overseas are advised to use common sense, but the North American version of common sense is often different than the common sense practiced elsewhere. In order to be effective, instructors must learn about the idiosyncrasies that exist in other cultures. For instance, in Thailand, there are different forms of nonverbal communication that Thai women may use when greeting a man or someone of higher authority. International trainers must take into account cultural specific male‐female interactions and determine how female trainers will be perceived overseas. While investigating the culture of their host country, trainers should learn which topics may produce uncomfortable reactions from people in their audience. If issues such as racism in Indonesia, logging in the Philippines, or the status of women in Saudi Arabia are raised, you can expect the citizens in these countries to react in a negative or perhaps hostile manner. Although such reactions may not be acceptable to you, they should be respected. How would you feel if a foreign visitor told you how to live in your own home or country? In addition to reading books about foreign cultures, you can: ! Speak to people who have recently returned from your country of interest. ! Invite local cultural groups to speak about their non‐American culture. ! Socialize with people from different cultures by attending international

festivals and art exhibits or eating at ethnic restaurants. ! Visit the local cultural communities in your area or attend cultural

association meetings when an invitation is provided. ! Listen to international news broadcasts. ! Invite cross‐cultural experts from universities, businesses, government

agencies, or consulting firms to speak to your trainees and help organize your training activities.

! Take an intercultural course offered by a post‐secondary institution that is

involved in international projects or offers MBAs that emphasize international development.



! Enrol in a political science or history course covering the country or region of interest to you.

! Learn a second language. ! Complete a number of CIDA's intercultural communication skills modules

or attend their training sessions. ! Attend one of the intensive intercultural skills workshops offered by the

Peace Corps or CUSO, formerly the Canadian University Students Overseas, (135 Rideau Street, Ottawa, ON K1N 9K7).

! Contact the Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research, a

United Nations nongovernmental organization (8000 Westpark Drive, Suite 130, McLean, VA 22102).

! Subscribe to the publication Intercultural News Network (16331 Underhill

Lane, Huntington Beach, CA 92647). ! Attend one of the conferences sponsored by the American Council on

International/Intercultural Education (ACIIE, One Dupont Circle N.W., Suite 410, Washington, DC 20036) or by the Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC, 1223 Michael St. N., Suite 200, Ottawa, ON K1J 7T2).

If you are establishing your own intercultural program, ensure that you do more than give trainers information. Establish a quality culture awareness program. Culture is a living topic that should be experienced. To introduce the topic of culture, you may want your team to participate in a simulation activity, such as Bafá BafáJ (available from Similie II, Box 910, Del Mar, CA 92014). This activity allows participants to experience a simulated foreign culture and then analyze their experiences. You can follow up this activity by asking your trainers to complete the Intercultural Relations Inventory (available from Talico Inc., 2320 South Third Street, Suite 5, Jacksonville Beach, FL 32250) or the Cross‐cultural Adaptability Inventory (Judith Meyers and Collen Kelley, 1989). This latter inventory is a short questionnaire that gives you an indication of your ability to adapt to a new culture. The inventory is available from J.E. Meyers, 1125 Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037. Also, refer to the publication Intercultural Training: Don't Leave Home Without It by L. R. Kohls (1984) and other publications from Intercultural Press (P.O. Box 700, Yarmouth, ME 04096‐0700). You can also use case studies and role plays to help your trainers to problem solve, and to prepare strategies for handling real‐life situations.



No intercultural program will be able to cover every facet of a foreign culture. There may be certain aspects of a culture that North Americans will never understand. However, intercultural programs should cover not only attitudinal factors, but also provide practical advice on topics such as how to greet people, what gifts are appropriate, and how to read verbal and nonverbal behaviors of others. Once overseas, culture awareness sessions should continue. At the end of each day, the team should gather to share the cultural discoveries they have made. One helpful method is to invite two trainees to lunch. Over lunch, politely ask them about their lives and pose questions regarding their culture. In this manner, you may learn that not all cultures are driven by money or rewarded with time‐off for achieving specified goals. Rather, recognition and a change in status are more highly prized. Try not to invite fewer that two trainees at a time but do ask as many different trainees as possible during your short stay in their country. When establishing an intercultural program, consider including the team members' families or staff members who will deal with the training team on a regular basis while they are overseas. It is important for these individuals to become aware of what their spouses or colleagues will be going through while they are away. If the international assignment is for an extended period of time, some team members may experience culture shock, which is an inevitable part of all overseas ventures. Although at a distance, the folks at home may be able to help them through this uncomfortable and potentially dysfunctional condition. However, they will only be able to help if they have some appreciation of what their colleagues or family members are experiencing overseas. Again, keep in mind that the suggestions presented in this section and others are intended only for trainers who will be working overseas for a short period of time. The longer a person is expected to work overseas, the longer and more experiential‐based the culture awareness program should be. You may need to add an in‐country cultural training program that allows participants to immediately apply what they learn. Language of Instruction Although English is the international language of business, only in 12 of more than 170 countries around the world is English the native language. Consequently, when you work overseas, the chances are high that you will be working in a country in which English is spoken as the second, third, or even fourth language. There are 6,500 languages spoken globally; English is only one of them (The Globe and Mail, 1994, January 26, A24).



Prior to your departure, it is imperative that you determine how adept your overseas clients are at speaking, writing, reading, and understanding English. When you contact your overseas host to enquire as to the ability of your potential trainees to communicate and understand English, be cautious in accepting their response at face value. Frequently, your hosts will want to impress you by stating that their people are fluent in English. Ask what courses they have taken in English, have any of them been trained overseas in an English‐speaking country, and what scores did they obtain on English as a second language tests? Once this information is obtained, determine how much foreign language training your group will need and whether or not it is feasible to complete the necessary training prior to departure. Irrespective of whether or not foreign language training is required, all international team members should learn the basic words and phrases for greetings and for dealing with hotel, bank, restaurant, and transportation staff. Knowledge of the numerical system is exceedingly important. If the team will be overseas for an extended period of time, they should have at least a 400 to 600‐word vocabulary. It may take an adult 300 hours to master basic social and travel language requirements and 1,000 hours to learn how to handle basic business demands in a foreign language (McGarvey & Smith, 1994). The greater the difference between the language to be learned and English, the greater the learning time. To acquire some facility with a foreign language, your team members can: ! obtain a foreign language phrase book and/or pocket computer that can

translate a variety of words when the English word is keyed in; ! listen to appropriate audiocassette language tapes; ! invite a bilingual individual from the host company or institution to instruct

your team in the basis of their language; ! enrol in language classes at the local university or a private language

institution such as Rosetta StoneJ or BerlitzJ that offers an intensive, four‐week course in the language of your choice;

! contact international centers at universities and colleges that list individuals

who speak a native foreign language but want opportunities to practice English;

! register in the distance education certificate in Teaching English as a Second

Language Program offered by the Extension Division, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, (306)966‐5563.



Provide team members with opportunities to practice their new found language skills as frequently as possible. Try starting every pre‐trip planning meeting with some chit‐chat in the foreign language. Remember, in an overseas situation, the team member who has the most facility with a foreign language will temporarily be perceived to have power over those who cannot speak the language. Why? Because all instructions and information must pass through them. Those who are talking speak directly and maintain eye contact with the individual with whom they are conversing. However, this relationship changes if one member of the team is designated to be the interpreter and has no obvious technical expertise other than the ability to speak the language. An interpreter is considered to be support personnel rather than an authoritative figure. Code of Conduct for International Trainers Finally, the international training team should develop or adopt a code of conduct that they will use to guide their behavior while they are overseas. This code may include the following items (Wright, 1997, p. 40): ! I will take a genuine interest in learning about others. ! I will respect the traditions and customs of others as I am a guest in their

country. ! I will tolerate ambiguity and accept that I may not understand everything that

occurs in a foreign country. ! I will accept that developing countries are not inferior, they are different. ! I will minimize the number of times I say "That is not how we do it at home." ! I will listen and observe more than I talk. ! I will treat my colleagues and overseas clients with respect, honesty, and

dignity. ! I will not disparage my fellow team members or my overseas clients. Any

disagreement that I have with my team members will be dealt with in private. ! I will always work to the best of my abilities. I will deliver quality instruction.



! I will not accept gifts or other offers that may influence my decisions regarding this overseas assignment.

! I will not make any promises to my overseas clients that I cannot keep. ! I will do my best to maintain my mental and physical health by not taking

undue risks while on assignment. (Wright, 1997) It may also be beneficial to discuss the topic of ethics. One way to introduce this topic is to play Where Do You Draw The LineJ (available from Simile II). This game allows participants to make judgements about what is and what is not acceptable behavior. However, what we regard as unethical in North America may be acceptable in other countries. For example, although bribery may be officially denounced, its practice may be widespread and unofficially condoned. Venality may be rising in the world of international business (Drohan, 1994), but that does not mean that those who go overseas must accept this as the normal state of affairs. While you are overseas, think of yourself and your teammates as ambassadors, representatives of your country. Realize that once you step on the plane, you are not "off‐duty" until you return home.


---------


3.0 Planning Instruction

for an

International Audience

---------

Contents 3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................3/1 3.2 Needs and Audience Analyses ................................................................3/3

What Must Be Accomplished? ..........................................................................3/4 Assessing the Needs and Expectations of the Host Country and the Host

Organization................................................................................................. 3/5 Needs of the Prospective Students....................................................................3/6 Student Characteristics ......................................................................................3/6 Student Expectations.........................................................................................3/10 Is Training the Solution?...................................................................................3/16 Learning From the Past.....................................................................................3/16

3.3 Goal and Objective Statements ............................................................ 3/18

Goal Statements.................................................................................................3/18 Objective Statements ........................................................................................3/19 DACUM............................................................................................................. 3/23

3.4 Blueprint the Training Program ..........................................................3/26 3.5 Select Content ....................................................................................... 3/31 3.6 Identify Appropriate Instructional Strategies..................................... 3/33

Approaches to Instructional Delivery ............................................................. 3/33 Motivational Techniques ................................................................................. 3/35 Some Advice From Experienced International Instructors .......................... 3/37

3.7 Instructional Strategies ........................................................................ 3/41

Low‐Risk Instructional Strategies ....................................................................3/41 Medium‐Risk Instructional Strategies ............................................................ 3/45 High‐Risk Instructional Strategies ..................................................................3/49 Developing Ownership .................................................................................... 3/52

3.8 Locate and Select Learning Resources.................................................3/54

The Selection Process....................................................................................... 3/54 Simple Resources .............................................................................................. 3/58 Common, But Less Accessible Resources .......................................................3/62 Complex Resources...........................................................................................3/64 Adapting Learning Resources for an International Audience ......................3/69


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3.9 Design Evaluation Procedures and Follow‐up Activities.................... 3/71 Evaluation Instruments.....................................................................................3/71 Test Planning .................................................................................................... 3/73 Types of Test Questions................................................................................... 3/75 Follow‐up Activities..........................................................................................3/76

3.10 Pilot Test ..............................................................................................3/78


Planning Instruction for an International Audience 3/1 ---------

3.1 Introduction A great deal has been written about the design of instructional systems. Authors such as L.J. Briggs & W. Wager, W. Dick & L. Carey, R.M. Gagné & L.J. Briggs, N.E. Gronlund, J.E. Kemp, R.F. Mager, and A.J. Romiszowski have produced volumes that pertain to the design of effective training. However, many of the various instructional systems contain the basic components outlined in this chapter. Following each component are the activities that should be considered at each stage.

A Basic Instructional Design Model for

International Training

1. Analyze Needs & Audience

! Identify needs of host country and host organization ! Identify prospective student needs ! Identify the current skill levels and expectations of

the intended audience ! Ascertain if training is the best solution to the

problems identified by the host organization and/or supporting organizations and agencies

2. Specify Goal & Objective

Statements

! Specify the learning outcomes of the proposed

training program ! Consider cognitive, psychomotor, and affective

outcomes 3. Blueprint the Training

Program

! Outline the parameters of the training course ! Schedule training events that fit within the cultural

norms of the host country ! Build flexibility into the training program

4. Select Content

! Select program content that is appropriate for the

goals and objectives of the training program ! Prioritize and sequence content

5. Identify Appropriate

Instructional Strategies

! Identify training methods and motivational devices

that are common to the host environment ! Select strategies that will generate audience

ownership for the training ! Take into account student needs and project

constraints, especially those imposed by the host organization

! Determine how the training program will be delivered so that it is meaningful to the students

6. Locate & Select Learning

Resources

! Select learning resources that are appropriate for the

learning task



! Determine which materials must be translated into a foreign language and design visuals that are culturally neutral

! Consider the overseas students' access to learning materials and related equipment

! Consider constraints such as time, finances, and the availability of reliable electricity

! Determine which materials and equipment must be taken overseas

7. Design Evaluation Procedures

& Follow‐up Activities

! Design and/or select tests, exercises, and assignments

that are congruent with the program goals and objectives

! Ensure that overseas students are familiar with the proposed evaluation scheme

! Outline follow‐up activities 8. Pilot Test Course Material

! Deliver the program and identify areas that need to be

improved ! Revise the program

IMPLEMENT

This section outlines the steps involved in designing an instructional program that will meet the needs of students who are culturally different than students in North America. Although these steps appear to be discrete, in reality, each is closely linked to the other. The decisions made in one step will affect the proceedings in each succeeding step. For example, it would be pointless to select a computer‐based training strategy if computers will not be available and electrical power is unreliable. In theory, all of these steps should be completed thoroughly and in the sequence prescribed above. In reality, the steps are completed in a variety of ways. Those who are familiar with the content tend to start with learning resources and work back to the objectives and forward to the evaluation. Others like to start by determining how the evaluation will be conducted then proceed to determining the objectives. For many, however, several steps are completed simultaneously, but time constraints may prevent instructors from completing each step to the same degree of precision. Regardless of how you want to proceed, the step that should never be overlooked or assumed in preparing an international instructional activity is step one. Always take the time and obtain the resources necessary to conduct a thorough analysis of the learners= needs and attributes. Do remember that teaching is an art as well as a science. There are many different approaches that could be used to design and deliver effective training or learning programs; this publication only focuses on a few approaches that have been found to be successful in a variety of situations.



3.2 Needs and Audience Analyses Before a training program can be mounted, it is necessary to obtain background information that will help to ensure that the program addresses the needs of the overseas students, the needs of the host organization and country, and the needs of the supporting organizations and agencies. Of paramount importance is determining the gap that exists between student entry performance and the desired outcome performance that will indicate that the international training project is a success. A thorough needs assessment may be required in order to find the answer to this question. Part of the answer can be provided by the host organization and the supporting organizations and agencies. Where possible, this information should be verified. Speak to people who have worked or lived in the country. In addition, other information must be gathered by the international training team and be reviewed by the host organization. The more information that is shared between the host organization and the training team, the greater the possibility that the training program will be a success (Hites, 1996). However, prior to the first overseas project, it may be difficult to find answers to all the questions listed in the latter part of this section, and finding a match between country, host organization, and student needs may be elusive. When gathering information about your overseas assignment, you should check the following sources: ! the original written request from the host organization that describes the

need for training services; ! documentation from the host country that outlines their training aspirations

and their current training status; ! interviews with host organization personnel, especially interviews with those

who will supervise your activities overseas; ! appropriate job descriptions;

! the course outlines, course materials, and student examinations currently used overseas;

! observations of students in their work environment; ! observations of expert workers who perform the tasks you expect your

prospective students to be able to perform at the end of their training; ! observations of worker‐worker, student‐student, and student‐instructor

interactions; ! interviews with past and potential students;

! interviews with professionals in the field and expert workers;



! interviews with people who have worked overseas, particularly those who have worked in the country in which your training activity will be conducted;

! government or association documents that pertain to a country or profession;

! appropriate current journals and newsletters;

! textbooks; ! libraries. Some of these items can only be gathered if a member of the training team travels overseas. If you check most of the sources identified above, you may find that 25 to 50 percent of your planning time will have been spent on needs assessment activities. Do not be alarmed. By spending time now, you save time later and increase your chances of producing and delivering an effective training program. The types of information that must be gathered are listed under the subheadings below. The greater the differences between your culture and the culture in which you will be working, the greater the amount of information you should collect in each of these sections. A successful overseas training assessment starts with a comprehensive needs assessment. What Must Be Accomplished? To initiate an overseas training project without a clear idea as to how the training will address the problems of the overseas client is a serious error. In your zeal to help others, you may be tempted to begin planning before obtaining a succinct statement of the problem and the potential solutions. Consequently, your plans may be inappropriate, and you will lose valuable time and waste limited resources. If training is one of the solutions that is needed to address a country's problems, you must determine what type of training is required, what content should be taught, and the appropriate length of the training program. Every group involved in the project will have its own indicators, but you must have specific details. You need to know not only what criteria others will use to determine the success of the project, but also how you yourself will judge the project's success. For some, just participating in an overseas assignment is a major accomplishment. Others need to observe the skills they taught being applied; still others are pleased to simply give students an opportunity to see what is possible. Indicators of success, including appropriate standards and time frames, must be cited for each individual or group involved in the project.



Training can be a traumatic experience for students, and even more so when unfamiliar, foreign faces appear as their trainers. Therefore, it is appropriate to give some consideration to whether or not the training should be conducted by indigenous people or by overseas consultants. Instead of delivering the training yourself, you may best serve the needs of the foreign country by gathering the resources and preparing the instructional material that others will deliver. Assessing the Needs and Expectations of the Host Country and the Host Organization Although you are not a politician or political scientist, you should determine, to your best satisfaction, how the proposed training project meshes with your perceived needs of the country and the host organization. To do so, you must have some knowledge of the country's history, culture, aspirations, and commitment to change. As human beings, we like to make a difference, to feel that we are contributing to a worthwhile endeavor. How will your training project contribute to this country's development? Are the needs and expectations of the host country and host organization congruent? Frequently, a training project is part of a larger initiative. For example, Malaysia wants to enter the information age by developing the electronic and technical skills of its workforce. In order to attain this goal, they must update their vocational curriculum. Therefore, training in curriculum development, especially competency‐based methodology, will help this country to attain its goal. You should determine how your proposed training project dovetails with previous, concurrent, and future projects. What tasks must be completed and what products need to be produced that will build upon previous experience, yet provide a solid foundation for future activities? What flexibility will you have in developing and delivering this type of training? What role will the host organization play in the design and review of your instructional plans? Invariably, training causes students to alter their current way of life and to expect more from life. Will the host country and organization find such changes acceptable? What steps will be taken to ensure that those who are trained will be able to apply their new skills and obtain appropriate jobs? If the altered needs of the graduates of the program are not addressed by the host country or organization, then frustration contributes to a "brain drain," the departure of skilled workers to another country.



Needs of the Prospective Students If you are fortunate to have access to the prospective students prior to the training session, ask them what their training needs are. Determine whether or not their needs lie primarily in the cognitive, psychomotor, or affective domains of learning or in a combination of all three of these domains. Ask them to specify their indicators of success. Determine if their needs are congruent with those specified by the host organization. Many trainers have experienced the discomfort of standing in front of a group of trainees in a foreign country with instructional materials that were obviously inappropriate. The materials had been designed according to the specifications outlined by the host organization. Unfortunately, the expectations of the host organization and the needs of the students were not congruent. This situation occurs when host organizations do not provide a provisional list of their trainees, their expertise, or their backgrounds. Student Characteristics Copeland and Griggs (1985) noted that technology transfer best occurs when the trainees have similar characteristics. When potential students have similar interests, experiences, education, communication skills, and jobs, it is easier to design and deliver appropriate training. In addition, you should note whether or not students volunteered for the training activity. If students volunteered, they are more likely to accept new ideas and non‐traditional training strategies. Although you may not have the opportunity to select suitable students for your proposed training session, you should attempt to determine the characteristics and expectations of the potential students and ascertain how these attributes may affect the design and delivery of your training session. Some common student attributes, and the potential effects of these attributes on instruction in developing countries, are outlined below. You should consider obtaining similar information on the students you will train overseas. ! Gender: Unless your training session is being designed specifically for female

students, it is likely that your students will be predominately male. In developing countries, men still perform most of the skilled jobs. The training examples you use may vary with the gender mix of your class.

! Age: The average age of your potential audience will also affect how you

approach the training session and the types of examples you will use. In countries where seniority is an important symbol of recognition, overseas trainers may teach only senior organization personnel. However, these individuals may be younger than you expect because the average life span in



developing countries is generally shorter than in developed countries. Older students tend to want instruction that is relevant to their current activities, while younger students are more willing to accept a certain amount of abstract and/or hypothetical discussion. However, regardless of the students' ages, all instruction must be meaningful to them.

! Communication skills: If the training session will be conducted in English

and English is not the students= first language, then you must ensure that the students have proficient skills in both oral and written English. Students should be able to score 450 or higher on the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) or equivalent test (Zacchea, 1991). If a language test cannot be administered, or if students score lower than 450 on the TOEFL, an interpreter may be required and all learning materials should be translated into the common language. However, translators may also have difficulty translating English words or ideas into a language where these concepts and technical terms may not exist. Concrete words or concepts are easier to understand than more abstract terms. Also, remember that the literacy rate in many developing countries is low; perhaps only 10 percent of the population can read and write. Even if your written material is translated, it may not be understood by the locals. Note that those who learn English as a second language frequently learn standard British English. They are not familiar with North American colloquialisms. If English is not the students' first language, they will find your instruction in English a significant challenge. It will take longer for them to read, follow directions, understand your instructional intents, and respond to your questions. Effective communication also involves the judicious use of silence and nonverbal behaviors. You should be aware of how students express themselves through gestures and body language. You should also consider how the students may interpret your "foreign" body language. To obtain additional information on written and spoken forms of the TOEFL, write to TOEFL, P.O. Box 6151, Princeton, NJ 08541‐6151. The TOEFL is given at more than 1,250 test centers in over 150 countries.

! Educational/technical background: The greater the differences among the educational and technical backgrounds of the students, the more difficult it will be to instruct them. If the backgrounds of the potential students are diverse, then some flexibility must be built into the training sessions and a wide variety of training materials and methods must be used. Students who have been educated in western countries may be more receptive to the training provided by international trainers than those who have been educated at home. Never assume that students lack ability or appropriate training; they may simply lack self‐esteem and communication skills.



! Job qualifications: You should verify that the prospective students have the appropriate job qualifications. If they do not, you will need to spend valuable training time getting everyone up to standard. If students have similar current jobs and are being trained to perform similar future jobs, it is easier for the instructor to supply the appropriate instruction.

! Job and social status: The status associated with different jobs varies from

country to country. It is not uncommon to find that a stringent hierarchical arrangement of jobs exists in developing countries. Students with low‐status jobs may not feel comfortable or be able to express their views when students with higher status jobs or students who belong to a privileged class are in the same training group. Ways of preventing students from losing face must be found, and opportunities must be devised that will allow everyone to express their points of view. If, however, all students have the same job and social status, then ideas can be exchanged freely during the training session. In some cases, you may be asked to instruct managers who will then train employees in the host organization. At first glance, this arrangement is appealing; you are able to deal only with those who have a similar status within the organization, and the employees will then receive training from those who are familiar with their culture. However, in an effort to maintain their status and control over their employees, the managers may not provide their employees with all of the information the employees need. The managers may neglect to state the reasons for performing a specific skill or explain what will occur if procedures are not followed.

! Previous experiences: It is advantageous to determine the students' previous

training, job, and travel experiences. These experiences can then be incorporated into the training activities and materials. Students learn more easily when the instruction proceeds from the known to the unknown and does not include examples or analogies with which they may not be familiar. In most developing countries, students from rural areas may not have any experience with technological items such as engines, power plants, and computers, which are commonplace in Europe and North America. Their lack of familiarity with such equipment can greatly affect how they respond to technical or vocational training provided by international trainers. Similarly, students in developing countries such as Pakistan, who have not been exposed to efficient administrative or business operations, may find it difficult to learn new management skills. Further, their language may not have words for terms such as capitalism, collaborative governance, responsibility, or total quality management. However, students have relevant local experience that visiting instructors lack. If new skills and procedures are to be implemented successfully, then the students' familiarity with the local environment must be taken into account.



! Work habits: Not all people consider work to be a driving force in their lives. Work is often a means of providing food and shelter, and once these needs have been satisfied, the desire to keep working may be minimal. North Americans may pride themselves on their individualism, but others place more value on group cooperation. Therefore, depending on the characteristics of your students, you may want to design low‐stress activities that involve group work. Because people in Pacific Rim countries prefer to work in groups and share their knowledge, they may all submit the same assignment for grading. We may call it plagiarism, but they regard it as acceptable behavior. If you believe that plagiarism is unacceptable, you must be prepared to explain your concerns to your students.

! Sense of time: North Americans take time more seriously than people in

countries where time is considered limitless or irrelevant. In Uganda and the Ivory Coast, you can expect all students to arrive on time for the first day of class, but after that, their prompt attendance may be sporadic. Many Latin Americans and South Americans consider the North Americans' strict adherence to time constraints to be impolite behavior. Therefore, trainers who work in these countries must be flexible as long as their safety and health is not compromised. If a culture does not place a high value on time, students may find it difficult to grasp the importance of concepts such as efficiency and productivity. They may not be able to proficiently operate sophisticated technology that demands specified activities be performed within a given period of time.

! Motivation: Perhaps the greatest challenge you will face overseas will be Ato

get people to want to achieve the standards you expect and need when their reality is so different to begin with@ (Engen, 1994, 81). Money and making a profit do not motivate everyone. In central Africa and parts of Southeast Asia, an individual's status in the community is more important. Money has value in Pakistan, but profit‐making is often downplayed in societies that place strong emphasis on social values. The Chinese seem to place a great emphasis on acquiring social status and respect and ensuring that their families are secure. Trainees in countries like these can best be motivated by giving them an opportunity to gain recognition and social prominence. Another significant motivating force for many people in developing countries is the pressure the families may place on members who have attained marketable skills. In Papua New Guinea for example, skilled workers may have to contribute 50 to 70 percent of their salaries to members of their extended families. Consequently, the pressure to succeed may be frustrating for the skilled worker. Even though they may earn more money after training, they may personally enjoy very little of their new‐found wealth. Trainers must cope with this frustration. What will motivate your students? In a few developing countries such as Somalia, students may not be motivated by the possibility of improving their social



status or by family pressure. Instead, tribal affiliations and food are important. Remember, you cannot feed the mind if the body is undernourished. You must know what will motivate your international students. Perhaps consider providing simple, performance‐related incentives shortly after your students have successfully completed a recently learned task or adapted to a new situation.

! Ethics and political and religious affiliations: In many countries, ethics

and political and religious affiliations have a considerable effect on what an individual can do. Tribal affiliations in Africa may not seem significant to outsiders, but they can be exceedingly important to Africans. Members of different tribes may not like to work together. Therefore, instructors must be aware of the negative effects these tribal relationships may have on trainees from different tribes. Because their religion requires Muslims to pray several times a day, it is important to design an instructional schedule that allows Muslim students to fulfill their religious obligations.

! Anxiety about the state of their country: It is difficult for students to

concentrate on training activities if they are concerned about the political state of their nation. During political upheavals in Beijing and Bangkok, trainers had to cope with students who were deeply concerned about their communities. Trainers must be sensitive to the political environment in which they instruct.

! Commitment to change: If the training is to have a lasting affect, the

students must be committed to change or, at the very least, demonstrate little resistance to change. To encourage this commitment, instructors must devise activities that encourage audience ownership for the training. In addition to the above, it may be helpful to know about other student characteristics such as underlying cultural values, economic circumstances, and lifestyle choices. The more you know about your prospective students, the easier it will be for you to design and deliver effective instruction.

Student Expectations To be an effective instructor you must take into account the students' expectations of the learning‐teaching interaction. Their expectations may be substantially different than those to which you are accustomed, and you must reduce this disparity. You will need to reconcile their expectations and your expectations. Eastman & Smith (1991) emphasize the importance of linking the cultural expectations of the learners with instruction. You may want to consider student expectations under the headings noted below. For each of these



headings, you should try to obtain information that best describes the expectations of the students you will be instructing. ! Instructional setting and study conditions: Perhaps you imagine that all

classrooms are the sameCthey all have four walls, chalkboards, overhead lights, desks, chairs, and electrical outlets. You may also imagine that each student has a desk to work on at home or a place to complete assignments. These situations may not be found in many overseas settings. In the Philippines, for example, classrooms in rural areas may not have walls. Who needs walls when it is warm all year around and the roof protects you from the rain? In some African countries, rural schools have dirt floors. In rural Bangladesh, if students want something to sit on, they must bring their own chairs to the training room. Living accommodations in some Latin American countries may not have a space suitable for individual study. However, in Middle Eastern or African countries that place a high value on family and relationships, a home study space is not a high priority B during the evening, people spend time with their family, relatives, or friends. Homework is not usually a part of their lifestyle.

These are examples of learning conditions that your students may take for granted, but these conditions may not be what you are accustomed to. Therefore, it is imperative that you ascertain the conditions under which you will be working and determine how these conditions will affect your training activities.

! Learning styles: Students from other cultures have a different perception of

learning and their role in the learning process than students in North America. In China, for example, instructor‐centered instruction, rote memorization in a structured environment, and learning by example are all accepted ways of learning. The instructor directs students to specific textbooks or writes important information on the chalkboard. The students memorize it. Learning is a passive activity. Independent thought is not encouraged. Students may learn how to perform a skill proficiently, but may not know why the skill must be performed. Rarely are students actively involved in problem‐solving activities or invited to discuss practical or theoretical issues. They display little initiative. Because these students are passive, do not assume that they have low intelligence or that they have little interest in learning. In the past, Chinese students have had little freedom in selecting content or training activities. During the training sessions, they may be required to listen politely to philosophical or political dissertations delivered by an authority figure. Conversely, Latin Americans have a strong oral tradition and value self‐expression. They want to participate actively in all discussions. However, all cultures value the opportunity to practice new skills. Practice is an essential ingredient of all successful training programs.



General learning styles vary from country to country and are deeply rooted in a country's culture. It is important to determine the assumptions your students have about learning. For example, you should determine:

- the students' perception of their ability to succeed and their desire to

achieve training goals; - their need for structure; - their understanding of discipline and their acceptance of ground rules; - their need for theoretical and practical activities; - their preference for working individually or in groups; - their decision‐making preferences; - their need to be in a harmonious learning environment; - their feedback requirements; - their expectation of passive or active involvement in the learning process; - their willingness to ask questions and seek clarification; - the role destiny, or God, plays in their learning; - their expectation of learning as an interesting, enjoyable activity or as a

necessary, but difficult task.

You must not only be sensitive to their learning expectations and needs, you must also accommodate their expectations. This will require patience and flexibility. It will be a challenge, for example, to initiate self‐directed learning models in societies that value collectivism or hierarchal decision‐making processes. Although students will have certain learning and instructional preferences, they should not deter you from trying new strategies that students may find enjoyable. The reason you are overseas is to introduce new ideas. If you only do what the students expect, then they will not learn new methods.

! Status of the instructor: In North America, we may consider the instructor

to be a facilitator who forms a partnership with students. Through the course of this partnership, both the instructor and students explore old, current, and



new horizons. The students learn from the instructor, and the instructor learns from the students. Instructors often socialize with students and call them by their first names. The above view of an instructor may not be shared by all overseas students, especially those in China and Middle Eastern countries. In their world, the instructor is usually regarded as an authority figure who must act appropriately. This means that the instructor must dress in a formal fashion, must be respectful of students by not becoming too friendly too soon, refer to students by last names only, refrain from playful behavior, treat equipment and furniture with respect, not reveal personal limitations, and not encourage students to voice their opinions. The instructor must also possess suitable credentials from a reputable institution or organization. How an instructor conducts himself or herself can be more important than what he or she says. Although you may dislike the expectations of your prospective students, you must acknowledge their existence and realize that students may not respond positively unless you act in a certain, culturally acceptable manner (Weaver, 1995). If you wish to change their expectations, you must first establish your credibility, gain their respect and trust, and develop a meaningful rapport. However, the host country or organization may not appreciate your changes to the traditional instructor image that has been firmly embedded into their culture. ! Delivery styles: The lecture format is familiar to students everywhere. This

instructor‐centered delivery style maintains the notion that the instructor is the provider of knowledge. Other instructional methods such as simulations, role plays, and debates, which require students to take risks and express opinions and requires the instructor to be the facilitator of the learning process, may not be comfortable or acceptable delivery formats. For example, cultures that value group learning may not respond well to role plays in which individuals are singled out or required to act out situations they may consider distasteful or beneath their station. Personal criticism is not acceptable in countries such as China and Thailand, and strong, public expressions of emotion are frowned upon by several cultures in Asia. What we may consider to be positive criticism or reinforcement, others may regard as rude behavior or punishment. Discipline may be harsher in some cultures than in others. Because of the heat, students in some tropical countries are not expected to perform at peak levels in the afternoon; therefore, the bulk of their instruction occurs in the cooler morning hours. Students may also need frequent smoke, social, or prayer breaks.

Every country has different acceptable delivery methods; you must determine what they are. If you use unfamiliar or unacceptable instructional delivery



methods, without first providing full explanations of their use and your expectations, your students may refuse to participate. If, for example, you ask Chinese managers or elders to play a game, they are unlikely to be responsive. In their view, games are for children. If, however, you explain that the next activity will help them address a current challenge, they may be more accommodating. You must also be cognizant of the acceptable communication styles. In China for example, individuals tend to require less interpersonal spaces than individuals in Western countries. In addition, there is minimal direct eye contact between the student and the instructor in formal settings. Laughter and smiles may indicate embarrassment or disagreement. Whereas in many Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish cultures, direct eye contact, strong emotions, and rapid conversations are acceptable forms of behavior. Always be aware that you are sending nonverbal cultural messages. The messages you send may be inappropriate for the culture in which you will be working.

! Evaluation methods: Evaluation is an essential component of all instructional systems. Like instructional delivery methods, different countries have different acceptable methods of evaluation. In countries that were former British colonies, students are familiar with lengthy, written semester exams. In a number of African countries, where paper is scarce, oral examinations are more common. Frequent, informal quizzes may also not be acceptable. Once overseas, you may find that students help each other during an examination. Westerners may regard this as cheating. However, many Asian and African students would interpret this situation differently. Based on their cultural norms, one student is simply helping a friend in need. What are the appropriate evaluation methods that you can use with your prospective students? What evaluation methods do you believe are suitable and would like to use with your students? Dunbar (1991) describes the dynamics of the learning‐teaching relationship in Indonesia. As you read the following excerpt, consider whether or not your prospective students will have the same view as the Indonesians. The heteronomous nature of social organisation and strong tradition of oral communication has created a popular perception that learning is a relationship with a teacher, and one which is immediate, oral, and hierarchical. The dynamics of this relationship are usually described as follows: 1. The teacher, by virtue of age, superior qualifications, and special knowledge, is an authority figure, commanding automatic and unchallengeable respect.



2. Learners are obliged to defer to the knowledge and authority of the teacher and must seek approval, direction, and permission at every step of their passage through education.

3. Learning is a communal activity. 4. Learning is a passive activity, but teaching is active. 5. The limits of learning are prescribed by teachers who individually and collectively possess the 'correct' knowledge, attitudes, and techniques to be emulated.

6. The learner‐teacher relationship is formalised and bureaucratised through ritual, protocol, and discipline.

Within this relationship acquisition of knowledge and the development of skills and techniques is seen to be the passive replication of what the teacher does and says, leading to the widespread use of rote‐memorisation to pass a constant succession of semester examinations from primary school through university. This replication‐orientation of Indonesian education, frequently observed by westerners . . . excludes the cultivation of active individual enquiry, questioning and hypothesising to obtain meaning, or the development of personal attitudes or individual techniques at variance from the 'correct' knowledge and methods provided by the teacher. (Dunbar, 1991, 168‐169)

! Available resources: In North America, we are accustomed to the availability

of a wide variety of learning materials and electronic hardware. We are also accustomed to having easy access to professional expertise and other instructional resources. These conditions may not exist overseas. Information starvation is normal in developing countries (Giltrow and Pannen, 1992). You may be expected to bring all your instructional resources, especially any reference materials, with you. Why? In Uganda's Makerere University, for example, " . . . the most recent addition to the library's reference section is an encyclopedia donated by the Canadian government in 1968" (The Globe and Mail, April 12, 1993, A7). In many developing countries, electricity is not easily available and, if it is, it is not reliable.

Prior to participating in a recent overseas training assignment, I asked if a photocopier would be available so that I could make copies of my student materials. I was assured that one would be available and that an operator would be at my disposal. When I arrived, I found that the photocopier was located a block away from where I was instructing and I had to provide the paper. In addition, the copier did not collate the material, and the operator, who spoke no English, was assigned to collate the material. I stopped using these resources after a week. I could not depend on the operator to duplicate the materials on time nor assemble the pages in the correct order. When I suggested that I do the photocopying myself, I was informed that that would cause the operator to 'lose face' because it was his job to operate the machine.



Always ascertain the availability, location, and accessibility of all the equipment and resources that you may need overseas. Then ask yourself what you will do if these equipment or resources are not available. Very few projects are given a blank cheque. Therefore, you must determine the budget available for the design, development, and delivery of your training program. The source of the funding and the individuals who will monitor and control expenditures should also be identified.

For additional information on needs assessment, refer to: Kaufman, R., & English, F.W. (1979). Needs assessment: Concept and application.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Witkin, B.R. (1984). Assessing needs in educational and social programs.

San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass. Is Training the Solution? After you have conducted your needs assessment and gathered the information pertaining to the above topics, you should review the purpose of your overseas trip and determine whether or not training is a realistic solution to the problem stated by the host organization. The level of appropriate training should also be established. Training will not solve political unrest, religious disputes, or the lack of hard resources. Training can help to alleviate administrative inefficiencies and will provide people with new skills. However, if the people do not have the opportunity to use these skills, then the training will be wasted. Ethically responsible international trainers will take steps to ensure that the training they provide will meet the needs of the host country, the host organization, and the prospective students. The trainers will take into account the cultural expectations of those involved in the project and try not to offend the people who participate in their training activities. If overseas trainers want to be effective, they must be flexible and learn to adapt to unfamiliar circumstances. Learning From the Past Before proceeding to develop your instructional program, review sessions you have organized and/or presented in the past. What have you learned from your previous experiences that may affect the planning and delivery of your proposed training session?



Did your previous program offerings meet your expectations? Were the expectations of your audience met? Were you knowledgeable about the subject matter, organized, and inspired? What were the characteristics of your previous audience? Will you have the same audience this time? Was the location of your previous session appropriate for the planned activities and your audience? For example, if you have a Chinese audience, will the training room contain the color red which they find pleasing? Since white is associated with death in the Chinese culture, white rooms should be avoided. Can you use the same location this time, or must you find another? What resources did you use last time? Are there resources that are currently available that were not available last time? Review the completed evaluation forms from previous sessions. What information on these forms can help you to plan your next session? Were previous instructional methods and learning activities appropriate? How can they be altered to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the learning outcome? By examining previous instructional activities, you should be able to identify items that could be included in your proposed activity and to eliminate, or to improve upon, procedures that have proven to be ineffective. However, do not base your decisions entirely on past programs. Circumstances may have changed. Opportunities may present themselves that were not previously available.



3.3 Goal and Objective Statements Following a comprehensive needs assessment, you must develop statements that specify the intended outcomes of the proposed overseas training assignment. These statements should take into account the needs of the prospective learners, the host country, and the host organization as well as your expertise. Two types of outcome statements must be prepared: goal statements and objective statements. These statements provide direction for planning your training activities and guidelines for measuring the stated training outcomes. Goal Statements Goals describe the overall aims of the training program. They are broad statements of desired outcomes, which may include the assumptions and values that must be conveyed during training. The host organization may specify the general conditions under which the training must be conducted. For example, they may state that the training program must fulfill specific goals, which relate to the country's five‐year development plan. The conditions specified by the host country should be included in the goal statements along with an anticipated time frame for completing these activities. For instance, if you were required to conduct an overseas training session on automobile maintenance, your project's goal statements may read as follows:

The purpose of this training assignment is to provide 25 students in the Solomon Islands with automobile maintenance training so that Islanders will eventually not need to hire expatriates to provide automobile maintenance on old four‐, six‐, and eight‐cylinder vehicles. The training must be conducted within a four‐month training period, and all graduates of the program must find suitable employment within six months of their graduation.

The above goal statements provide an overview of what must be done, who the learners will be, the time frame for the training, how the training will benefit the country, and a measure for determining project success. However, this assignment is not simply an automobile maintenance training course; by inserting the condition that all graduates "must find suitable employment within six months of their graduation," the training program now also involves assisting the graduates with their job searches. A cooperative study/work arrangement may need to be established or a hiring component added to the training program. When formulating goal statements, always state the conditions under which the overall learning outcomes are to be performed.



Objective Statements Objective statements describe learning outcomes and clearly specify what a student should be able to do after completing a training program. Depending on which instructional design book you read, these objectives are called behavioral objectives, performance objectives, enabling objectives, and terminal objectives. Irrespective of the label you prefer, an objective statement should describe an expected performance or behavior, the conditions under which the performance will be completed, and a standard of performance. Objective statements should also relate directly to goal statements. Each goal statement may subsume a number of objectives. It is likely that you will not know the beginning skills or experiences of your prospective students. But you do know the skills your students must master at the end of the course. Therefore, consider listing objectives in reverse order. First, list objectives that students should be able to accomplish at the end of the training. Then, list preliminary objectives that may be below the ability level of your students. When you arrive overseas, you can start with an objective that is appropriate for your students. If your objectives are well constructed, they will help you to select course content, instructional strategies, various learning materials, student assignments, and evaluation procedures. Objectives give focus to your instructional planning, and they provide you and your students with progress signposts. Students will be able to assess how well they are doing by identifying the number of objectives they can perform successfully. Although human capabilities can be grouped into five categories: intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, motor skills, and attitudes (Gagné, Briggs, & Wager, 1992), training objectives are usually grouped into three categories or domains: ! cognitive or thinking skills;

! psychomotor or motor skills; and

! affective or attitudinal and value skills. Within each of these domains, skills are arranged in a hierarchial manner, which range from low‐level thinking skills such as comprehension to higher‐order skills such as application and problem‐solving. According to Bloom (1956), the cognitive domain has six levels: ! knowledge: recalling previously learned material;



! comprehension: interpreting or restating information; ! application: using knowledge, principles, laws, or theories in concrete

situations; ! analysis: dividing material into meaningful parts and determining the

relationship among the parts; ! synthesis: combining separate elements to form a new pattern or whole; ! evaluation: judging or appraising the value of material. The psychomotor domain involves learning specific physical or motor skills and is usually associated with vocational training, which is what most developing countries request. According to Romiszowski (1981), the psychomotor domain has five levels: ! acquiring the knowledge of what should be done;

! executing the responses in a step‐by‐step manner;

! transferring control from the eyes to other senses;

! automatizing the skill;

! generalizing the skill to a continually greater range of application situations. The affective domain is an important domain because it deals with values and attitudes. International host organizations are often concerned with the affective domain because they do not want foreign instructors altering the values their country holds dear. Although it is impossible to teach without imparting feelings, values, and attitudes, you must try to conduct your training in a manner that minimizes the potential conflict between your values and the values of others. According to Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (1964), the affective domain has five levels: ! receiving or attending to an event, activity, or stimulus;

! responding to the stimulus;

! evaluating or indicating the worth of a stimulus;

! organizing values in relation to each other;

! generalizing or integrating the values into a student's value system so that the values become part of a student's way of life.

Regardless of the domain for which you are writing an objective, you should ask yourself, "What must a student be able to do after completing the training



activity, course, or program? Are there any conditions or standards that must apply to the students' performance?" Then construct a statement that begins with an action verb such as cite, assemble, or judge. For a list of other action verbs, refer to Table 3.1 "Sample Action Words for Stating Learning Objectives Listed by Domain and Levels of Learning" (Wright, 1987). Avoid using imprecise verbs such as appreciates, knows, or understands; these verbs refer to actions that are difficult to observe or measure. A few examples of objective statements are provided below.

Upon the completion of the automobile maintenance course, students should be able to: ! identify, with 100 percent accuracy, all the parts of a disc brake.

! reassemble a carburetor within 15 minutes.

! determine if a car meets national air pollution standards. Designing instructional objectives for low‐level cognitive tasks and psychomotor skills is not difficult. However, you should also try to construct several high‐level cognitive objectives for the affective domain. Developing a few high‐level objectives rather than a series of low‐level objectives can also save time. Achieving a high‐level objective always requires students to master several low‐level objectives first. For example, students cannot construct a transistor radio from commercial components unless they know first what a radio is, how it operates, what the components of a radio are, and how these components must be assembled. In any training program, the emphasis should always be placed on applying skills and solving problems.



Table 3.1 Sample Action Words for Stating Learning Objectives Listed by Domain and Levels of Learning

Knowledge/ Comprehension

Application

Problem Solving

C O G N I T I V E

Arrange Order Cite Outline Classify Paraphrase Convert Quote Copy Recall Define Recite Describe Recognize Discuss Record Distinguish Relate Duplicate Repeat Explain Report Express Reproduce Extend Respond Give example Restate Identify Review Indicate Rewrite Label Specify List Summarize Locate Tell Match Translate Name Underline

Apply Illustrate Assemble Infer Calculate Interpret Change Manipulate Choose Modify Compute Operate Defend Practice Demonstrate Predict Discover Prepare Draft Produce Dramatize Relate Draw Schedule Employ Select Estimate Show Explain Sketch Extend Use

Analyze Experiment Appraise Explain Argue Formulate Arrange Generate Assemble Illustrate Assess Infer Calculate Inspect Categorize Interpret Choose Judge Combine Justify Compare Manage Compose Manipulate Conclude Modify Construct Organize Contrast Originate Convert Plan Create Predict Criticize Prepare Debate Propose Defend Question Design Rate Devise Relate Diagram Reorganize Differentiate Score Discriminate Select Distinguish Solve Estimate Support Evaluate Test Examine Write

A F F E C T I V E

Accept Locate Accumulate Name Ask Point to Describe Respond to Follow Select Give Sensitive to Identify Use

Adhere Initiate Affirm Invite Approve Join Assist Justify Choose Perform Commend Practice Complete Propose Comply Select Conform Share Describe Study Discuss Subscribe to Follow Work Form

Act Integrate Adapt Mediate Change Organize Defend Revise Display Solve Influence Verify

P S Y C H O M O T O R

Complete Press Demonstrate Pull Distinguish Push Hear See Identify Select Locate Set up Manipulate Show Move Sort Pick up Specify Point to Touch Practice Transport

Activate Load Adjust Locate Assemble Loosen Build Manipulate Calibrate Measure Close Open Construct Operate Copy Perform Demonstrate Remove Disassemble Replace Disconnect Rotate Draw Select Duplicate Set Execute Slide

Adapt Fix Combine Generate Compose Illustrate Construct Modify Convert Organize Create Plan Design Repair Devise Service Diagram

For more information on writing instructional objectives and designing instruction, you may refer to the following: Dick, W. & Resiser, R. (1989). Planning effective instruction. Englewood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice‐Hall.



Gronlund, N.E. (1978). Stating objectives for classroom instruction. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: MacMillan.

Leshin, C.B., Pollock, J. & Reigeluth, C.M. (1992) Instructional design strategies

and tactics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Mager, R. (1975). Preparing instructional objectives. (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Fearon‐Pitman. Rothwell, W.J. & Kazanas, H.C. (1992). Mastering the instructional design process:

A systematic approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass Publishers. It can be difficult to write a series of objectives that are neatly subsumed by goal statements. If you are required to provide training for a specific occupation, writing learning objectives is easier if you have access to, or can develop, a DACUM chart. DACUM DACUM, an acronym for Developing A CurriculUM, is a form of occupational analysis that can be used in most professional, technical, and paraprofessional areas. It is an effective way to identify job competencies and develop the objectives that should be included in a training program. DACUM is both a process and a product. The DACUM process involves a group analysis of an occupation or subject area. The DACUM product is a chart that identifies the performance exhibited by expert workers in a given occupation. The DACUM chart graphically displays job tasks or competencies, which can then be used to guide the development of a training program and indicate the students' required level of competence in specific occupational skills. In order to develop a DACUM chart, the following steps are taken: 1. A group of 8 to 12 expert workers or practising professionals are assembled to

form a DACUM committee. Although these workers may vary in age, seniority, educational background, and so forth, they have one thing in commonCthey are the best people in their particular field.

2. During a one‐ to three‐day workshop, the DACUM committee identifies the

major areas of responsibility within an occupation. Usually 8 to 12 major areas are collectively identified and agreed upon. The titles of these areas are written on cards, which are placed in a vertical column on a wall.

3. Next, the DACUM committee identifies the tasks associated with each major

area of responsibility. Usually 6 to 30 tasks are identified for each major area. Each task is written on a card and mounted horizontally on the wall to the left of its corresponding major area.



4. The committee members refine all of the major areas and task statements. Items may be added, deleted, or modified.

5. All major areas and task statements are sequenced. Usually, these items are

listed from simple to complex, or they are arranged in the order in which they are performed.

6. These items are then transferred to paper in chart form. 7. Committee members may identify the entry‐level skills that individuals must

have before they can perform the activities listed on the chart. The committee members may also identify the resources needed to perform the tasks listed on the chart.

8. The chart is circulated among 100 to 500 practitioners who verify the contents

of the chart. The practitioners may be asked to indicate the validity, priority, and level of difficulty of each item. This information is then used to revise the chart.

9. Trainers use the chart to formulate appropriate instructional objectives, to

select content, and to develop appropriate instructional strategies, materials, and evaluation procedures.

The DACUM process is an excellent means of determining relevant, up‐to‐date competencies that should be included in a training program. It also involves your organization and the local community in identifying the performance expectations for a given occupation. If you conduct a DACUM session overseas, you can involve members of the host country. However, conducting a DACUM overseas is not as simple a procedure as it is in North America. Recently, the implementation of DACUM analysis was discussed with five Ugandan educators. They agreed with the merits of the process and the benefits of the chart, but outlined the following implementation problems: ! The development of a DACUM chart requires that workers be absent from

their jobs for two or three days, excluding any necessary travel time. This absence from work presents problems. In order to provide their families with sufficient income, many Ugandans have more than one job. Who will compensate them for their potential loss of income? Who will perform their various jobs while they are away?

! In North America, you can telephone someone to invite them to participate in

a DACUM workshop. Once they accept your invitation, you can confirm these arrangements by facsimile or mailed letters. In Uganda, several administrative levels must first be convinced of the worth of the DACUM and each level must give permission. In addition, invitations and permissions are normally discussed in person. Person‐to‐person contact emphasizes the importance of the activity, but it also takes time. Because telephones are not



readily accessible, not everyone can be reached by phone. In some cases, radiophones must be used.

! When a relative of a DACUM committee member becomes ill or is

hospitalized, the committee member will not attend the DACUM workshop. In central African countries, members of the family often provide the hospital with the drugs and linen needed to care for their loved ones. These family members will also live outside the hospital and cook food for their ill relatives. Therefore, in order to account for potential absentees, you may need to assemble a large DACUM committee. Consequently, more time must be spent identifying DACUM committee members and finding the funds required to cover all their expenses.

! Once the committee is assembled, some members may not feel they have

anything to contribute. Other, more senior officials will often provide the bulk of the information. Some participants may feel that, because they have travelled a great distance to get to the workshop, they should spend time visiting friends or relatives. One of the strengths of the DACUM process is that it involves a group of expert practitioners achieving consensus on occupational competencies. If only a few members are present and fewer still actively participate, then the benefits of DACUM do not materialize.

! If no local expert workers in a certain field are available, how can a DACUM

chart be constructed? This situation occurs frequently in developing countries. The solution is to bring a corresponding DACUM chart with you, have the locals identify the competencies they currently possess, then note the differences between their current skills and the skills indicated on the chart. These differences or skill gaps will form the basis of your training plan.

DACUM is a powerful curriculum development tool that can be used in a variety of situations. However, you must have a clear idea about how it can be implemented overseas without compromising its main tenetCthat a group of expert workers can achieve consensus regarding the major competencies and associated tasks of a specified occupation. For additional information on the DACUM process, you may refer to: Embree, R. (1987). DACUM ‐ Developing a curriculum. Etobicoke, ON: Humber

College of Applied Arts and Technology. Norton, R.E. (1985). DACUM handbook. Columbus, OH: Center of Education

and Training for Employment, Ohio State University. You can also write to these organizations and ask for a list of DACUM charts which they have developed and have had verified by practitioners. If you use a DACUM chart that has been developed by someone else, ensure that it was completed recently and that it is appropriate for your circumstances.



3.4 Blueprint the Training Program You wouldn't bake a cake without a recipe or travel across the country without a road map, so why would you design a training program without a blueprint? A blueprint is an overview of your proposed training program. It consists of a brief description of the intended audience, the program goals, the instructional objectives, the estimated time to complete each objective, the topics to be covered, the sequence of the topics, the program material, the instructional strategies, the learning resources, the reference resources, and the evaluation procedures. One way to construct a blueprint is to write each of the above headings (except intended audience and program goals) on the top of one wide sheet of paper. Underneath each heading, brainstorm the items that should appear. If objectives are each written on separate pieces of paper, then they can be re‐shuffled at will. Your completed blueprint will then consist of a series of pages. These pages are then combined with the description of the prospective students, the goals of the project, and the budget allocations. The blueprint should be reviewed first by the project team and later, following revisions, by the host organization. As you review the blueprint, ask yourself the following questions: ! Are the objectives congruent with the goal statements? ! Are the objectives sequenced appropriately for the subject matter? Are

additional objectives needed? ! Is there a mixture of objectives? Are there a number of high‐level objectives

that encourage students to apply their skills? ! Is the content appropriate to the students' characteristics and experience? ! Is the content accurate and relevant? ! Is the content appropriate for the culture in which it will be taught? ! Has a variety of appropriate learning activities been provided? ! Do the learning activities provide realistic, meaningful tasks? ! Are the instructional methods appropriate for the students, the content, and

the instructor? ! Does the blueprint provide students with the opportunity to practice their

newly acquired skills and to receive feedback? ! Does it contain activities designed to motivate the students?



! Does it include a variety of resources that address different interests, abilities, and learning styles?

! Are the resource materials accurate, current, and suitable for the culture in

which they will be used? ! Will the instructional media listed in the blueprint be readily accessible

overseas? If not, what alternatives should be considered? ! Are the evaluation procedures congruent with the objectives? ! Does it include frequent assignments and opportunities for practice? ! Is there adequate time to complete all items listed in the blueprint? Time

must be allotted for the opening and closing ceremonies. These ceremonies may be elaborate and therefore reduce the amount of training time available. Also, allow for local holidays or festive events that may interrupt your training schedule. Frequently, you will not be able to obtain a list of all events prior to your overseas departure.

In order to address the last question, you may want to construct a general format for each training day, and then fit the contents of the blueprint into the training schedule. The format and schedule should take into account the cultural norms of the country in which the training will be conducted. For example, in Latin countries, the lunch break may last two to four hours; people do not work during the hottest part of the day. Table 3.2 is a sample workshop format that was used successfully in Malaysia in It represents one of several possible formats that could be used in Malaysia. Table 3.2 Suggested Workshop Format for Malaysian Students 8:00 a.m. Introduction: Review what was done on the previous day and

outline today's agenda. 8:05 a.m. Physical exercise: Everyone participates in a simple exercise

session. This session is led by one of the workshop participants. 8:15 a.m. Short verbal or written quiz that reviews the topics presented the

previous day. 8:30 a.m. Respond to questions generated by groups during the previous

day's afternoon session. 8:55 a.m. Break 9:10 a.m. Begin to discuss the scheduled topics for the day.



10:20 a.m. Tea break 10:40 a.m. Instructional activity related to a topic of the day. 11:40 a.m. Stretch break 11:45 a.m. Review instructional activity and continue with presentation. 12:30 p.m. Question period: Questions must relate to the activities

conducted in the morning. 12:45 p.m. Lunch break 2:00 p.m. Review the morning's activities and outline the afternoon

activities. 2:10 p.m. Continue with presentation. Initiate an instructional activity,

preferably one that involves small group work. 2:50 p.m. Stretch break 2:55 p.m. Continue with previous activity. 3:25 p.m. Tea break 3:40 p.m. Wrap‐up afternoon activities. Outline activities for the following

day. 4:00 p.m. Small groups discuss their concerns with implementing the ideas

presented during the day. These concerns will be addressed at 8:30 a.m. on the following day. Each day, a new chairperson is selected to facilitate the small group discussions.

4:30 p.m. Closure The above format was modified on Fridays and Saturdays. On Friday afternoons, students were given additional time off so that they could go to the mosque. On Saturdays, training sessions ran from 8:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m. The typical working week in Malaysia is five and a half days. In many Middle Eastern countries, Friday is the day of rest. The instructional format outlined above has the following advantages: ! A review of instructional activities is completed at the beginning and end of

the morning and afternoon series of instructional activities. ! Each morning, all workshop participants take part in a mandatory physical

exercise session. This exercise period was requested by the host organization.



! Short quizzes are held every day to ensure that students have grasped the ideas that have been presented.

! At the end of each day, students have the opportunity to determine how the

concepts they have learned can be applied to their own situations. Each morning, questions that arise from these discussions are aired and reviewed by the instructor. These activities encourage students to take ownership for their learning. Students can also point out the difficulties involved in implementing these ideas during the training sessions.

! Frequent breaks are provided, not only to ensure that the students are alert,

but also to give them the opportunity for a smoke break. Many Malay men still smoke.

! Most of the instruction, particularly lectures, is given in the morning, and

opportunities to apply skills are provided in the afternoons when the students' attention span is frequently limited.

! Opportunities are provided for group work, not only to share ideas, but also

to meet the Malays' need to socialize. When you design your instructional format, make sure that you take into account the needs of the students and the host organization. Also, ensure that your format is flexible; you can never be 100 percent certain of the circumstances you will face in an overseas classroom. For example, you may encounter local or national conventions, such as holidays, that may affect your format. According to Clements (1993), there are 285 days in the year on which a national holiday is held somewhere in the world. After you and other instructors have reviewed and revised the blueprint, it can also be examined by other subject matter experts. However, your blueprint must be reviewed by the host organization and those responsible for mounting and financing the training. You must ensure that the host organization and appropriate managers are committed and involved with your training activity. A timeline for this review process must be stipulated. Do not be surprised if the host organization misses your deadline and you have to proceed without their complete feedback. You have courteously given them an opportunity to provide input. After all the feedback comments and recommendations for changes have been reviewed, the blueprint should be signed off by the international training team leader and, if possible, by a supervisory officer from the host organization. You are now ready to begin developing a detailed training program. If you would like more information on preparing blueprints and managing instructional projects, the following publications may be helpful: Boone, E.J. (1985). Developing programs in adult education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice‐Hall.



Greer, M. (1992). ID project management: Tools and techniques for instructional designers and developers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

McLagan, P. & O'Brien, M. (1991). Designshop: Customer‐focused instructional

design. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company. Reynolds, A. (1990). Training that travels well. Training and Development

Journal, 44 (9), 73‐78.



3.5 Select Content For many instructors, selecting the content is the starting point in instructional planning. However, unless you have written objectives and prepared a blueprint to follow, you may find it difficult to select the content that best meets the goals of the project and suits the characteristics and expectations of the prospective students. Because a tremendous amount of information is available for any given field, you must be very selective. After reviewing your blueprint, select the content that is congruent with your outline. Determine which topics are essential and which are "nice‐to‐know" or could be discussed if time permits. For each topic, develop a number of subtopics and indicate how they are related. You may find it useful to arrange subtopics on separate pieces of paper and place similar subtopics next to each other. Use lines to connect related topics. The thickness of the line may indicate the strength of the relationship between the topics and subtopics. Now examine the pattern that emerges. The pattern may reveal ways in which the content can be sequenced. Content can be sequenced in the following ways: ! Chronological: Items are arranged along a timeline, from past to present

to future. This sequencing is frequently used with historical content. ! Hierarchical: Items are arranged from simple to complex or from general

to specific. Academic subjects are usually presented in a hierarchical manner.

! Utilization‐related: Items are arranged in the order the skills may be used.

Vocational subjects are usually sequenced in this way. ! Spiral sequencing: The same items are covered several times through the

course of a program, but each time at a more sophisticated level. Spiral sequencing can be used for all subjects because it allows concepts to be introduced at a rudimentary level and re‐examined at various levels until a more sophisticated understanding is achieved.

! Inquiry‐related: Content is revealed to the student as the student requires

the knowledge or information to solve a problem. The content is arranged in a fan or funnel shape. One piece of information leads to an ever‐increasing number of concepts.

! Generic: Items are arranged in a series of isolated blocks. Because each

block of content is not closely connected to another, the blocks of content may be presented in any order. However, within each block, content may be arranged in a chronological, hierarchical, utilization‐related, or spiral sequence. Generic sequencing is used in training programs that include a number of unrelated, major topics.



After you have sequenced the major training topics and their associated sub‐topics, select the content and pertinent examples that are appropriate for your potential students. Remember to take into account their educational level and previous experiences. Do not get carried away with your own biases and favorite topics. Always check that the content supports a specific objective and that the content can be covered in the available time. Frequently, instructors forget that novice learners may take two to four times longer than the instructor to complete a learning task. Instructors also forget that not all training time is productive. Introductions, organizational announcements, and extended lunch breaks all eat into instructional time. Invariably trainers pack too much into their training programs. They must first ensure that adequate time is provided to cover the essential elements. Other items can be presented if time is available or through a handout. It is better to cover a few topics well than to cover a large number of topics that no one will recall or be able to use. Remember, the role of an effective trainer is to help students to extend their current capabilities; they must gain and apply new knowledge and skills. Anyone can disburse volumes of information, but good trainers ensure that the information they supply will be applied by their students. After selecting the content, it may be useful to construct a pre‐assessment test that you can use to determine your students' current knowledge of the subject matter. Although many students in developing countries may not have paper credentials, they may have significant experiential knowledge that would not appear on the documents supplied by the host organization. The pre‐assessment test results may reveal areas in which instruction is not required, and a simple review of the material may be sufficient. Conversely, you may find that your primary content may need to be heavily supported with other instructional material.



3.6 Identify Appropriate Instructional Strategies Prior to selecting appropriate instructional strategies, carefully review the students' characteristics and expectations as well as any restrictions that the host organization or the country's culture may place upon these activities. Review the verbs used in each objective. These verbs can help guide the selection of appropriate strategies. However, keep an open mind. Review a variety of strategies, then select the ones that are most appropriate for your situation. You may find it beneficial to construct a matrix of student characteristics and expectations along with appropriate instructional strategies. Always keep a few strategies "on the back burner;" they may come in handy. Remember, there is no one instructional strategy that is guaranteed to work in every situation. Be flexible. Flexibility is one of the most important attributes of a successful international trainer. Approaches to Instructional Delivery If you acknowledge that although people learn in different ways they can still achieve the same competencies, then you must also acknowledge that instructors can use different strategies to achieve similar objectives. Regardless of which instructional strategies you use, you must always: ! tell the learners what they are going to learn;

! show them what they must learn;

! give them the opportunity to practice what they have learned and to gain confidence;

! provide positive and corrective feedback; ! reward them for their efforts. The above instructional plan is simple and it works if you take into account the program goals, objectives, student characteristics and expectations, course content, the restrictions placed upon you by the host organization and available budget, and if you ensure that the time between each step is short. Learning tasks should be arranged in order of increasing difficulty. Students are more likely to succeed if they can consolidate and integrate their new knowledge or skills before they are exposed to new information. Gagné and Briggs (1979) provide a more formal view of instruction than the one presented above. They outline nine events, which are required to support instruction. Each of their events has been researched and empirically verified as positive contributors to the learning process. Their sequential instructional events are outlined below:



1. Gain attention by directing students to the topic to be presented. Arouse curiosity. Identify a problem that the students want to address. Indicate how the topic is related to their lives and/or future jobs.

2. Inform learners of the objectives. Let the students know where you are

heading so that they can focus their energies. 3. Stimulate recall of prior learning. Use a pretest or pose a series of oral

questions that encourage students to reestablish their knowledge base. 4. Present stimuli with distinctive features. Students must be able to

distinguish the new knowledge or skill from that which has already been learned. Instructional media can be used to highlight the distinctive features of new ideas or objects.

5. Guide learning. Trainers must provide clear and precise directions and

encourage students to apply what they know. 6. Elicit performance. Provide students with opportunities to practice and

apply their new skills in different situations. 7. Provide informative feedback. In a positive manner, provide immediate

feedback that both reassures students and suggests remedial action. 8. Enhance retention and learning transfer. Provide additional opportunities

for students to apply their skills to new situations, especially to situations that are likely to occur in the students' immediate and future environments.

9. Assess performance. Conduct a summative evaluation that clearly indicates

the standard of achievement. Note that there are many different learning theories or approaches to learning which you may consider such as constructivism, connectivism, and discovery learning. You should take the time to investigate them. However, the suggestions provided above by Gagné and Briggs have proven to be effective in many situations.



Motivational Techniques Sequencing the instructional event is not a major concern for most instructors. Their greatest challenge is to keep the students interested and motivated. AWhen motivation is low, learning will be low@ (Spitzer, 1996), and even the most meticulously designed instructional programs will fail to achieve their potential. Keller (1987) developed the ARCS Model as a systematic approach for designing instruction that is motivating. In this model, the following four conditions must be met if students are to become and remain motivated: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. An overview of these conditions and some guidelines for their implementation are presented below. ! Gain and sustain attention by introducing information that is contrary to

the students' past experiences; give or show concrete examples of the subject; vary the style and form of the delivery; use humor (however, be careful when using humor in unfamiliar cultures); allow students to solve problems and select topics or assignments that appeal to them; and actively involve students in the instruction‐learning process.

! Provide relevance by stating how the material is related to the students' past

experiences and interests; explain the value or worth of the material; relate the information or skill to their future activities; match the information or skill to a specific student need; model the use of the material; and provide alternative methods for the students to accomplish a specific goal related to the new material.

! Build confidence, which helps students to persist and achieve. Students

must have or develop confidence in their ability to learn. Encourage confidence building by providing students with the tools and criteria for self‐evaluation; organize activities in an order of increasing difficulty; help students to plan for success by getting them to develop a learning plan and set realistic goals; ensure that students attribute their success or failure to their own effort or lack of effort; and help them to gain self‐confidence by allowing them more independence after each successive level of accomplishment. Students should receive compliments for their efforts. Note, however, that in cultures such as the Chinese culture, students may not accept compliments easily.

! Encourage the attainment of satisfaction by providing extrinsic and/or

symbolic rewards that stimulate intrinsic rewards or satisfaction. Trainers should allow students to apply their skills in a realistic setting or allow students to teach others; provide unexpected rewards; give immediate, informative, and helpful feedback; avoid negative actions; and vary the interval and quantity of feedback as the students gain competence.



Spitzer (1996) describes another approach to motivation. He suggests that motivation involves the release of stored human energy, which occurs when learners perform activities that they really want to do. What makes an activity motivating is the context that surrounds the activity or task. The context comprises a number of factors or motivators. The more motivating factors that you add to an instructional situation, the more motivating the learning becomes. You may want to include some of the motivators listed below in your instructional program. Be sure to modify each motivator to suit your particular international audience. ! Action. Human beings become highly motivated when they are active.

Include activities that require students to be both physically and mentally active. By actively engaging your students, you will help to prevent the Aglazed‐eye look.@

! Fun. Fun energizes people. Make learning such an enjoyable experience that,

not only will they have fun today, but they will want to come back tomorrow. Involving learners in a variety of content‐relevant games can add fun to a class. Although humor is highly recommended, be sure you do not embarrass yourself or your students. It may be safer to include humor after you have gained your students= trust and better understand the cultural context in which they live.

! Choice. In general, people like to make choices; they like to be able to select

the item or activity that satisfies their needs or interests. Therefore, provide your students with as many choices as possible. Note that in some cultures, especially with a highly structured hierarchy, participants may defer to the eldest=s or the higher‐status person=s choice.

! Social interaction. Most people want to interact with their peers. Try to

arrange both formal and informal group activities. In some cultures, students may fear a Aloss of face@ and not participate in large group discussions; they may feel more comfortable participating in small group discussions or peer tutoring sessions. Do not underestimate the learning that occurs during the informal discussions that take place between classes. Students often discuss class activities during the breaks, over lunch, and on their way home at the end of the day.

! Error tolerance. Students need a safe environment in which to learn. They

must be allowed to make mistakes without the fear of being unduly criticized. If they feel that they might be laughed at, humiliated, or punished for their efforts, their willingness to try something new will be greatly diminished.



! Measurement. Although few people like to be evaluated, they do like to know that they have progressed. Try to develop a Ascorecard@ that students can use to track their own progress. In extremely competitive societies, this scorecard may be made public, but in most instructional situations, an individual=s assessment record should be kept private. Ask your students to help you determine which objectives or tasks should be measured or evaluated. Give them some choices with respect to the method of their evaluation.

! Feedback. Students need to know how they are doing. They usually want to

know how they can improve so that they can do better next time. Always provide students with some immediate, positive feedback that will help them to improve their performance.

! Challenge. Challenges bring out the best in people. If possible, provide

students with opportunities to test themselves and to apply what they know. These challenges should be difficult, but not impossible. If a challenge is too demanding, it may produce significant frustration or cause students to lose interest and possibly withdraw from your program. According to Spitzer (1996, p. 48), AThe most motivating challenges involve learners in setting their own goals. When learners set goals for themselves, they tend to be much more committed to achieving them than if the goals were imposed upon them.@ Unfortunately, in many instructional settings in developing countries, students expect the instructor to set their learning goals; the instructor is usually considered to be the elder, the expert, and the person who knows what is best for them.

! Recognition. People like to be recognized for their efforts. Although this

recognition can be given subtly, such as in a nod of the head, do take the time to provide your students with some form of continuous, positive reinforcement and recognition.

Some Advice From Experienced International Instructors At a workshop for international instructors held in Vancouver, Canada, the participants suggested that, in an international setting, the following sequence of instructional events should occur: ! The instructors should orient the students to the instructional‐learning

process. The responsibilities of both the instructors and the students should be presented. Over the first few instructional sessions, these responsibilities should be reviewed and confirmed. Students must know what is expected of them and the importance of what is to be learned. Students must be provided



with goals that are challenging, yet attainable. Excellent instructors always ensure that there is some congruency between their goals and those of their students. Instructors should not promise what they cannot deliver.

! The instructors should establish their credibility by outlining their

professional credentials and describing the research they used to design the instructional program the students are expected to complete. It would be preferable if a member of the host organization presented the instructor's credentials.

! The instructional program should be briefly described. Do not overwhelm

students with the details of the program. ! Students must be reminded about what they already know. Then, new

information must be linked to their previously acquired knowledge and experiences. Information must be organized in a manner that is meaningful to the students. If students can see the value of what they are to learn, they will be more motivated.

! As soon as possible, the instructors should develop a meaningful, congenial

rapport with the students. This rapport and trust will take time to develop, but it must be nourished everyday. Many technology transfer projects fail because instructors neglect to develop rapport and trust. They focus solely on instructional content. If there are several instructors, each can take a small group of students "under his or her wing." It may be easier to establish rapport in small groups, but care must be taken to ensure that one small group does not appear to be more favored than another. It is important to establish a safe, comfortable, learning environment. Consider inviting all participants to an informal meal during the first few days of training.

! Technology, where appropriate, should be used to present information, stir

interest, and encourage imagination. Do not rely on one technology as no single medium can deliver the full range of instructional intents. Be careful when using technology that students have never seen. They may become more interested in the technology than in what it is trying to present. Prior to your presentation, practice using the technology and ensure that the material will meet the needs of your students.

! Initially, the instructors should begin instructing in a large group setting

where all students are present. Because lecturing, demonstrations, and workbooks are "safe" instructional activities, they should be used first. However, when students are comfortable with the instructional situation, progress to active learning strategies that require students to invest their mental and physical energies in activities that help them to make learning



meaningful. For example, ask students to explain to others what they have just learned.

! In order to satisfy the social needs of the participants, the instructors should

use structured assignments to encourage discussion and student interaction. ! Then, the instructors should introduce independent study activities. These

may be small assignments or projects that can be completed in less than a day. Instructors should provide accurate, specific, and personalized feedback. Students must also learn how to give themselves feedback. Note that some students in Asian countries may not want to work alone; they may prefer to work on a project with others.

! Paired learning activities should be introduced gradually. Although it may

appear that students should be able to choose their partners, it may be best to assign partners at first. Students who do not know anyone may feel uncomfortable about approaching others. If you assign the partners and the students have a negative learning experience, they can blame it on their inexperienced, foreign instructor rather than on themselves or other students. Base your pairings on what you know about the studentsCtheir jobs, their status within their respective socio‐economic environments, and their educational backgrounds. The first paired activity should be a short, in‐class activity.

! Once students feel comfortable working with others, the instructors should

initiate small group activities. Group members may need help coping with group dynamics.

! Instructors should now introduce case studies that reflect the local

circumstances. If you introduce local case studies before rapport and trust have been established, students may feel that your purpose is to point out their failings and demonstrate your culture's superiority.

! Instructors should reserve high risk activities such as role plays, simulations,

and peer counselling for last. If not handled with sensitivity, these activities may cause students to "lose face."

! Students must be given frequent opportunities to practice new skills and to

transfer their skills and knowledge to new contexts. Learning takes time. ! Instructors must assess and evaluate students frequently. The assessments

must be conducted fairly and gauge the attainment of the goals and objectives stated at the beginning of the instructional program.



To learn more about designing instruction, refer to: Leshin, C.B., Pollock, J., & Reigeluth, C.M. (1992). Instructional design strategies

and tactics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Rothwell, W.J. & Kazanas, H.C. (1992). Mastering the instructional design process:

A systematic approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass Inc.



3.7 Instructional Strategies Below is a brief description of various instructional strategies that you can use to achieve your instructional objectives. These strategies have been categorized according to the relative level of risk involved in implementing them in an international setting. The risk level is primarily dependent on the characteristics and expectations of the students and the competency of the instructor. Within each category, the strategies are arranged alphabetically. Suggestions for implementing these activities in an international setting are also provided. If you will be working in an environment that has a highly structured organizational hierarchy or with individuals who respect job status, then you may want to construct a hierarchy of instructional strategies. At the lower levels of the hierarchy, students may be more comfortable with lecturing, structured activities, and modeling acceptable behavior. The upper levels of the hierarchy should contain discussions, case studies, teamwork, and other medium‐ to high‐risk instructional strategies. These latter strategies are more suitable for students who are comfortable with each other and the instructor, and/or for individuals at the top levels of an organization. Low‐Risk Instructional Strategies Compared to their North American counterparts, most international students have conservative expectations about instructional situations. They do not want to feel uncomfortable, lose face, or have their personal beliefs or lives openly challenged or discussed. If the students' concerns are kept in mind, the strategies described below can be used successfully. The instructor must ensure that all students have an opportunity to participate. To learn effectively, students must not only listen, observe, or read, they must also do something with the information they receive. Demonstration ! During demonstrations, items or actions are shown or explained by the

instructor or selected students. The instructor can demonstrate a skill, then explain how it is applied. Dangerous activities should always be demonstrated by the trainer prior to any student involvement. The instructor must describe and explain all safety precautions.



! Unless the instructor asks questions about the item or procedure being demonstrated, the students remain passive learners.

! Demonstrations can be used to introduce a topic, guide learning, create

interest, and show how newly acquired skills can be applied. Demonstrations are frequently used to achieve psychomotor objectives and to model acceptable behaviors.

Drill and Practice ! Within a brief period of time, students are required to respond to a series of

short questions or problems. Trainers must ensure that their questions are extremely focused. These questions should not require elaborate responses.

! Drill and practice exercises can be used to develop cognitive skills and to

learn and master a sequence of events. Drill and practice exercises can also be used to summarize an instructional activity or to stimulate the recall of prior learning before proceeding to new material. These types of exercises are frequently used to attain low‐level cognitive, affective, or psychomotor objectives.

Handouts ! Handouts are print materials that outline specific training activities or

provide a collection of supporting documents. ! Handouts are usually used to impart knowledge, but if properly designed,

they can help students to practice their skills or suggest future applications of newly acquired skills. In addition, handouts can be used to develop attitudes and values, provided different viewpoints are presented and the students are asked to state their points of view as well.

! Handouts are effective only if they relate directly to the instructional activity,

are written at an appropriate level for the students, contain an abundance of visuals, and are used by the trainer during the training session. If the trainer does not discuss the contents of the handout with students and show them how the material can be used, then students are not likely to read them.

! Unless technical manuals are specifically adapted for the intended audience,

they are unlikely to be used by international students. Many North Americans have difficulty understanding the operating manuals for electronic equipment produced elsewhere. Instructors must demonstrate how to use technical manuals.



! It may be difficult to prepare handouts if you have limited access to appropriate materials and equipment. For example, paper is not in abundant supply in many parts of Africa and photocopiers are usually not available where electricity is unreliable or spare parts are scarce.

Lectures ! During a lecture, the trainer presents information orally. Unless the trainer

asks questions, students remain passive. ! Lectures are frequently used to present knowledge and to explain how skills

are applied. A good instructor can use a lecture to arouse interest and to inspire students to apply their skills.

! The lecture can be an exciting activity if the trainer presents a topic that

interests the students, uses visuals and demonstrations, varies the tone and pace of the presentation, uses examples and anecdotes that students are familiar with, frequently summarizes portions of the presentation, and displays genuine enthusiasm for the topic. The lecture may be the basis of most instructional systems, as it can present information in an efficient, structured, and standardized manner, but it should always be supplemented with other instructional strategies.

! The lecture is the most accepted form of instruction because it reinforces the

image of the trainer as the authoritative information provider. Many people in the world, especially those in the Middle East and certain Pacific Rim countries, support this image of instructors.

Readings ! Students are required to read assigned material silently or aloud. ! Reading not only allows students to gain information, but also provides them

with the opportunity to discover different points of view and possible applications of their new skills. Reading aloud can provide a change of pace; it enables all students to participate and allows the trainer to determine if the students understand the written material provided.

! Reading may also serve a socialization function and enable less literate

students to learn from others. Have students form small groups; ask each student to read a short passage; then, ask another student in the group to explain what was read and ask another student to explain how the information can be applied.



! Reading material must be suitable for the intended audience. Care must be taken not to embarrass students whose literary skills are poor.

Textbooks and Workbooks ! Textbooks and workbooks are usually prepared by people other than the

trainer. Textbooks generally present information, while workbooks provide opportunities for practice.

! These items can be used to support lectures and provide independent study

material. However, students who live in countries with strong oral instructional traditions will find textbooks and workbooks difficult to use. They must be shown how to use these materials.

! Textbooks and workbooks should be selected carefully. During your selection

process, consider the following:

‐ Do they meet the objectives of the training program? ‐ Are they written at an appropriate reading level for the intended

audience? ‐ Do they contain any biases, stereotyping, or cultural references that will

offend the students or cause overseas custom officials to reject them? ‐ Do they contain relevant, comprehensive, and current information? ‐ Are the examples and graphics appropriate for the intended audience? ‐ What portion of the materials will you use overseas? More than 50

percent?

‐ If these materials will be used in tropical countries, will their bindings tolerate high temperatures and humidity? If the book's pages are glued rather than sewn, coiled, or stapled, tropical climates will quickly destroy the glued binding.

‐ Will the cost of the materials and their associated freight charges fit

within the training budget? ‐ Will you be required to pay import duties if you bring a large quantity of

these materials into a country?



Medium‐Risk Instructional Strategies In order to provide variety and to actively engage students in the training‐learning process, consider using the activities described below. By carefully structuring each activity, the instructor can reduce the risks associated with these strategies. Brainstorming ! During brainstorming sessions, the trainer outlines a problem or situation.

Then all students are asked to suggest possible solutions. Brainstorming promotes creative, group problem‐solving skills. The idea of one participant often stimulates the thoughts of others.

! Brainstorming can be used to address all cognitive and some affective

objectives. If all student ideas are accepted as valid, brainstorming encourages participation and develops trust. Any size group can participate in this activity.

! In order to increase the effectiveness of this strategy, the brainstorming

session should adhere to the following procedure: 1. The trainer should clearly identify the problem or situation to be

addressed.

2. Students should be asked to describe the situation in their own words, then allowed a short period of time for silent reflection.

3. Ask students to generate as many ideas as they can and encourage them to

build on the ideas presented by others.

4. Remind students that all ideas will be accepted and that no suggestions will be discussed or explained until all ideas have been recorded. Ideally, students should freely volunteer ideas; however, the trainer may have to encourage students to respond. The trainer must be careful not to address students who may find this vocal behavior culturally offensive.

5. Record all ideas, preferably where all students can see them.

6. When all ideas have been generated or a specific time limit has been

reached, ask students to explain any ideas that are vague or unclear.

7. Cluster related ideas.



8. Establish the criteria for evaluating ideas. Criteria may be grouped into essential or desirable categories.

9. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each idea.

10. Prioritize the ideas that students feel are most useful. 11. Ask students how to implement these ideas.

! At first, brainstorming may not be well received by international audiences who do not prize individual initiatives or in cultures where socio‐economic status or seniority plays an important factor in human interactions. However, if you start with a small problem or situation that everyone can address, most participants will feel that they have something to contribute. You can also have students write their ideas on index cards rather than express them orally. This latter procedure allows participants to submit their ideas anonymously.

Buzz Groups ! The instructor presents a problem or situation that small groups must address

within a given time period. Each group selects a scribe to record the group's ideas. Individuals only present ideas that have not been mentioned previously. The group selects a spokesperson, preferably someone other than the scribe, to summarize and present the group's findings to all the students. The instructor reviews the submissions from all the groups and suggests ways of applying the ideas generated.

! Buzz groups can be used to achieve application and problem‐solving

objectives in the cognitive and affective domains of learning. They can also be used to arouse interest in a topic and to encourage interaction among students.

! Risks occur not only in the problem or situation selected, but also in the

variety of small group dynamics that may occur. For example, if the small groups are composed of individuals who are extremely different with respect to authority, status, or seniority, some members of the group will be reluctant to express their points of view.

! The instructor can reduce the risk by selecting a suitable, non‐controversial

topic, determining the composition of the small groups, and limiting the time the students spend in the small group activity.



Case Studies ! Students are given a detailed description of a specific, real‐life situation.

Then they are asked to analyze the situation and provide solutions that take into account the information provided.

! Case studies can be designed to achieve cognitive, psychomotor, and affective

objectives, especially application and problem‐solving objectives. When psychomotor objectives are stated, appropriate materials and equipment must be supplied. Case studies also allow students to practice decision‐making skills. After the case study has been completed, students can examine how group decisions were made.

! International trainers should start with simple case study situations. These

cases should include a number of factors and have a variety of acceptable solutions. Well designed case studies do not have perfect solutions. However, depending on the desired outcome, some solutions will be better than others.

! The type of case study a trainer chooses will depend on the culture or

environment in which the trainer will be working. It may be best to start with hypothetical studies. If maintaining "face" is an important part of the culture, then hypothetical case studies may be best. Case studies that reflect local situations work best when students feel that the trainer is trying to help them and not criticizing their country's shortcomings.

! With the exception of management trainers, few trainers fully realize how

well case studies can actively engage students in applying their skills to "real world" situations.

Discussions ! Students are encouraged to voice their opinions on a topic selected either by

the students or by the trainer. The trainer may start the discussion by asking students to respond freely to several questions; however, the students, not the instructor, must do most of the talking. Students must be given adequate time to discuss all the ramifications of a certain topic. A good discussion occurs when all students feel that their opinions are valued, students have sufficient time to speak, and the trainer's involvement is minimal.

! The trainer's task is to initiate and referee the discussion. Prior to the

discussion, the trainer may want to set a few ground rules such as how long students can speak and if a student can speak more than once.



! Discussions can accomplish a variety of objectives especially those related to knowledge acquisition, communication skills, socialization, and the attainment of attitudes and values. In addition, discussions can be used to arouse interest in a topic, to motivate students, and to customize instruction to the needs of the learners.

! Discussions can be risky because the discourse may range over a variety of

topics, a few students may control the discussion, and unpleasant comments may be made. If the trainer intervenes too frequently, the students will cease to participate.

Guest Speakers ! An individual is invited to speak to the students. A guest speaker can provide

expertise that the instructor does not have, describe the local situation, and provide a change of pace. When guest speakers from the host organization are invited, instructors can increase their positive rapport with that institution.

! Prior to his or her presentation, the guest speaker should be briefed on the

focus of the presentation, the time limit, the characteristics of the students, and the material covered to date.

! The major risk involved in inviting guest speakers is that once they begin to

speak, the instructor has little control over what they say. If an authority figure presents inaccurate or biased information, he or she may unravel all the hard work the instructor has accomplished to date.

Laboratories ! Students are provided with the required equipment and materials and then

asked to perform specified tasks. The trainer must provide precise instructions, ensure that the appropriate equipment and materials are available, and check that the conditions under which the lab activities will be conducted are satisfactory.

! Laboratories provide practical experience and allow students to apply and

refine cognitive and psychomotor skills. ! In an international setting, trainers have difficulty assembling all the required

resources and ensuring that the cost of the lab activity remains within the training budget.



! Laboratories can be risky because their outcomes are not always predictable, and the safety of the students may be jeopardized. However, if the risk elements are too tightly controlled, then the results become too predictable and the students may lose interest.

High‐Risk Instructional Strategies The strategies below are classified as high risk because they have one or more of the following characteristics: the possibility of losing face is high; its successful implementation requires that a trusting relationship exist among the students and between the students and the instructor; and the instructor must not only be extremely sensitive to student needs, but must also know the limits of each strategy. However, high‐risk instructional strategies can effectively help students to master application and higher‐level cognitive, affective, and psychomotor objectives. Strategies that employ group work encourage social interaction and enable individuals to discuss the application of skills to their environment. Debates ! Debates are highly structured discussions in which two teams take opposing

points of view and discuss the merits of their respective positions. Each student has a fixed amount of time to speak, and students present their arguments in a predetermined manner. The instructor selects the topic, forms the groups, and sets the ground rules for the debate.

! Debates are an excellent way of developing affective skills and achieving

higher cognitive skills. Students who participate in the debate generally learn more about a topic than the students who merely observe the debate.

! Debates involve the same risks as discussions as well as several other risks.

For example, students may be required to defend a point of view they do not believe in, which may cause inner conflict; or in an effort to win the debate, a student may say something that attacks or offends another student.

Field Trips ! Students are sent to or taken to a place or event. During the visit, students

complete activities outlined by the trainer and later provide an oral or written report of their experiences. The trainer makes appropriate travel arrangements, outlines the activities to be performed, briefs the students prior to the field trip, and debriefs them after the activity has been completed.



! Field trips can provide opportunities for hands‐on experience and the application of skills, and if well planned, they can be used to encourage the attainment of high‐level objectives.

! Although field trips can actively engage students, they can also be passive

activities. If the activity is too highly structured, if the students are required to make unfocussed observations only, or if discussions during the trip are too limited, students will not be actively engaged in this learning experience.

! Unless steps are taken to ensure that the field trips are directly related to an

instructional objective, they can be a waste of valuable instructional time. Unpredictable events and accidents can occur during field trips. Therefore, before embarking on a field trip, trainers must determine their personal liabilities as well as the liability of the host organization.

Peer Group Counselling ! Once a student or a group of students have mastered a portion of the training,

they can use their newly acquired skills to teach other students. The trainer determines which students have mastered a particular skill or skills and assigns them to work with students who need additional assistance. The instructor monitors the peer group interactions and provides guidance.

! If the training environment is supportive and non‐threatening, everyone wins:

the students who need help receive assistance; the students who help their peers can apply their skills, receive recognition, and increase their self‐esteem; and, the instructor is able to act as a facilitator rather than a information provider.

! The trainer must carefully monitor this activity to ensure that the student‐

student interactions remain positive and congenial. If the activity is handled improperly, the confidence and self‐esteem of all the participants may be severely damaged.

Projects ! Students are required to complete a comprehensive activity on a specific

subject over an extended period of time. The instructor provides the overall project guidelines. Projects can cover a variety of topics and can be conducted in a number of different ways.

! Projects can be an integrative activity if they are designed to include a variety

of cognitive, psychomotor, and affective objectives. Students can apply their newly acquired skills, make generalizations, and/or develop new skills.



Students who are involved in successful project‐related activities may develop team‐building skills and assume ownership for their learning.

! Projects are risky because they are usually extremely flexible and

unstructured. Instructors must ensure that their students do not take on more than they can reasonably handle, without preventing the students from undertaking a challenging experience.

Role Plays/Simulations/Problem‐Solving Activities ! Students are given a simulated situation and asked to play specified roles.

The remaining students act as observers. To conduct a successful role play, the trainer must set the scene, clearly identify the roles to be played, establish the rules of the role play, stop the activity at a predetermined time or when emotions run too high, ask the role play participants to describe their thoughts and feelings, ask the observers to report on what they saw, summarize the role play, explain how the role play addresses specific training objectives, and ensure that the role play participants leave their roles behind them.

! This activity is ideal for promoting problem‐solving behavior, the transfer of

learning to new situations, and for developing interpersonal skills. Students can make judgement errors without harming themselves or others.

! Role plays are an extremely risky activity. If people play their roles too well,

participants may become uncomfortable and feelings may be hurt. Yet, the recognition of altered feeling and the development of empathy is an important aspect of this activity. Trainers must ensure that these interpersonal skills are developed in a positive manner.

! Role plays or simulations should not be avoided simply because of their

inherent risks. If doctors, pilots, or nuclear reactor employees did not participate in role plays or simulations, they would not be able to do their jobs with any degree of confidence; they would not be able to face problems squarely.



Developing Ownership If your international training assignment is successful, you will have shown your students "how to fish;" how to use their new skills to solve their own problems. To accomplish this goal, you must ensure that the international participants develop ownership for their training. There are a number of ways this ownership can be developed. The following suggestions were developed during an international training workshop conducted in Regina, Canada: ! Involve the participants in determining the activities to be conducted. Use

the information the students provide to develop instructional activities. ! Each day, ensure that participants have an opportunity to discuss how they

can apply their training to their own situations. ! Get your participants to apply the following formula to what they learn:

"Take the best, leave the rest"; they should take and use only that which is applicable to their situation.

! Give people an opportunity to practice what they have learned. ! Use case studies that are developed and presented by the participants. ! Give participants an opportunity to explore ideas. ! Team teach with local instructors and students. ! Ensure that student projects deal with local problems. ! Let participants work in small groups to solve problems, but offer assistance

with group dynamics. ! Involve senior officials from the host organization in as many activities as

possible. ! Give the participants a list of concerns that they need to address. ! Negotiate for a follow‐up activity in the country so that you can monitor

training implementation and provide advice and encouragement. Innovation and change take time and cannot be accomplished in a two‐week training session.

! Leave behind a product of the training activity, such as a competency or

DACUM profile, a plan of action, or a training manual that takes into account



the realistic circumstances in which the training will be used. Involve participants in the production of the manual.

! Ask the participants to recommend appropriate follow‐up activities.



3.8 Locate and Select Learning Resources The training‐learning process can be enhanced by using instructional materials in a variety of primary, complementary, enrichment, or optional roles. Learning resources can be used to introduce an activity, provide a change of pace, maintain student interest, illustrate the distinctive features of a new idea or skill, show relationships among different items, indicate the applications of knowledge and skills, demonstrate dangerous activities, and extend the students' horizons. The possibilities are endless. However, care must be taken to ensure that the resources, especially technological resources, are appropriate for the developing country. The Selection Process Before selecting your learning resources, review the training blueprint and the needs and audience analysis you conducted earlier. Pay particular attention to the characteristics and expectations of the students, and determine not only how they prefer to learn, but also the instructional media they have been previously exposed to. Ascertain if electricity is available at the training site. Do not assume that because your overseas accommodation has electricity that your training site will be similarly equipped. In St. Lucia or Grenada, for example, you may stay at a luxury tourist hotel, but be required to work where there is no telephone, photocopy equipment, or chalk. When you have assembled all of the above information, ask yourself the questions below. This section is based on the article AEducational Consulting in Developing Countries@ by Wright (1997). ! What learning resources do you need to accomplish your goals? Which

resources will help you to achieve specific cognitive, psychomotor, or affective objectives? Which resources will act as motivational devices to gain attention and maintain interest? Which resources can elicit responses that are tailored to specific student needs? Will you need resources that show motion such as the operation of a water pump or the hunting and feeding habits of lions? Is color, especially realistic color, important to the training‐learning process of certain workers such as health care professionals?

An effective learning resource will help you to accomplish a training objective that may be difficult or impossible to achieve without it. For example, it is easier for students to grasp how pistons in an engine operate if the resource shows motion, or note the difference between arteries or veins when color is used. However, the same attributes that make the resource useful in the training‐learning process can also prove ineffective and distracting in overseas



training situations. In some parts of the world, North Americans have a reputation for being "flashy;" they always use complicated technology when a simple picture will do. Some students may get hooked on the glamour of the technology and miss the substance of the training. Some students may feel that all their problems will be solved if only they had this technology. But instructional technology is only a means to teach a skill. It is what is presented by the technology that counts. You must choose resources that enable your students to achieve specific objectives. You do not want your students to be hypnotized by the media and neglect the message.

! What learning resources are available overseas? Will students have

easy access to these resources? In North America, we often take our access to learning resources for granted. Our homes and offices have telephones that let us easily contact a wide variety of resources; televisions that bring us images from every corner of the world; videocassette recorders that allow us to make our own images or playback recordings on an infinite number of topics; and microcomputers for calculating and word processing. We also have easy access to libraries. In developing countries, it is unlikely that libraries, where present, will be well stocked or contain current publications. Books will probably be 10, 20, or 30 years old (Giltrow and Pannen, 1992). In addition, few students will have ever seen, let alone used, a videocassette recorder or microcomputer. Therefore, if you select learning resources that are not available to students, or resources students have never seen or used, you must be prepared to provide the resources yourself and allocate time for showing students how to use them. Students who have an oral tradition may not have books or be able to read. You must supply the reading material as well as the appropriate literacy training.

! What learning resources are currently available? Are the resources you

wish to use to achieve a specific objective, available, relevant, and up‐to‐date? Do they contain appropriate examples or must the examples be removed or updated? Are these resources culturally appropriate for your students? If you will be working in an Islamic country, for example, not only must the certain pages of the textbook you want to use be culturally acceptable, but all the other pages, which you may not use, must also meet Islamic requirements. Are a variety of cultural groups portrayed in the media you will be using? If only Americans or Europeans are shown, how will your audience react? If other cultural groups are included, are they portrayed in a sensitive, dignified manner? Is the learning resource free of stereotypes or situations that may ridicule members of specific cultural groups? You may need to decide if you want to spend the time and money modifying these materials or obtaining more suitable materials from other sources. You must also decide if the materials must be translated.



! What equipment is needed to use the learning resources? If your training materials require special equipment, and the equipment is not available or not in working order, then you must bring it with you. In this case, you must then determine if your equipment is compatible with the format and power systems overseas and if the equipment can withstand climatic conditions such as extreme heat, cold, dryness, humidity, or pollution. How will you maintain and securely store the equipment? Do not forget to calculate extra freight costs and other charges, which may include paying a "fee" to clear customs and to move the equipment within the foreign country. At an international conference in Venezuela, one presenter had to pay several hundred dollars in "special" fines before the pamphlets and brochures for his university's exhibit booth would be released from customs. Because he initially refused to pay the fines, he was unable to set up his booth for the first day of the conference.

! What learning resources are you most comfortable with? Many things

can go wrong when you are in a foreign country. It is unlikely that you will find the expertise that you will need if something goes wrong with your equipment. Therefore, know how to use these materials and resources before you travel. Learn the basic maintenance procedures and take along a few spare parts, tools, maintenance instructions, cleaning fluid, and plastic bags to protect the equipment from the elements.

! What are the simplest, most practical learning resources that you can

use to accomplish your training tasks? Sophisticated technological resources such as videodiscs and computer‐assisted instruction programs can provide effective and efficient training. However, the more complex the technology, the more likely that you will need to ensure that appropriate facilities are available overseas and that the equipment can be shipped without damage. In addition, sophisticated technology is prone to breakdowns and usually requires frequent maintenance. Considering the conditions you are most likely to encounter in a developing country, it is advisable to select simpler, more practical learning resources. Be prepared to select and use chalkboards, charts, audiocassettes, and videocassettes. These items are frequently found overseas (Lu, Morlan, Lerchalolarn, Lee & Dike, 1993).

If you have difficulty selecting appropriate learning resources for your training program, you may want to consider using the ACTION model developed by Bates (1989) or the guidelines developed by Leshin, Pollock & Reigeluth (1992). To determine which resources are best, Bates suggests that you consider the following:



! Access and availability to students; ! Costs, including capital and recurrent expenditures; ! Teaching functions and how a media can represent different types of

knowledge; ! Interaction and user‐friendliness that define how a student can control the

media; ! Organizational constraints such as those dictated by institutional policies,

financial constraints, and innovative leadership; ! Novelty; trainers are seductively attracted to new technologies, yet simple

technology such as audiocassettes remain extremely effective. Leshin, Pollock & Reigeluth (1992, 104‐105) provide the following guidelines to narrow the selection of appropriate media: A. Training constraints

! Money (training budget)

! Facilities and equipment already available

! Time available for instruction B. Development constraints

! Money (instructional development budget)

! Time available for development

! Resources already available, both human and material C. Task requirements

! Media attributes required by task D. Learner constraints

! Handicaps

! Computer literacy

Once the selection is narrowed, resources should be selected based on the following:



! resource attributes required by the instruction;

! organization's preferences;

! instructor's preference;

! availability;

! available finances. The following section contains a brief description of several training resources (updated from Wright, 1987) that you can use to achieve your training objectives. These resources have been arranged in three categories: Simple Resources, Common Resources, and Complex Resources. Within each category, the resources are listed in alphabetical order. Possible uses for each resource and some considerations regarding their use in developing countries are also provided. Note that computer and digital resources are changing rapidly; thus, depending on when you refer to this publication, some of the attributes for each resource noted below may be outdated. However, do not make the mistake of assuming that the latest resource or educational technology is available and can be maintained or serviced in the country in which you may work. Often, developing countries have been a dumping ground for old resources and technologies that have been donated by businesses and individuals from countries in the northern hemisphere. Thus, some of the resources listed here may no longer be used in North America, but they are used in developing countries often in rural areas that have access to batteries or electricity. During a recent evaluation of learning resources in a junior vocational college in Asia, approximately 60% of the technical books were more than 25 years old – most had been donated by well meaning educators in North America. To be on the safe side, take your own computer and digital video projector provided that electricity is available in the locale in which you will be working. Even if you have batteries for these items, remember that they must be re‐charged. Simple Resources Simple instructional resources, which are easily accessible, include the following: Audiocassettes ! Audiocassettes can be used to present lectures, readings, case studies, and

motivational material to individuals and groups. Audiocassettes are well suited for students who have difficulty reading. Students can also use audiocassettes to record their assignments.



! Cassette tapes are simple to make, duplicate, store, and distribute. Audiocassette recorders are accessible, compact, and portable. They can be used anywhere, from the jungles in Thailand to the deserts in Chad.

! Audiocassette material cannot be skimmed as easily as print material and it

does not allow students to write personal notes in the margins as they can with print material.

! The combination of audiocassettes and print material is frequently under

utilized, yet they are an economic means of instruction. These materials can be prepared before you depart for your overseas assignment or during the course of the training session.

Filmstrips ! Filmstrips contain a series of clear, realistic, detailed, colored static visuals.

Audiocassettes, which contain an accompanying narration, are often used with filmstrips.

! Filmstrips are easy to handle and store and can be used effectively by both

trainers and students. ! Filmstrips present images in a fixed sequence, which cannot be rearranged or

revised, and they do not show motion. ! The production of filmstrips has almost disappeared in North America; 35‐

mm slides offer more flexibility, and readily accessible videotapes provide motion. However, filmstrips and outdated books are often found in parts of Africa. As mentioned previously, developing countries have become the dumping ground for a great deal of unused or outdated instructional material and equipment.

Objects, Models, and Specimens ! Objects, models, and specimens are three‐dimensional items such as an

electric motor, a working model of a water filtration plant, or a biological specimen.

! Trainers use these items for demonstration purposes or to give students an

opportunity to operate or handle them. Trainers may find it difficult to describe how pipes are interconnected in an oil refinery, but by showing students a model, they can explain how and why the pipes are connected as they are. Training objectives that involve touch usually require the use of objects and specimens.



! These items are extremely helpful when providing vocational, health, and science training.

! Objects, models, and specimens can be cumbersome, fragile, or heavy and

difficult to package and transport overseas. Overhead Transparencies ! Overhead transparencies provide large groups of students with clear, colorful

images, which can be shown in a lit room or open shade. Transparency overlays can be used to show how a sequence develops or the components of an object. Parts of a transparency can be revealed progressively to illustrate how a process develops.

! Transparencies can be easily made, revised, or updated. The instructor

controls the pace and sequence of their presentation. Overhead projectors can be found throughout the world, and if electricity is available, you can take a briefcase‐size, portable projector with you.

! To make your own transparencies while on assignment, you must take a

reasonable quantity of blank acetate sheets and suitable, colored overhead projector pens.

! If you take premade overheads transparencies with you, note that extended

exposure to bright tropical sunlight may fade the transparencies; hot, humid climates may cause the tape used to hold the transparency film to the frame to come loose; and the cardboard transparency frames to absorb water. If you only take a few transparencies overseas, a weight gain due to water absorption is not a serious problem, but if you take 100 plus transparencies, the extra weight becomes a serious problem. Use a smaller transparency frame, or remove the frames and carry the transparencies in a ring binder.

! Although many are beginning to use a computer and software to present

visual information, overhead transparencies are simple to create and use. Consequently, they are effective in developing countries.

Photographs, Graphic Displays, and Wall Charts ! Photographs, graphic displays, and wall charts show static, colored, detailed

images. Depending on their size, these items can be used by either individuals or groups of students.

! Trainers can photograph or draw items they are unable to carry overseas. A

wide variety of instructional charts are used by people who provide training in



technical or scientific subjects. Remember that a picture is worth a thousand words! However, people who are unfamiliar with the interpretation of two‐dimensional visuals may find it difficult to understand that an enlarged or projected image actually represents a small, real object.

! If touch or manipulation is an important part of a training objective, then use

objects, models, or specimens rather than photographs, graphic displays, or wall charts. Wall charts may be too bulky to take overseas.

Print Material ! Print‐based materials include textbooks, workbooks, handouts, professional

journals, and magazines. ! Print material is an essential component of most training systems. It can be

used in a primary, complimentary, or supplementary role with either individuals or groups. Students readily accept print material because they can control the time, location, and pace of learning. Perhaps the greatest advantage of print material is that it can be skimmed, and students can study the material in a sequence that is appropriate for them.

! The greatest disadvantage to print material is that it requires students to be

literate. They must not only understand the content, but also the context of the material (McKay, 1992). In Asian countries, for example, the Islamic religion may affect not only what is read, but also how items are read. Islamic students may have difficulty distinguishing between important and unimportant textual information (Osterloh, 1986).

! It may be necessary to have your print materials translated. However,

translation may not help students to understand the text if "students lack a background knowledge of anglophone cultures" (McKay, 1992, 123).

! Paper and quality duplicating or printing machines may not be readily

accessible in some African or Middle Eastern countries. Therefore, duplicate your materials prior to travelling overseas and bring extra writing paper. If you are taking a lot of print material with you, bind it in several small packages. Students may be overwhelmed if they receive a thick stack of printed pages all at once.

! If you are involved in an international project that requires you to train

vocational instructors, you may want to review the more than 100 print modules that are available from the American Association for Vocational Instructional Materials (AAVIM), 745 Gaines School Road, Athens, Georgia 30605.



Slides ! Like other visuals, slides present clear, realistic, detailed, colored, static

visuals. However, they can be revised, updated, and rearranged more easily than filmstrips or videocassettes. Slides are frequently accompanied by an audiocassette narration, which may require that the slides be presented in a fixed sequence.

! Instructors can make their own slides and arrange their sequence to suit their

needs. Slides are easy to handle, store, and distribute. Because they weigh less than overhead transparencies, they can be transported easily.

! Unless special equipment is available, slides cannot be used to show motion.

Slides must also be shown in a darkened room, which is not always possible in rural areas of developing countries during the daytime. Instructors frequently transfer large numbers of slides onto videocassettes. However, the major advantage of slidesCtheir easy rearrangementCis lost. In addition, the images of materials shown on most video monitors lack the fine detail portrayed by slides. If details such as texture are important aspects of the training, use slides or photographs. Better yet, bring a sample of the real object.

Common, But Less Accessible Resources Common, but less accessible instructional media resources include: Lab Kits ! Kits of equipment and materials can be assembled to provide students with

hands‐on experience. ! The trainer can select, assemble, and package materials and equipment,

which can be used to achieve application and problem‐solving skills that involve the five senses. The kits can provide each student or small group of students with items that are not readily available.

! Designing and preparing lab kits can be expensive and time consuming.

However, you can obtain prepared lab kits from correspondence schools, distance education institutions, or university continuing education departments that prepare biology, chemistry, electronic, and physics kits and send them to students around the world. Kits can be bulky and may be damaged in transit.



Motion Picture Films ! Motion picture film in the 8 mm and the more common 16 mm format

provides colored, detailed moving images. They are ideal for showing how an item operates, a sequence of events, relationships, or hazardous procedures.

! Trainers can use films to introduce a topic, present the main portion of

instruction, summarize a topic, or show motion. A wide variety of topics are available on film.

! In training programs, videocassettes are rapidly replacing motion picture

films as the preferred means of showing moving images. In China, instruction is frequently shot on 16 mm film then converted to videocassettes for distribution. However, there are often compatibility difficulties with videocassettes, and videocassettes cannot deliver the detail that film can. Projectors suitable for 16 mm film are available around the world, but the equipment may be poorly maintained or inoperable. Film can weigh a substantial amount and therefore should be avoided if you are travelling alone. For best results, film should be viewed in a darkened room, a condition that may not be readily available during the daytime in rural areas of developing countries. Darkened rooms also restrict student note taking and audience participation.

Videocassettes ! Videocassettes have many of the same attributes as motion picture film.

Videocassettes can show visuals that require color, depth cues, and motion, especially slow‐motion. They can function in a variety of training roles. With the use of accessible equipment, such as a camcorder or a half‐inch VHS camera and recorder, trainers can make a videocassette that is tailored to meet specific student needs. You can videotape an actual work site or the students performing specified tasks. After videotaping the students performing a skill, you can review the videocassette with the students and indicate areas that need improvement. Students can also make their own videocassettes and review them at will. In countries where the loss of face is an important aspect of the culture, videocassettes of student activities should always be done in private. Videocassettes are especially useful with students who lack reading skills and/or need to review material frequently.

! Videocassette equipment is not available everywhere, but its accessibility is

increasing rapidly (Lu, Morlan, Lerchalolarn, Lee & Dike, 1993). The greatest difficulty in using videocassettes in an international setting is compatibility. In North America, most trainers use the standard National Television System Committee (NTSC), half‐inch VHS‐videocassette format. Overseas, PAL and



SECAM as well as NTSC formats exist. Only very sophisticated videocassette players can handle all the different formats. Therefore, trainers must determine which standard is used overseas and convert their videocassettes to that format. The conversion process can be time consuming, expensive, and frequently degrades the quality of the visual image. The image quality produced by many consumer cameras can also be significantly degraded during this conversion process. To determine the television or videocassette broadcast standard used in a particular country, refer to the following Internet site: http://www.3dresearch.com/video/Countries2.html.

! You should not underestimate the time and expertise required to produce a

quality videotape. It may be best to purchase professionally produced videocassettes or to hire professionals to produce videocassettes that meet your specific needs. Custom‐made videocassettes can be tailored to the local language and situations. They can contain animated graphics and special effects and cost substantially less than if produced on film.

! Usually, videocassettes do not deliver the image clarity that film or

photographs deliver. Film can deliver subtle colors and record a greater range of brightness than can current video material. It will be several years before high‐definition video cameras and recorders become easily accessible to trainers.

Complex Resources Complex instructional resources or resources that may not be easily accessible in

developing countries include: Broadcast Media ! Radio and television broadcasts have features similar to audiocassettes and

videocassettes; however, radio and television have immediacy and credibility. In addition, they can reach a large population simultaneously and provide consistent, quality instruction throughout an entire region or country. If designed appropriately, students do not need good reading skills to learn from broadcast media.

! Radio is used extensively in Africa to provide instruction that can be picked

up by battery‐operated radios. Some organizations, such as the Commonwealth of Learning, have provided small radio control centres and transmitters that allow those in villages and small towns to offer their own radio programming. Radio can provide the majority of the instruction or training for unqualified trainers who tutor local students. Broadcast



television is delivered by local transmitters, cable, microwave, and satellites throughout the world. In China, where central planning is an important means of operation, instructional television is commonly used because it delivers a consistent message to a large number of people. China’s television university has more than one million students. In India, two hours of special education programs are broadcast daily to community centers in rural villages. Television is used to compensate for the villagers' low literacy rate and the difficult logistics of distributing learning materials (Howard, 1992).

! Unless trainers are involved in the design and delivery of broadcast media,

they may find the use of broadcast media restrictive. These programs, which are usually costly to prepare, are generally designed for a diverse rather than a specific audience. The listening or viewing times are restricted and not set by the trainer. Unless the broadcasts are recorded locally, trainers or students cannot replay the programs at will.

! Generally, broadcast media provide one‐way communication. However, if an

audio‐teleconferencing system is added, or if the broadcast station accepts telephone calls, then a dynamic two‐way communication can be established.

! Because of the politics involved in broadcast media, it is unlikely that you will

be able to affect the program content and broadcast schedule. Further, obtaining a reliable and informative broadcast program schedule is not always an easy task in developing countries. Note that countries such as China, Iran, and Malaysia have banned the ownership of residential satellite dishes (The Globe and Mail, 1995, p. D6) and restricted their use elsewhere.

Computer Software ! Computer software, which runs on micro/desktop, mini, or mainframe

computers, can provide an astonishing amount and variety of instructional material. Computer‐managed learning (CML) software can be used to register students, track their progress, issue tests, mark tests, and provide feedback. CML is currently used in Central Africa. Computer‐assisted instruction (CAI) or computer‐assisted learning (CAL) software supports interactive learning by providing tailor‐made instruction. In addition to all the tasks performed by CML software, CAI or CAL software provides all the learning materials, tutors the students, and provides application and problem‐solving opportunities. CAI or CAL can reduce student learning time and increase the retention of learned material. If appropriately designed, computer programs can also be used by students with poor reading skills. However, in order to be effective, CAI programs should be presented in the native language of the students.



! Computer software can be interfaced with other technologies such as audiocassette recorders, videocassette recorders, and videodisc players to deliver multimedia programs as described by Schwier and Misanchuck (1993) in their book, Interactive Multimedia Instruction.

! The use of computer software in developing countries is limited by the

availability of appropriate and compatible hardware or computer equipment. In North America, microcomputers are abundant. They are usually designed to accept MacintoshJ or MicrosoftJ disc‐operating systems (MS‐DOS) software. In developing countries, most microcomputers are MS‐DOS based and few have the latest technological upgrades. Computers that arrive in developing countries tend to be those that do not sell in developed countries or have been discarded. You may consider taking battery‐operated, portable, or laptop computers.

! International trainers who want to take microcomputers overseas must also

select appropriate software. It is unlikely that their students will be computer literate. Therefore, time must be allocated for students to become familiar with both the hardware and the software programs.

! Developing a computer software program for a specific overseas audience is

expensive. Despite the abundance of authoring tools and systems, which help trainers prepare computer software, it still takes talent and a considerable amount of time to develop quality software programs that are more than electronic page turners. In time, commercial enterprises will provide a wide variety of educational software that you can use. However, the software may need to be translated or you will need to provide a print‐based guide in the local language.

Computer Conferencing ! Computer conferencing gives students and instructors the opportunity to

exchange ideas via computer terminals, modems, and telephone lines. It is ideal in situations where individuals have fixed schedules and are unable to meet at a common time. A message can be sent by one student and at a later time, other students may respond to the message. When convenient, students can compose and revise their own messages on their computers. When the message is satisfactory, it can be sent to an individual or to groups of individuals who use a common host computer. The lack of physical or voice contact with other students may be a benefit of computer conferencing. All messages can be considered on their own merit without the influence of sight and sound which normally colors human communication.



! Electronic networks such as Internet and BITNET are found throughout the world. By using such networks, you can contact people who are widely dispersed and obtain information from an infinite number of electronic bulletin boards and databases. Note, however, that some countries such as China may restrict access to the Internet, and other countries may attempt to monitor Internet traffic and the type of information that is being transmitted.

! Computer conferencing will be ineffective if students do not have access to a

reliable telephone network, if students and instructors are not able to use a computer keyboard or the conferencing software effectively, and if there is a lack of technical support for the conferencing system.

! To obtain practical, instructional information about computer conferencing,

refer to Classrooms With a Difference: A Practical Guide to the Use of Conferencing Technologies by E.J. Burge and J.M. Roberts (1993) as well as the many publications that describe the use of Internet.

Teleconferencing ! Both audio, audiographic, and video teleconferencing systems permit

interactive, dynamic communication between trainers and students who are separated from each other. Audio, or audio combined with visuals, can be transmitted between trainers and students via telephone lines or satellites. If students are widely dispersed, or the distances are great, or the content experts are not easily accessible, then teleconferencing will not only be less expensive than sending a trainer to several locations, but will also provide training that would otherwise be unavailable. In order to conduct teleconference classes, you will need a telephone, a speaker phone that a group of students can use, and a teleconference bridge that can link several telephone lines together. Teleconferencing is a major component of the distance education systems described by John Verduin and Thomas Clark (1991) in their book Distance Education: The Foundations of Effective Practice and in Barry Willis' (1993) Distance Education: A Practical Guide.

! Audio teleconferencing is a simple technology to use. It is found throughout

the world, especially in Caribbean and Pacific Rim countries. When the graphics of a microcomputer are combined with the audio, the result is audiographic teleconferencing, which is now used to provide health education in Central America. Students and instructors can use an electronic tablet and pen to write text, draw graphics, or access previously prepared, scanned graphics or video segments. Videoconferencing, which combines moving images with an audio component, is used by the Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver, Canada to provide interactive training to islands in the South Pacific.



! The use of teleconferencing depends greatly on the availability of equipment such as audio convenors, which transmit the audio messages between trainers and learners, video cameras and monitors, and bridges that electronically interconnect different training sites. Training via teleconferencing will be efficient and effective only if the telecommunications infrastructure is developed and reliable, the long‐distance transmission costs are minimal, the equipment and interconnections are maintained, the training is well structured, and the instructors are adept at using distance education techniques. Teleconferencing may not be effective in situations that require personal contact or where practical, hands‐on training is required. When teleconferencing is provided over the Internet, it will be less expensive than when it is offered via dedicated transmission lines or through the telephone system. For additional information regarding teleconferencing and distance education technologies in an international setting, contact the International Council for Distance Education, Gjerdrums vei 12, N‐0486 Oslo 4, Norway.

Videodiscs and Compact Discs‐Read Only Memory (CD‐ROM) ! Both videodiscs and compact discs (CDs) store digital information and offer

many of the same features as videocassettes. Videodiscs can store up to 54,000 frames of information or still images on each side or provide one hour of continuous play. Their still‐frames or pictures have a clarity that current videocassettes placed in the pause mode cannot match. Like some videocassettes, videodiscs have two audio channels; one can play in English, the other in a foreign language. Because videodisc players are usually connected to a microcomputer, interactive training can be provided.

! Videodiscs can be used in any situation that videocassettes are used.

However, many trainers prefer videodiscs because they are durable, have rapid scan and search capabilities, present high quality images, and can be digitally managed.

! Unfortunately, there are fewer videodisc titles than videocassette titles

available. It is expensive to make the first videodisc master, but once the master is made, numerous high‐quality copies can be produced. Videodisc technology is not widespread; therefore, finding or making appropriate discs for a foreign audience can be difficult. However, during a recent Canadian International Development Agency project, trainers from Pakistan came to Canada where they learned about videodisc technology, developed their own disc, and took the disc back to Pakistan. Those who want to design videodisc materials for a specific international audience may want to investigate similar opportunities.



! A comprehensive list of available videodiscs is published in the Videodisc Compendium. This publication is available from Emerging Technology Consultants, P.O. Box 12444, St. Paul, MN 55112.

! CD‐ROMs are similar to videodiscs. CD‐ROMs are durable, 12‐cm plastic

discs that have digital information encoded on one side. Once the master disc is made, copies can be duplicated inexpensively. Trainers can use a CD‐ROM recorder to program their own discs for visual and/or audio information. Most computer manufacturers now include CD‐ROM players and discs with their microcomputers.

If you would like to learn more about these instructional technologies, you can write Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 and ask for a catalogue of their extensive publications. You may also want to refer to Anderson, R. & Reynolds, A. (Eds.). (1991). Selecting and Developing Media for Instruction (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, and Bates, A.W. (1995). Technology, Open Learning and Distance Education. New York, NY: Routledge. Remember that educational technology is changing rapidly; therefore, refer to the most current publications on the application of new technologies. Adapting Learning Resources for an International Audience It is always preferable to develop learning materials that are specifically designed for your international audience. However, lack of time and resources may prevent you from doing this. Including a few foreign examples is rarely sufficient. Therefore, you must adapt your learning resources to suit your situation. You may find the following suggestions helpful: ! Carefully match the materials to suit the profile of the intended audience.

Avoid culturally sensitive materials or situations. Your international students want to learn something new; they do not want to be insulted or patronized.

! If possible, review learning materials that are being used in the country in

which you will be working. They may help you to determine what is acceptable or suitable for your students.

! Use qualified interpreters and translators to prepare audiotracks and text

material. If possible, hire interpreters and translators who have actually worked overseas. They will better understand the context in which the materials will be used and they will be familiar with the local dialects and conversational styles. In order to ensure that your words are used



consistently, Pellet (1993) suggests that you provide the interpreters and translators with a list of terms and their definitions.

! Remember that foreign languages usually require more words to express the

same information presented in English. Therefore, a foreign soundtrack or a printed document may be longer than its English equivalent. Reynolds (1993) notes that German requires about 30 percent more space than English, and foreign monetary denominations usually contain more numbers. The space requirements for foreign languages are most noticeable when you are designing computerized learning materials. The screen's size and resolution restrict the number of words or characters that can be displayed at any given time.

! Use simple visuals and graphics to present and explain an idea or skill.

Remember that literacy rates in many developing countries are low. ! Use examples that will be familiar to your audience. For instance, do not use

baseball analogies when your potential audience are cricket fans. ! When in doubt, limit your creativity. Creativeness is often laden with cultural

overtones. What North Americans consider entertaining or humorous, others may find offensive. If you can, attend a showing of the annual, international advertising awards. These commercials will show you how to communicate ideas in a short period of time. They will also reveal how creativity is defined in other cultures.

! After you have developed or adapted your learning resources, review the

materials to ensure that all cultural sensitivities, which relate to your specific audience, have been addressed.

! Ask an instructor or subject matter expert in the country where you will be

working to review your translations. ! Pilot test the materials with one or more prospective students. Ensure that

they can perform the tasks in the manner you intended.



3.9 Design Evaluation Procedures and Follow‐up Activities

Although some experts recommend that evaluation instruments such as assignments and tests be developed after the objectives are formulated, it may be more appropriate to develop them after you have selected your content and learning resources. In this way, you will know precisely what content the students will have covered and the resources they will use to learn and test their skills. Evaluation can be formative or summative. During formative evaluation, instructors try to determine how to improve both the students' progress and their training methods. Summative evaluations indicate the extent to which students have changed behavior and achieved specific levels of competence. During international training programs, both formative and summative evaluations must be conducted in order to assess the extent to which the students and training have achieved the program's goals and objectives. For additional information on formative and summative evaluation refer to Instructional Design: Principles and Applications by Briggs, Gustafson & Tillman (1991). For information on evaluation in a business setting, refer to Training for Impact: How to Link Training to Business Needs and Measure the Results by Robinson & Robinson (1989). Evaluation Instruments A variety of evaluation instruments can be used to assess student progress and performance. Although some may be delivered orally, most will be in the form of text that is printed on a page or shown on a computer screen. A few of these items are described below. Checklists ! Checklists are ideal for measuring the presence or absence of a trait or

verifying that a sequence of events has occurred. ! They are especially useful for recording the achievement of psychomotor

skills. Checklists are often used to assess whether or not an individual can perform specified skills in a job setting.



Questionnaires ! Questionnaires are used to assess the existence of specific feelings, interests,

and opinions. ! They can be used to evaluate the achievement of affective skills or knowledge

of certain skills. They are particularly effective in assessing the quality of the training program and the trainer.

! Questionnaires frequently include checklists and rating scales. ! Good questionnaires take time to construct. Unless the questions are stated

properly, you may not receive the information that you need to adjust the training program or to determine if students have achieved specified goals.

Rating Scales ! Rating scales are used to judge items that are not absolute, neither present

nor absent, or good or bad. ! They can be used to judge the achievement of cognitive, psychomotor, or

affective objectives. ! Rating scales that contain five to seven units of measure are generally easier

to use and interpret than those with a larger number of units. If fewer units of measure are included on the rating scale, you may not receive anymore information than a checklist could provide.

Standardized Tests ! Standardized tests, such as TOEFL (a test of foreign students' English skills),

can provide feedback which can then be compared to a large body of information. These tests reveal how a student performs relative to other students with similar characteristics. Because they are usually based on a large population, the results are considered reliable.

! Unfortunately, standardized tests are usually culture specific. Therefore,

some tests may not be appropriate for the culture in which you will be working.

! These tests are usually general in nature and are unlikely to measure the

specific objectives of your training program. However, they can provide you



with an indication of your students' overall skills in certain cognitive and psychomotor areas. This information can then be incorporated in your program and audience needs analysis.

Trainer‐constructed Tests ! Trainers may design their own tests to evaluate their students' achievement of

the objectives specified in the training program. These instruments may test cognitive, psychomotor, and affective performance.

! Trainers do not usually take the time to construct high quality tests that are

both valid and reliable. A test is valid if it measures what it is intended to measure and covers the objectives of the training program. A reliable test produces consistent scores for students who have similar capabilities.

! Before designing your own tests, review the tests other international trainers

have designed for a specific topic and culture. ! You may want to refer to the following publications on test construction and

classroom assessment procedures.

Angelo, T.A. & Cross, P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.

Gronlund, N.E. (1978). Preparing criterion referenced tests for classroom

instruction. New York, NY: McMillan. Gronlund, N.E. (1988). How to construct achievement tests (4th

ed.).Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‐Hall. Jacobs, L.C. & Chase, C.I. (1992). Developing and using tests effectively: A

guide for faculty. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass. Test Planning In order to construct an effective test that measures the objectives of your training program, you should: ! list the course goals and objectives; ! verify that the objectives can be measured;



! identify the objectives with the highest priority; ! ascertain which objectives students must be able to achieve without error; ! assign a value or test weight to each objective; ! indicate that the objective is testing a knowledge, application, or problem‐

solving skill; ! select a question type that can achieve each of the objectives; ! review test questions that you or others have used previously; ! write the test questions (construct more questions than you will need); ! review your test questions and ensure that they:

‐ are written at a language level that is appropriate for your audience; ‐ do not include stereotypes or biases; ‐ do not contain clues that can be used to answer other questions; ‐ are arranged in an ascending order of difficulty; ‐ emphasize the measurement of application and problem‐solving skills;

! take the test yourself. Because you are extremely knowledgeable about the

subject matter, you should be able to complete the test in about one‐third of the time that you expect your students to complete it. This guideline may not be appropriate if your students must perform a certain sequence of cognitive or psychomotor skills within a given time period;

! modify the test based on the time it took you to complete it; ! construct the test answer key; ! ask another expert to review the questions; ! if possible, pilot the test with students who are similar to your prospective

international audience; ! after reviewing the pilot data, revise the test and make two answer keys. Keep

each answer key in a different location; and ! keep your tests in a secure place.



Types of Test Questions You can use several types of test questions to ascertain whether or not your students can achieve specified objectives. Select the question type that best meets your needs. Essay Questions ! Essay questions are used to test the achievement of complex skills such as

application, synthesis, and evaluation. ! Although these test questions can be constructed quickly, essays can take a

long time to mark. Because marking can be very subjective, you should construct an answer key that contains a number of acceptable responses.

! Unless written work is essential to the application of the skills taught in an

international training program, it may be better to conduct an oral essay test. Oral tests take time and must be administered to each student individually.

Matching Questions ! Matching questions can be used to test associations and, if well constructed,

they can be used to verify that students have knowledge of a specific sequence of events.

! Unless instructors allow students to select a response more than once, or

unless one list of items is longer than the other, students may achieve success simply by eliminating items rather than by knowing the correct answer.

! Frequently, matching questions are constructed in a written form. However,

in an international setting, it may be better to use different three‐dimensional objects and ask students to demonstrate how objects are related.

Multiple‐choice Questions ! Multiple‐choice questions can be used in a variety of situations and can test

all domains of learning in a relatively short period of time. These questions can also be scored quickly.

! Poorly constructed multiple‐choice questions have often been called

"multiple‐guess" questions. Quality questions, with plausible alternative choices, take time to develop. One of the best ways to construct good multiple‐choice questions is to write a short scenario or case study. Then



ask a series of questions based on this scenario. Consider all the errors students are likely to make and include these errors in the possible choices.

! There are many sources for multiple‐choice questions. Textbook publishers

often provide test questions on paper or on computer discs. However, these questions must be reviewed carefully because they frequently test knowledge skills only.

Several professional and vocational organizations have developed multiple‐choice tests that they use to determine if a student should receive professional accreditation. These organizations may not be willing to release their exams unless the trainers can guarantee that the questions will be kept secure. Short Answer Questions ! Short answer or completion questions are used to test low‐level skills.

Students must complete a small task or insert the words or numbers that correctly complete a statement. Consequently, a number of skills can be tested in a short period of time.

! Although short answer questions can be objective and can be scored quickly,

they are prone to ambiguity. Unless these test questions are well constructed, students spend more time trying to determine what is being asked rather than formulating the correct answer. Short answer questions can also be used to determine if a student can follow a sequence of events.

True/False Questions ! True/false questions can be used to cover a large number of items in a short

period of time. These questions are excellent for assessing previous learning or summarizing new material. True/false questions test recognition and are suitable for assessing low‐level skill attainment.

! Good true/false questions are not easy to construct. It can be extremely

difficult to construct questions that are definitely or unequivocally true or false. Students are prone to guess at the answers to true/false questions.

Follow‐up Activities Once the evaluation instruments have been constructed, you must determine what the students should do if they do not achieve some of the objectives tested. If the evaluation instruments are used for formative purposes, then the students should be given an opportunity to review their learning material and to practice



their skills until they can perform satisfactorily. If the instruments are used for summative purposes, then the students may or may not receive accreditation for being able to perform satisfactorily at a predetermined level. In either case, you should consider what students can do after the training period. Should they be provided with activities that can help them to achieve accreditation at a later date? If students successfully complete a summative evaluation, what other opportunities will you provide? Will other training programs be provided at a later date? Will these programs be offered in their country, or will you provide advanced training at your place of work? Most international training programs raise the expectations of the students and then leave them in a frustrated position. To avoid this frustration, plan suitable follow‐up activities both for students who do not graduate from the program and for students who successfully complete the program. Consider returning to the foreign country to ascertain how they are applying the skills you taught them. If possible, this follow‐up should be conducted within a year of the training program.



3.10 Pilot Test Before delivering the international training, you should seriously consider piloting or field‐testing your training program. Ask students, who are similar to those you will be training overseas, to participate in the initial delivery of your program. If this is not possible, ask other experts to review your blueprint, training materials, and evaluation instruments. At the very least, ensure that all members of the training team have an opportunity to review the training plans and to observe you presenting part of the training program. Any feedback that you receive from students, experts, or colleagues will help you to design an effective and efficient program that meets the needs of your prospective international students. If we expect automobile manufacturers to test their products before we buy them, and surgeons to practice their skills before operating, then our overseas students should expect us to test our materials and methods before we use them. Greer (1992) suggests that the following steps should be taken during a pilot test of training materials: ! Obtain test subjects. ! Assemble copies of the necessary materials and equipment. In addition,

provide evaluation instruments such as student questionnaires and observer checklists.

! Ask students to participate in training activities and use draft materials. The

observers should note what is confusing for the student and, if appropriate, how long it takes the student to resolve the problem.

! Debrief the students and observers. Review both the written and oral

feedback. Oral feedback is essential as it often reveals feelings that are not easily recorded on paper. Consider having an external or third party facilitate the debriefing sessions.

! Ascertain the revisions to be made to the training program by "walking

through" the training program and noting the concerns raised by the test participants during each step of the training program.

After the pilot test, the training team leader must approve all changes to be made to the training activities and materials. Once the revisions are complete, the training program is more likely to meet the needs of the international audience.


4.0 Presentation Skills


Contents 4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................4/1 4.2 Using English in an International Setting ........................................... 4/4 4.3 Working with Interpreters and Translators ........................................ 4/6 4.4 Planning the Presentation ................................................................... 4/11

Introduction.......................................................................................................4/11 Develop an Audience Profile ............................................................................4/11 Review the Purpose of the Presentation......................................................... 4/13 Outline the Presentation ................................................................................. 4/13 Select and Prepare Visuals and Other Media................................................. 4/17 Select and Arrange Facilities............................................................................ 4/19 Make Arrangements for Materials and Equipment ....................................... 4/21 Plan an Evaluation............................................................................................4/22 Rehearse the Presentation ...............................................................................4/23

4.5 Delivering the Presentation................................................................ 4/24

Establish the Learning Climate .......................................................................4/24 Provide Effective Instruction ...........................................................................4/27 Listen Actively...................................................................................................4/30 Use Effective Oral Questions and Provide Positive Feedback…………………..4/32 Revitalize and Close the Presentation ............................................................ 4/35

4.6 Handling Your Nonverbal Behavior ....................................................4/37 4.7 Dealing with Challenging People and Situations............................... 4/40 4.8 Presentation Skills Checklist .............................................................. 4/49


Presentation Skills 4/1

4.1 Introduction An effective instructor is a trainer, educator, facilitator, and counsellor. The instructor uses training activities to convey information and impart skills. During educational activities, the instructor develops the students' intellectual capabilities and increases their awareness of their own potential and the possible applications of their new skills. Through the use of effective facilitation skills, an instructor encourages students to adopt or adapt new knowledge and skills to meet the needs in their own environment. The process of learning is emphasized. Counselling occurs when the instructor provides advice, which may relate to personal issues identified by students, as well as to education and employment. All of these instructional activities are important in an international setting. However, international instructors frequently place greater emphasis on the training and facilitation functions that involve the transfer of knowledge and skill and the acceptance of new ideas. Effective instructors who emphasize the transfer of knowledge and skills and encourage the acceptance of new ideas must: ! Carefully plan learning activities

and allow for contingencies. ! Establish rapport with the

students. ! Display enthusiasm for the

instructional‐learning process. ! Be confident of their skills. ! Smile. ! Be honest. ! Be credible. ! Develop and maintain trust. ! Be flexible. ! Be patient. ! Be sensitive to the needs of others.

! Speak briefly. ! Listen actively. ! Allow for thoughtful silence. ! Treat all students fairly. ! Ensure all are given the

opportunity to participate. ! Encourage dialogue and

interaction wherever possible. ! Ask probing questions. ! Be polite, diplomatic, and tactful. ! Capitalize on individual expertise,

experience, and creativity. ! Address all questions or redirect

comments and questions to other members of the group.



! Be aware of hidden agendas. ! Avoid confrontations. ! Be open to new ideas. ! Set the stage. ! Set high, but achievable standards. ! Maintain a positive climate. ! Offer support and guidance. ! Maintain reasonable eye contact

with the participants, if culturally acceptable.

! Speak clearly.

! Avoid any form of embarrassment. ! Encourage different points of

view. ! Paraphrase and summarize ideas. ! Seek clarification. ! Examine underlying rationales for

different points of view. ! Recognize when a learning activity

is failing and provide an alternative.

! Have fun; relieve the tension. ! Bring closure to learning activities

and plan for follow‐up.

In addition to the items listed above, instructors who facilitate group discussions that are designed to assess the application of new skills or ideas or to address a challenge must: ! Believe in the positive benefits of group dynamics. ! Believe in the value of sharing the opinions of others. ! Determine appropriate facilitation strategies. ! Increase the participants' commitment to group activities. ! Be careful not to reveal biases about the subject matter under discussion. ! Be gently assertive in order to keep the students focused on the issue being

discussed and to encourage the generation and prioritization of appropriate solutions.

! Sort, merge, and organize ideas. ! Strive for win‐win solutions.




! Check for agreement. Note, however, that many cultures may indicate agreement even when they do not agree with what has been stated.

This chapter shows how instructors can mount effective presentations for international audiences. Remember, teaching is an art as well as a science; there is no perfect way to nurture the development of others. This chapter presents general guidelines for providing instruction in an international setting, but the guidelines must be adapted for each cultural situation. Therefore, take the time to ascertain all you can about the social and cultural attributes of your prospective students. When you are overseas, consider asking one or two willing students in your class to share their perceptions regarding your instruction. Do not expect them to Alose face@ or to Atattletale@ on their fellow students.



4.2 Using English in an International Setting Unless you are fluent in a foreign language, it is highly likely that you will deliver your international training in English. However, your international students, as well as the interpreters, may not be proficient in the use of English. In most developing countries, English is not the mother tongue. In addition, more than one language or dialect may be commonly spoken. Papua New Guinea, for example, has more than 750 tribes and 700 languages (The Globe and Mail, June 28, 1993). There are, moreover, countries in which English has an official function or is widely spoken, but is not the native language. These countries include:

Bangladesh Israel Nauru Sudan Botswana Kenya Nigeria Swaziland Brunei Lesotho Pakistan Tanzania Cameroon Liberia Philippines Tonga Ethiopia Malawi Seychelles Uganda Fiji Malaysia Sierra Leone Western Samoa Gambia Malta Singapore Zambia Ghana Mauritius South Africa Zimbabwe India Namibia Sri Lanka

(Lowenberg, 1989, 216) Although the citizens of these countries may speak English, do not expect that their English will be similar to that used in North America or Britain. Frequently, the English spoken in countries such as India and the Philippines has often been blended with local languages or the local sentence syntax is employed. For example, in English, the normal syntax is subject‐verb‐object; in other languages it may be object‐verb‐subject or subject‐object‐verb. How can we expect those who live in other countries to understand how we define and use the more than 750,000 words in the English language? The meanings of words depend on the cultural context in which they are used. Nigerians, for example, say "next tomorrow" when they mean "the day after tomorrow." It should not surprise you if students say that they do not understand your English. Students who live in Commonwealth countries may have learned the 'Queen's English' in schools. Consequently, they may have difficulty understanding unfamiliar jargon and colloquialisms. English may be spoken well in one country yet be barely comprehensible in another. Proficiency in English depends on a variety of factors, including the country's history and the student's motivation. Citizens of developing countries that have been associated with American and British colonization and/or trade



arrangements were often encouraged or sometimes forced to adopt English as their official language, or to use English as their language of commerce. Developing countries that want to modernize and expand will probably need access to information written in English (Crainer, 1993). Countries such as Thailand, which consider globalization and world trade as important drivers of economic and social development, have recognized the need for their highly‐skilled, urban citizens to learn English. Alternatively, in order to restore their unique cultural and national identities, the governments of countries such as the Philippines are now promoting the use of their native languages instead of English. However, many individuals who seek economic rewards and/or higher social status will take every formal and informal opportunity to learn English. These highly motivated individuals will welcome your expertise and strive to decipher your instruction. Before travelling overseas, you should determine the English‐speaking abilities of your students, interpreters, and translators. Their use of English will affect how and what you present. You may have to ask your students, interpreters, and translators to repeat or explain what you are saying, and encourage them to request clarification when your meaning is unclear to them. This encouragement must be given repeatedly at the outset. Otherwise, they will assume that you are just being polite when, in fact, you actually want them to ask any questions they need to ask in order to understand you.



4.3 Working with Interpreters and Translators If you are unfamiliar with the language that your prospective students speak, and your students cannot understand English, it may be necessary to hire translators and interpreters. Translators work with written and visual materials, while interpreters work with the spoken word. Interpreters can often function as translators, but it is rare to find translators who are effective interpreters. Interpretations can be conducted in a simultaneous or consecutive manner. Simultaneous interpretation occurs when an interpreter is able to use special equipment to provide an interpretation as someone speaks. Consecutive interpretation occurs when the interpretation is given intermittently during a speech. Usually, the speaker pauses frequently so that the interpreter can restate a few phrases or sentences at a time. Therefore, consecutive interpretation makes a presentation about twice as long as those given in one language only or by simultaneous interpretation. Consecutive interpretation is frequently used for small groups. Selecting a good translator or interpreter is not an easy task. These specialists must not only be fluent in two or more languages, but they must also understand the meaning, nuances, and idiosyncrasies of each language, as well as the technical terms used in a specific field. Excellent translators and interpreters develop a comfortable rapport with the speaker, becoming familiar with his or her personality and style. Under ideal conditions, an international training team should be accompanied by translators and interpreters who are familiar with the team members. However, this may be impractical, and training teams or individual instructors may need to rely on the specialists provided by their host. These specialists may exhibit a strong allegiance to their country. However, unless you are dealing with sensitive issues, using the services provided by the host organization or country should not be a major concern. When selecting translators or interpreters, consider the following: ! How fluent are they in the language they must use? How well do they

know the local language? In China, for example, must they be able to speak Cantonese or Mandarin? Remember, English may be a second language for your overseas translators and interpreters.

! What experience do they have? Are they familiar with local etiquette? Do

they travel to the region frequently? Be sure to verify the accuracy of the information they provide.



! Are they familiar with English idioms? Can they find suitable words and phrases in the local language that match the phrases you use?

! Whom have they worked for? Did their previous clients work in the same

field that you will be working in? ! Have they translated or interpreted materials or instruction similar to

that which you will be using or delivering overseas? If you will be using technical terminology, younger interpreters are more likely to be familiar with the terminology associated with computers, for example.

! Will you feel comfortable working with them? Remember that they will

represent you. If they do not understand your goals and what it is that you want to convey, they will confuse your audience.

! Will they be respected by your students? This factor is important during

consecutive interpretations, when the interpreter is frequently standing near you at the front of the class. Interpreters must behave appropriately and comply with established protocols. However, they must not have egos that prevent them from interacting in a positive manner with students who may have less education or social status.

! Do they belong to a professional association? Associations can provide

training, set standards, and grant certification. Have your translators and interpreters been certified?

These questions will help you choose suitable people, but when working in a developing country, you often will not have the luxury of selecting the best among several qualified candidates. You will have to employ the services of those who are available. There may be only one interpreter in an entire community! In order to find competent translators and interpreters, you may want to contact the international education offices at your local university, professional associations, business and trade associations, and federal or provincial and state governments, especially those with external affairs departments. Take the time to hire well qualified translators and interpreters; they will be representing you. After selecting translators or interpreters, spend some time with them. Brief them about your training goals. Provide them with background material that may help them to understand the training you will provide. It is important to give them a list of all subject‐specific or technical terms so that they will have time to translate or interpret words or concepts that may not exist in a specific foreign language. If you give them an outline of your presentation, they may be



able to tell you if the students will find it difficult to understand the material. You might also ask them to suggest the protocol that should be used if students are invited to participate actively in the discussion. If possible, practice your presentation with the interpreters. They need to become familiar with your style, and you need to feel comfortable in the interpretive process. The following suggestions can help you work most effectively with interpreters. Several of the suggestions also apply to situations in which translators are used. ! Reduce the amount of information you want to convey. Interpretation

takes time. You cannot cover as much information as you normally do. Consecutive interpretation may reduce the amount of material you can cover by 60 percent.

! Provide interpreters with copies of your presentation or an outline. They

can use this information to ensure that they are translating your intended meaning. Always meet with your interpreters ahead of time to discuss your presentations.

! Provide interpreters and students with a vocabulary list of special words

or technical terms. ! Introduce your interpreter. Make him or her feel part of the instructional

team. ! Speak directly to your host or students, not to the interpreter. You are the

information provider. If you look only at the interpreter, the audience may feel slighted. In addition, the interpreter will take on a stature that he or she does not deserve.

! Speak clearly and slowly, but not too slowly. Learn to keep one eye on the

interpreter so that you can adjust the pace of your delivery. ! Pause frequently, especially after presenting each concept. Allow your

interpreter time to complete the interpretation and, if necessary, make notes. It frequently takes more words to express an idea in a foreign language than it does in English. For example, Spanish may require 20 percent more words to convey the same meaning as English (Albrecht, 1996). During your pauses, watch the reaction of the audience to assess their understanding of the material. However, remember that many Asian people have learned not to reveal their inner feelings.



! Summarize frequently. Ensure that your audience has not lost the thrust of your presentation. You could politely ask a few members of your audience to summarize what they have just learned, but be careful; in some cultures, this may cause the individual to be embarrassed or Alose face.@

! Speak only English. Don't confuse your international audience by speaking

more than one language during your presentation. However, if you know how to say "good morning" and "thank you" correctly in their language, do so.

! Speak in a well‐modulated voice, but do show enthusiasm for your

subject matter. Do not speak too loudly. The audience may not understand English, but they are intelligent. They are not hard of hearing. Furthermore, speaking loudly in countries such as Thailand may be considered as rude behavior, unbecoming of a person who deserves respect. Do remember that your tone of voice can convey as much or more than what you actually say. Perhaps 30 to 35 percent of meaning is carried by words, the rest by the vocal and visual components of speaking (Dean, Brooke & Shields, 1996).

! Speak concisely. Use active, concrete words as much as possible. Use short

simple sentences. ! Avoid unusual words such as colloquialisms, jargon, slang, and technical

terms unless the nature of the subject matter requires that these expressions be used.

! Avoid ambiguous words. This may be difficult; therefore, place words in an

appropriate context so that the meaning is clear. ! Avoid abbreviations. If you use abbreviations, explain them first and write

them down so that everyone can see them. ! Use visuals such as graphics and charts to clarify ideas. Write the numbers,

particularly when discussing topics related to engineering, finance, and health. Provide copies of your visuals to both your interpreter and the audience.

! Use gestures cautiously. Although gestures can emphasize or illustrate a

point, the gestures you use may not be culturally acceptable. Remember that during consecutive interpretations, your gestures may lose their meaning or impact. By the time the interpreter has converted the words associated with your gestures, your audience may not remember which gesture accompanied which words.



! Minimize the use of humor unless you are familiar with the audience. If you use humor, it should be directly related to the topic being discussed. Consider discussing the use of humor and stories with your interpreter and your host before using them. Humor frequently relies on word plays or the knowledge of specific people, places, and events. Consequently, your audience may lack the cultural context necessary to understand your humor. Sarcasm is never appropriate.

! Encourage feedback to ascertain understanding. Pause to allow students to

listen to the interpreter and collect their thoughts. Ask questions or ask students to take part in verbal, written, or other demonstrative exercises that illustrate their grasp of the ideas you presented. Make sure a translator is available if written exercises are employed.

! Show confidence in your interpreter. Your students will note the respect

that you have for others and your interpreter will try harder to convert your ideas into a form meaningful to your audience. However, be careful that your interpreter does not become the center of attention and use authority that he or she does not rightfully have. Make sure the interpreter does not answer questions without asking you what the correct responses should be.

! Do not interrupt the interpreter during consecutive interpretation

situations. Be courteous. ! Use two or more interpreters during long presentations and especially

during simultaneous interpretations. It is mentally strenuous to convert ideas from one language to another in a continuous fashion.

! Provide a list of key points at the end of the presentation. The points

should be translated and be culturally acceptable. ! Thank your interpreter and your audience. Good presentations are always accompanied by well‐written materials. These materials will become a permanent record of your instruction. Take the time to have them translated correctly and adapted to the culture in which they will be used. Note that it can take as long to translate the material as it did to write it. Have the materials proofread. Better yet, once they have been translated, ask a different translator to convert them back into English. Any differences between the original meaning and the second translated version should be readily evident. You can use the same procedure to verify that the audio portions of audiovisual materials have been interpreted correctly.



4.4 Planning the Presentation Introduction The previous chapter, Planning Instruction for an International Audience, presented a thorough examination of the process you should follow when developing a training program for international students. This section focuses on the preparation needed to present your instruction and builds upon the information provided in the previous chapter. Develop an Audience Profile Prior to assembling the content of your presentation, you need to reacquaint yourself with the characteristics and experiences of your students. When you establish a profile of your audience, you will be able to design your presentation to suit your listeners. Such a profile will help you to select appropriate illustrations and examples and ensure that your presentation meets the students' expectations. In order to develop your audience profile, you must determine answers to the following key questions: ! What is the training or educational background of the students? ! What on‐the‐job experiences have they had? Do all of them have the same

occupation? ! What do they already know about the subject? ! What do they want to learn during your session? ! What do they hope to do with the information and/or skills that they will

acquire during the session? Are they motivated to learn new material? ! What are their expectations regarding the teaching‐learning process? What

difficulties and misconceptions might they have regarding the instructional process and the subject matter to be discussed?

! Has the audience heard you before? Are they familiar with your work?



! What is their average age? Is the audience predominately male or female or an equal mix of the two?

! Are there any cultural or religious considerations that you should

contemplate? For example, in Arab countries, education and religion are closely linked. Your students may believe that the will of a superior being will determine the results of an experiment. Your classes may be all male or all female because the religion prohibits females from associating with males who are not related to them.

! Has the region experienced a recent unpleasant or catastrophic event that

may affect your presentation or the students' attention? It is difficult to focus on learning if your family has just been flooded out of their home in the Philippines or military action has made it unsafe for you to travel to and from school in East Africa.

After you have a basic profile of your students, you should pay particular attention to their needsCwhat do they want? Frequently, they want new information and skills; therefore, you must be ready to explain or instruct. However, you may be required to motivate the group to accept new ideas and to act in a new or different manner. Once you have determined why you are addressing a particular group of students, it is easier to select, arrange, and organize the content of the presentation. Review the Purpose of the Presentation You are selected, invited, or have volunteered to work overseas. Do you remember why? What did the sponsoring organization and the host organization expect you to do? Ensure that the presentation or series of presentations you give will meet not only your students' needs, but also those of the sponsoring and host organizations. Your mission is to accomplish something meaningful. It is difficult to deliver an effective presentation unless you believe that what you are doing is worthwhile. Outline the Presentation Most outlines are limited to key sentences or key words. However, if you are planning a presentation for an international audience you have never met, you should consider writing out your entire presentation. You may be more comfortable in front of the audience, if you do not need to concentrate on the subject matter, and you will be free to focus on your audience's reaction to the



material. In addition, if your written presentation is translated, it can be left for your foreign audience to refer to after you return home. Determine the three or four key items you want your students to learn from each presentation. North Americans generally try to cover too much. To ensure that your presentation is effective, make a clear distinction between what is essential and what is nice to know. Remember that if English is not your students' first language, they will find it difficult to grasp what you are telling them. Also, if you are in a situation in which consecutive interpretation is necessary, you can only present half of the information that you would normally cover in a given time. Each presentation should include an introduction that arouses interest, a body that contains the content and practice activities, and a conclusion that integrates or summarizes the ideas presented. Plan your presentation so that it moves logically from start to finish. The conclusion should ask the audience to apply the knowledge and skills they acquired during the presentation. As you outline your content, you should remember to: ! Group similar ideas together. ! Begin with familiar or easy concepts and move to unfamiliar or difficult

concepts. ! Arrange content in a logical sequence. ! Introduce a general idea before outlining specifics. ! Indicate relationships. ! Use transitions. ! Include relevant local examples to illustrate concepts. Consider using case

studies of local situations. ! Build in opportunities to receive audience feedback; ! Develop a flexible formatCdepending on the audience's response, you may

need to quickly adjust the content of your presentation. Once your outline has been written, confirm that the presentation will meet the teaching‐learning expectations of your students. If you have not done so already,



examine library reference materials and consult with others who have worked overseas in the country in which you will conduct your training activities. The following lists of impressions and suggestions regarding education in China and Thailand were generated by international educators who attended workshops given by the author in Vancouver and Toronto, Canada. You should record similar and more extensive observations for the country in which you will be working. Then, consider how this information may be used to revise your presentation outline. Note that several suggestions would be applicable in any culture, not just those of China and Thailand. China ! Instructors are treated with respect and students are more formally addressed

than they are in North America. ! Indicate or provide the textbook that you will follow. There is little

opportunity to deviate from the established curriculum. The curriculum tends to be linear and inflexible; students generally cannot return to previously covered material.

! Active class participation is not the Chinese tradition. Students are

accustomed to following a cycle of instruction, seat work, and evaluation. Active participation is not invited.

! Drill‐type questions are frequently used. ! Rote memorization is commonplace. ! If one of your objectives is to change the Chinese learning style, you should be

aware that this will extremely difficult. Do not expect to effect a change in learning style during a short‐term assignment.

! Be aware of your audience. Some students may attend the class for political

reasons. Know what is politically acceptable. ! Classroom conditions can be difficult; rooms are often dirty and too hot or

cold. ! Photocopy machines are not available, and other equipment is outdated.

Paper may be difficult to obtain.



! Sleeping in class is not considered impolite. Other student behaviors, which may be irritating to you, are also culturally acceptable.

! Students are not familiar with the concept of plagiarism. Individuals help

each other and may submit identical work. ! Few students use outside reference sources. Materials distributed in class are

the primary sources of information. ! It is important to understand the Chinese concepts of time and history. The

term "recent" may refer to events that occurred in the 1800s. ! Chinese students exhibit a strong ethnocentricity. ! Relationships are based on reciprocation. ! Gift‐giving can be a problem. Before you give or accept a gift, make sure that

you are aware of the consequences. After eating an elaborate meal given in his honor, a Canadian instructor found that his host expected him to find a bride for his son! An overseas bride was preferred!!

Thailand ! Check for fluency in English. Are language skills basic or advanced? Students

often indicate they are fluent in English, but in reality their knowledge of English is minimal. Many can understand spoken English but cannot read English texts.

! Speak slowly. ! Check frequently to make sure you are being understood. ! Resist the temptation to speak and listen to those who are most fluent. Those

who are not acknowledged will feel embarrassed and lose interest. ! Repeat key points often. ! Be careful not to single out individuals. Address your questions to all

students. ! Adjust expectations of student performance to local levels, yet strive for

excellence and a thorough knowledge of the subject matter.



! Be a learner yourself. How would you feel if you were in their situation? ! Adjust your sense of time to local values. North Americans have a more

precise sense of time. There is never enough of it. Thais feel that time is plentiful.

! Honor the King, the Royal Family, and Buddha. ! Accept respect graciously. ! Provide frequent breaks from instruction. ! Recognize the status and positions of your students and hosts. ! Follow the local protocol for testing and evaluation. Review your outline. Ask yourself the questions below. ! Is the content relevant to the needs of my audience? Will my presentation

help students to accomplish a specific skill or skills? ! How will I know that the students have learned? Have I designed suitable

evaluation instruments such as a series of quizzes, tests, and student demonstrations?

! Did I provide adequate time for practice and questions? ! Did I allow time for refreshment breaks and opening and closing formalities?

In developing countries, it is common for elaborate opening and closing ceremonies to be held in an instructor's honor or to honor the occasion. They may take up half a day of your training time, thus you must plan your training time accordingly. Remember that these events are important. They allow for social interaction and provide you with an opportunity to learn more about your students.

! Can I accomplish all the activities I outlined in the allotted time? ! Is my plan flexible? Overseas, due to a number of unforeseen events and

circumstances, your presentation may not proceed as you planned it while sitting in your comfortable, predictable environment at home.



Select and Prepare Visuals and Other Media A good presentation has greater impact when it includes media. Since most people are either visual or auditory learners, you should plan to include some form of audio or visual media in your presentation. Media can be used to introduce a new idea or concept, support verbal information, facilitate a transition from one topic to the next, or efficiently summarize the entire presentation. Before travelling overseas, determine what media will be appropriate and available there. Because electrical power in various regions of a developing country may be unavailable or unreliable, ensure that your presentation does not rely exclusively on electronic equipment. Consider using equipment that can run on batteries. Visuals, such as overhead transparencies and slides can be used to reinforce your verbal message. When an instructor shows a picture of something while describing it, students can retain significantly more information than when they receive only a verbal message. Retention

After 3 Hours After 3 DaysTell only 70% 10% Show only 72% 20% Show and Tell 85% 65%

(Bender, 1991, p. 131) According to Peoples (1988, p. 66), "...of the total inventory of knowledge you have in your head, 75 percent came to you visually, 13 percent through hearing, and a sum total of 12 percent through smell, taste, and touch." Visuals:

! can arouse and hold your audience's attention;

! can explain complex ideas and relationships;

! can be used with a multilingual audience;

! can be designed to address the needs of illiterate students;

! can be used as your presentation notes.



Visuals may be: ! one‐sheet handouts containing key points, flowcharts, and/or diagrams that

are distributed at the beginning of the presentation; ! prepared transparencies, slides, or computer graphics that are used to

highlight key points; ! three‐dimensional, real objects or models that can be touched and

manipulated; ! chalkboard diagrams, flipchart graphics, overhead transparencies, and

computer graphics generated during the presentation to illustrate ideas or to explain difficult concepts or sophisticated equipment;

! detailed notes and readings that are distributed at the end of your

presentation for students to use as references. You may think that detailed notes and readings should not be in this list. However, by presenting students with this material at the end of the workshop, you subtly reinforce the importance of your presentation and encourage them to delve further into the topic you presented. An attractive handout can add impact to your presentation. When you prepare your visuals, refer to the previous chapter, Planning Instruction for an International Audience, and consider the suggestions below: ! Link the visuals directly to your content. Each visual should carry a

definite message. ! Keep your visuals simple. If you want to illustrate a complex idea or device,

consider making diagrams with a series of overlays or draw a series of illustrations that are increasingly complex.

! Use only a few colors, unless you are presenting an image of a real object.

Use color only when it serves a purpose. Make sure that there is high contrast between foreground images and their background patterns or colors. For example, use white, light gray, and blue background colors. Your text or drawing may be black, dark blue, or green. Use red, orange, fulfill or yellow to highlight specific features. Check that the colors you use are culturally acceptable. Consider developing a color scheme for your visuals, but be careful not to create unintentional meanings.



! Use as few words as possible to capture an idea. If possible, have your message translated into the local language. Ensure that the words are printed in a large font that can be seen by those at the back of the training room. Letters on overhead transparencies should be at least 3/8", and preferably, 1/2" high. Lettering on chalkboards or wall charts should be one inch high for every ten feet of viewing distance. Use sans‐serif fonts or typefaces and a mixture of capital and lowercase letters. Do not use all uppercase letters.

! Proofread all the material that you prepare. Check names and numbers

carefully. If possible, ask a colleague or an editor to review your work. ! Obtain copyright permission for any materials that you did not make

yourself. Remember that students in outlying areas of some developing countries may have difficulty understanding simplified or abstract renditions of real objects. Therefore, whenever possible, use real models, bring photographs, and be prepared to help your students interpret the visuals. In order to obtain additional information regarding the design and implementation of visual images refer to F.M. Francis (1987), Enhancing Visualized Instruction: Recommendations for Practitioners. State College, PA: Learning Services. Select and Arrange Facilities During an overseas assignment in a developing country, it is unlikely that you will have the opportunity to select your training facilities. They will most likely be provided for you. In rural Bangladesh, your training room may have a dirt floor; in Central Africa, a grass roof may be the only protection from the elements; and in St. Lucia, one training room may be separated from another by only a chalkboard. However, if you do have the opportunity to choose the facility in which your training will take place, consider the items below. ! Location: Is it accessible for your students? Is it close to your hotel or

temporary residence? ! Costs: What will the rental charges be? Will this amount fit the project

budget? ! Flexibility: Can the space be altered to suit your needs? Can the space

accommodate specialized equipment that will be used during training?



! Size: If the potential audience will be large, is there adequate room for people to work and circulate?

! Comfort: Can you control air circulation, air conditioning, light, and

temperature? Are the chairs and tables comfortable and appropriate? ! Power: Is electricity available? Is it reliable? What voltage is used? What

types of electrical plugs are needed? Are batteries and an electric generator available?

! Presentation aids: Are lecterns, writing surfaces, and public address

systems available and accessible? Can audiovisual services and equipment be obtained?

! Refreshments and meals: Can these be provided, or must you provide

them? If you must furnish refreshments, do you also have to provide the necessary china and utensils? Where can the refreshments be placed? Is drinking water safe and readily available? Who will wash the dishes? In Asian countries, you may be regarded as very rich, as well as highly respected, and may therefore be encouraged or expected to contribute food or funding for social gatherings. In Africa, family members of the students may prepare the meals.

! Parking: Where are the parking facilities located and is there a charge? If

there is a charge, can a special rate be negotiated? Are parking passes required? Where can they be obtained? In rural or less developed areas, do animals such as camels, horses, or mules need to be cared for?

! Facilities for people with disabilities: Unless you are specifically travelling

overseas to instruct students who have disabilities, it is unlikely that you will have them in your class. Disabled people are generally not in the mainstream of developing countries. Therefore, few facilities overseas have been adapted to meet the needs of people with disabilities.

! Available services: What services are provided by the establishment? Will

someone make a regular check of the meeting room to verify that everything is in order? Are security guards necessary and available? Who is responsible for signage?

! Washroom facilities: These may be at a distance from the training room.

Running water and toilet paper may not be available. Your participants may be familiar with this situation, but you should consider bringing your own water and toiletries.



! Accommodation: Is suitable accommodation close by? Can a special event rate be negotiated? Will students stay with family or friends? How long will it take students to travel to the training facility?

! Recreational facilities: In developing countries, elaborate recreational

facilities may not be available. However, people usually socialize wherever there is space.

! Conflicting events: Are any other events scheduled to take place in the

vicinity of your training area? It is difficult to present a lecture when a religious celebration, complete with a band, is taking place in the adjacent room!

Make Arrangements for Materials and Equipment Many of us take for granted the resources that are available to us. That is, until we go overseas where resources such as electrical power and paper are often scarce. If you are unsure as to what resources are available in the country in which you will be working, plan a presentation that will require a minimum of equipment and supplies. Before travelling overseas, make a list of all the materials and equipment that you will need and obtain spare parts, supplies, and maintenance manuals. Send these resources to the host country several weeks prior to your arrival, or bring them with you. Getting valuable resources through customs may be a problem. If your project is sponsored in any way by the government of the host country, a letter in support of your activities from the most senior official involved can be extremely useful in bureaucratic encounters. Make sure all your presentation materials are culturally acceptable. For example, in countries that adhere to strict Islamic traditions, the materials must not contain religious pictures, crosses, unclad female bodies, or men and women acting in an intimate manner. If possible, have someone who has lived or worked in a particular country review your visuals for cultural acceptability. Before your presentation, unpack your resources and ensure that they are not damaged and that the equipment is in working order. Transportation and customs workers in many countries do not receive a substantial wage; therefore, when they are in temporary possession of your valuables, they may be tempted to remove some of them. In addition, extreme heat, humidity, and dirt, especially fine sand, may damage your resources. Take the time to examine and/or operate your materials and equipment before your presentation. Practice using them in



the room where you will be teaching. You may find, for example, that the lettering is too small, the room cannot be dimmed for viewing slides because it has a roof but no walls, the videocassette images are blurry because an incorrect VHS format is used, you need electrical plug adaptors, or the equipment promised by your host is not available. Plan an Evaluation If you planned your training activity carefully, you would have designed a number of evaluation strategies to check your students' progress and the application of the knowledge and skills they acquired during training. You should also design an evaluation scheme that assesses the quality of the program and provides you with feedback that will help you to mount more successful training activities. There are a variety of ways to conduct this type of evaluation. A few options are outlined below. ! Program evaluation forms: These are sometimes referred to as "happy

sheets," and are usually distributed immediately following a presentation. Students generally have very little time in which to complete them; therefore, the forms may only indicate whether they were happy or dissatisfied with the presentation. Consider distributing an evaluation form immediately following the presentation and a second one a week or more later.

! One‐to‐one interviews: This procedure allows for an in‐depth exploration of

the presentation delivery and outcomes. In some cultures, this procedure may be difficult. Thais, for example, may not like to express criticism openly.

! Supervisor or peer group follow‐up evaluations: Supervisors or colleagues

may report on how the students' skills have improved following their attendance at the training activity.

! Interviews with supervisors or your hosts: Ask them what feedback they

have received regarding your presentation. ! Personal reflection: Sit down in a quiet place and visualize the workshop

that you presented. Write down what worked and what should be improved. Be critical. Only you will know how you evaluated your own workshop. Compare your thoughts with the feedback obtained from the procedures described above.



If your training sessions will be conducted over a period of time, use simple feedback devices each day. Do not wait until your training program is over to find out that your audience thought that you spoke too fast or that you used examples that were inappropriate or culturally irrelevant. In order to receive daily feedback, ask your students to complete the following statements: ! What I liked best about this session was . . .

! What I liked least about this session was . . .

! I would like further information about . . . They could complete the items orally, but they may feel more comfortable responding in writing. Rehearse the Presentation Rehearse your presentation, especially the openings and closings. In order to establish your credibility, you should always deliver your introductions and conclusions without assistance. Stand in front of a mirror and practice your presentation. Polish your delivery techniques. Focus on the appropriate use of voice, phrasings, gestures, and nonverbal cues. Will your gestures be culturally acceptable? Note that, in general, Asians prefer a slow, low‐key delivery style, while South Americans appreciate a more passionate style. However, regardless of the culture, all students like instructors to show respect for the class and the subject matter and to demonstrate interest and enthusiasm. If possible, rehearse in front of a colleague. Practice in using your media materials and equipment will make you feel more comfortable in front of an unfamiliar audience. Because you will not need to focus on what you are going to say next, you will be able to concentrate on the students' reactions to the presentation.



4.5 Delivering the Presentation Establish the Learning Climate It is frequently said that first impressions last a long time; they color all the events to follow. Within the first few minutes, the audience decides whether or not it will listen, participate, and trust the presenter. This observation is particularly true overseas, where you are regarded as the expert. Take the time to make a good impression. Setting a good training climate begins before you enter the classroom. You must be prepared. Complete all administrative tasks, gather the resources you need, and rehearse your materials. If you do these things, you will feel confident. Perceptive students will detect this confidence. In countries where communication is highly contextual, it is not only what you say that is important, but how you say it and how you act while saying it. Never underestimate the power of self‐confidence. Arrive early. Set up your equipment and place your materials so they can be reached easily. If you were able to obtain a list of attendees, review their names and titles. When your students arrive, you will feel more comfortable. If possible, greet students by name as they arrive. Before making your opening statement, plant your feet so that you feel rooted and take a few deep breaths. The most important portions of any training session are the opening and closing segments. Because people tend to remember the first and last things they see and hear, good instructors spend a great deal of time carefully developing the opening and closing portions of their training sessions. The purpose of a good opening is to gain the students' trust and ensure active participation. An opening must: ! grab attention; ! focus the audience; ! introduce the topic or objective to be discussed; the objectives should be

challenging, yet attainable; ! tell students what is required of them;



! show or explain why the topic is relevant to the students and stress what they will be able to do following the training session;

! indicate how the training is linked to previous training and future

opportunities; ! make a positive impression. Examples of good openings include: ! an ice‐breaking activity; ! a self‐introduction; ! a relevant quote or anecdote; ! a rhetorical question or a challenge; ! a demonstration of the skills that students will be expected to display at the

end of the training session. Unless you are familiar with your international audience, using humor during your opening presentation is not recommended. However, "humor is a wonderful tool to help us be more aware of cultural nuances in international communications. It is a useful vehicle to help us build perspective, patience, and productivity in all our dealings" (Gliner, 1991, p. 37). Humor can break the ice and put people at ease. However, if you are not knowledgeable about the culture of the people you will be working with, you may hurt their feelings and create tension. They may feel that you are making fun of them. This is not the impression you would like to make. Initially, avoid humor or use it cautiously. Ice‐breakers are frequently used in North America to lessen training anxiety. To be effective, the ice‐breakers should be short, relevant, fun, and involve everyone. Overseas, however, ice‐breakers may not be taken seriously. Some cultures, particularly Asian cultures, feel that ice‐breakers are a waste of time or too personal. They want to get directly to the session content and do not want to be embarrassed in front of their colleagues. Ice‐breakers for an international audience should be brief and directly related to the upcoming training activities. You may need to use several different ice‐breakers during the early part of your training session. Perhaps the best ice‐breaker is sharing a meal together. For help in selecting a suitable ice‐breaker, you may want to refer to:



Forbess‐Greene, S. (1983). The encyclopedia of icebreakers. San Diego, CA: University Associates. Jones, K. (1991). Icebreakers: A source of games, exercises and simulations. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company. You could start your training session by introducing yourself. However, it would be preferable to ask your host to introduce you. He or she can give you credibility. Until your international audience gets to know you, refrain from telling humorous stories about yourself. Your students may not laugh with you; in fact, they may wonder why their instructor did something so silly. You will lose any credibility that has been established. Instead, provide anecdotes that are short and focused. Explain how the anecdotes are directly related to the training to be conducted. Take the time to set and explain ground rules or guidelines for your students. They must know what is acceptable behavior. Mount the guidelines on the training room walls and/or on the back of individual name plates placed in front of each student. Below are some suggested ground rules. You may want to adapt them for your particular situation. ! Leave your hat (title) at the door. This rule can be extremely difficult to set

in cultures that place high value on hierarchical structures and relationships. It may not be possible to achieve this condition in several Asian countries. Regardless of the position they may hold outside of the training room, try to make the students feel that they have equal status in the classroom and treat them equally. All students must be encouraged to express their ideas freely.

! Have a vision of success. Students must feel that they can succeed. They

should be able to visualize what they will be able to do with the information and/or skills they acquire during the training.

! Participate fully. Students learn by doing. Therefore, they must actively

take part in the workshop activities. ! Accept that excellence comes in small steps. Change does not occur

overnight. Change is gradual and must be worked on repeatedly. Students must not think of the training session as a cure‐all or magic potion.

! Be courteous to all. Students must be willing to give others the opportunity

to speak and listen to points of view that they may not share. Participants do not want to be intimidated, embarrassed, or treated with condescension. Everyone must contribute to the creation of a non‐threatening environment.



! Take the best, leave the rest. Not everything presented during a workshop is applicable locally. Only students know what might work in their environment. Therefore, students must accept the responsibility to determine what is useful and apply it to their situation. Students must assume ownership of their learning and its outcomes.

Your opening will set the stage for your entire training session; take the time to do it well. Provide Effective Instruction In order to teach effectively, you must communicate effectively. Communication is successful if your listeners understand what you are saying and can indicate their level of understanding. Below are a few suggestions that can help you deliver an effective instructional presentation that is designed to meet the needs of an international audience. You may wish to add additional items to this list. ! Consider starting your presentation with a few correctly spoken words in the

local language. ! Clearly identify the topics you are going to address. The topics must be

directly related to training objectives that meet the needs of your audience. ! Smile and make the audience feel important. Appear enthusiastic about your

instructional role and show a definite interest in the subject matter and the audience=s training and development.

! Control your emotions. In many cultures, over‐reacting rarely succeeds.

A public display of emotion can be offensive. ! Maintain eye contact with the audience when it is culturally acceptable to do

so. Note when the students' eyes appear unfocused or stray because you are not holding their attention.

! Speak at a level that is appropriate for the audience. You may have students

with very little education, but you may also have students with graduate degrees from prestigious Western universities.

! Speak slightly slower than normal. It is difficult for others to follow if English

is not their first language. Even if they understand English, they may not easily understand your phrasings, pronunciations, or use of words. Perhaps consider speaking at a rate of 125 to 150 words per minute (Illman, 1980).

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Remember that if you speak slowly and pause frequently, you will not be able to present as much information to this group as you could to an English‐speaking audience.

! Keep your words simple and your sentences short. Use active verbs to create

excitement and maintain interest. ! Enunciate clearly. If you get tired and begin to slur your words or mumble,

take a break or ask students to perform an activity. Rest and drink some water.

! Use culturally acceptable gestures to emphasize certain points. Note that

western behaviors may be interpreted differently in other cultures. ! When you feel comfortable, move around the training room. This action will

keep your students alert. ! Write key points or new terms on the chalkboard or on blank overhead

transparency film. ! Speak to the students, not to the chalkboard or projection screen. ! Use highly technical language only when necessary. ! Use terminology consistently. ! Avoid including puns, jokes, colloquialisms, acronyms, idioms, jargon, or

derogatory terms. ! Explain culturally‐biased references such as those related to history, current

events, and geography. ! Keep your speaking time to a minimum. North Americans are known for

talking too much! ! Use silence for reflection and to enable the slower learners to catch up. Note

that silence is appreciated in some Asian cultures as a time for reflection, whereas other cultures appear to abhor silence and prefer constant, sometimes overlapping, conversations.

! Avoid giving verbal descriptions of complicated devices. Instead, show

sophisticated equipment and demonstrate how it works. Allow students to handle it themselves.



! Encourage students to take notes. ! Pause after major points. You may want to divide the instruction into 8‐ to

12‐minute blocks. ! Link instructional segments. Always relate the learning activities to your

instructional objectives. ! Repeat important ideas. Find different ways to express the same ideas or

concepts. ! Provide a number of relevant examples. Link your instruction to the students=

environment. ! Check comprehension. Ask questions frequently and in a variety of ways.

Refrain from asking questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no. Listen to the responses and adjust your instruction accordingly. Do not accept nods or verbal "yeses" as an acceptable response. Some students want to be polite. Instead, ask them to paraphrase or apply concepts and procedures. Provide positive, non‐threatening feedback.

! Evaluate your students' understanding of the material at least once every

hour. Get your students to tell or demonstrate what they have learned. You may also conduct one‐on‐one checks with students during breaks or after class. If you follow this procedure, maintain confidentiality. Do not reveal specifics about individual responses to the rest of the class.

! Provide opportunities for practice. If possible, simulate the conditions under

which the performance will be conducted in the "real" world. Provide hands‐on practice.

! Provide opportunities for students to apply skills to new situations. ! Review and comment on all assigned work. Return assignments promptly. ! Use visuals or other sensory stimuli to support your verbal presentation.

Reveal visuals only when you are ready to use them. Use visuals that are directly related to the topic being discussed. Explain each visual and ensure that it is displayed long enough for the students to understand it. Once you have explained a visual, remove it.

! Use media that provide stimulation via a variety of senses. ! Use a variety of instructional techniques.



! Employ motivational strategies that will encourage learning. Students are motivated if their needs are met, especially their self‐esteem needs. Remember that recognition or changes in status are highly prized in countries with hierarchical social structures. Note, however, that when a need has been met, it may no longer serve as a motivator.

! Prepare and distribute handouts in the local language. If you do not refer to

your handouts during your presentation, it is unlikely that students will examine them after they leave the training room.

! Summarize frequently. Always link the new material to previously learned

material; then outline the goals of the session to follow. ! Provide written summaries that link ideas. Distribute these at the end of each

session. ! Evaluate student learning. Can students complete the training objectives at

an acceptable level? Evaluate students over an extended period of time. Give them a number of opportunities to demonstrate what they have learned.

! Reward students for their efforts. Whenever a student contributes to a

lesson, recognize the contribution. ! Remind students how their new knowledge and skills will be of benefit to

themselves, the host organization, and their country. ! Keep all promises made to students. Because students think of you as an

ambassador from a developed country, any negative impressions that they have will be applied to those who may present future training activities.

Listen Actively One of the most important attributes of effective instructors is their ability to listen. We often listen passively. We hear the sounds, but not their meanings. We do not provide the speaker with appropriate feedback. To be an active listener, you must: ! Give each student your undivided attention; do not think about what you are

going to say next while the student is speaking. ! Provide the student with appropriate verbal or nonverbal feedback.



! Allow the student enough time to express his or her thoughts; do not interrupt.

! Watch for nonverbal cues that may help you to get the full meaning of what is

being said. ! Paraphrase what the student said. ! Try to understand the picture from the student's perspective; do not be

judgemental. ! Ask clarifying questions. ! Respond accurately and constructively; offer encouragement. ! Apply what the student said to existing, future, or hypothetical situations. ! Summarize the discussion and the actions to be taken. Everyone, including students in developing countries, has something of value that can be used to solve a problem. However, we frequently miss the contributions because we take one or more of the following actions: ! We judge people before they speak. Perhaps their mannerisms, appearance,

or past performance makes us negate their ideas before they have expressed them. Remember that although international students may have difficulty with our language, they can still think.

! We think that we have nothing to learn from them. Everyone has something

to offer because of their different experiences and different points of view. Great discoveries are often made by people who recently changed their occupation or were placed in an unfamiliar environment. They have a refreshing view of the world because they are not stuck in old paradigms.

! We let our emotions interfere with our listening. We all have emotions.

However, if they are overpowering, they affect how and what we listen to. Emotions can be hindrances.

! We fake listening and miss what is being said. To listen effectively, we must

concentrate on what is being said and not get lost in the details.



Use Effective Oral Questions and Provide Positive Feedback According to Powers (1992), "The techniques instructors use to ask and respond to questions have a tremendous impact on the way participants view training" (p. 106). If you want students to participate in your training activities, to check their understanding, to reinforce learning, and to apply, synthesize, and evaluate what they have learned, you must pose good questions. When instructors do not plan their questions, they often ask basic questions that do not challenge students to think. In order to develop and use questions effectively, follow the suggestions below. Developing Good Questions ! Decide what you want your questions to accomplish. Emphasize questions

that check students' understanding and encourage them to apply their knowledge and skills to local situations.

! Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple "yes" or "no" or a nod of

the head. The more information students provide, the better able you will be to evaluate their learning.

! If you experience difficulty in developing questions, use words such as "who",

"what", "when", "where", "why", and "how" to generate questions. The words "why" and "how" are very effective. However, be careful that your use of "why" does not put your students on the defensive. Unless you deliver a "why" question in a low tone of voice rather than a challenging tone, students, especially those in Asian countries, may feel threatened or embarrassed.

! The vocabulary used in the question should be appropriate for the learner.

Use words that you used throughout your presentation. Unless knowledge of specific terminology is part of the learning process, define the terms used in your questions. Also, you may need to discourage students from using words that they do not really understand.

! Develop questions that encourage students to use their own experiences.

These types of questions will help students integrate their new knowledge and skills into their professional and/or daily lives.

! Begin with easy questions that most students should be able to answer. Then

ask increasingly difficult questions that link different topics together or require students to think rather than to rely on their memories. Remember, the broader the question, the more likely it is that you and your students will stray from the topic under discussion. If a question is too simple and



everyone can answer the question, you may waste valuable training time. However, if you are using a mastery learning strategy, by the end of the training session, everyone should be able to answer most of your questions.

! Write down your questions. If you write them on index cards, you can easily

refer to them during your presentation and rearrange their order as the situation changes. You should review questions to ensure that they are not too vague and that the students can answer them. If no one can answer your questions, everyone will feel uncomfortable and may lose their self‐confidence. After your presentation, you can indicate on each card whether or not the question was appropriate. Those that challenged the students could be used on formal tests and exams.

! If you ask a question that you cannot answer yourself or cannot suggest a

source for the answer, your students may doubt your expertise. Delivering Questions ! The tone of your voice will affect how your questions are perceived by your

audience. Until you are familiar with your students and the students feel that they are in a non‐threatening environment, do not raise your voice or ask provocative questions that challenge the students' way of doing things or their beliefs.

! Repeat a question only once. Then, if no one answers, consider answering

your own question or asking a student to repeat your question. However, if you make a habit of answering your own questions, soon your students will not need to answer any questions. You'll answer for them! It is your responsibility to ask questions that your students are capable of answering.

! Direct questions to all students. Let your eyes and body stance reveal that the

questions are addressed to all. ! Pause for seven to ten seconds after asking a question to allow students to

reflect on it. If English is not their first language, they need time to assimilate the question before they can determine the answer. Note that people in other cultures are more comfortable with silence than North Americans are.

! When students answer, indicate that you are paying attention by turning

toward them, nodding your head, or making eye contact. Listen carefully to the answer and make sure that it does not contain any incorrect information. Try to read the students' body language. Are they comfortable with what they are saying?



! If the first student to respond has already answered a question, thank him or her for volunteering and say you would like to involve others in your discussion. Then let someone else answer the question. It may be useful to say, "This side (the back, the front) of the room has responded to several questions already. I would now like this side to respond. Now who would like to answer the question?" Only direct the questions to specific individuals when you know that they have the answer or when the students have become accustomed to you.

! Acknowledge all student responses with words such as "good," "great," "okay,"

and "interesting." Provide positive feedback to all student responses. Clearly indicate if the response is correct and clarify any information that may be misleading. Explain why a response is incorrect or how it may be used to answer a different question. Do not let errors or mistakes go uncorrected, but do recognize that a portion of any answer can be correct.

! Accept more than one answer to any question. This technique enables you to

identify different points of view and to evaluate the depth and breadth of your students' understanding. You could involve others by saying, "That's a good answer. Can someone else give me another example?"

! Link the answers you receive to other topics. Integrate learning by asking

additional questions that are built upon the students' responses. For example, you could say, "How do you think that what you said is related to . . . ?"

Responding to Questions ! During any presentation, always allow students several opportunities to ask

questions. Provide this opportunity every 10 to 20 minutes. Students in some cultures will be reluctant to ask questions in front of their supervisors and peers. If this appears to be the case, ask all students to write down their questions. Collect the questions and randomly select one. Answer the question, then select another question.

! Thank students for asking questions. Repeat questions so that everyone can

hear them, then answer them accurately and concisely. Ask requesters if your answers addressed all of their concerns.

! In order to involve more students in your discussion, consider redirecting a

question from a student to others in the room. When appropriate, help the students to answer the question. Only use this strategy when students feel comfortable with each other.



! If you do not want to be interrupted by a question that is not directly on topic, say that you will respond to the question later. Keep your promise. You could also say, "You are a little ahead of me. Could you ask me that question when we discuss . . . ?"

! If students ask you to clarify a statement you made, apologize for your lack of

clarity, then explain your statement. Try not to use the same words or examples that you used previously.

! If you receive a lengthy or complicated question, break the question into

several smaller questions, then answer each question in turn. ! You can expect to receive personal questions overseas. You may be asked

about your family, business, or social habits. Do not be alarmed. Answer with tact and reveal only as much as you want. However, you may send a negative message if you respond with "no comment."

! If you are asked a question that you cannot answer, ask if any of the students

can respond. If no one in the room can answer the question, write it down and state that you will try to find an answer or provide them with the names of those who may have an answer. Make every effort to do this before the next class.

! If some students talk while you are answering a question, do not be offended.

It is quite possible that one student is explaining to another what you are saying. Any time there is a language barrier, you can expect students to talk quietly in class.

! Do not lose your temper in response to a question. Although you may believe

that you have a right to express anger or frustration, you will lose face with your international audience if you speak loudly, irrationally, or make any pronounced gestures. Try to address specific aspects of irritating questions without becoming irritated yourself.

Revitalize and Close the Presentation From time to time, you may find that your audience is restless; they may shift in their seats or show other signs of boredom or fatigue. The students or you have become tired and unproductive. It is time to revitalize your training activity. You can: ! increase the pace of your presentation; become more energetic;



! use visuals to arouse interest; ! ask students to summarize your presentation; ! tell a relevant anecdote; ! switch to a new topic or different activity; ! introduce humor or a wild idea; ! ask students to stand and perform stretching exercises; ! ask students to submit a list of questions on separate pieces of paper, then

answer the questions as they are randomly drawn; ! form subgroups and ask each subgroup how they would apply an idea you

recently taught; ! ask the students to take a short break; ! adjourn the meeting and continue at a later time. If you are comfortable with your students and you do not feel that you will lose their respect, you may say, "I feel that we are being non‐productive/repeating what we have said before/not focused. Do you feel the same way? What should we do now?" By asking these questions, you indicate that you are paying attention to their needs and value their contributions. In addition, you may get some novel responses to "What should we do now?" If it is necessary to adjourn or end a training session, then use your prepared closing. A good conclusion will reinforce the students' positive impressions of the presentation and will stir them to act on some facet of it. The closing should also add impact, summarize the information presented, and ask for action. Most important, a good closing is short.



4.6 Handling Your Nonverbal Behavior Instructors frequently focus on their oral presentations and forget that they are always sending signals, whether they are speaking or not. Bender (1991) reported that "the believability of what we communicate is influenced 7% by words, 38% by tone of voice and 55% by body language" (p. 101). Therefore, in our North American culture, 93 percent of the message we convey is transmitted by nonvocal actions. In high contextual societies, this percentage may even be higher. It is important to realize that we do send out nonverbal signals that affect our oral message. One of the best ways to determine what signals you are sending is to videotape yourself doing a presentation, then review the videotape with a friend or colleague. Your body language and gestures should be congruent with your oral messages. If these behaviors don't match, you will send out mixed messages. For example, if you ask, "Are there any questions?" and then turn your back to the audience, the students will know that you really do not want to answer questions. They will not trust you. They will stop participating. Proportion the gestures to fit the physical space and the size of your audience. The more people and/or the larger the space, the more animated you should be. Do not over exaggerate your gestures or use them continually. Find different ways to emphasize key words and ideas. Below are a few suggestions for creating a positive atmosphere through nonverbal communication. Remember that they are effective for a North American audience and would need to be adjusted for a specific cultural group. Instructor's Nonverbal Behavior Possible Interpretation by Student ! Acknowledges a student's

presence with a smile. ! Maintains eye contact with the

student and/or orients body toward the student.

! Has an open body stance. ! Leans forward as student

speaks.

! I am welcomed here. I feel accepted.

! The instructor is interested in what I

have to say. ! The instructor is open to my ideas. ! He is really interested in what I have

to say. He is listening.



! Walks toward the student as he or she speaks.

! Walks towards a silent student. ! Nods head affirmatively. ! Nods head several times. ! Maintains a relaxed posture. ! Avoids facial expressions that

display anger or displeasure. ! Laughs at him‐ or herself.

! My ideas are definitely of interest. Or, maybe she can't hear me.

! Perhaps I should pay attention and

get involved. ! Not only is he listening, but he is

seriously considering my input. Perhaps he agrees with what I am saying.

! She is encouraging me to keep

talking. ! I can relax. ! He is a positive person. I feel good. ! It is "okay" to be human, to make a

mistake.

When making presentations to audiences with different cultural backgrounds, be wary of using gestures that may have offensive or impolite connotations. If you are unsure of what effect a raised fist may have on your audience, check with an interpreter or eliminate it from your presentation. If you are presenting with an interpreter, remember that gestures are not only distracting, they are also difficult to translate. In these cases, keep your use of gestures to a minimum. You also need to learn how to decipher the nonverbal cues expressed by your international students. Smiles and laughter, for example, may not always indicate happiness. In East Asian countries, these cues may mean that the student is embarrassed or angry. If Chinese shake their heads in agreement, they may be indicating that they understand what you are trying to say, but they still may disagree with what you said; they tend not to display anger in public. Take the time to become more conscious of nonverbal signals. Refer to R.E. Axtell. (1990). Do's and Taboos Around the World: A Guide to International Behavior. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. It is impossible to know everything that we should not do when we are working in a foreign country. We do know that we should not use gestures that are ambiguous, rude, or irritating. If we make a genuine effort to try to comply with local practices and are not pushy or overbearing with our Western ways, people will usually forgive us our



transgressions. They may politely point out what we should or should not do the next time.



4.7 Dealing with Challenging People and Situations Every presenter encounters people and situations that test his or her patience, ingenuity, and self‐control. Argumentative students who interrupt you in class may view themselves as defenders of their country's cultural and spiritual beliefs. Students who show no response to your best efforts may be passive because it is culturally acceptable for them to sit quietly while they receive knowledge from the all‐knowing teacher. When you work overseas, you must be able to distinguish between the things that you can change, such as knowledge and skills, and those things that are not readily changed, such as culturally‐inspired behavior. When you face challenging situations, it is best to deal with them directly and quickly. The audience will be looking to you to resolve the situation. If you handle the situation with confidence and refrain from embarrassing anyone, your audience will gain a greater respect for you. If you fail, there is always tomorrow. You can learn from a difficult situation and be better prepared if it occurs again. The following table, based on Wright (1996), suggests ways to respond to some difficult training situations. Adapt the suggestions to your culturally diverse students and add ideas from your own experience. Remember, it is your tone of voice and body stance that will make the statement in the right column effective and credible.



Situation

Possible Questions and Responses

Requesting input Clarifying input Overly detailed answers One‐word answers

Use open‐ended questions. To start a discussion, ask what happened; then ask, "What should have occurred? What appears to be the real problem?" It is not necessary for you to respond verbally to every input, but you should acknowledge a student's response by eye contact, head nodding, or other acceptable gestures. Of course, you should comment from time to time in order to encourage further input. You could say: "Good/Great/Super/ Excellent/That's a wonderful idea/Thanks." You may also say, "That's interesting. I've never thought of that." Or, "What a creative solution. Let's apply it to our problem." "Could you be more specific?" "Can you provide an example?" "What do you mean by . . . ?" "You provided a lot of information in your answer. Could you summarize your answer/provide a one sentence summary?" Or, you could summarize the answer yourself. "Could you explain your answer further?" "Can you provide an example?"



Situation


Puzzled students Silent students

Perhaps the students have glazed eyes or bewildered looks. You may have not provided adequate background material, they may lack understanding of the prerequisites, or the material is not relevant to them. You should try to remember when the students began to look puzzled and review the information or ask the students to summarize what has been accomplished to date. Reviewing will not be a problem if you break your instruction into 10‐ to 20‐minute segments. Find examples that are meaningful to your students. Check that you have provided a warm and supportive training environment that encourages students to participate. Did you use a variety of instructional techniques that are appropriate for different learning styles? Ask silent participants questions that you know they can answer. Build up their self‐esteem. For example, you could say: "José, you seem rather thoughtful. What do you think about what has been said today?" "Susan, we know you have experience in . . . . What can you contribute from this experience?" "Mohammad, could you summarize the comments just made by Elana?" "I haven't heard opinions from the left/center/right/ back/front of the room lately. What would you like to contribute?"



Situation


Silent students continued Polite group of students Dominating students Negative students

"I perceive that you don't agree with the proceedings. If I am right, can you tell us what's troubling you?" Students may not want to contribute because of their cultural upbringing. Do not confuse silence with a lack of knowledge or skill capability. They may not want to take a risk by speaking up. Ask students to form small groups to discuss a topic of their choosing or one you selected. Ask the groups to report their findings. Students could be asked to write their ideas on cards. The cards could be collected and reviewed by the instructor. "Dave, let me summarize your important ideas. Then I would like others such as Diane and Tim to add to your suggestions." Consider limiting the duration each student can speak at one time. Perhaps two minutes would be sufficient. A different student could be assigned to monitor speaking time for each presentation. "Thanks for your contribution, Allen. Now, can I hear from others?" Record all ideas presented on a chalkboard or flipchart. Consequently, everyone's contribution will be seen as important. Ignore the negativism. There is almost always something positive in their responses. Highlight the positive.



Situation


Inarticulate students Students who resist or challenge an idea or concept Conflicting students

"Let me repeat what you said. Did I summarize your ideas correctly?" If a student has difficulty in completing a sentence, be patient; do not complete the sentence for him or her. Get your students to voice their real concerns; otherwise, they may sabotage your entire training session. Once their concerns are out in the open, you can deal with them. Don't lose your temper. In a neutral non‐threatening manner you could say: "I feel that you are resisting me because . . . . Am I correct in my thinking?" "Something appears to be disturbing you. Could you tell me what it is or write it down?" "I am not sure that I understand what you are trying to say. Perhaps if you address your concern to your colleagues, they will be able to respond to it." If the above questions are ineffective, ask to meet with that student during a break or after the training session. You may find that some students are being difficult because they resent the fact that their supervisor told them to attend. Discourage one‐on‐one confrontations. Ask conflicting students to address all the students. Do not allow students to make personal attacks on others.



Situation


Conflicting students continued Students who present inaccurate information Drifting away from the training agenda

"Both of you have good ideas. Now I would like others to express their opinions on the same topic." "Can we agree that we have at least two opposing points of view? Let's move on to the next topic." "That's one way of looking at it. Are there any other points of view?" "Can you support that statement with facts or examples?" "What information do others have about this situation?" "I feel that we are not discussing what we came here to discuss. Do you feel the same way?" "We've aired a lot of feelings. Now let's discuss some facts." "That's a good question/comment. Can we address it later after we have completed this topic?" "I would like to test this idea with you." (State an idea you have thought of or an idea mentioned previously.) "Is it time to take a break?" When we return, we will need to address . . . ." "Would everyone take a few minutes to consider. . . . Write down your thoughts, and then we will share our ideas."



Situation


Encouraging different points of view Summarizing and bridging

Comparison with previous trainers

"We have only discussed one or two points of view. Are there any other viewpoints that should be considered?" "What about the view that . . . ?" "Remember what Tom said earlier? Is his suggestion applicable here?" Before moving on to a new topic, summarize what has been accomplished to date, then link the old material to the new material. "Can someone summarize what we have done?" "Let's check our progress." "Is there anything we haven't covered before we move on?" "Before we discuss the next topic, can we list the pros and cons of what has been covered up to this point?" "How do you think we are doing? Are we making progress?" People in developing countries may have received training from a variety of different instructors who may have come from Britain, France, Germany, Japan, or North America. Their training styles are different than yours. Students will constantly compare your style to others. Grin and bear it. When they get to know you and you demonstrate your competence, the comparison will cease. Remember that you cannot be all things to all people.



Situation


Students who grumble about the training session in the hallway Students who show high test anxiety

Without embarrassing anyone, ask the entire class if they would like to alter portions of the training program. If you ask them to write their suggestions on a piece of paper, students can respond anonymously. Did you prepare your students for the test? Did you review the format and types of test questions? Were students given the opportunity to practice their skills? There will always be some level of test anxiety. However, you can prepare the students for the test and demonstrate that you have confidence in their abilities to succeed. Indicate that you will give marks for effort.

You may find yourself in situations where a simple response will not be sufficient. A serious conflict develops and you must intervene. The following suggestions may be helpful. Intervention: At times, it may become necessary for an instructor to intervene in a group discussion or activity. Before you do, consider the following questions: ! Will your intervention make the activity more effective or efficient? ! Will your intervention be a help or a hindrance? ! If you have intervened recently, will this next intervention be considered an

interruption? ! How will students react if you intervene? Are you prepared for their reactions? ! Are the students displaying any verbal or nonverbal behaviors that indicate that

they want you to intervene? ! Is your intervention necessary? Will the conflict be short‐lived? Resolving conflict: Conflict is a normal part of life. However, it does not have to be destructive. When it exposes new ideas and/or creates understanding, conflict can have positive results. To resolve conflicts effectively, you should:



! acknowledge the right of individuals to have strong feelings and opinions about certain topics;

! identify the real issue; be specific; ! maintain a positive and constructive tone and manner; ! seek points of agreement; ! avoid laying blame; ! accept responsibility for allowing this situation to occur; ! set a time to resolve the conflict; ! focus on the present and future; minimize the time spent on the past. Following the resolution of highly emotional conflicts, it may be necessary for everyone to take a break or for you to make a radical change in instructional activities. Consider assigning a small group activity that requires students to focus on a less controversial topic.



4.8 Presentation Skills Checklist In order to evaluate your effectiveness as an instructor, ask your students and, if possible, your colleagues to rate you on each of the items listed below. Use a five‐point scale, where five means excellent and one means poor. You may want to translate the list below into the local language. Review the responses and adjust your instruction accordingly. North Americans often focus on the negative comments they receive and ignore the abundant evidence that they are doing a good job. Examine the responses with a balanced eye. Instructor Evaluation T Teaching Skills The instructor:

1. Is prepared for class.

2. Identifies challenging but achievable objectives and standards.

3. Arouses interest and provides motivation.

4. Maintains a positive atmosphere.

5. Holds the class's attention.

6. Maintains classroom control.

7. Gives clear and simple directions.

8. Uses appropriate examples and illustrations.

9. Makes sure students understand the material.

10. Asks a variety of questions.

11. Distributes questions throughout the class.

12. Asks appropriate questions.

13. Develops sequences of questions.

14. Encourages analytical and critical thinking.

15. Encourages discussion.

16. Provides opportunities for practice.

17. Listens to students' responses and adjusts instruction accordingly.

18. Provides positive feedback and reinforcement.

19. Summarizes and bridges segments effectively.



20. Organizes instruction and proceeds in an orderly manner.

21. Paces instruction appropriately.

22. Allocates enough time to explain important or difficult concepts.

23. Demonstrates a thorough knowledge of the subject matter.

24. Provides appropriate references or refers students to relevant sources. Communication Skills The instructor:

25. Has a command of the language.

26. Speaks clearly.

27. Uses appropriate language.

28. Uses a varied speaking pace and tone of voice.

29. Is audible.

30. Has legible handwriting.

31. Uses culturally appropriate nonverbal communication.

32. Interacts appropriately with the interpreter. Instructional Aids The instructor:

33. Uses a variety of instructional aids.

34. Uses instructional aids appropriately.

35. Selects instructional aids that are suitable for the tasks being taught.

36. Provides appropriate handouts. Relationship with Students The instructor:

37. Is aware of and sensitive to individual differences and needs.

38. Gives students an opportunity to express their opinions.



39. Encourages students to interact.

40. Gains the respect of students.

41. Helps students who experience problems. Evaluation The instructor:

42. Uses evaluation procedures that are fair; they test only what has been

taught.

43. Returns student tests and assignments promptly.

44. Makes useful comments on returned assignments and tests. Miscellaneous 45. What changes in the course procedures would you suggest? 46. Please provide additional comments in the remaining space. Particularly,

what did you like the most and the least about this course? How will you apply the knowledge and skills you have acquired?

(Adapted from Wright, 1987, pp. 1‐96.) In order to improve your presentation skills, consider reading any of the following: Text Powers, B. (1992). Instructor excellence: Mastering the delivery of training. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass Inc. Journals The International Educator. The International Educator's Institute, P.O. Box 103,

West Bridgewater, MA 02379.



Performance and Instruction. National Society for Performance and Instruction, 1300 L Street, N.W. Suite 1250, Washington, DC 20005.

Training. Lakewood Publications, 50 S. Ninth St., Minneapolis, MN 55402. The following publishers specialize in educational materials. Intercultural Press, P.O. Box 700, Yarmouth, ME 04096. Jossey‐Bass Inc., Publishers, 350 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA 94104. Pfeiffer & Company, 8517 Production Avenue, San Diego, CA 92121.



5.0 Writing Training

Materials


Contents 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................5/1 5.2 Designing Print‐based Materials .......................................................... 5/2

Audience..............................................................................................................5/2 Objectives............................................................................................................5/2 Outlines ............................................................................................................... 5/3 Designing Independent Study Materials .......................................................... 5/3 Preventing Inaccuracies ..................................................................................... 5/5 Copyright.............................................................................................................5/6

5.3 Writing Style........................................................................................... 5/7 5.4 Readability .............................................................................................5/11

Applying a Readability Formula ....................................................................... 5/11 5.5 Editing ................................................................................................... 5/14 5.6 Formatting Instructional Materials..................................................... 5/16

Accessibility....................................................................................................... 5/16 Organization ..................................................................................................... 5/18 Legibility............................................................................................................ 5/18 Layout ................................................................................................................ 5/19 Packaging ..........................................................................................................5/20

Writing Instructional Materials 5/1 ---------

5.1 Introduction Well written instructional materials are essential to every international training activity. They can be used to deliver instruction, enhance training activities, and serve as reference resources. More importantly, they can provide information that your students can use after you leave. Up‐to‐date written materials are a precious commodity in developing countries where foreign textbooks are difficult to obtain because of cost, bureaucracy, poor distribution, and language (Giltrow and Pannen, 1992). To ensure that your written materials will be used after you return home, show your students how to use the materials. Consider giving them an assignment that requires them to use materials to obtain specific information. Many instructors believed that with the advent of the microcomputer and the introduction of new educational technologies, the need for print‐based instructional materials would be drastically reduced. To date, this scenario has not occurred. Just look around your office. Has the microcomputer replaced all the paper on your desk? How many of your textbooks, reference books, and instructional manuals have been replaced by new technologies? How many of your educational technologies come with thick reference manuals? There are no "hard and fast" rules for writing training materials for students in developing countries. Each situation will be different, primarily because language will be embedded in a cultural context that may be foreign to you. It is also difficult to develop training materials that are culturally neutral. However, the suggestions presented here have proven to be successful in developing materials for students in countries such as China, Colombia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, and Uganda, as well as for students in North America. Writing for an international audience improves with experience.



5.2 Designing Print‐based Materials The design of quality, print‐based instructional materials relies on several factors. These factors take on an even greater relevance when the print materials are intended to be delivered to international students. Audience A cardinal rule, which is frequently forgotten by novice writers, is know your audience. Your awareness of student characteristics will affect the way you design your training materials. Refer to the needs assessment and audience analysis described previously. Determine how the following student characteristics and information will affect your written materials: gender; age; communication skills; education/training; job and social status; previous experience; work habits; motivation; ethnic; political and religious affiliations; and individual expectations, attitudes, and interests. For example, if you know that the students have poor reading skills, you may prepare a series of visuals, which are accompanied by simple instructions. Electronic appliance manufacturers often produce these types of documents. Or, if you know that your students are interested in specific sports, you can use sport‐related anecdotes and analogies. Ensure that you use examples from the culture you will be working in. If you use only North American‐based examples, then it may be necessary for you to provide the additional background or context to explain the relevance of the example. Objectives Carefully review the instructional objectives. Objectives are statements of learning outcomes that specify what students should be able to do upon completing the training activities. Objectives can help you to determine what and how an item should be written. If an objective is at a knowledge level, provide textual information. If the objective is at an application level, consider writing a case study. You must also consider if the purpose of your written material is to provide instruction, support, or reference. Always ask yourself why the material needs to be written, how it will be used, and if the students will be able to use the materials effectively. Be empathetic. Think about how your students will react to what you are writing. Until you have met your students and observed their behavior, this will be difficult to do.



Outlines Outline or blueprint what you are going to write. Unless the text will be delivered via computer software or videodisc, it is usually presented in a linear format. Therefore, when preparing your written material, arrange your topics in a linear sequence. List the main headings, then list the subheadings. If possible, assign a weight to each topic, which indicates how much time or effort you plan to spend on each topic. Then, examine your information resources and add details under each subheading. Ask a peer, another member of the training team, or a subject expert to review your outline. Consider their suggestions and make appropriate changes to your outline. Follow the outline as you write. If several writers will be involved in preparing the instructional material, they should not only receive a copy of the course outline, but also writing guidelines such as The Chicago Manual of Style (1993) or the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (1994). Note that these style manuals are updated every few years. Designing Independent Study Materials If you want your students to progress at their own pace and to participate actively in the training‐learning process, consider developing independent study, self‐study, or individualized instructional materials. All or part of your instructional material can be developed in an independent study format. You can develop one or several self‐contained training units or modules that consist of print materials as well as various instructional media. Most print modules contain the following components (Wright and Conroy, 1988): 1. Introduction ! indicates the importance or significance of the information to be presented ! lists the topics to be covered in the order they will appear ! focuses the attention of the student to the task at hand 2. Objectives ! tell the learners what tasks they will accomplish ! state what the students should be able to do once they have completed the

module



3. Directions (module organizer) ! provide instruction on how to proceed through the module ! list the required texts, equipment, and learning activities ! state how long it should take to complete each activity 4. Explanatory Text ! contains the information that develops, objective by objective, the content

of the course ! enhances rather than repeats textbook information ! includes prose, diagrams, illustrations, charts, and so on 5. Learning Activities ! are interspersed throughout the text ! provide opportunities to practice the skills to be evaluated ! include activities such as reading, viewing, listening, answering quizzes,

writing essays, or analyzing case studies 6. Suggested Answers ! allow students to compare their responses to a model answer ! provide feedback 7. Summaries ! review the module's main ideas and concepts in the order in which they

were presented ! can be a paragraph or a point‐form list ! should be no longer than one page ! bring closure to the module 8. References ! cite the sources of information contained in the module ! reference sources should be also be available to the students 9. Further Readings ! list the articles, books, and nonprint resources that provide students with

additional information on the topic or subject Regardless of whether or not these modules are developed by you or a course development team (Wright, 1988), they must be written and formatted in a manner that effectively promotes learning. Suggestions on how this can be done are presented in this chapter and in the following publications:



Race, P. (1995). The open learning handbook: Promoting quality in designing and delivering flexible learning. London, England: Kogan Page.

Rowntree, D. (1990). Teaching through self‐instruction. New York, NY: Nichols. Preventing Inaccuracies Unless you are diligent, your written work may inadvertently introduce errors or inaccuracies. Giltrow and Pannen (1992) use the term "information viruses" to describe inaccurate and obsolete information. They have identified three forms of information viruses: ! outdated information;

! omissions of new findings and discoveries;

! inaccuracies, including misleading information that is given out of context. In developing countries, these viruses can remain undetected for extended periods of time. These countries often lack the expertise or access to resources that may help them to detect information viruses. In order to eliminate information viruses, you should: ! review the latest journals, monographs, textbooks, and conference

proceedings; ! access appropriate databases, many of which are available on microfiche,

CD‐ROMs, or computer software; ! contact leading researchers and practitioners; ! provide a foundation for training that is appropriate for the international

students; ! define technical terms; ! verify that any translations made are accurate; ! have your work reviewed by a content specialist or peer.



Copyright As you write, keep track of all the resources that you use to obtain information. If you include other sources in your written materials, indicate the name of each source and the date. Always give credit when and to whom it is due. (How would you want others to treat your work? Then, treat the works of others with the same respect.) If you reproduce a substantial portion of someone else's work, obtain written permission to use it. It can take time to obtain copyright permission, and you may be required to pay a fee to reprint the work. When you contact the copyright holder, explain that you will be using the material for educational purposes in a developing country. Many copyright holders will waive their fees if they know the circumstances in which their materials will be used. However, they will still ask that their names be cited. Several countries do not publicly acknowledge the rights of copyright holders. China, for example, freely reproduces copyrighted material from foreign sources. However, as China opens its doors to more foreigners, it is being forced to recognize the copyright holders in other countries.



5.3 Writing Style Style is a unique expression of the writer's personality. It is a combination of the particular qualities that you bring to the writing. A writing style can be simply defined as the sum of what you have to say (the content) and the manner in which you organize and present your information (the delivery). Writing style consists of your choice of words, your arrangement of these words, and the physical structure of your sentences and paragraphs. When you produce print‐based training materials, you must not only present facts and information, you must also motivate, explain, supply activities, and provide feedback. Your students must become actively involved in the print materials. Write with a warm, conversational tone. This will help you to develop a rapport with the readers. Refer to the reader as "you." Use positive rather than negative examples to illustrate concepts. Positive statements are easier to read and they elicit positive reader response. As much as possible, personal biases and opinions should be avoided. As well, avoid using jargon, cliches, colloquialisms, and abbreviations. These devices cause distraction, which interrupts the assimilation of information. Occasionally, a bit of humor may be effective, but be cautious. What is funny to one person may not amuse another. It can be difficult to adapt humor to another culture. It is best to use humor only in live presentations where you can see the audience and assess their reaction to your words and actions. Then, if necessary, you can clarify your statements. Learners are human. A writing style that is simple, direct, and precise soothes the readers' anxieties and makes reading a productive learning experience. Use the fewest possible words to state exactly what is meant. Use small words and short phrases. For a more vigorous and direct writing style, use the active voice. Write in the present tense; save the past tense for references to historical events. For an example of a text that uses a warm, conversational tone and a simple direct style, refer to The Open Learning Handbook written by Phil Race (1995). Avoid words such as "maybe" and "sometimes." If in doubt, say, "according to . . .; however, the majority of research indicates that . . ." Conversely, avoid making absolute statements; someone is bound to find the exception. As much as possible, refrain from using words such as "always" and "never." Eliminate the nonessential preliminaries. Let the students know immediately what each sentence and paragraph is about. Short sentences and paragraphs enhance readability and comprehension. They also increase information recall. The same rule applies to vocabulary; whenever possible, use the shortest word. Acronyms are useful, but ensure that they are explained before using them.



Minimize sentence complexity by reducing the distance between the subject and the verb. A series of short, precise sentences is more effective than one long, convoluted sentence. Use adjectives and adverbs sparingly. Alternatives to long prose passages include lists, diagrams, and flow charts. Linking sentences and paragraphs with transitional words and expressions helps maintain coherence. To help students understand the training material, use complex words and phrases only when they are needed to describe a correct technical term or condition. Preferably, present technical terms in the language of the user. New terms and expressions should be defined either in‐text or in a glossary. Never assume that the students understand a new concept; always provide explanations or examples to illustrate salient points. Illustrate concepts with examples that readers will recognize or relate to. North American examples should be used infrequently. To help increase the comprehension of print material, present the information in a logical manner (McConkie, 1977). Building from simple to more complex tasks and linking new information to old increases the learners' confidence. Using special organizer tools will help focus the readers' attention. Organizers can be used to introduce new sections or to present information that is crucial to completing a new task. These organizers appear at the beginning of each new or important section. Organizers can be flow charts, diagrams, a list of key words, a series of questions, or a series of analogies based on the learners' experiences. Students must become actively engaged in the print material. There are several devices you can use to stimulate student interest and increase motivation: ! Hooks arouse curiosity and interest. A hook can be an intriguing question

posed early in the material, and then answered toward the end of the chapter or at the beginning of the next chapter. Inserting relevant analogies, examples, and case studies at appropriate points in the text not only adds interest, it also increases comprehension. As well, these devices help clarify concepts or operations, promote cognitive transfer, and link old information to new learning.

! Anecdotes add color and personality to the text. Anecdotes should be short

and relate directly to the information presented. Personal anecdotes are easiest to write, and they demonstrate the author's first‐hand knowledge of the subject. Because anecdotes are culturally based, ensure that your audience will understand them.

! Hints, cautions, and warnings focus attention. The hints increase the

learners' understanding, and the cautions and warnings may save time or prevent accidents.



! Quotes add authority to a text. If the quote is lengthy, copyright permission must be obtained before it can be included in the text. The source of any quotation must be acknowledged.

! Practice is provided through varied and frequent exercises interspersed

throughout the text. These activities encourage involvement, provide opportunities for students to apply knowledge and concepts, provide feedback, and ensure that students feel comfortable with the new material they have just learned. Including a variety of exercises will prevent boredom, and, at the same time, promote analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Case study exercises, for example, are an excellent method of integrating theory and practice. Performance and Instruction Quarterly, 4(1), 1991 contains a number of articles on how to write and use case studies. Remember, some topics will require more practice than others. To prevent confusion and negative student response, do not use practice exercises that are poorly worded or contain ambiguous questions.

! Assignments can draw on the knowledge of learners. Include assignments

and activities that ask students to use their own experiences or direct them to other sources. You could ask students to address a specific problem in their community. Students value assignments that encourage them to interact with resources and personnel outside of the training room. Allow students to select assignments that meet your instructional goals and their learning needs.

Good instructional writing avoids inconsistency, pretentiousness, sarcasm, innuendoes, vagueness, and needless repetition. However, the hard‐to‐understand and/or important points should be repeated, at least three different ways. Stick to the topic. Until a point has been clearly made, do not extrapolate or describe far‐reaching relationships. Provide the essential information first, then the explanations, and finally, the nice‐to‐know details. To achieve nonsexist writing, do not use gender when referring to students or to members of a profession. In many cases, sexism can be eliminated from the text by simply using plural forms, referring to the reader as "you," deleting the pronouns his and her, and opting for an asexual term such as "chairperson" or "salesperson" whenever possible. In this way, you will provide an example of gender equality to your students. Emphasizing and clarifying the essential elements of the text reduces the readers' work. Underline, bold, or block off important words, phrases, and key points. Use paragraph headings and/or subheadings to add clarity and succinctness to the text. Headings should not be typed in all capital letters; they are difficult to read. Number the sequential steps in training activities or safety



instructions. Provide tables and diagrams to direct attention, show relationships, indicate scale, highlight details, or describe a process. Use illustrations and job aids whenever possible (Rossett & Gautier‐Downes, 1991; and Race, 1995). Most students are visually oriented, and graphic material is more easily recalled than printed words. Graphics or illustrations are extremely useful in conveying ideas to an international audience. Consider using symbols that are universally recognized. Because dense pages of print frequently overwhelm the reader, some blank space should appear on every page. This blank space can also be used to highlight important items. A constant review of the written material will ensure that the material is consistently organized and that the information is logically presented. After each draft, you should answer these questions: ! Is the material suitable for the intended audience? ! Do the ideas flow logically and build from simple to complex? ! Are difficult concepts further explained with diagrams, charts, graphs, or

tables? ! Does the material challenge students at various intellectual levels? ! Does the material provide student interaction, positive feedback, and

encouragement? ! Are there any typographical errors? Are the numbers embedded in the text

correct?



5.4 Readability Writing is a form of communication, and as such, it involves three factors: the sender, the message, and the receiver. As a writer, you are the sender, the person who has the knowledge and information you want to communicate. This knowledge and information forms your message. The way you choose to deliver your message depends largely on the characteristics of the receivers, your students. It is your responsibility to deliver the information clearly, precisely, and in a manner that is understandable to your readers. The text of good instructional materials must be eminently readable. By making your text readable, your students will have less difficulty understanding your message, and they will spend more time learning the material. In English, two factors contribute to difficult text: ! Vocabulary: Using uncommon words, foreign words, technical words, and

words with more than three syllables makes it difficult for readers with restricted vocabularies to understand the text.

! Sentence Structure: To decipher long, compound and complex sentences

requires a high level of reader comprehension. Long or complicated sentence structures make it difficult for readers to follow the meaning of the text.

As a trainer, you need to match the level of difficulty of your materials to the reading ability of your students. If your students cannot understand what you write, both their time and yours will be wasted. Applying a Readability Formula Readability tests indicate the reading level and difficulty of textual materials. The results of these tests should be considered guidelines for your writing. Readability tests can be applied to textbooks and articles as well as to your own writing. A readability formula allows you to calculate a score that indicates the reading level of the text. Although these formulas do not guarantee that a certain group of learners will find a particular piece of text easy to understand, they are quick to apply and will give you a rough indication of the text's reading level. Readability formulas should be applied to at least three passages from various sections of a text and then averaged.



One readability formula is called a Fog Index. It is used to examine textual vocabulary and sentence structure. To apply the index, follow the steps below (Gunning, 1952; Jenkins, 1985): 1. Count 100 words from the beginning of a passage.

! Hyphenated words count as two words. 2. Find the average sentence length (ASL) by:

! counting the number of complete sentences between the first and the 100th word;

! subtracting the number of words between the last period and the 100th word;

! dividing the above total by the number of complete sentences. 3. Count the number of difficult words (DW) by:

! underlining words of three or more syllables and all foreign words such as gratis, per diem, ad hoc, etc.

4. Calculate the score by using the following formula:

2(ASL + DW) + 5 = readability score 5

You should repeat the above procedure with two other passages from the same work, then average the results. The following scale can be used to interpret readability scores derived from the above formula: Score Level of Text Level of Reader 12 & under very easy Poor: literate, but with very

little primary schooling or its equivalent

13‐16 easy Average: has several years of

primary schooling or its equivalent

17‐20 quite difficult Good: has studied at the

secondary level or its equivalent 20 & over difficult Advanced: has some post‐

secondary or higher education or its equivalent



Scores derived from readability formulas are only indications that a text is likely to be at the right reading level for a group of students, not that it definitely is. Readability formulas do not measure comprehension; they do not consider whether or not the student is correctly following the meaning of the text (Dhanarajan & Timmers, 1992). If you are writing text for students who are not fluent in English, it is recommended that you try to obtain a readability score of 13‐16. However, the real test of the material's readability will come when local students use the materials to accomplish the objectives of the training program.



5.5 Editing Print‐based learning materials should be reviewed, at least once, by an editor. The editor can review your course materials in almost the same manner as your students would work through them. An editor does more that simply rearrange sentences and correct spelling mistakes. Along with the writer and an instructional designer (if available), the editor ensures that the instructional text is: ! readableCthe level of text difficulty is appropriate to the intended audience. ! comprehensibleCthe text is understandable‐‐it makes sense; instructions are

complete and easy to follow. ! "user friendly"Cthe text not only teaches but also motivates and actively

involves the reader on a personal level. ! consistentCthe text is consistent in style, tone, organization, format, and

usage. There are four basic editorial functions. ProofreadingCreading manuscripts and checking for adherence to edited copy; verifying changes; checking accuracy of headers, page numbers, and cross‐references. Copy editingCediting for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics of style; checking for consistency of mechanics; marking header levels and placement of graphics. Substantive editingCclarifying and/or reorganizing a manuscript for content and structure. Changes may be suggested to, or drafted for, the author; may include negotiating changes with the author. Writing/RewritingCcreating new manuscripts or parts of a manuscript on the basis of the content and/or research supplied by the author; may include some research and original writing.

The type and amount of editing required for instructional text will depend on:

! the nature of the material;

! the audience for whom it is intended;



! the author's skill in preparing the manuscript.



5.6 Formatting Instructional Materials Choosing a print format and selecting appropriate graphics for instructional text requires careful consideration. Print materials must come in an attractive, legible, easy‐to‐use package that enhances and facilitates learning. Students must be able to access information quickly and to identify important instructional points easily. Therefore, careful attention must be paid to the accessibility, organization, legibility, layout, and packaging of the print materials. Although the ideas presented here are based on experiences with foreign students, you may also refer to Hartley (1978, 1981); Hartley & Burnhill (1978); Leshin, Pollock, & Reigeluth (1992); Misanchuk (1992); and Jonassen (1982, 1985) for further information. Accessibility To enable students to find information quickly, print materials must be designed to provide optimum accessibility. This feature becomes particularly important if students are allowed to progress randomly through the materials. Accessibility is improved when the following items form part of the instructional package: ! a detailed table of contents that identifies all subsections;

! a list of illustrations and tables;

! a summary or preview at the beginning of each unit or module;

! tabbed dividers;

! colored paper for specific types of information;

! page headers and numbers;

! visual cues and icons;

! a glossary; and

! an index.

The following section provides details on page headers, page numbers, and text headings. Although these items significantly increase accessibility, they are often neglected. Header lines should appear at the top of every page. They help students to locate specific pages easily and to identify particular course topics quickly. Header lines may include the name of the training program, the chapter or module number, the author, the date, or any other relevant information.



Whatever header style is selected, it should be used consistently throughout the materials. Footers, at the bottom of each page, can be used to provide additional information. Page numbers should be included in the running header line. Paginate in the upper, right‐hand corner of the page. Students in Western cultures tend to look for page numbers at the top of the page rather than at the bottom. The chapter or module number often forms the first part of the page number. Together, these two numbers will quickly tell the students on which page, and in which module, they are currently working. For example, page 4 of module one is written as 1‐4 or 1/4; page 32 of module six is written as 6‐32 or 6/32. This type of page numbering system has two advantages. First, if updates or changes to the material are required, only that section will have to be repaginated; the other pages remain the same. Second, students can quickly locate specific sections and pages. Using a similar numbering system, figures and tables can also be quickly identified. In this case however, a dot rather than a dash or slash can be used to separate the figure or table number from the module number. For example, Table 5 in module two could be written as Table 2.5; Figure 8 in module three could be written as Figure 3.8. When used properly, text headings help students to understand content organization and quickly locate information. There are two basic systems of text headings. The first is a numbering system wherein the module, the main headings, and the subheadings would be numbered as follows:

Module 1 or 1.0

Main Headings 1.1 1.2

Subheadings 1.1.1 1.1.2 Although this numbering system can be carried to a fourth or fifth level, it may be preferable to switch to non‐numbered, subheadings at that point. Due to the proliferation of word processing and desktop publishing software, many course developers are using a second system of text headings, which is simply called a heading system. Instead of numbers, this system uses a specific arrangement and combination of various type sizes and type faces to differentiate between the module heading, the main headings, and the subheadings. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association provides detailed information on this heading system. Also, refer to the Chicago Manual of Style.



Organization It is essential that print instructional materials be segmented into small, manageable units and labelled appropriately. The table of contents should provide students with a clear indication of how the course content is arranged. This arrangement will depend primarily on how the content is sequenced. For example, chronologically sequenced content is best segmented into periods of time or historical eras. Legibility Text that is easy to read also has excellent legibility. Legibility is improved when the factors below are taken into consideration. ! Typefaces are distinctive and readable. In North America, audiences prefer

serif fonts such as Bookman and New Century Schoolbook (Misanchuk, 1992); ! Typefaces are large enough to be read in dim light. Students in developing

countries must often study in conditions that are less than ideal. Select a type size that is at least 10 or 12 points. (Note that there are 72 points to the inch.)

! Typefaces and type sizes are used consistently. ! Large block letters and headings comprised of all capital letters are used

sparingly. ! Key words are visually enhanced with bolding or typeface variation. ! White space is used to set off blocks of text. ! Short sentences and short paragraphs are used frequently. ! Text is left‐justified only, and the spacing between letters on a line of type is

proportional to the size of the letter. ! Contrast between text and paper is conducive to easy reading. ! Numbers are reserved for identifying the steps in a task or levels of

importance.



Layout Layout refers to how the information is displayed on a page. Because most students are visually oriented, an attractive page layout can facilitate learning. On the other hand, a cluttered, disorganized layout may hinder unmotivated learners. Every page in an instructional manual or guide should have an adequate amount of white space; perhaps one‐third of each page should be blank. This white space separates ideas and concepts (Hartley, 1980) and provides space for notetaking, which facilitates learning (Rickards, 1980). When there is sufficient white space on a page, readers can easily scan the text to locate pertinent information. White space includes the margins on the top, bottom, and sides of each page. Using an unjustified, rag‐right margin adds white space between lines and the spaces between words remain the same. When the spacing between words varies, it is more difficult for the eye to scan a line of type. However, professional typesetting can produce consistent word spacing along with a justified right margin. Borders, bullets, icons, and different typefaces can be used to highlight items on a page and to add variety. However, these items should be used consistently for the same function. For example, if boldface is used to identify key words, it should not be used to highlight references. Tables, diagrams, flowcharts, graphs, and illustrations are used to clarify explanations, direct attention, show relationships, indicate scale, highlight details, illustrate a process, increase reader interest, and promote the recall of information. However, to be effective, these items must complement the text. Illustrations should relate to and be located near the appropriate textual passages. Labels on diagrams, graphs, and flowcharts should be consistently placed and clearly identify the components highlighted. Bernard & Marcel (1984), Dwyer (1972), and Winn & Holliday (1982) provide additional information on designing illustrations for text. Color may be advantageous, but it can also be expensive. Grey shading is an inexpensive alternative. Color can be used to highlight features, add realism to illustrations, or motivate learners. Use color consistently when color is used to emphasize key words or important points. Note that if too much color is used, it can jar or distract learners. Patrick, Michael, & Moore (1986) recommend that no more than six colors be used in any diagram or illustration. If the print materials are meant to be duplicated, remember that blue shades do not copy well. Take care not to select colors that may have negative connotations in the country in which you will be working. Bergeron (1990) discusses the meaning of colors in western cultures.



Packaging Training materials that are attractively packaged are more likely to be used. First and foremost, the binding must be durable. If the materials require frequent additions or updates, a three‐hole punch binding is preferred. Note that several countries use a two‐hole punch rather than the three‐hole punch commonly used in North America. Further, the standard paper size may be 8 1/4" x 11 3/4" rather than 8 1/2" x 11." If the materials are not likely to be revised for some time, cerlox, coil, or perfect professional binding may be used. If the materials are to be used in hot, humid climates, a uni‐bind format, which uses a heat binding process, is not recommended. Remember that thick, bulky covers add extra weight to the package. If materials must be shipped, this extra weight will increase the delivery costs. The weight of your materials may increase significantly during transit because paper and cardboard absorb water, especially in humid climates. In order not to overwhelm your students, you may wish to package or bind each chapter or module as a separate unit. This type of packaging will affect the preliminary pages, the table of contents, the reference sections, and the overall organization of the materials as each chapter or module must be able to stand on its own. Some sections from the early chapters or modules may need to be repeated in later units. Tabs or colored paper can be used to separate the various components of the training materials. These devices make it easy to locate specific sections of the course material. However, tabs can be extremely expensive to produce, and inserting colored paper while assembling a manual can be time‐consuming. Even when a large number of customized divider tabs are ordered, the cost per tab may be the same as the numbered, preprinted tabs. Frequently forgotten in the design of print‐based instructional material is the appropriateness of the manual for its intended use. For example, if students are to use the manual as they work with a piece of equipment, then the manual must lie flat. If students are to take the manual with them on field trips, then it should be small enough to carry and have a waterproof cover. For more practical information on the design, development, and production of print‐based instructional materials, refer to the following publications: Alder, E. W. (1991). Print that works. Palo Alto, CA: Bull Publishing Company. American Psychological Association. (1995). Publication manual of the American

Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.



Misanchuk, E. R. (1992). Preparing instructional text: Document design using desktop publishing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Rogers, G. (1985). Editing for print. London: Quarto Publishing Ltd. Stoneall, L. (1991). How to write training materials. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer and

Co. University of Chicago Press (1982). The Chicago manual of style (13th ed., rev.).

Chicago, IL: Author. Vanstone, K. (1985). Practical proofreading. Toronto, ON: Copp Clark Pitman

Ltd. Due to the rapid changes in desktop publishing capabilities, consider obtaining a subscription to a desktop publishing journal.


6.0 Travel Advice


Contents 6.1 Introduction...........................................................................................6/1 6.2 Health Advice ........................................................................................ 6/2

Introduction........................................................................................................6/2 Medical Check‐up...............................................................................................6/3 Medical Insurance ..............................................................................................6/3 Dental Check‐up.................................................................................................6/4 Jet Lag ..................................................................................................................6/4 Immunization .....................................................................................................6/5 Water Precautions ............................................................................................6/10 Food Precautions ...............................................................................................6/11 Diarrhea and Vomiting .................................................................................... 6/12 Other Precautions ............................................................................................ 6/13 When You Return Home ................................................................................. 6/15

6.3 Financial and Legal Arrangements ......................................................6/16 6.4 Customs Regulations ...........................................................................6/19 6.5 What To Take....................................................................................... 6/20

Medical Supplies.............................................................................................. 6/20 Clothing.............................................................................................................6/24 Personal Items...................................................................................................6/27 Gifts....................................................................................................................6/30 Other Items....................................................................................................... 6/31

6.6 Safety Advice........................................................................................ 6/36

Introduction......................................................................................................6/36 Getting Yourself Ready.....................................................................................6/37 Airport Security ................................................................................................6/39 Hotel Security ...................................................................................................6/39 Touring ..............................................................................................................6/42 Travelling With Children.................................................................................6/47 Terrorism and Hijacking................................................................................. 6/48 Natural Disasters ............................................................................................. 6/50

6.7 Culture Shock .......................................................................................6/53

Introduction......................................................................................................6/53 Phases of Culture Shock...................................................................................6/53 Dealing with Culture Shock.............................................................................6/54


6.8 Dealing With Stress ............................................................................. 6/56 Before You Leave ..............................................................................................6/56 While You Are Away ........................................................................................6/57 Upon Your Return ............................................................................................6/58

6.9 Conclusion...........................................................................................6/60


Travel Advice 6/1

6.1 Introduction The travel advice provided in this chapter is intended primarily for those who are going to work in developing countries for the first time. These trainers not only face the excitement and adventure of travelling to a foreign country, but also the frustrations that often stem from working in an unfamiliar environment. This chapter contains practical advice that will help you, the instructor, to avoid or better cope with the difficult circumstances that frequently arise in developing countries, particularly in rural, tropical areas. If you will be working in Eastern Europe, then you must take warmer clothes. However, the advice on immunization, water and food precautions, and so forth will still apply. Although the information presented here may be more appropriate for trainers who are lodged in overseas tourist centers or in economy, Western‐type hotels, it should also help those trainers who may find themselves in less comfortable surroundings. Those trainers who are assigned to work in urban areas and are able to live in first‐class accommodations may not need to bring a number of the items listed in this chapter. However, if they plan to travel beyond the urban areas, they may find the advice on health and safety helpful or, perhaps, essential. Do not be alarmed by the contents. Remember, prevention is better than cure! Relax, be flexible, and adapt to your international environment. This chapter presents an overview of several important items that you must consider prior to travelling to and working in a developing country. It is also filled with practical advice. You should refer to this chapter frequently as you make preparations for your overseas training activity. It is strongly advised that you examine the information in this chapter at least two months before you leave home. For example, certain immunizations are often mandatory, and some series of vaccinations must be spread over a period of one or two months. You may also need time to obtain visas or other documents that will enable you to have a safe and successful trip. Only you can be responsible for your own health. Therefore, take the time to read this chapter carefully.


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6.2 Health Advice Introduction This section provides you with an overview of the items that are essential for your well‐being in a developing country. It is not intended to be the definitive work on health advice for international travellers. Prior to your departure, it is strongly advised that you see your doctor and have a complete physical examination. You should also have a dental check‐up, and you should ensure that your immunizations are up‐to‐date. Speak to a public health nurse who is familiar with overseas travel, and obtain the latest copy of a book entitled Vaccination certificate requirements and health advice for international travel published by the World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Read, and take, a travel health care guide such as Don't drink the water...The complete traveller's guide to staying healthy in warm climates, co‐published by the Canadian Public Health Association and the Canadian Society for International Health (1994). If you are taking children with you, it is also highly recommended that you read Children abroad by J. Losos, A. Clayton, N. Gerein, & R. Wilson (1986). Women travellers will find practical health advice in the Handbook for women travellers by M. & G. Moss (1987), and in Women travel: Adventures, advice and experience edited by N. Jansz & M. Davies (1990). Other helpful books for women travellers include A women=s guide to carefree travel abroad by J. Turbin (1991) and A journey of one=s own: Uncommon advice for the independent woman traveller by T. Zepatos (1992). You may also want to refer to the International Travel Tip Bazaar located at the following site on the Internet: http://www.journeywoman.com. If your spouse will be accompanying you on a long overseas assignment, you may want to consider preserving his or her sanity by finding your spouse an appropriate overseas job as well. Remember, while you are living overseas, you are vulnerable to a number of risks and stresses that you may not experience at home. Perhaps 20% of North Americans who travel overseas become ill. North Americans may lack the immunities possessed by people from other geographic regions. Use this section as a guide. See a doctor before you go! Preferably, see a doctor who has some international experience. Names of these doctors can usually be obtained from university hospitals. Only your doctor can provide you with the professional assistance that is appropriate for your situation. A list of the recommended medical supplies that you should take is provided in the section "What to Take." You may want to review this list with your doctor.


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Medical Check‐up Have a complete physical examination prior to your departure. Tell your doctor where you will be travelling and how long you will be there. Ask your doctor if you are physically fit for your journey and what health precautions you should take. Obtain your blood type; this information may be helpful if you require serious medical attention. If you need to take prescription drugs, ask your doctor to indicate the generic name of the drug and the required dosage. If the drug is a narcotic, have your doctor provide you with an official letter that explains why you need this medication. If you intend to be overseas for an extended period of time, make sure you have an adequate supply of your prescribed medication. You should also consider obtaining a medical alert bracelet that identifies your blood type, specific allergies, or any serious medical conditions. The bracelet should also include a phone number to call for medical assistance. Once you are overseas, contact the nearest American, British, or Canadian embassy or consulate. Obtain the name and address of the local doctor used by the embassy. Also, let embassy personnel know where you will be staying and what you will be doing in the country. Medical Insurance Review your existing medical insurance policy and consider obtaining additional coverage that will allow you to: ! access medical advice via a toll‐free telephone number; ! cover part or all of your overseas hospital and medical bills; ! pay your bills directly so that you will not need to cover the expenses first

and then be reimbursed; ! fly home for treatment; ! have a family member or friend accompany you home if you need medical

assistance; ! cover any expenses associated with the premature cancellation of your trip. Always check the fine print on your medical policy. Does it cover medical conditions that arise from previous illnesses? Are there any age or financial


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restrictions? Will it cover the entire length of your trip? What would happen to your coverage if your trip was extended unexpectedly? Dental Check‐up Well trained dentists can be difficult to find in developing countries. Visit your dentist before you go and have any potential cavities filled. By doing so, you will reduce the possibility of getting AIDS, which may be caused by the use of contaminated dental instruments near bleeding gums. Don't forget to pick up a supply of dental floss; it is not readily available in many overseas countries. Jet Lag One of the side effects of long‐distance air travel is jet lag. When you arrive at your destination, your body will need some time to reset its internal clock. You will feel tired and may find it difficult to focus your energies. Your judgement and other cognitive skills may be affected. The effects of jet lag are more noticeable when you travel long distances and when you fly from west to east. If you fly from Southeast Asia to North America via the Pacific Ocean, it may take you at least a week to recover from jet lag. There are several ways you can reduce the negative effects of jet lag. A few suggestions are given below. ! Rest before you leave. ! Three days prior to your departure, try to gradually adjust your body to the

time zone you will be living in. ! While flying, try to adopt the schedule you will maintain at your foreign

destination. Sleep when it is night in your destination and be awake when it is day. Set your watch to the time at your destination.

! While en route, avoid drinking alcoholic beverages or substances that contain

caffeine. The effects of alcohol are heightened at high altitudes. Do drink plenty of other liquids, especially water and fruit juices.

! Minimize your simple carbohydrate intake and eat lots of protein. Foods that

are high in carbohydrates induce sleep, while those high in protein produce wakefulness.

! Reduce smoking.


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! Eat lightly before, during, and after your flight. Eat high fiber foods, such as fruits and vegetables, and complex carbohydrates such as rice and pasta.

! Each hour, while you are awake, do some exercises in your seat, and if

possible, walk the aisles for a few minutes. Exercise on arrival at your destination.

! Try to relax. Loosen your clothes, take off your shoes, remove your rings, and

get some sleep. Remember that feet and fingers swell at high altitudes. You may need to use ear plugs, eyeshades, and an inflatable neck collar that helps prevent kinky necks caused by sleeping while sitting. Listen to soothing music on your portable, cassette taperecorder. Unless you are travelling first‐class, the headphones on most planes are suitable only for conveying speech.

! On long trips, plan to stop over one night during the trip. ! A few experienced travellers recommend taking a sleeping pill while on long

eastbound flights. They say it allows them to get seven hours of sleep and reduces the long‐term effects of jet lag. However, sleeping pills, like other drugs, can remain in your body for a long time after you take them, and if you need to take emergency action while on board a plane, you may be too drowsy to respond effectively.

! Following your trip, allow yourself time to adjust. Raycheba (1993) suggests

that you will need one day of recovery for every time zone crossed when travelling west to east. You may need one half‐day of rest per time zone when you travel from east to west.

To obtain additional information regarding jet lag, refer to Jet smart by D. Fairechild (1992). Immunization Immunization requirements are a necessary part of international travel preparations. Although the occurrence of many serious diseases has been reduced, there is still a need to take appropriate precautions. As the saying goes, "It is better to be safe than sorry." Do not leave immunization requirements to the last minute. Some vaccinations must be given, in intervals, over a two‐month period. With the assistance of your doctor or a public health nurse, determine which vaccinations and booster shots you require. Although each country will have its current specific requirements, make sure you are immunized against tetanus, diphtheria, typhoid,


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polio, measles, Hepatitis A, and tuberculosis. While checking on your immunization status, also note any allergic reactions to drugs such as penicillin. People who are allergic to penicillin may have to wait for sulfa drugs to arrive. You should be aware of the diseases listed below and their corresponding vaccinations and medications. These diseases are common in many developing countries. G Cholera is caused by fecally contaminated food and water. Symptoms include headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, and severe dehydration. Cholera is found primarily in Africa, Asia, and South America. Although a vaccination is available for cholera, it will not provide you with 100 percent protection against the disease. The vaccination is good for six months. Several countries require visitors to have cholera immunization. In 1991, South America experienced a major cholera epidemic. There were 256,343 reported cases in Peru and 2,453 deaths (The Globe and Mail, 1991, September 20). Ecuador had 36,859 cases and 581 deaths. In the winter of 1992, cholera bacteria was found in the water supply of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Consequently, the 11 million inhabitants had to purify their water or obtain bottled water for drinking. Brazil has spent $54 million to fight this disease. In 1992, it was expected that approximately 40,000 people in Latin America would die because of cholera. If you are travelling to these countries, be sure to have a cholera immunization and handle local food and water with extreme care. As with other water‐borne diseases, you should drink only safe water, eat cooked vegetables, and peel all fruit yourself, wash your hands with soap before eating, and avoid unhygienic food handlers and street vendors. The longer you are away from home, the greater is the temptation to buy food from a street vendor. Best advice ‐ don=t, or do so when you can assure yourself that safe food handling practices are being implemented and that the food is fresh! G Diphtheria is caused by bacteria, which forms a false membrane in the throat, and it produces a toxin that affects the heart and nervous system. You should have a diphtheria immunization every ten years. Diphtheria and tetanus are usually given in a combined vaccine. G Hepatitis A is an infectious, viral disease of the liver, which is caused by eating food or drinking water that has been contaminated by fecal matter. Although it is found world‐wide, it is particularly evident in poorer countries. Hepatitis A causes headaches, fever, nausea, and vomiting. Symptoms include dark urine and clay‐colored stools. People with this disease are extremely ill for two weeks, and then experience a feeling of weakness for one to three months. Taking immunoglobulin reduces the chance of contracting hepatitis. However, if


Travel Advice 6/7

you are continually exposed to this disease, you should receive immunoglobulin every three to six months. G Hepatitis B is an inflammatory, viral infection of the liver that has symptoms similar to hepatitis A. However, hepatitis B develops more slowly than hepatitis A, and hepatitis B is a more serious disease. According to the World Health Organization, approximately two billion people are infected with hepatitis B in any two‐week period (The Globe and Mail, 1992, March 25). Unless you are a social worker or work in the health science field, you are unlikely to come into contact with hepatitis B. However, it is prevalent in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific islands. The disease is transmitted through a direct exchange of body fluids, such as blood or semen, with an infected person. You can get hepatitis B by using contaminated razors, using unsterilized hypodermic needles, getting a tattoo, having your ears pierced, or having sexual contact with an infected person. The immunization series for hepatitis B consists of the administration of a vaccine over a seven‐month period. G Malaria is caused by a parasite that is transmitted via the bite of the female anopheles mosquito. Malaria, a potentially fatal disease, causes high fever, headaches, flu‐like symptoms, muscular aches, and chills. These symptoms may recur at intervals over a long period of time. Malaria affects 500 million people each year. Two drugs, Chloroquine and Fansidar, are frequently used to reduce the possibility of getting malaria; however, no drug can guarantee protection against the disease. Some strains of the parasite have become immune to these two drugs. During 1993, 1,300 people died in Thailand from cerebral malaria, which is caused by a parasite that is resistant to existing malarial drugs (CTV News, 1994, January 2). You should take all the precautions necessary to prevent being bitten by mosquitoes, especially between dusk and dawn. Avoid sitting outside after dark, check to see that your hotel rooms are screened, steer clear of still bodies of water, use insect repellant, and if necessary, hang a mosquito net over your bed. If you think that you may be staying in a malaria‐infected area, consult your doctor or public health nurse. Also, speak to expatriates who have lived in the particular part of the country in which you will be working. Individuals who live in a country where malaria is endemic do not often contract malaria. Usually, they have developed some resistance to the disease. If you think you have been bitten by an insect and experience fever and flu‐like symptoms, see a doctor as soon as possible. Note that scientists sponsored by the United Nations Development Program, the World Bank, and the World Health Organization are conducting trials of a new vaccine, SPf66. It is being tested in Tanzania, Gambia, Colombia, and Thailand,


Travel Advice 6/8

and if found to be effective, another malaria vaccine could be available by 1998 (The Globe and Mail, 1994, February 14, A1). G Measles is usually considered a viral, childhood disease. Symptoms include fever, sore eyes, and the appearance of round red spots on the skin. Note, however, that measles can cause pneumonia, ear infections, and, in severe cases, mental retardation and death. You can be immunized against measles. G Mumps is a contagious viral disease that causes fever and swelling of the parotid gland. The disease can lead to encephalitis and meningitis. The vaccine for mumps is usually combined with the vaccine for measles. G Poliomyelitis, or polio, is a viral disease that still occurs in many developing countries. It is characterized by high fever and reduced motor movements. Polio can cause permanent deformity and serious disability. If you are travelling to areas with high incidents of polio, you should reinforce your immunity to this disease by receiving a booster dose. You do not require a booster if you have completed your primary polio immunization series within the last ten years. G Rabies is a viral infection that affects the brain and the nervous system. It is transmitted by bites from infected animals, or according to recent reports, by being licked by infected animals. This disease can be fatal. Avoid having contact with any animals, particularly monkeys and stray dogs or cats. These animals may attack you even when they are not provoked. An infected animal may be aggressive, show little fear of humans, and salivate excessively. If you are bitten, wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water. If possible, try to have the animal caught and held for examination. Although you can take the human diploid‐cell vaccine, which protects you against rabies, this vaccine is normally administered only after it has been determined that the bite is from a rabid animal. Agriculturalists and animal handlers who plan to work in rural settings overseas frequently take this vaccine prior to their departure. G Tetanus, also known as lock‐jaw, is caused by toxin‐producing bacteria, which enter the body through cuts or pores. Once you have been immunized for tetanus, you will need a booster every ten years. The bacteria can be found everywhere, but especially where there are donkeys, horses, or mules. G Tuberculosis is a communicable disease that primarily affects the lungs. Although few Canadians and Americans suffer from this debilitating illness, tuberculosis is still common in countries that have poor or crowded living conditions. Approximately, 1.7 billion people suffer from tuberculosis in any given two‐week period (The Globe and Mail, 1992, March 25). The disease is caused by a bacteria found in unpasteurized milk and milk products. When infected persons cough, they spread the disease through airborne water droplets.


Travel Advice 6/9

Have a tuberculin or TB skin test done before and after your trip. There is a vaccine for tuberculosis. G Typhoid bacteria cause fatigue, fever, and headaches. In addition, infected individuals may experience abdominal pain, cramps, and diarrhea. Typhoid is usually present in food and water that has been contaminated by unsanitary handling. Initial typhoid immunization consists of a series of three doses, which are normally administered over a five‐week period. Booster shots are required every two to three years. Typhoid is still prevalent in many developing countries. Some countries, such as Malaysia, are actively trying to reduce the occurrence of typhoid. Local newspapers, such as the New Strait Times (January 30, 1991), provide their readers with illustrations on how to reduce the possibility of getting typhoid. This Kuala Lumpur newspaper advised its readers to drink only boiled water; wash all vegetables, fruit, and utensils (with safe water); avoid eating uncooked food; wash hands with soap and clean water before preparing food and before and after eating; cover all food to prevent flies from landing on it, handle food with utensils not hands; prepare food on a table not on a floor; use latrines properly; and, keep the household clean. G Yellow fever is a debilitating, infectious disease that is endemic to countries in Africa, Central America, and South America. It is particularly common in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela. The disease is caused by a virus, which is transmitted by a forest mosquito. In some countries, you may need to produce written evidence that you have received yellow fever immunization, even if you are just passing through. A yellow fever vaccination is valid for ten years, beginning ten days after vaccination. G AIDS: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS is transmitted through sexual intercourse or an exchange of bodily fluids such as blood, semen, and vaginal fluids. Learn about AIDS before you go overseas. You can contract this disease if you receive infected blood or blood components, use contaminated needles, or participate in sexual intercourse with an infected person. While you are overseas, it is recommended that you avoid blood transfusions, take your own disposable, sterilized needles, and use condoms. The February 12, 1992 Globe and Mail reports that "WHO (World Health Organization) estimates that at least 10 million to 12 million people, including a million children, have become infected since the human immunodeficiency virus or HIV began spreading" and that "more than 90 per cent of the newly infected adults acquired their infection heterosexually." Although AIDS can be found anywhere in the world, the disease is prevalent in Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, and Zambia. In Kenya, culture plays a role in spreading AIDS. According to Kenyan Luo customs, the widow of a dead brother is inherited by a surviving brother or a close male friend. Infection rates


Travel Advice 6/10

are rising rapidly in Southeast Asia. Medical experts in Thailand predict that five to ten percent of the country's population will have the disease by the year 2000 (Smucker, 1991). A few countries, such as Saudi Arabia, require some of their visitors to have proof that they are AIDS‐free. Usually, this proof is required only if the visitor will be staying for an extended period of time. Water Precautions While in a foreign country, you can avoid many diseases by maintaining stringent personal hygiene and by storing and handling water and food in a safe manner. If the water is not chlorinated, or if you are unsure of its quality, do not drink it or brush your teeth with it. Your best bet is to purchase bottled water, particularly water that comes in a glass bottle and has been bottled overseas. In 1990, the Malaysian government revealed that some resident bottlers were using local water that had not been purified. Make sure all beverage bottles have secure, tight lids. Whenever possible, use sterilized drinking containers. You can also boil the water vigorously for 10 to 15 minutes before drinking it, or disinfect the water with Halazone tablets, iodine, or chlorine bleach. However, the levels of iodine and chlorine normally used to purify water will not destroy parasites such as amoebas and Giardia, which is prevalent in water throughout Ukraine, Russia, and many other countries, and the treated water will taste funny. Allow your treated water to stand for 30 minutes before drinking it. You could also take a Katadyn7 Pocket Filter, which is used by the Red Cross, UNICEF, and NATO forces. This filter removes water‐borne impurities such as cysts that can cause typhoid and cholera. Alternatively, you could take a small, inexpensive water filter straw that may remove up to 98% of harmful contaminants. However, it is always best to boil your drinking water for at least ten minutes. Generally, it is safe to drink the local wine, beer, canned drinks, carbonated soft drinks, or tea and coffee made with boiled water. Open the bottles or cans yourself. Do not drink fountain drinks or add ice cubes to your drinks. Alcohol does not purify water. If you think that your beverage has been handled incorrectly or diluted with water, do not drink it. Always carry canned pop or bottled water that you know is safe, and consider taking your own drinking container with you. In Uganda, for example, commercially prepared bottled water is scarce; therefore, you may need to prepare your own bottled water. Bring your own drinking water with you when you board local airplanes in developing countries. Currently, there are no international regulations that define the quality of airlines= drinking water or how it must be loaded onto the planes.


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While overseas, you may notice that foreign missionaries drink the local water without suffering any apparent negative side‐effects. Because they live in developing countries for extended periods of time, they often find it beneficial to get used to the local water. However, they do suffer stomach ailments, but after a time, the bacteria in their digestive tracts changes. They can then withstand mild bacteria but will still be susceptible to the more toxic bacteria and viruses. Remember, in Canada and the United States, the life expectancy is more than 70 years. In Afghanistan, Morocco, and Pakistan, people can expect to live to the age of 45. In other developing countries however, the life expectancy can be as low as 30 years. This low life expectancy is due to a number of factors, one of which relates to ingesting contaminated water and food. Every minute, six childrenCmost of whom live in developing countriesCdie from drinking contaminated water (The Vancouver Sun, 1993, April 3). Food Precautions Usually, it is the way the food is handled, not the food itself, which makes it unsafe to eat. Here are some precautions you should take: ! Wash your hands thoroughly with soap before eating. Water alone does not

remove bacteria and parasites. ! Do not eat foods that are served or touched by hands. ! Eat freshly cooked vegetables and avoid eating raw or uncooked vegetables.

Remember, some vegetables are fertilized with nightsoil. ! Eat fresh fruit, including tomatoes, that you have peeled or washed yourself.

Before peeling, examine the fruit for punctures; if it has punctures, throw it away. Many experienced travellers in developing countries recommend not eating watermelons. In order to make them more attractive to customers, the melons are frequently injected with local water.

! Avoid buying any fruits, such as melons, that may have been injected with

water to improve their attractiveness. ! Ensure that all fish and meats are thoroughly cooked; do not order anything

rare or medium. Foods may look crispy and well‐done on the outside but may still be raw at the center. Never eat raw shellfish.

! Avoid foods cooked in old oil by street vendors. ! Avoid smoked meats or fish.


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! Do not eat leftovers. Frequently, they have not been properly stored. ! Unless you are absolutely sure of its source, do not drink milk or eat milk

products such as butter, custards, soft cheeses, salad dressings, ice cream, or cream fillings. Boil milk or use canned, condensed milk or milk powder mixed with water that has been boiled for at least ten minutes. Remember, in many developing countries, milk is not routinely pasteurized.

! Do not let insects land on your food. Open air restaurants and delicatessens

are powerful magnets for insects. ! Wear light‐colored clothing. Dark clothing and perfume often attract

disease‐carrying mosquitoes that may land on your food. ! Bring your own fork, spoon, and knife. Folding or durable plastic utensils can

be purchased at camping or sports stores. If appropriate, take your own chopsticks.

Although it may be impossible to take all of the precautions, you should try. Diarrhea and Vomiting About 80 percent of travellers get and suffer from diarrhea (The Vancouver Sun, 1992, October 17). Recently, a British consumer magazine, Holiday which? reported on a survey that involved 34,000 travellers. The countries where travellers got ill most frequently included Egypt, Gambia, Turkey, Latin America, Bulgaria, Thailand, Tunisia, Malaysia, and Morocco (The Globe and Mail, 1991, May 10). Most travellers suffered from stomach upsets that involved diarrhea and vomiting. Although these two illnesses occur frequently to people who travel in developing countries, they also affect people who live there. In 1990, 3.2 million children died of diarrhea (The Vancouver Sun, 1993, April 13). Diarrhea and vomiting can be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or motion sickness. Diarrhea is self‐limiting and may last from one to ten days. In such cases, it is vital that you replace your body's fluids quickly. Drink clear, safe fruit juices or try drinking one cup of boiled and cooled water that contains 1/4 teaspoon of salt, two teaspoons of sugar, and a flavouring such as a small amount of lime, lemon, or orange juice. You can also drink weak tea or broth. Drink lots of liquids, in small quantities. Try to drink at least eight cups per day. Avoid solid foods and milk until you have fully recovered. If you feel able, start eating soft foods, such as soft‐boiled eggs, toast, cooked cereals, and crackers, 24‐hours after you experience diarrhea or vomiting. Consult a doctor if: P the illness is extremely severe;


Travel Advice 6/13

P other symptoms such as a high fever, chills, and weakness are present;

P the vomit or stool contains blood or pus;

P the illness lasts more than a day or two.

For example, you may have schistosomiasis, which is caused by a freshwater parasite found in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and South America. If untreated, this parasite may infect the lungs, liver, and intestines and cause serious chronic complications. The flatworm that causes this disease uses freshwater snails as its intermediate host. The larvae that it releases can burrow through human skin in 30 seconds to ten minutes. No symptoms may occur initially, but if they do occur, expect to feel weak and chilly and to suffer from headaches and diarrhea. Again, if your diarrhea or vomiting lasts more than a couple of days, consult a doctor. Anti‐diarrhea and anti‐vomiting medications do exist. One medication, called Dialyte7, is available from the International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers. However, the most effective medications require a doctor's prescription. Normally, these drugs are taken after the symptoms occur. You should obtain these products prior to leaving home. Read the instructions that accompany these medicines carefully. Other Precautions In addition to the previous suggestions, here are a few more precautions that you should take: G Sunshine: Prolonged exposure to intense sunshine, especially between the hours of 10 a.m. and 2 p.m., can be harmful to those who are unaccustomed to it. In tropical areas, heat exhaustion is a common illness. This malady is caused by excessive perspiring in hot, humid climates. Because the perspiration cannot evaporate, the body is unable to cool down. Wear sunglasses to protect your eyes, and use a sunscreen lotion to protect your skin. Ask your doctor to recommend the sunscreen lotion that is appropriate for your skin type. Until you have become accustomed to the sun's intensity, keep outdoor activities to a minimum. Wear a hat, wear loose‐fitting clothing, and stay in the shade. To prevent dehydration, drink plenty of liquids. If you find yourself perspiring profusely, try drinking a cup of water with no more than a 1/4 teaspoon of salt. If you suffer from heat exhaustion and experience cramps, dizziness, nausea, weak but rapid pulse, shallow breathing, and pale skin, then you should lie down in a cool place with your feet elevated and drink slightly salted water. G Humidity: High humidity can make you feel hot and clammy. It can also make you feel like you are suffocating. In such climates, limit your physical


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activities. Wear loose‐fitting, cotton clothing. Dry yourself off during the day and use talcum powder. Watch for fungal infections and cuts or sores that will not heal. Fungal or yeast infections can be treated with an antifungal cream or powder. G Cuts: Cuts heal very slowly in humid climates. Clean scratches and cuts, apply a disinfectant such as iodine, and leave minor wounds unbandaged. Keep the wound area clean. G Swimming: In a warm, tropical climate, it's always tempting to jump into any pool of water. Don't! Many parasites live in tropical, fresh‐water ponds and lakes such as Lake Malawi in Malawi. Limit your swimming to chlorinated pools or to seawater areas that are far from sewage outlets. Make sure that the water is not infested with jellyfish, sea snakes, or sharks, and know where the sea currents are before you jump in. Remember, chlorine evaporates rapidly in tropical countries; therefore, an outdoor swimming pool may not be as safe as you think it is. In order to prevent parasites from boring into your skin, wear footwear on a beach and around pool areas. For the same reason, lie on a towel or beach mat. G Jellyfish: While swimming in seawater, you may be stung by a jellyfish. If you do, stay calm. Not only will you increase the speed at which the poison circulates, but you may also panic and drown. Once you are ashore, remove any tentacles that are attached to your skin. Alcohol or sand can be used to remove the tentacles. If you feel extremely ill, see a doctor. G Altitude: If you travel above altitudes of 8,000 feet, you may experience altitude sickness, which is caused by a lack of oxygen. Symptoms include severe headache, fever, nausea, and dizziness. If you experience altitude sickness, move to a lower elevation, minimize your physical activity, and drink lots of fluids. To avoid altitude sickness, adjust to new heights gradually. If you are working in an area 8,000 feet above sea level, move up at a rate of 1,000 to 1,500 feet per day. G Insects: Although most insects are harmless, several have extremely irritating bites. Others, such as mosquitos, carry harmful bacteria and viruses that may cause a variety of illnesses such as dengue fever and malaria. Note that mosquitoes that carry dengue fever usually bite during the daytime while malarial mosquitoes bite at night. To protect yourself from insects such as mosquitos, cockroaches, and ticks, wear garments that cover your entire body, use insect repellants (especially those that contain diethyltoluzmide or DEET), use mosquito coils, and hang mosquito netting over sleeping areas. Do not leave food uncovered. Wearing pants and long‐sleeved shirts will prevent ticks and tiny insects that live in skin pores from landing on your arms and legs. If you are walking through tall grass, make sure that your pant legs are knotted at the


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ankles. If you are bitten by an insect, avoid scratching the area and keep it clean. To reduce itching, use an antihistamine lotion. G Scorpions and snakes: These creatures are usually active at night and should be avoided. In Bangladesh, at least 3,000 people a year are killed by poisonous snakes (The Vancouver Sun, 1991, May 4). In scorpion‐ or snake‐infested areas, wear high boots or heavy soled, leather shoes to prevent being bitten while walking. If you go out at night, do not walk through grassy or treed areas. The locals often use sticks to prod the ground in front of them as they walk. You may also want to carry a flashlight at night so you can see where you are stepping. Small snakes and scorpions like to hide inside shoes and boots. Always shake out your shoes before putting them on. If you do get bitten by one of these creatures, try to kill it. In order to obtain the correct antidote or antivenin, you must be able to identify the specific animal that bit you. Try to remain calm. Panic only speeds up the circulation of the poison within your body. Call a doctor immediately. G Lizards: Lizards normally eat plants and insects and are often seen climbing up walls and along ceilings. They help to keep rooms free of insects. They usually scamper away when approached, and with the exception of the Gila monster in the southern United States, they are not poisonous. If you are bitten by a lizard, treat the wound as a deep cut. Keep the wound clean and apply disinfectant. When You Return Home When you return home, rest and slowly ease back into your regular routine. After a stay in a developing country, see your doctor if you experience any of the following persistent or recurring symptoms within six months of your return: headaches, fever, rash, or gastrointestinal disorders. Tell your doctor that you have been overseas. If your doctor cannot identify your illness, ask that you be referred to the nearest tropical or infectious diseases center. There are several such centers in Canada and the United States. If they cannot help you, suggest that they contact the Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia, (404)639‐2572.


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6.3 Financial and Legal Arrangements Prior to your departure, make a list of your financial and legal responsibilities to your family, your institution, and your foreign contacts. Then outline an action plan to deal with each of these items. You must ensure that your family is well cared for while you are away. For example, will there be adequate funds to cover the mortgage and pay other bills while you are away? Who will pay them? What would happen if you stayed overseas longer than you intended? What would happen to your family and possessions if you died? Should you involve your relatives, trusted friends, or lawyers in your affairs? What contracts may expire and will have to be renewed while you are away? What powers of attorney need to be put in place? It is wise to leave behind a copy of the following items, or tell someone where they can be found: ! a detailed travel itinerary

! your airline tickets

! your passport number and issue date or a photocopy of the first few pages in your passport

! birth and marriage certificates

! visa numbers, date of issue, and length of stay

! immunization records

! medical and dental histories

! prescriptions, including their generic names

! accident and sickness insurance

! a recent photograph of yourself

! the name, numbers, and amounts of your traveller=s cheques

! credit card names, numbers, and expiry dates

! letters of credit

! bank account numbers and the name of your bank manager or accountant

! bank transfer procedures; it may be necessary to transfer funds overseas

! location of safety deposit boxes

! mortgage or lease agreements

! other financial information, such as the name of your stockbroker


Travel Advice 6/17

! tax records

! driver's licence numbers, including the number of your international driver's licence

! customs certificates for expensive items that you will take out of the country

and bring back with you ! the location of your will

! names and addresses of relatives and close friends

Speak to your supervisor, and clarify the conditions under which you will be working overseas. Find out what assistance your employer will give you prior to, during, and after your overseas activities. Will you receive time off to prepare for your trip? Will your employer accept or pay for long‐distance calls related to your overseas duties? Who will look after your job responsibilities while you are away? Will you have to monitor your replacement's activities while you are out of the country? Upon your return, how quickly will you be expected to resume your previous workload? Examine the employee benefits listed below. How will they be maintained while you are away? ! Accidental death insurance

! Dental plan

! Group life insurance

! Health insurance

! Long‐term disability

! Pension plans

! Registered retirement savings plans

! Savings bonds

! Supplementary medical plans

! Vision care plan

! Other items such as donations Make sure that you have adequate travel and medical insurance. You may need additional medical coverage while you are out of the country. Determine the specifics of your travel and medical coverage. Are there any time limits? Any restrictions? Are there any age limits? What is the maximum coverage? Are there any deductibles? Will the medical insurance policy cover pre‐existing


Travel Advice 6/18

conditions and routine care? Will the policy cover high‐risk sports such as scuba diving? Will the policy cover your emergency flight home? Will it also cover the transportation cost of a family member or nurse who must assist you during your flight home? Must you pay for these expenses upfront and then be reimbursed by the insurance company? Does the insurance company have a toll‐free or collect telephone number? Can you renew the insurance coverage while you are overseas? What are your obligations to the organization that is sponsoring you, and what are your obligations to your foreign contacts? What must you do for them? Must you keep track of the monies you spend and prepare progress reports? Who will evaluate the success of your overseas activities? Who should receive a final report of your overseas activities?


Travel Advice 6/19

6.4 Customs Regulations Familiarize yourself with the customs regulations of each country you will be passing through. Details can be obtained from the respective consulates or embassies. Here are some general guidelines that you should know. ! Most countries require a valid, up‐to‐date passport. ! Visas may be required. It is your responsibility to determine if you will need a

working visa. ! Obtain an official letter from your foreign contacts that states your duties, the

location of your activities, and the length of your stay. ! Register with your customs agents any expensive items such as jewellery,

cameras, or electronic devices prior to leaving the country. Better yet, leave these items behind. In some countries, cameras and other forms of electronic devices will be confiscated upon entering the country. Prior to your departure, check with the appropriate embassy and determine what can be taken into the country.

! Do not transport explosives, firearms, spray cans or bottles, fresh fruit, meats,

vegetables, parts of endangered species (simulated or real), substances that could be construed as illegal drugs, cultural objects or antiquities, or pornographic material. Pornographic material, or anything that resembles pornography (such as the Sports Illustrated, swimsuit edition), will be confiscated in Islamic countries.

! Learn what restrictions apply on the movement of currency across borders. ! Customs clearance procedures can be tedious and thorough. In some

countries, customs officials have drawn firearms. Don't panic. Be patient. ! Keep all customs forms that are stamped by customs officials as you enter a

country. You may need these items when you depart. ! It is not advisable to make a false customs declaration. ! Do not send a package home unless you wrap and seal it yourself. If left for

others to do, your package may be used to conceal illicit material.


Travel Advice 6/20

6.5 What To Take The list of items you should take overseas is quite varied. The items you select will depend primarily on your personal needs, the purpose of your trip, the country you will be visiting, and the length of your stay. Regardless of these factors, it is best to take as little as possible, and leave expensive and/or luxury items behind. The more luggage you have, the more problems you will encounter. This section is based on the assumption that international trainers will not be staying in a five‐star hotel. Most will reside in a tourist hotel, government housing, a university or industrial dormitory, or be billeted in a local home. Carry all essential items on board the plane with you. Essential items include travel documents, medical prescriptions, itineraries, a copy of your training materials, and an overnight bag that contains a complete change of clothes, a sweater (in case the airline cabin is cold), washcloth, toiletries, first‐aid kit, medications, facial tissue or toilet paper, small bottle of water, fragile items, paper, and pens. It is wise to take expensive items like cameras, binoculars, and calculators on the plane with you. You may also want to carry snacking foods. Your plane may be delayed or the restaurants may be closed when you arrive at your destination. Your remaining items should be placed in your luggage or sent ahead. Leave space in your suitcase so that you will have room to pack all the items you purchase or receive during your travels. Practice packing your travel bags a day or two prior to your departure. You may find that you have more than you could possibly carry or that you are missing something. Regardless of the size of your suitcase, you will always fill it. Travel light; take only what you need. Commercial travel books provide additional advice on what to take. However, these guidebooks are written for the tourist and not for the professional who has to work in a foreign countryCoften in locations that are off the beaten track. Check the luggage restrictions for overseas and domestic flights prior to your departure. Don't assume that overseas and domestic restrictions will be identical, even on the same air carrier. Medical Supplies If you are travelling with a group, there should be at least two medical or first‐aid kits per group. Individuals should carry their own prescriptions. Do take a basic first‐aid course. Below is a suggested list of medical information and supplies you should consider carrying. The list of suggested medications may be lengthy, but consider the listed medications as a form of insurance. You do not get insurance to


Travel Advice 6/21

guarantee that you have an accident; rather, you get insurance to assist you if life does not proceed as planned. Similarly, by taking basic medications that are appropriate for your overseas environment, you are able to ease your suffering during illness. If you will be working in large urban areas, the medications below should be available. However, to obtain them, you must know the location and operating hours of the dispensary; know the generic name of the medication because the North American, brand‐name product may not be available; be able to speak the local language; and, be confident that the medication is not contaminated. You will only need a small quantity of each medical supply listed below. Consider taking these items: ! A brief, personal medical history that also includes your name, address,

phone number, next of kin or close friend, personal physician, chronic conditions, and blood type.

! Medical alert tags should be worn. They should list your illnesses, blood

type, and an emergency contact phone number. ! An International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers or IAMAT

card is available from IAMAT, 417 Center Street, Lewiston, New York, NY 14092 or from IAMAT, 40 Regal Road, Guelph, Ontario N1K 1B5, (519)836‐0102. IAMAT provides health information for travellers, such as world immunization charts, and a list of qualified, medical practitioners who speak English. All practitioners have been trained in Europe or North America. To obtain the names and addresses of these practitioners (who work in 125 countries) and to receive overseas medical service at your office or hotel, you must produce an IAMAT card. IAMAT also provides mosquito nets.

! Prescription drugs: Remember to take more than you will need as well as a

copy of your prescriptions (with their generic names) and the reason you need this medication. Drugs that are legal in Canada may not be legal overseas. Therefore, by taking written, official prescriptions, you may shorten the time you spend going through customs. To be on the safe side, put a portion of your medication in your carry‐on baggage and the rest in your luggage. To ensure your peace of mind, take your own prescription drugs. Keep the medications in their original, labelled container. In China, bogus drugs are packaged sophisticatedly, yet contain only water or harmful substances (CTV National News, 1993, March 22).

! A comprehensive first‐aid booklet. An excellent, compact health guide

called Staying healthy in Asia, Africa, and Latin America by Dirk Schroeder (1988) is available from Asia Press, P.O. Box 4543, Stanford, CA 94305. Other


Travel Advice 6/22

useful publications are Travellers' health: How to stay healthy abroad by R. Dawood (1992); Health guide for international travelers: How to travel and stay well by T. P. Sakmar, P. Gardner, & G. Petersen (1991); Health Advice for International Travel, in the Annals of internal medicine by D. R. Hill and R. D. Pearson (1988); and, The medical guide for Third World travelers: A comprehensive self‐care manual by M. R. Robin and B. L. Dessery (1990).

! Assorted bandaids, cotton gauze, tape, safety pins, and scissors ! Tensor bandages ! Triangular bandage or sling ! Q‐Tips7 ! Disinfectant. Isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) is an inexpensive

disinfectant that can be used not only for cuts (however, it will cause a burning sensation), but also to disinfect surfaces such as toilet seats and water faucets. Although widely and inexpensively available in western countries, consider taking some from home as it may not be available in some countries, especially religious countries in which all forms of alcohol may be prohibited.

! Calamine, caladryl lotion, or Noxzema7, all of which can be used to

minimize itching ! Skin moisture cream or petroleum jelly such as Vaseline7. Petroleum jelly

can be used as a skin moisturizer as well as a lubricant. ! Sunscreen lotion. A number of countries, especially those in the southern

hemisphere, are experiencing severe ozone depletion. Ozone blocks the passage of harmful ultraviolet rays that may cause cancer. Therefore, use a sunscreen whenever you are exposed to direct sunlight for an extended period of time.

! Antiseptic cream ! Antifungal cream or powder is necessary if you are travelling to a tropical

country. Examples are Canesten7 and Mycil7. ! Motion sickness or nausea medication such as Gravol7 ! Diarrhea medication such as Immodium7 or Pepto Bismal7 if Immodium7

is not available ! Antacid tablets such as Eno7


Travel Advice 6/23

! Analgesics for pain and antipyretics such as ASA or Tylenol7 ! Antihistamines or decongestants such as Benadryl7 and Coricidin D7,

particularly if you have allergies ! Insect repellent, preferably in a liquid, nonaerosol form that contains a high

percentage of DEET. This item is particularly important if you are travelling to mosquito‐infested areas. Remember, malaria and dengue fever carried by mosquitoes can cause serious illness.

! Allergy kit. The ANEC‐kit for allergic reactions is available from pharmacies

and may be obtained via a prescription. ! Glasses or contact lenses. Consider taking a spare set and a copy of your

eyeglass prescription. When travelling in developing countries, you may want to opt for glasses instead of contact lenses. The conditions required to adequately clean and sterilize contact lenses may not be available. Warm, humid climates also provide the ideal environment for growing various forms of bacteria and fungi inside contact lens cases.

! Antibiotic eye drops such as Polysporin7 ! Cough medicine such as Robitussin DM7 and/or throat lozenges ! Vitamins and mineral pills ! Sleeping pills ! Tweezers ! Thermometer ! Small water container that seals tightly ! Water purification tablets such as Halazone7 and/or 2% iodine to purify

water. You can also use chorine bleach in an emergency. You will need 8‐16 drops of regular household bleach (about 1/4 of a teaspoon) to disinfect a gallon of water. After adding to a closed container containing water, shake and let stand for 30 minutes. Initially, the water should have a slight smell of chlorine. If it does not, add more chlorine, shake, and let stand.

! Antiseptic towelettes or wetnaps


Travel Advice 6/24

! Sanitary napkins. These items are often difficult or impossible to find in many developing countries and especially in rural areas.

! Contraceptives and latex condoms ! Laxatives ! Talcum powder ! Foot powder ! Disposable needles, syringes, and gloves. If you need to take injections,

bring your own syringes. These syringes can be used by you or your overseas doctor. Remember, dirty needles transmit life‐threatening diseases. If you are a diabetic, bring plenty of insulin. Have your doctor's letter of explanation with you whenever you carry a syringe. You may need to produce this document for airport security personnel or the local police.

! Antimalarial medication and mosquito nets may be required depending

on your destination. Clothing This list will vary depending on the culture of the country you are visiting, the length of your stay, and most important, the climate of the country. Remember, southern hemisphere seasons are the opposite of northern hemisphere seasons. When Canada and the United States have winter, the southern hemisphere countries have summer. The clothing suggestions presented here are aimed primarily at those people who will be working in tropical, developing countries. If you will be working in eastern European countries, take warmer clothes such as those made of wool, and dress in layers. Depending on the time of year, long underwear may be necessary, so check the weather reports before you go. When travelling to warm countries, take as little clothing as possible. Take clothes that "mix and match" well. Clothes should be crease‐resistant or the type that look acceptable even when they are crumpled. Dark‐colored and patterned outfits help mask dust, dirt, and wrinkles. You may also be able to purchase some clothing items overseas for less than you would pay at home. However, note that "conservative" Western clothing, not local attire, is generally the appropriate dress for Western women travelling and living in developing countries. Most local people regard Westerners in "native" clothing as "being condescending, dressing down and wearing garments that they would never wear at home" (The Toronto Star, 1992, May 9, H14). Loose‐fitting clothing is not only comfortable to


Travel Advice 6/25

wear in tropical areas, it also helps you to conceal your passport, wallet, or documents more easily. If you will be working in a large city, laundry should not be a problem, but laundry services can be expensive. However, if you will be working in outlying areas, note the comments beside several of the entries on the following clothing list: ! Business clothes. Take at least two changes, in addition to the loose‐fitting

business clothes you might wear on the plane. In former British colonies, formal wear is often required at official functions. As a foreign visitor, you may be invited to attend a dinner or two with a high‐ranking government official. Men should take at least one suit jacket and preferably a jacket and one dark suit. Women should take similar business apparel that would be appropriate for such occasions. In some regions, especially Muslim countries, women must pay particular attention to skirt lengths and to the openness of their blouses. Dresses should be mid‐calf length and low necklines are not acceptable. If you will be in rural areas, a long dress allows you to wash yourself when privacy may be difficult. Light, cotton attire is best for tropical climates. Fabrics that are best for travel include gabardines, high‐twist, wrinkle‐resistant wools, and viscose/linen blends. In some countries, such as Thailand, consider purchasing and wearing local clothes, but do not wear them unless you know how to wear them properly. You do not want to offend your host.

! Casual clothes, at least two changes. Although cotton garments are the

most comfortable for hot, humid climates, a cotton/polyester blend material dries faster than pure cotton. However, ensure that the blend has a high cotton content. If you wear polyester fabrics on the plane and an airplane fire occurs, the polyester will melt into your skin; cotton will not. Also polyester does not breathe as well as cotton. Blue jeans or denims might be too hot to wear in the tropics, but you can always give these items away as gifts. Clothing that has lots of pockets is often beneficial. Remember, that in some countries, it is inappropriate for women to wear sleeveless blouses, shorts, or slacks. For example in Malawi, women cannot wear pants.

! Extra blouses or shirts. In tropical climates, you will want to change your

clothes frequently. Consider taking up to six blouses or shirts. Shirts and blouses made of cotton and other light materials are easy to rinse out and hang up to dry overnight. In extremely humid countries, you may have to use towels to soak up excess moisture before hanging up your clothes to dry. Button your shirts and fold them neatly before packing them.


Travel Advice 6/26

! Neckties that match the rest of your clothing. Women should take scarves not only to accessorize their attire, but also to cover their heads when entering religious buildings or to protect their hair from dirt when using public transportation. Women must wear head scarves in Iran, Libya, and the Gulf States.

! Socks or stockings. Cotton socks absorb moisture. Thick, athletic socks can

also serve as slippers. Woolen socks are needed in cold climates. Take six or seven pair; you may want to change them twice a day.

! Undergarments. Take at least six sets. Cotton is the preferred material. It

absorbs perspiration and breathes. Women should remember that it can be difficult to obtain comfortable bras in some developing countries.

! Dress shoes and shoe polish ! Casual shoes or runners. Waterproof or thick‐soled shoes are ideal for

walking through puddles or mud. Wallaby‐type shoes with crepe rubber soles are appropriate for business as well as casual occasions. They are also comfortable to wear during long flights. Women should wear low‐heeled shoes or flats. Never walk in bare feet. There are many parasites, such as hookworms, in tropical countries.

! Sandals or thongs are optional. Usually, these items are readily available at

your destination. ! Boots are a must if you are travelling in snake‐ or scorpion‐infested areas. ! Raincoats should be compact. A raincoat can also double as a dressing gown

if you must use public washrooms in a hotel. Ultra‐thin, plastic raincoats are ideal for countries that have a rainy season where it rains everyday for long stretches of time. Although Gore‐Tex7 rainwear is expensive, it keeps in body heat, allows sweat to evaporate, and keeps the rain out. Umbrellas add weight. If you need one, you can usually purchase one there.

! Sweaters. A sweater or two is ideal for cool evenings or high altitude cities

such as those in Nepal. In some climates, turtleneck sweaters may be best. During the day, you may find the air‐conditioned buildings too cool for comfort. If you will be working in parts of eastern Europe, the mountain regions of South America, or northern China, you should take at least two sweaters.

! Belts, ties, and accessories. To keep ties from creasing, place them in a tie

holder or roll them into a ball.


Travel Advice 6/27

! Swimwear/beach cover‐ups ! Sun hat ! Washcloth and towel. Frequently, these items are not provided in hotels in

developing countries. ! Plastic bags to store wet or soiled items. If you pack clothing in plastic bags,

when you open your suitcase, nothing will be exposed except for the items you select.

Suggestions on how you can pack all of the above items can be obtained from The packing book by J. Gilford (1994) or speak to your friendly flight attendant or pilot. Pack as little as possible. Take items that would not upset you to lose. Personal Items Place a copy of your passport, visas, and immunization records in your suitcase. If the originals are misplaced or stolen, your duplicates may reduce the time it takes to obtain the replacements. ! Airline ticket. In order to obtain the best airline ticket for your money, refer

to The airline passenger's guerrilla handbook: Strategies & tactics for beating the airline system by G. A. Brown (1989) and look for deals online via the Internet.

! Passport. Your passport is the most important document that you will carry

overseas. Guard this item vigilantly. Passports are prized by foreign thieves. If your passport will expire in the next six months, consider getting it renewed.

! Visas and entry documents, if required. Carefully note all expiry dates. You

should also consider taking letters that describe your proposed training activities. These letters should be written by your overseas host, and they should be written in the local language as well as English.

! A copy of your immunization records. Public health offices can list all the

vaccinations you have received in one handy booklet. Upon entry to many developing countries, you will be required to show a yellow fever vaccination certificate.

! Traveller's cheques. Keep a record of the serial numbers of each cheque

separate from the cheques themselves. Record the international telephone


Travel Advice 6/28

number that you can use to report lost or stolen traveller=s cheques. Cash your traveller's cheques at authorized agents such as the airport, your hotel, or banks. Keep your money exchange slips. They may be required when you leave certain countries. Avoid the black market. Note that the currencies of several developing countries are unstable and worthless outside of that country. Therefore, only convert as much money as you will need. You may not be able to reconvert the local currency on your departure. If you venture from your hotel or your primary overseas residence for more than a day, consider taking $200 to $300 of a strong currency, such as the U.S. dollar or British pound, with you. Traveller's cheques and credit cards are not acceptable everywhere, and banks may be closed for a variety of reasons. In Argentina and Malawi, for example, it can be difficult to cash traveller's cheques outside of a major center.

! Two commonly accepted credit cards. Credit cards are not accepted

everywhere or in all countries. However, some cards, such as American Express, Mastercard, and Visa, are recognized world‐wide. Reserve your credit cards for emergencies such as staying in a good hotel if you become ill, for obtaining emergency cash, or for purchasing an airline ticket home sooner than you expected. If you will be using your credit card to obtain cash from an automatic teller machine, ensure that your personal identification number (PIN) is comprised of four numbers only. Frequently, overseas ATM machines will not handle PINs that are greater than four numbers (Marck, 1996). If you put credit cards or bank cards back‐to‐back in your wallet, the magnetic strips may become demagnetized. Then, your card may not work in electronic scanners. Also, note that your credit card may be declined by a merchant because the credit card company feels that your card may have been stolen when in fact you are using it but in a country you have not travelled to before. If possible, contact the credit card company by phone and identify yourself as the rightful owner of the card or prior to travelling to a distant land, inform the card company that you will be travelling.

! Local foreign currency. Be prepared to arrive in a foreign country with

some of that country's currency. You may need money for baggage handlers, taxi fares, and so forth. Often, there are numerous local holidays that your travel agent may not be aware of. If you arrive on a holiday, or when the banks and money exchangers are closed, you may have difficulty obtaining local currency.

! Letter of credit ! Letters of introduction. These letters, signed by government or host

country officials, contain your name, title, and an overview of your project. Sonja Page, International Projects Officer, Confederation College, noted that


Travel Advice 6/29

letters of introduction were extremely useful when no one knew who she was or what she had been hired to do. These situations can occur when host country personnel change. In Central African countries experiencing political turmoil, personnel changes are frequent. Letters of introduction are well received by customs officers, hotel personnel, landlords, and government officials.

! Overseas telephone calling card ! Your business cards. Take lots of them. Provide a translation in the

appropriate foreign language on the back of the card. ! Extra passport photos. These photos may be needed for additional visas or

for police identification. ! List of appropriate embassies, their addresses, and their telephone

numbers. ! Maps of your destination ! Glasses and/or sunglasses with neck strap. If you wear contact lenses on

long flights, remember that dry airplane air could irritate your eyes. ! Durable plastic cup, knife, fork, and spoon ! Ear plugs to block out early morning or late night noise from traffic, roosters,

dogs, and so forth. They can also be used during your flight to block the sound of other passengers.

! Eye masks to block out airplane cabin lights when you need to sleep on the

plane. ! Toiletries and small electrical devices. If you must take electrical grooming

devices, remember to find out what power source is required for hair blowers, curling irons, and razors. Because different countries use different electrical voltages and connections, make sure that you take the appropriate electrical converters. Pack lotions and other liquid items in plastic containers. Sanitary napkins and tampons are not readily available in many developing countries. A typical toilet kit or make‐up bag would contain soap, shampoo, shaving cream, razor, razor blades, toothbrush, toothpaste, dental floss, deodorant, nail clippers, small scissors, tweezers, shower cap, comb, and hair brush. You may want to include other items such as a small sewing kit.


Travel Advice 6/30

! Moneybelt or similar item for your money, passport, and other official documents. You may want to obtain a passport holder that ties around your neck.

! Pictures of your institution or business, your colleagues, your family, friends,

and pets. Your foreign clients will want to know about you and your country. Gifts Take lots of small, inexpensive gifts with you. They can be distributed to your overseas contacts and students. Items that are only available in America, Canada, or your hometown are highly prized. A few gift suggestions are provided below. ! Pins, particularly those that have an emblem of America, Britain, Canada, or

the logo of your institution or company; each student should receive a pin. ! Pens. Everyone needs a pen! ! Individually wrapped candies ! Small flags representing your country. ! Picture books of your community and country ! Small carvings made by aboriginal or native groups ! T‐shirts ! Plastic mugs with a national insignia or an institutional logo ! Photographs of you and your family will be well received by your students in

Southeast Asia. ! Certificates that signify the completion of your training course. Each

student should receive one. Reserve your best or most unique gifts for your senior host. Expensive liquor will be appreciated by senior hosts in many South American countries but would be inappropriate elsewhere, especially Islamic countries.


Travel Advice 6/31

Other Items ! A travel alarm clock ! Swiss army knife. This tool, with its various attachments, is extremely

useful. Place items such as these in your luggage. Airport security personnel may ask you to remove these tools from your carry‐on baggage; however, by the time you pass through airport security, your other luggage may have already been processed.

! An inexpensive, small, 35mm or digital camera with a built‐in zoom lens.

Remember that picture‐taking is discouraged in some countries such as those in East Africa and at some military and religious sites. In Islamic countries, it is unlawful for a man to photograph a woman. If you do take pictures of items or situations that are thought to be offensive by the locals, expect the police to remove the film or confiscate your camera. Before taking a picture of anyone, ask for their permission to do so. If you take a standard, single‐lens reflex (SLR) camera, take as few lenses as possible. A zoom lens or two are ideal for overseas travel. Don't forget to take the appropriate filters and extra batteries. If you take high‐speed film for your 35mm camera, you may not need to take flash attachments. In tropical countries, avoid taking pictures under the midday sun; it causes sharp contrasts between sun and shade.

! Several rolls of film or storage devices for digital cameras. The

appropriate film size for your camera may not always be available at your destination. If film is available, it may have been stored incorrectly or it may have expired. A small, lead‐lined, film storage bag may be beneficial as the bag keeps out harmful electromagnetic waves. Remember, in most cases, it is not the airport x‐ray machine that damages film; but the harmful rays that radiate from the x‐ray machine's power supply or the static electricity generated by the conveyor belt that leads into the x‐ray machine. Always take more film than you think you will need.

! Lots of packages of the small, pocket‐sized, facial tissues. These are not

luxury items, they are essential items. In many developing countries, these items are worth their weight in gold as toilet facilities generally lack many of the amenities to which you may be accustomed. You can always throw them away if you don't need them. Even in the better places, you may find the "wax‐paper" that passes for toilet paper. This paper does not absorb moisture! Although rolls of toilet paper are available in many countries, they do not fit easily into your pocket or purse. However, take a lot of tissues with you, and remember to carry enough of the local, small change to tip the restroom custodians.


Travel Advice 6/32

! Individually packaged wetnaps. These items can refresh you in dry or humid climates, and they are extremely handy in unsanitary conditions. Take lots with you; you can always throw them out if you need extra space in your suitcase later.

! Small (hotel‐sized) bars of soap ! A small sewing kit. There are many compact, commercially‐packaged

sewing kits available. Add safety pins, elastic bands, and extra buttons to the kit.

! Liquid laundry soap in a plastic bottle. Woolite7 is excellent for rinsing out

delicate items and sweaters. ! Universal sink plug. Many economy hotel rooms and dormitories lack the

sink plugs you will need when you are ready to wash your clothes. ! Tissue‐type, fabric softener sheets can be used to refresh your clothes while

they are packed or stored. ! A retractable clothesline or ten feet of nylon rope for overnight clothes

drying. The rope can also be used to tie packages together. ! Inflatable rubber hangers to give shirts or blouses shape while they are

drying. ! An electrical voltage converter or transformer for the appliances you take

overseas. Note that you can only use a converter with electric appliances such as hair dryers; a transformer can be used with these same electric appliances and with electronic devices such as radios or laptop computers or any device that contains computer chips or integrated circuits. Most international chain hotels will have these devices, but they are rare at smaller local hotels. However, they will add extra weight to your luggage. To determine the electrical voltage in countries around the world, refer to the following Internet site: http://comdinet.com/tn/ahouse.htm#chart. This Internet site is maintained by Austin House, a company that produces travel items.

! Electrical plug adapters. Prior to your departure, ascertain the adapter

plugs that you will need, or take an assortment of 3‐pin and 2‐pin square and round plugs.

! Portable travel iron. Although this item can be helpful, it also adds

considerable weight. Because of the different electrical standards used throughout the world, you will also need to take an electrical plug adapter


Travel Advice 6/33

and sometimes a heavy transformer. If you are travelling in a group, perhaps one member could bring an iron. Frequently irons are available from overseas hotel staff.

! Small binoculars, if you are a nature lover ! An inflatable travel pillow or collar will allow you to sleep comfortably

while in a seated position. ! That thick, paperback novel you always wanted to read but could never find

the time to do so. You will have lots of time to read on the aircraft or while waiting in various lineups. Take paperbacks that you would be willing to leave behind.

! Travel books and maps can also be weighty items. Glossy‐paper travel

books are much heavier than those printed on newsprint. Cut out only the pages that you will need, or reduce the size of the text on a photocopier. Make sure to copy on both sides of the paper. Although travel books such as those produced by Fodor, Frommer, Insight Guides, and Michelin are excellent for tourists, a number of their suggestions are inappropriate for people who work in developing countries and don't stay at first‐class hotels. Instead, consider taking the Lonely Planet Shoestring Books or the Adventurous Traveller's Guides produced by Mountain Travel. Also of value are the Culture Shock! series available from Graphic Arts Center Publishing, Box 10306, Portland, OR 97210, and the Coping With series published by Basil Blackwell Inc., 3 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142.

! Calculator. A calculator can be handy for doing money conversion

calculations and so on. If you take a solar‐powered calculator, you will never have to worry about finding the appropriate small batteries.

! A pocket‐sized language computer, such as the ones produced by Berlitz,

can provide easy access to common foreign words and phrases. The Berlitz Interpreter7 translates 12,500 English words into French, German, Spanish, and Italian. At the very least, take a language or phrase book that includes the common words used in greetings, in restaurants, and in financial transactions.

! A laptop computer may be extremely handy, but it can represent a year=s

salary or more to individuals in a number of countries. If possible, avoid taking a laptop, but if you must, consider taking a light‐weight machine that uses little electrical power. Carry the laptop in a carry‐on bag that does not scream, AI am a laptop bag! Take me!@ Use the password‐protection mechanism built into most laptops or software to protect your data. If you


Travel Advice 6/34

have a removable hard drive, slip it into your pocket when you are away from your machine. If you leave your computer in your hotel room or temporary overseas office, firmly lock and secure your machine to a solid object such as a sink pipe. Record the serial number of your computer. You will need this number if the machine is stolen.

! Pocket‐sized flashlight and spare batteries. Power failures are frequent in

developing countries. ! Small, hand‐held, cassette taperecorder with spare batteries; use it to listen

to your favorite musical tapes or to record your personal thoughts and feelings. You may be able to share your taperecorder with your colleagues, but do bring your own tapes.

! Small, portable radio and batteries. These items will enable you to listen to

local news and weather reports. However, they add weight to your luggage, and if necessary, you can buy them overseas. If you will be located in an isolated area, you may want to take a miniature, multiband radio.

! Small, sealable, plastic bags are handy for carrying many things, including

wet items. ! Several large, plastic garbage bags can be used to store laundry, or in an

emergency, one can be used as a raincoat. ! Collapsible or folded zippered bag that you can use to carry back all the

items you purchase or receive during your stay. ! Mosquito netting and tape. Band‐aids can also be used to repair holes in

the net. Netting is recommended for rural areas and for areas where malaria is prevalent.

! A knapsack, without the frame, can be used to carry a variety of items, such

as a camera and is not likely to attract undue attention. A knapsack is also more flexible than a briefcase.

! A padlock or combination lock. In some dormitories, you will be required to

provide your own lock. ! Luggage belts, with built‐in combination locks, can be used to secure your

luggage and ensure that the contents do not spill out if the suitcase opens inadvertently.

! A loud whistle that can be used to attract attention in case of an emergency.


Travel Advice 6/35

! A copy of all your training materials. If your luggage is lost, you will still be able to conduct your training activities. Note that because appropriate electrical power may not be readily available, it is best to rely mainly on print materials. If you do take items such as overhead transparencies or slides, ensure, prior to leaving, that the required operating equipment, power, and replacement parts are available at your overseas destination. If you are unsure about whether or not you can get your print materials duplicated overseas, make copies before you go and take these items with you as part of your luggage or ship them as air freight.

If you elect to send the items on ahead of you, allow plenty of time for transit, and ensure that all the customs declarations have been properly completed. Always remember to pack common sense when you pack your luggage!


Travel Advice 6/36

6.6 Safety Advice Introduction Although much of the advice in this section applies to travel anywhere, it is particularly important when travelling to developing countries. Review the suggested precautions prior to your departure. The items are not listed in any order of priority. Travel Arrangements ! Set your travel dates well in advance of your departure. Allow a day or two for

acclimatization in your new environment. When you are confirming travel arrangements, note that many countries give the day of the month first when providing the date in numerals. For example, 9/11/96 indicates the 9th of November, 1996. To simplify communication, always specify the month by its name; avoid the numerical representation.

! Book your travel tickets and hotel accommodations through a reputable

travel agent. Remember, a bargain is not a bargain if you arrive at the airport and there is no record of you purchasing a ticket or there is no seat reserved in your name.

! Full‐fare, economy seating allows for flexible departure times; however,

excursion fares usually cost significantly less than full economy fares. ! Travel with an airline that has a reputable security and air safety record. AIn

Eastern Europe, the odds of being in a fatal plane crash are 4.8 times as great as in North America. In Asia, 5.6 times greater. Which is better than your prospects in the Middle East or Latin America where flyers are, respectively, 7.1 and 9.2 times more likely to be fatally injured. In Africa, air passengers are 20 times as likely to die in a crash as in North America@ (Yenkel, 1994).

! Direct flights usually experience fewer delays, which reduces your exposure to

terrorist attacks at airports. ! If you must take multiple flights, ensure that your itinerary is flexible so that

any unexpected flight delays will not turn your trip into a catastrophe. Do read the stopover regulations provided by the airlines.

! Select a wide‐body aircraft. They are usually the most comfortable and

reliable.


Travel Advice 6/37

! If you are travelling through areas that are potential terrorist zones, travel in

the economy section rather than in first‐class. The first‐class section is next to the flight deck, which terrorists must control during a hijacking.

! If you can preselect your seats for all your flights, you will save time and

reduce confusion at foreign airports. However, in some countries you are not assigned a specific seat on the plane. When you are allowed to board the plane, you must jostle for a seat. An advanced boarding pass does not guarantee you will get a seat.

! Seat selection is a personal choice, but remember the following: aisle seats

have more leg room; window seats remove you from the activity in the aisles; aisle activity can be exciting, but it can also be disturbing; and window seats make you less visible to hijackers. Note the location of all emergency exits.

! If your itinerary includes stopovers, reconfirm each leg of your flight as you

travel. If you don't, your reservations may be cancelled and your seat reassigned on a first‐come, first‐served basis.

! If possible, arrange to have someone meet you at the airport. You may need

someone to help you through customs. Be aware of individuals at airports who say that they are prepared to take you to your hotel. Unless they or you can confirm their association with the hotel, you may be robbed once you enter their vehicle.

! If you intend to rent a car in a country that is prone to political unrest and/or

terrorist activities, consider taking a defensive driving course prior to your departure. You may be better prepared to handle emergency situations.

! Always double‐check your travel itinerary. Getting the time of the flight

wrong is the most frequent error that travellers make (The Edmonton Journal, 1996, September 21).

Getting Yourself Ready ! Find out as much as you can about the country, the people, their laws, and

their customs. Customs that are acceptable in one country may be unacceptable in another. In 1991, there were approximately 450 Canadians in foreign jails (The Edmonton Journal, 1991, May 18). Many were there because of drug‐related offenses. In some countries, particularly Iran, Turkey, Malaysia, and Thailand, the death penalty is imposed on those who possess illegal drugs. In Yunnan, a province of China, more than 900 drug traffickers


Travel Advice 6/38

were executed between 1983 and 1993 (The Globe and Mail, 1993, June 29). The brewing and distribution of alcohol may also be punishable by death in countries such as Saudi Arabia (The Edmonton Journal, 1993, January 30). Remember, when you are overseas, you are subject to local laws and customs.

! Prior to travelling overseas, check newspapers, the Internet, and embassies or

foreign affairs offices for information on current situations that may affect your travel plans. For example, political unrest, a significant rise in criminal activity, or a natural disaster may force you to alter your travel plans.

! Plan a flexible travel and work itinerary. It takes time to change planes, find

your way through unfamiliar environments, locate suitable grocery stores, or wash clothes by hand.

! Make sure that all of your personal and business affairs are in order, prior to

your departure. Check all your insurance policies, especially your travel and medical policies.

! Leave copies of your important documents, such as airline tickets, credit

cards, medical and dental histories, and prescriptions with a trusted friend. ! Obtain an international driver's licence from the American or Canadian

Automobile Association. You may need it once you arrive at your destination. ! Update your will. ! Take a list of emergency contact names, addresses, and phone numbers,

including the locations and addresses of nearby friendly consulates or embassies.

! Obtain a telephone credit card and information on how to make inexpensive

international telephone calls to your home. Remember that many overseas hotels charge a substantial fee for making long distance calls; therefore, you should learn how to contact home inexpensively.

! Do not take any material on board an aircraft that might suggest that you are

a high‐ranking official, a military officer, an employee of a company that makes controversial products, an American citizen, or a member of any controversial religious or political group. Obviously, you must take your passport, but keep it out of sight unless it is absolutely necessary that you produce it.

! Wear casual clothes that do not imply affluence.


Travel Advice 6/39

! Leave all expensive or cherished items behind, including your leather briefcase.

! Do not carry sensitive documents or materials that describe your personal or

business affairs, particularly if you are in a region where terrorism is prevalent. Kidnappers and terrorists can use such information to get you to do things you would not normally do.

! Do not carry on board any items, such as a pocket knife, that could be

considered a weapon. Aerosol cans, explosives, acids, or inflammable liquids and gases are also prohibited on board an aircraft.

! Confirm your flight schedule at least 48 hours prior to departure and again on

the day of departure. In many parts of the world, if you don't reconfirm your departure, your seat is given away.

! When you are checking your luggage at the airline travel desk, ensure that all

your bags have tags that bear the name of your destination. Airport Security ! Contact the airport just before you leave your hotel. Confirm your flight

departure time. Ideally, you want to arrive at the airport with some time to spare. However, in times of terrorism, an airport waiting room is not a safe place. In many countries, airport security checks take much longer than they do in Canada and the United States.

! If you wear expensive clothing or jewellery in an airport, you may attract the attention of thieves.

! Be alert at the airport. ! Always ensure that your passport is secure while you are out of the country.

While travelling through Hong Kong in early 1991, a group of distressed passengers frantically tried to tell the police how their passports got stolen. None of these people were allowed to board the aircraft until new passports were obtained.

! Watch your locked luggage every step of the way. Although theft is a hazard,

it is much worse to have someone insert contraband items inside your luggage while you are not looking. Criminals may use you as their "carrier pigeon."

! Proceed to the airport security area or special lounges as soon as you can. Do not stay in public areas any longer than you have to.


Travel Advice 6/40

! Do not sit near unattended luggage, garbage cans, telephone booths, or

equipment such as commercial floor cleaners. In countries prone to terrorist activities, bombs are often hidden in these items.

! Do sit with your back to a wall. ! Report any suspicious activity to airport personnel. ! Do respond to your gut feelings, but don't panic. Find a location inside the

airport where you feel safe and comfortable. ! Be prepared to have your personal belongings and clothing thoroughly

searched. Security checks can be more extensive than they are in Canada. On a trip to Greece in 1986, I had a broken leg. I hobbled on one leg while the security guards inspected my crutches.

! Do not go through custom checkpoints or cross borders with strangers. If the

strangers are smugglers, you could be considered to be guilty by association. Keep a safe distance from others, and/or act as if you are travelling alone.

Hotel Security ! Stay at a reputable, secure establishment. A first‐class hotel will cost more,

but it will make you feel better, especially if you become ill while you are in a foreign country. However, a first‐class hotel may insulate you from the culture you came to learn about. In addition, you may not always be able to afford a first‐class hotel. In Haiti, one night's stay at a first‐class hotel can be the equivalent of two months' salary earned by a typical Haitian.

! Check your room before you settle in. Will you feel safe? If not, ask for a

different room or change hotels. Remember, if you stay in a room above the sixth floor, it may be difficult to escape during a fire, and the rooms located on the garden‐side of a hotel may not be accessible to fire trucks. Select a room between the second and sixth floor.

! Consider getting a room near the front desk or other busy area. Despite the

noise, it may be safer. ! Learn the layout of the hotel. In particular, note the locations of emergency

exits and fire equipment. Note if the hallways and hotel grounds are well lit. ! Leave your valuables (passport, visas, immunization records, traveller's

cheques, and jewellery) in the hotel's security boxes.


Travel Advice 6/41

! Do not tell strangers where you are staying or flash your room keys in public,

and tell no one your room number. New acquaintances should be met in the hotel lobby or restaurant. Never invite them to your room.

! Learn the layout of your room. In particular, note the location of the light

switches and the telephone. Check to see if your room is equipped with a smoke detector.

! While in your room, keep the door locked at all times. Use the safety latch, if

there is one. If not, use a chair to brace the door or insert a portable door jam. You can also attach a battery‐operated, security alarm to the door knob.

! Prior to going to bed, check that no one is on your balcony, then lock and jam

your balcony door. ! After dark, it is wise to close all blinds, curtains, and shutters. ! Do not use the "make up this room" sign; it invites intruders. ! Use the hotel's main entrance at night. Avoid dark entrances and parkades. ! Watch to see if you are being followed as you go in and out of hotels or walk

around the public areas of the hotel. ! Do not open your room door until you are sure of who is on the other side.

Use the peephole in the door, ask the person's name and purpose, and/or call the front desk to ask if hotel staff have been sent to enter your room.

! Do not accept any packages you have not requested, and be wary of accepting

unsolicited services. ! Do not pick up messages at the front desk. Go to your room and use the

telephone to obtain your messages. ! Practice finding the telephone in the dark. Keep a flashlight and a list of

emergency telephone numbers near the telephone. ! If you want to sidetrack the movement of insects that may appear in your

room at night in the tropics, try leaving the bathroom light on and the bathroom door slightly ajar.


Travel Advice 6/42

! If you will be returning to your hotel late at night, consider leaving on a room light and opening the doors within the room. When you return, you will be able to see if there is anyone in the room prior to entering it.

! If you do find a burglar in your room, do not try to apprehend him. Instead,

provide room for him to escape. Be prepared to describe the burglar to hotel personnel and the police.

! If your hotel is on fire, call for help. Try to escape without using the elevators,

and stay close to the floor in order to avoid the smoke. As on a burning aircraft, do not crawl on the floor to avoid the smokeCyou may be trampled. Instead, bend over and lean on the walls for support. Close the door when you leave your room. Before leaving your room, feel the door. If it is hot, don't open it. Seal the spaces around the door with tape and/or wet towels. Use a moist towel to breathe through if your room becomes smoky. If your clothes catch fire, stop, drop, and roll. Unless you must escape or urgently need fresh air, do not break the windows. Open windows can let in smoke from the outside and provide fresh air to the fire inside the building.

Touring When you go out: ! Know where you are going. ! Tell someone where you are going and when you expect to be back. ! Take a list of emergency phone numbers with you and memorize as many of

these numbers as you can. ! Don't carry all your documents, money, and credit cards in one wallet,

pocket, or purse. ! Take the name, address, and phone number of your hotel and the local

embassy with you. Have these names and numbers written in the local language.

! Travel with a colleague or someone you know well. Do not let your

companion pressure you into doing something risky or going to a place you feel will be uncomfortable.

! Don't look like a victim. Walk as if you know where you are going. Be aware

of your environment.


Travel Advice 6/43

! Respect the local dress customs. In some countries, women must wear long skirts, and in others, men and women must cover their heads prior to entering a religious site. Do not bring undue attention to yourself, either through your clothes or behavior.

! Take plenty of small, local currency with you. It can be difficult to use large

bills or to cash traveller's cheques late at night or in places that are off the beaten track. Leave the bulk of your money in the hotel's safety deposit box.

! Do not accept food or drinks from strangers while riding public trains or

buses. The food and drinks may be drugged. This type of activity occurs not only in countries such as Thailand, but also in many parts of Europe.

! Avoid touring areas such as embassies that may be prone to terrorist attacks. ! Avoid dark or isolated places. If you do walk after dark, walk in busy well‐lit

areas. Walk briskly. Look as if you know where you are going. ! Don't go out after dark in some countries. Safety precautions will not be

sufficient. When the sun sets in countries such as Papua New Guinea and Haiti, the best place to be after dark is in your hotel. Wherever there is high unemployment, political unrest, and/or a significant number of unrealized dreams, criminal activity will abound. In Haiti, for example, the locals do not stray far after 7 p.m. They are frequently in bed by 9 p.m. (The Globe and Mail, 1993, January 13).

! Always know where you are. Take maps with you. ! Don't make a habit of walking or driving the same route every day. Whether

you are going to the office or to the grocery store, be unpredictable. ! Keep alert. Drink alcohol in moderation. ! Look all around you while walking. Don't forget to look behind you. If you

think that you are being followed, cross the street and reverse your direction. If you are sure that you are being followed, head to the nearest safe haven and call for help.

! Be friendly, but don't discuss your personal affairs with strangers, and never

give them the name of your hotel or inform them of your travel plans. ! Be aware of diversionary tactics that may briefly distract you from watching

your belongings. Thieves frequently work in groups. While you are watching a pseudo‐fight between two members of a group, another member removes your bag or wallet.


Travel Advice 6/44

! Do not wear expensive rings, watches, or jewellery. If you have brought such items with you, leave them in the hotel safe. Wrapping rubber bands around your wallet or money roll will make it more difficult for a pickpocket to remove it.

! Do not put an address on your keyring. ! Travel light. Carry a minimum of items while you are touring and leave the

rest in your hotel room or in the hotel security area. ! Do not leave valuables in your car. ! While in a restaurant, do not sit next to a window or have your back to the

entrance. Always be aware of your surroundings. ! Unless you are in a five‐star hotel in a developing country, tip about half the

amount that you would at home. Hard currency is highly prized in developing countries and worth more than it is at home. You may attract undue attention if you give away your money too freely.

Remember that just by coming from North America, Western Europe, Australia or New Zealand, you will be perceived as being rich; you will be a target for thieves who may not steal from you directly, but may get you involved in a scam. Don't get paranoid or be afraid to venture out into your new environment. Be alert. Use your common sense. If you take a taxi, consider these precautions: ! Determine what meter fare is in force or negotiate a price before you get into

the vehicle. ! Choose your taxi; don't let someone else choose it for you. ! Check that the photograph of the taxi driver matches the face of the driver

before you close the car door. ! Travel with a colleague or someone you know. ! Ask the driver to stay on well‐travelled roads. ! Remain alert while you are riding. If you feel that your driver is driving

recklessly, ask him to stop and get out of the taxi. This situation is not a rare occurrence in developing countries. If he doesn’t stop, you can faint being ill


Travel Advice 6/45

to your stomach – that often gets the driver’s attention as no one wants to have a smelly, messy taxi interior. However, note that one of the thrills of overseas travel can be riding in a speeding taxi through the streets of crowded Bangkok.

If you rent a car, the following suggestions may be helpful: ! Remember that women are not permitted to drive in many Middle Eastern

countries and that driving in developing countries can be a risky business. The people in some countries have poor driving habits and drive faulty vehicles while extremely intoxicated. According to Hachey (1992, p. 24), "The greatest threat in most developing countries is not disease but car accidents."

! Prior to your overseas departure, obtain an international driver's licence from

your automobile association. If you have an international driver's licence, you may not need to take the local driver's test and be exposed to potentially lengthy, corrupt, and inefficient bureaucratic procedures.

! Rent from a reputable firm and, prior to your overseas departure, find out if

you must pay cash for your rental car. Most car rental companies accept credit cards, but some do not.

! Review the rental contract carefully and note your legal responsibilities.

Check for any age restrictions. In some countries, if you are involved in an accident, you could be held in jail until a final decision is made regarding civil and criminal liabilities. Alcohol‐related accidents are considered serious offenses in many African countries.

! Avoid fighting with car rental employees. You could make a bad situation

worse. In an effort to get back at you, you could be given a faulty car. ! Check your car carefully before entering it. In countries experiencing political

unrest and terrorist activities, check beneath the car for suspicious objects. Determine the condition of the car; look under the hood, in the trunk, in the glove compartment, and under the seats and head rests.

! Always drive with your doors locked, your seat belt on, and if possible, with

the windows up. ! Stick to the major roads. ! Keep the fuel tank at least half‐full at all times.


Travel Advice 6/46

! Park in well‐lit areas; when leaving the car, make sure all doors are locked and the keys are safe.

! Never get out of the car without first checking to see who is nearby. ! Do not pick up strangers. ! If you are in a minor accident, stay in your car with your doors locked or

travel to an area you believe is safe. Minor accidents may be a ruse to encourage you to leave your vehicle.

If you visit the black market area, remember that: ! you can make a considerable profit by selling items such as alcohol or by

exchanging Western currency; however, you may be partaking in an illegal activity;

! a merchant may sell you an item and then report you to the authorities; the

merchant may receive a reward for reporting you; ! if caught, you may receive a fine and/or a jail sentence. If you are approached by a beggar, remember that: ! begging is an accepted way of life for many people in some parts of many

developing countries. However, coping with it can be a difficult task for Westerners.

! in India and Pakistan, certain forms of begging may have a profound effect on

you. It is not uncommon to see deformed children begging in the streets. Some of these children have been intentionally mutilated by their parents or other adults. It is felt that the more deformed the children are, the more money they will obtain on the street.

! .. in some parts of the developing world, such as Cancun, Mexico, begging is

discouraged. You may find signs near schools that read "Please do not give money to children. Help us to keep them in school."

! when you give money to one beggar, be prepared to give to all beggars in the

vicinity.


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If you must pay a bribe, remember that: ! giving gifts or providing monetary payments is a traditional way of

conducting business in many countries; ! bribes are called backsheesh in the Middle East, dash in West Africa, and

kumshaw in Southeast Asia; ! if people know that you are from North America, they will expect more as

they will assume that you are wealthy; ! you must be aware of the legal implications involved; ! you must find out how to pay a bribe and should pay as little as possible; ! you should not pay the bribe directly; ! you should record the details of the bribe and inform your colleagues,

especially your team leader. Travelling With Children If you are travelling with children, the following safety advice may be helpful: ! Never leave children alone or unwatched. ! Develop a verbal and a visual danger signal that your children can use and

understand. This danger signal should appear to be natural such as using a nickname or pinching your nose.

! Ensure that children who are old enough can use the telephone to call for

help. ! Children should be told not to trust strangers. ! Consider having your children, especially those who are very young, wear an

identification tag that includes their names, their parents' names, and the name, address, and telephone number of their hotel. The children should be told not to remove the tag nor allow anyone else to remove it.

! Dress children in bright and/or distinctive clothes so that you can easily spot

them at a distance.


Travel Advice 6/48

! In case your children get lost, carry extra pictures of them. You may also want to carry pictures of all the people you are travelling with.

! If you intend to rent a car and do significant amount of driving, consider

taking a child's car seat with you. These seats are rarely found in developing countries.

Terrorism and Hijacking However unfortunate, the threat of terrorism and hijacking is a reality in today's world. "Canadian and American businesses are still relatively naive, particularly compared to their European, South American, or Pacific Rim counterparts," says Alan Bell, manager of Intercon Security Limited's Corporate Resources Group. "They seem to think that it's someone else's ‐ or some other country's ‐ problem." (The Financial Post Magazine, 1990, November). According to the Pinkerton Risk Assessment Services, Latin America continues to record a high number of terrorist incidents, followed by Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa (French, 1994). Canadian trainers have faced tear gas in Ecuador, bomb threats in Colombia, rebel attacks in the Philippines, tanks in China, and youths brandishing rifles in Uganda. Not every trainer will face these situations, but you must be prepared. Prior to departing to a foreign country, determine the political situation at your destination. Plan your itinerary so as to avoid areas where such incidences might occur. Several suggestions have already been made concerning precautions you can take to reduce your likelihood of getting caught in such situations. Below are additional items you may also wish to consider. ! Be alert to being watched. ! Try to "melt‐in" with your fellow travellers; don't stand out in the crowd.

Avoid wearing items that have a military look or that look American. ! Make friends, on a casual basis, with your fellow travellers. If trouble does

start, you may have some companions who can assist you. However, be careful when helping others. It may be a trick to gain your confidence.

! Stay away from isolated areas, and avoid functions that may trigger a terrorist

attack. For example, do not attend political rallies, particularly if the opponents to the political parties are known terrorist groups. Avoid major public events that occur on or near anniversary dates that terrorist groups may regard as significant.


Travel Advice 6/49

! If you are in a situation in which a crowd turns into a mob scene, move away quickly. During a riot, people can become irrational and perform hostile acts that they would not normally perform.

! Be unpredictable; vary your routine. Leave at different times and take

different routes. If possible, avoid going out at night in areas that are prone to terrorism and other criminal activities.

! Devise a distress code. This code of ordinary‐sounding conversation should

alert other colleagues or family members that you are in trouble. You may have been kidnapped.

! If you do find yourself in a hijacking or hostage‐taking situation, the following

advice may be helpful:

‐ At the instant that you become a hostage, don't aggravate your captors; they are extremely tense at this time and may act irrationally.

‐ Listen carefully. ‐ Obey your captors. Don't argue or contest the verbal or physical abuse that often occurs at a beginning of the hostage situation and may continue throughout your detention.

‐ Do not volunteer information. ‐ Answer all questions asked, but give the absolute minimum of information.

‐ Do not let yourself be perceived as a threat to your captors; avoid direct eye contact.

‐ Do not talk to others unless you are given permission to do so. ‐ Observe everything unobtrusively. This action may save your life, and you will be able to provide the authorities with details when you are released. You may also identify possible escape routes.

‐ If shooting or an explosion occurs, protect your head and your heart. Bend over or lie on the floor. Use your hands, coat, or a blanket to protect yourself from flying objects.

‐ Stay calm and think positively. Breathe normally. Although it may be difficult to do, try not to let your anxiety get the better of you.


Travel Advice 6/50

‐ If you are detained for an extended period of time, keep yourself busy, both mentally and physically. Help others who have been detained with you.

‐ When you are released, everyone will become anxious; try to keep calm; stay out of the way of possible gunfire exchanges between your kidnappers and the rescuers. If possible, lie on the ground.

‐ When you are safe, the authorities will ask you to provide the details of your capture and detention.

‐ After your ordeal, you may experience depression or flashbacks that cause you to relive life‐threatening experiences. Consult your doctor.

Natural Disasters Most developing countries lie in regions of the world that are subject to natural disasters that people in America and Canada rarely experience. This section provides some helpful advice that may assist you if you are exposed to hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, or earthquakes. General Precautions Some natural disasters, such as hurricanes and tornadoes, give some warning of their occurrence. Others, like earthquakes, do not. Irrespective of the situation you find yourself in: ! stay calm. In many emergency situations, panic produces more casualties

than the natural disaster itself. ! listen to the local authorities. They understand the local conditions and are

better able to predict the outcome than strangers. ! listen to a radio station for weather reports and emergency directions. ! collect enough safe water and food to last for a few days. Although you can

survive a week without food, you can only last a day or two without water. ! secure your supply of personal medication. ! locate a flashlight and a battery‐operated radio.


Travel Advice 6/51

Before travelling to an unfamiliar country, determine the season when severe storms are most likely to occur. If possible, plan your trip accordingly. Hurricanes and Tornadoes There are several types of severe storms. Hurricanes develop east of the international dateline, typhoons originate to the west of the dateline, and cyclones occur in the Indian Ocean. Tornadoes are rapidly moving funnel clouds that travel over land, whereas waterspouts are strong funnel clouds that travel over water. When you receive warning of an impending severe storm, and if you have adequate time, you should: ! collect water and food; ! move to the basement or inner room of a well‐constructed building, or make

your way to a designated emergency shelter; ! after the storm has passed, wait another 30 to 60 minutes before venturing

out. Many storms move in circles. Tornadoes usually travel a path that is considerably narrower than any other severe storm. Therefore, they can be seen and avoided. However, tornadoes are unpredictable; they move very quickly and can cause destruction that severely affects people several miles from the eye of the storm. If a basement is not available, crouch in a ditch and cover your head and internal organs as best you can. Floods If heavy rains occur, check with the local authorities. They will be able to tell you whether the potential rainfall will lead to flooding, and they can also direct you to safe areas. If you are caught in a flood: ! move to higher ground. ! do not venture into water higher than your waist. ! get out of your vehicle if the water rises above the bottom of the doors.

Vehicles can be washed away. ! remember that floods drive all animals, including poisonous snakes, to higher

ground. Dangerous animals will also be found swimming in the water. ! remember that flood waters are often contaminated with sewage.


Travel Advice 6/52

Earthquakes Earthquakes are caused by the underground movement of large areas of rock or by volcanic eruptions. During an earthquake, people are usually injured by falling objects. If you experience an earthquake: ! move away from tall objects, such as telephone poles, that can fall on you. ! stay away from secondary walls, doors that lead to the outside, and glass

windows. ! be prepared for the aftershocks that follow the initial earthquake.

Aftershocks occur a few hours to a few days after the initial shock. ! avoid entering severely damaged buildings. ! remember that earthquakes that occur in or near the ocean may produce

rapidly moving tidal waves, which can cause severe damage along a coastline.


Travel Advice 6/53

6.7 Culture Shock Introduction Culture shock is an occupational hazard for the international trainer who works in a foreign country for an extended period of time. Although it can happen during the first few weeks, culture shock frequently occurs after being away for several months. You may feel stressed and experience a decline in inventiveness, flexibility, and/or spontaneity. Culture shock is a reaction to the constant bombardment of incidents and visions that are completely different from the ones you are accustomed to. You simply experience stress overload as you continually try to cope with your new surroundings. You want things to be easy and familiar. Culture shock creeps up on you slowly. It is a normal reaction to a foreign environment, and no one is immune to it. Phases of Culture Shock There are several phases to culture shock. Phase 1, Euphoria: When you first enter a foreign country, you are excited. There is so much to see, so much which is different from home. You behave like a typical tourist. Phase 2, Frustration: You find you become irritated by simple inconveniences. For example, you may object to lining up for postal service or not appreciate the tardiness of those around you. You long for the familiar. Minor events become major catastrophes. You may find yourself slowly withdrawing or becoming extremely aggressive. You may feel tired and your alcohol consumption may increase. Phase 3, Adapt or Run: You must either adapt to your environment or leave. You either decide that you can cope with the reality of your situation, or you decide to return home. Phase 4, Acceptance: You finally accept your position, and you do what you can to feel comfortable. You recognize what you can or cannot accomplish. You are confident that you can cope. Your old self returns. Friendships can be sought and nurtured. During an extended stay in a foreign country, it is normal to experience phases 2 and 3 more than once.


Travel Advice 6/54

Dealing with Culture Shock Below are some suggestions for dealing with culture shock. You should also refer to the next section, "Dealing with Stress." ! Review the purpose of your trip. This reflection may help you to refocus your

energy and get yourself back on track. ! Create a vision of how good you will feel when your overseas assignment is

successfully completed. ! Speak or write to your colleagues or family. Do not alarm them with your

current situation; they may want to fly over and take you back home! ! Develop local friendships; participate in social activities. Learn the local rules

for socializing. ! Keep active. Give your mind something to do. Only you can control what

you think about. ! Develop a daily routine; ensure that it involves meeting others after work,

prior to returning to your hotel or residence. Occasionally, take a break from your daily routine and do something that you would do back home.

! Learn more about the country you are visiting. Find a cultural mentor in your

host country. Read about the people, politics, and culture. Visit local historic sites, museums, and tourist attractions.

! Learn the language spoken at your destination. ! Accept where you are. Try to understand how the local people think.

Develop some empathy for them. Withhold judgements about the beliefs and actions of others. Do not compare, criticize, or complain. Be flexible, patient, and tolerant.

! Avoid people who like to complain, especially North Americans who have not

adjusted to their new surroundings. ! Look at the world in a humorous fashion. Be positive and open minded. ! Recognize that you are under stress and do activities that will relieve your

stress. Do not rely on alcohol or drugs to solve your problems. It is often assumed that you experience culture shock only while you are in a foreign country. But, you can also experience it when you return home. After a


Travel Advice 6/55

lengthy time away, home may not be all that familiar; many things may have changed. Colleagues and friends, though well‐meaning, may not be as excited about your trip as you are. They may even feel that you are out of touch with reality. They may believe that you were on a "pleasure junket" and will be unable to sympathize with the stresses you encountered overseas. Take time to ease back into your former life. Use the same suggestions listed above to deal with this reverse type of culture shock.


Travel Advice 6/56

6.8 Dealing with Stress Whether you are a novice or an expert, participating in training activities in a foreign country can be extremely stressful. If you are under stress, your body's immune system will not function efficiently; infection and illness are likely to follow. Below are some ways that may help you to deal with stress. Before You Leave If you perform the activities below, you may be able to reduce your chance of experiencing a high level of stress while you are away from home. ! Have a clear idea of the purpose of your trip and the goals you want to

achieve. Prioritize your goals. Are your goals realistic? ! Know your comfort zone, but be prepared to stretch those limits. ! Obtain as much information as you can about the country you will be visiting.

Find out about its people, culture, business enterprises, climate, and tourist attractions. What do the people take pride in? What do they think are the country's greatest achievements? Determine the country's political stability. By examining its current affairs and relationships with other countries, you may be able to determine the probability of the occurrence of unsettling events. Become familiar with its currency. Determine the value of its currency against Western currencies.

! Meet with someone who has participated in an international project in the

country you will be visiting, or speak to someone who has recently returned from there.

! Learn the language or at least the most commonly used phrases; learn to read

basic signs such as those that indicate hotel, telephone, police, and directions. ! Make a detailed, but flexible itinerary; leave copies of your plans at home and

at work. ! Make a list of important emergency addresses, telephone numbers, and fax

numbers that include your travel agent, bank, doctor, and national consulate; take a copy with you.

! Arrange fixed times to call your office or home, but remember that it is not

always possible to make international calls precisely on time; know how to calculate time zone differences.


Travel Advice 6/57

! Before you depart, meet both professionally and socially with the other

individuals who will be participating in your project. ! Pack a few small items that remind you of home such as photographs of your

family or friends. ! Just prior to leaving, review the political situation in the country you will be

visiting. ! Say goodbye to people who are important to you, and tell them you will call

them when you return. While You Are Away ! Orient yourself to your surroundings; arrange to arrive at your overseas site

one or two days before your training activities begin. ! Be flexible; learn to adapt; explore alternatives. ! "When in Rome, do as the Romans do," but be cautious and realistic. ! Project a positive attitude; there is always a good side to everything; try to see

your problems from the local's point of view. ! Do not compare what is happening there to what would happen if you were at

home. ! Laugh a lot, especially at yourself; sing familiar songs. ! Develop a friendly rapport with your fellow travellers; discuss your feelings

with your colleagues. ! Cultivate a new friendship. ! Get plenty of sleep. ! Exercise regularly; take a walk and get some fresh air every day. ! Eat healthy foods. ! Record your thoughts and feelings about your experiences in a journal or on a

cassette taperecorder.


Travel Advice 6/58

! Take a leisurely warm bath; make sure that the water is safe to bathe in. ! Look at the items you brought that remind you of your family and friends. ! Meditate. Simply close your eyes, sit back, listen to soothing music or the

sound of waves, and visualize a peaceful scene. Inhale deeply through your nose, hold, and slowly exhale through your mouth. Repeat this activity about 10 times.

! Reduce your intake of caffeine, alcohol, and tobacco. ! If possible, treat yourself to something nice. If there is an "All American" bar

and grill or an international hotel nearby, find it. It may only take a hamburger or a milkshake to make you feel better.

! When you are faced with a difficult situation, visualize how you will feel when

you have successfully completed the activity. ! Ensure that your perception of a problem is real; often, many problems may

not be as serious as you think. ! Know when you are becoming stressed, then do something about it; don't

procrastinate. Upon Your Return ! Rest. Overcome your jet lag, then get busy. Don't make any major decisions

for a few days. If you kept a personal journal during your overseas venture, take the time to review and treasure its contents.

! Discuss your experiences with your family and friends. Remember, unless

they have travelled to similar countries, they may not appreciate your overseas experience as much as you do.

! Contact your friends and co‐workers; let them know that you are back. ! Gradually return to your old routine. You may want to adopt the life‐style

habits you picked up overseas, but don't expect others around you to accept them. Upon your return, you may have a different perception of your country than when you left. You may note that Western cultures tend to be materialistic and wasteful, yet you appreciate the many conveniences that your culture provides. You may want to re‐examine your life and values. Try not to be too critical. Try not to preach about your overseas experiences.


Travel Advice 6/59

! Slowly increase your activity at work until you reach your optimum. If you

have been away for an extended period of time, it may take you several weeks to readjust; don't rush it.

! Visit your doctor or one with overseas experience if an illness persists; you

may simply need an antibiotic and rest. ! If you feel out of place at work, speak to your family and colleagues, then

discuss your concerns with your supervisor. You may need to be reassigned temporarily to a position that makes use of your new experiences, skills, and knowledge.


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6.9 Conclusion The travel advice and recommendations provided in this chapter are intended primarily for trainers who will be working in developing countries and staying in less than first‐class accommodations. Westerners who travel to these countries, particularly beyond the urban centers, need to take extra care to maintain their personal health and safety. Many developing nations are politically unstable and the majority of their citizens are poor; the standard of living is usually low and the regulations concerning food preparation and sanitation may be less than adequate. Trainers who specialize in agriculture, health care, and education are likely to spend much of their time working in rural areas and living in second‐ or third‐class quarters. In order to be successful, trainers must remain fit both mentally and physically. The challenge of an international training assignment can be sufficiently demanding without risking personal illness or injury. The best advice for anyone who will be participating in an overseas training activity is to "be prepared, flexible, and patient." If you will be working overseas for an extended period of time, consider reading: Golzen, G. (1990). Working abroad: The Daily Telegraph guide to living and

working overseas. London, England: Kogan Page. Hachey, J. M. (1992). The Canadian guide to working and living overseas. Ottawa,

ON: Intercultural Systems. Kohls, R. (1984). Survival kit for overseas living. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural

Press.



7.0 The Last Words

The Last Words 7/1

There is a saying that "a wasted mind is a wasted life." You can help to prevent the waste by participating in an international training activity that helps others to help themselves to become more self‐reliant. The need for international assistance is great. Eighty percent of the world's population live in conditions that would be considered unsatisfactory in developed countries. Developed countries cannot afford to neglect the needs of developing countries. An event in one part of the world has repercussions around the globe. Consider the effects of the fire at the Chernoble nuclear power plant, the global burning of fossil fuels and its impact on the ozone layer, and the consequences of political unrest in regions such as the Middle East and China. The question that we all ask is ACan we make a difference?@ There is so much to do, how can we make a dent? We acknowledge that the task is enormous and our individual contributions will be small. But, consider that one tiny drop of water creates a series of concentric waves that spread over the surface of the whole pond, or that a beach is merely an accumulation of single grains of sand. You are that single drop of water, that one grain of sand. If enough of us provide training overseas, substantial change will occur. It is inevitable. Think of the enormous changes that have occurred in Korea, Japan, Singapore, and South Africa over the last forty years. One thing is certainCif we do nothing, then nothing will happen. Instructing in an international setting should be a rewarding experience for you, your colleagues, and the country in which you will be working. Working overseas gives you an opportunity to test yourself, to use all your technical, professional, and social skills and abilities. Consequently, you will learn new skills and have experiences that will affect you for the rest of your life. After a lengthy overseas assignment, you will be more aware of what you are capable of doing and grateful that, unlike most people in developing countries, you have the freedom and power to shape your own destiny. People who are successful instructors in an international setting have a keen interest in learning about others and are sensitive to the needs of those who are culturally different. They are patient, tolerant, and flexible, and they adapt to the host country's culture. They smile a lot and learn to say Bon Dia, Bonjour, or Diahuit, and other essential foreign phrases. They know the power of the words "Thank you!" Life overseas is an adventure that challenges our perceptions of ourselves and others. Don't miss the opportunity! Although many international trainers travel overseas alone, a significant number are members of an international training team. Teams allow for collaborative undertakings in which members share ideas and support each other in an unfamiliar environment. In order to function effectively, team members must learn to work closely with others.


The Last Words 7/2

Whether working alone or as part of a team, international trainers must ensure that their instruction is designed to meet the needs of their students. According to Confucius, "I hear; I forget. I see; I remember. I do; I understand." Students must have the opportunity to practice and apply their skills within their own environment. By providing positive feedback, you encourage students to try new ideas and to become more confident of their capabilities. Although people in developed countries live in the electronic world, it is not the case everywhere. Developing countries may produce sophisticated electronics but their citizens may not have ready access to them or use them at home. Therefore, you should consider planning sessions that do not rely extensively on technology, or be prepared to bring your own equipment and supplies and provide a reliable power source. Clarity and simplicity in a positive environment are the keys to delivering successful international training. When you return home, your friends and colleagues will be excited to see you, but they may not share your enthusiasm about your overseas experience. It is natural for those who stayed at home to think that you led a glamorous, exotic life overseas. They may not realize that you had to spend six or seven days a week in an office or classroom, boil water for fifteen minutes before drinking it, travel in jam‐packed buses that were built before you were born, or do without soft, absorbent toilet paper. It is your responsibility to stay mentally and physically healthy while you are overseas. If you become ill, no one benefits. Take the time to learn and follow basic hygiene and safety procedures that are appropriate for the country in which you will be working. If you are overseas for a long time, your attitude toward life may change. When you return home, you may experience an unexpected bout of culture shock. You may need to develop new mental maps for your life at home. A period of readjustment is normal. Upon your return from an overseas training project, you should: ! Allow yourself time to readjust to your home environment and to reflect upon

your international assignment. ! See a doctor if any illness persists. ! Renew your acquaintances with family and friends. ! Reintroduce yourself to your institution or company. A lot may have occurred

while you were away.


The Last Words 7/3

! Meet with other members of your international training team to identify

successful strategies, unsuccessful strategies, and future development or training activities. Compare your initial assumptions about the country and its people with the reality of the instructional situation.

! Submit a project report to your sponsoring organization. ! Describe the benefits of your overseas assignment to your supervisor. ! Make recommendations to others who may be involved in follow‐up

activities. ! Send thank‐you notes to all those involved with your project, particularly your

overseas hosts. ! Present an overview of your training project to your colleagues. ! Plan for the future. Consider how you can make use of your international

experience. Perhaps you would like to work overseas again! If you haven't decided to take the plunge by working overseasCdo it! We will all benefit. If you have already decided to go overseas, then congratulations for agreeing to help others achieve their dreams. It is impossible for this publication to answer all your questions regarding overseas training assignments. However, it should provide you with sufficient information to help you plan for your overseas venture. If you have any additional suggestions or anecdotes that could be helpful to others, please contact the author.



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