22nd Tufts University-Wide Conference on Teaching and Learning Juggling it all: Teaching, Practice and Research

March 25, 2009

Insights on Teaching from the Research on Student Learning

Cassandra Volpe Horiicvhorii@post.harvard.edu

2. CognitiveDevelopment

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1. Novice/Expert Differences

3. LearningStyles

Research on Student Learning

“Here’s a nightmare you might know:”

course evaluation comments

The final exam/essay/project was so unfair...

The professor never showed us how to...

I probably won’t remember anything after the final exam...

1. Novice/Expert Differences

- Eric LeMay

1. Novice/Expert Differences

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Novice:Oh, a problem about inclined planes.Blocks and planes are in chapter 3.

Expert:This problem is about conservation

of energy. I’d think about it the sameway I would a mass on a spring.

meaningful pattern deeper structure

Example:

1. Novice/Expert Differences

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Example: Propose a multi-step synthesis of estrone from the starting material indicated

Expertise changes the way you see things

1. Novice/Expert Differences

Novices organize information by superficial, not deep, characteristics. Novices do not use automated processes

(e.g., problem solving, reading). Novices work harder and are less

efficient at learning and applying new knowledge.*

* Cognitive Load & Chunking

1. Novice/Expert Differences What can you do?

Reveal the Deep Structure/Processe.g., David Pace, History, Indiana University

1. Novice/Expert Differences What can you do?

Reveal the Deep Structure/Processe.g., David Pace, History, Indiana University

1. Novice/Expert Differences What can you do?

Reveal the Deep Structure/Processe.g., Concept Maps in VUE

vue.tufts.edu

Additional Ideas: Draw analogies between examples/cases/problems with

common deep concepts but different superficial features.

Ask questions that require deep organization (how, why).

Make processes explicit; include and highlight all steps.

Use memory aids to help learners remember processes.

Provide opportunities for practice, with feedback.

1. Novice/Expert Differences What can you do?

The final exam/essay/project looked unfamiliar, but I knew it used the same underlying concepts...

Now I really understand how chemists/ historians/artists think and work...

I’ll always remember...

1. Novice/Expert Differences

Here’s a dream you might realize:

2. CognitiveDevelopment

Have you heard these before?

You know the answer, so why don’t you just tell me?

It’s all subjective anyway and I like my way best.

This case isn’t like the ones we’ve seen in class, but if I stick to the process, maybe it’ll work out.

The best solution depends on a lot of factors; I’ll consider the context and uncertainties to find a reasonable course of action.

?

2. CognitiveDevelopment

Common Developmental Phases,1960s-90s, U.S. college students

Dualism.

Received from experts. Absolute.

Multiplicity.

Hard to evaluate. Subjective.

Relative & contextual.

Discoverable but uncertain.

Procedural. Constructed.

Requiring commitment. Reflective.

Your results may vary

separate, connected

2. CognitiveDevelopment

Helps explain puzzling students

but

how can you encourage cognitive development??

Safety + Dissonance

2. CognitiveDevelopment

Understand and acknowledge the utility of each phase.

Model the next step, rather than jumping to the end point:

Teach procedures and processes.

Use both separate (doubting) and connected (believing) modes.

Intellectual change happens in a safe environment:

2. CognitiveDevelopment

Create situations that challenge the limitations of students’ ways of knowing.

Model questioning of evidence & data.

Give and guide assignments that encourage complexity:

Knowledge, comprehension, application.

And analysis, synthesis, evaluation.

Intellectual change requires cognitive dissonance:

1. Novice/Expert Differences

Later stage qualities are not always superior: the “bottom line” answer may be useful.

Development may be context specific: thinking like a novice or dualist in a subject.

Later stages and expertise share qualities of metacognition, self-authorship.

Role of desirable difficulties, feedback, praise in both models.

2. CognitiveDevelopment

1. Novice/Expert Differences

Student ways of learning &

knowing

Teacher ways of

learning & knowing

2. CognitiveDevelopment

3. LearningStyles

What’s your “learning style”? How about your students?

3. LearningStyles

extroversion

introversion

mastery

performance

Kinesthetic

Read/write Visual

Auditory

“VARK”

Active Experimentation

Reflective Observation

“Kolb”

Learning

Styles

Concrete Experience

Abstract Conceptualization

Many taxonomies

Styles or preferences? Fixed or changing?

Deep Learning

3. LearningStyles

Making use of learning styles

Students’ preferredmodes

Teacher’s preferred

modes

3. LearningStyles

Active Experimentation

Reflective Observation

“Kolb”

Learning

Styles

Concrete Experience

Abstract Conceptualization

What will the end product be?

Why is this important?

What are the parameters?

What are

the facts?

Questions adapted from Laura L. B. Border’s work with the Kolb Learning Styles Inventory

Making use of learning styles

Motivation

...as a way to reach students

Ask students how they’re approaching their work.

Recognize when problems come from style contrasts.

Use multiple styles of presenting, explaining, & working:

Ask & answer a variety of motivating questions.

Pay particular attention to styles you prefer less.

3. LearningStyles

...as a way to enhance learning

Encourage students to employ alternative strategies for deeper, more flexible learning.

When appropriate to your goals, give students a choice in how they fulfill course requirements.

3. LearningStyles

2. CognitiveDevelopment

Focus on the learner and his/her process.

Understand one’s own teaching & learning process.

Expand one’s repertoire beyond individual intuition.

1. Novice/Expert Differences

3. LearningStyles

Selected Bibliography

General:• Halpern, D. F. & Hakel, M. D. (July/August 2003). Applying the science of learning to the university and beyond. Change, 36-41.• Svinicki, M. D. (1998). Creating a foundation for instructional decisions. In The professional development of graduate teaching assistants, Anker Publishers, 1998.

Novice-Expert Differences• Overview Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How experts differ from novices. In How people learn: brain, mind, experience, and school, 31-50. On-line at http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=6160#toc.• Analogical Encoding: Gentner, D., Lowenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role for analogical encoding. J. of Ed. Psych. 95(2), 393-408.• Cognitive Load: Cooper, G. Research into cognitive load theory and instructional design. On-line at http://education.arts.unsw.edu.au/staff/sweller/clt/index.html.

Cognitive Development• Baxter Magolda, M. B. & King, P. M. (2004). Learning partnerships: Theory and models of practice to educate for self-authorship.• Evans, N., Forney, D., & Guido-DiBrito, F. (1998). Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice. Jossey-Bass. Overview of models, including Perry, W. (1970) Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development; Belenky, M. F. et al. (1986) Womens’ Ways of Knowing; Baxter Magolda, M. (1992) Knowing and Reasoning in College; King, P. & Kitchener, K. (1994) Developing Reflective Judgment.

Learning Styles• Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory: available online at http://www.hayresourcesdirect.haygroup.com/. • VARK: A Guide to Learning Styles. Inventory and study guides online at http://www.vark-learn.com.

Other• Decoding the Disciplines: Pace, D. & Middendorf, J. Eds. (Summer 2004). Decoding the Disciplines: Helping Students Learn Disciplinary Ways of Thinking. New Directions for Teaching and Learning 98, 1-110.• Misconceptions: McCloskey, M. (1983). Intuitive physics. Scientific American 248, 122-130. • Praise: e.g., Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. (2007). Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A Longitudinal Study and an Intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246-263.• Threshold Concepts and Troublesome Knowledge: Meyer, J. & Land, R. Overview available on-line: http://www.etl.tla.ed.ac.uk/docs/ETLreport4.pdf. See also Land, R., Meyer, J. & Smith, J. (2008). Threshold concepts within the disciplines. Sense Publishers.