Information Technology from 5 to 16 - Curriculum Matters 15 - An HMI Series

8/8/2019 Information Technology from 5 to 16 - Curriculum Matters 15 - An HMI Series

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Department of Education and Science

Inforlllationtechnologyfrolll 5to 16Curriculum .Matters 15AN HMI SERIES


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Department ofEducation and Science

Informationtechnologyfrom 5 to 16Curriculum Matters 15AN HMI SERIES

LONDON HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE


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Crown copyright 1989First published 1989Second impression 1989ISBN 0 11 270683 5


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ContentsPrefaceIntroductionAims of IT in schoolsObjectives for IT 5-16The general implications of IT forlearning and teachingIT in the primary curriculumIT in the secondary curriculumAssessment and progressionComputing as a specialist subjectAppendix The work of curriculum subjectsand its relationship to ITGlossary/index of specialist terms

P a ~ e IV

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PREFACE

PrefaceAll the National Curriculum Subject Working Groups arebeing asked to indicate the potential for using informationtechnology (IT) and developing capability in its use in theirparticular areas. In particular, the Design and TechnologyCurriculum Working Group has been asked to recommendattainment targets and programmes of study which provide aframework for the development of IT capability across a rangeof subject areas. In the light of reports from the SubjectWorking Groups and following consultation and the advice ofthe National Curriculum Council, attainment targets andprogrammes of study in the subjects, including some whichrelate to IT, will be written into Statutory Orders. Thus theseattainment targets and programmes of study, particularlythose related to Design and Technology, will provide theframework for the planning, delivery and assessment of workrelated to IT.Since 1984 HM Inspectorate has published a number ofCurriculum Matters papers designed to stimulate discussionabout the curriculum as a whole and its component parts.Information technology from 5 to 16, the fifteenth in the series,sets out to help schools devise a coherent strategy for makingeffective use. of IT, both in the enrichment of existing subjectsand in learning about the technology itself. As such, itscontents range more widely than the issues in the remit givento the Design and Technology Working Group. I t focusses onthe whole curriculum and addresses in some detail variousaspects of learning which can be enhanced by IT. I t discussesthe implications for planning and management of IT inprimary and secondary schools; the deployment of availableresources; the assessment of pupils' work; and the place ofcomputing as a specialist subject in secondary schools. Thisdocument seeks to build on national initiatives in this field.Insofar as it reflects the requirements spelt out in some of theStatutory Orders already published and practised in otherareas of the curriculum, it identifies manageable elements ofIT activities which can be developed by schools in the light oftheir particular circumstances. It is acknowledged that manyschools do not yet have the hardware and software or expertiseto enable them to pursue all the objectives proposed in thispaper, but some of the objectives can be addressed in all


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PREFACE

schools having microcomputers and, as resources permit, thisrange of objectives can be broadened.This document should be read as a whole, since all sections arein errela ted.Because of the forthcoming report from the Design andTechnology Subject Working Group and the Secretary ofState's subsequent proposals for attainment targets andprogrammes of study for IT, which will be subject to statutoryconsultation by the National Curriculum Council, we are notasking formally for responses to this discussion document. Itis hoped that the issues it raises will enable teachers and othersto respond to the statutory consultation.


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INTRODUCTION

Introduction1. The twentieth century has seen an unparalleled rate oftechnological development leading to f u n d a m e D L ~ .. nanges inour way of life and in the nature of society. Smce the firstpowered flight in 1903 and the manufacture of the firstmicrocomputer in Britain in the late 1970s, the speed ofchange has continued to increase. Latterly informationtechnology (IT) has contributed significantly to thesedevelopments.2. IT may be defined as the technology associated with thehandling of information: its storage, processing andtransmission in a variety of forms by electronic means, and itsuse in controlling the operation ofmachines and other devices.3. IT is already a feature of everyday life. Many domesticappliances can now be programmed by means ofmicroprocessors. Relatively inexpensive computerised toys,games and calculators are in commON use. Supermarkets usebar code readers to list and price purchases and control stock.The recent growth in electronic communications enablesteletext information to be obtained from the comfort of anarmchair. Automatic cash dispensers check the details of anaccount and hand over money at times when the banks orbuilding societies are closed. The world of work has beentransformed by such devices as robots and word processors.4. The national economy, international finance andemployment patterns are profoundly affected by IT. This hasled to fundamental changes in the way we do things at homeand at work and in the range of facilities and artefacts availableto us. In particular, today's citizen needs to be aware of theways in which computerised information may be used, orabused.5. Adults are still coming to terms with IT. Children take itfor granted. Indeed, technology seems to give rise to greatinterest, and often excitement and pleasure, among youngpeople. New technology has radically changed the home andthe workplace: it has a similar potential to transform theclassroom.


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INFORMAnON TECHNOLOGY FROM 5TO 16

Aims of IT in schools6. Children acquire the conventions and values of the new'information age' from their experiences in and out of schooland through the media. They learn about the capabilities,limitations and uses of computers, as well as of their associatedtechnologies. Although IT is only one of a host of importantfactors affecting society and schools today, it is unusual amongcurrent agencies of change in that it impinges directly on thelearner at all ages; on the nature and content of study; andtherefore on the curriculum and the teacher.7. IT has a critical role in enhancing the learning process atall levels and across a broad range of activities including butgoing beyond the National Curriculum. Through the use oflTin the curriculum, schools will also be helping pupils becomeknowledgeable about the nature of information, comfortablewith the new technology and able to exploit its potential. Theaims ofworking with IT in schools are:1. to .enrich and extend learning throughout the curriculum,

~ s m g the technology to support collaborative working,mdependent study and re-working of initial ideas as wellas to enable pupils to work at a more demanding level byobviating some routine tasks;

11. to help young people acquire confidence and pleasure inusing IT, become familiar with some everydayapplications and be able to evaluate the technology'spotential and limitations;iii. to encourage the flexibility and openness of mindnecessary to adjust to, and take advantage of, the everquickening pace of technological change, while beingalert to the ethical implications and consequences forindividuals and society;IV. to harness the power of the technology to help pupils withspecial educational needs or physical handicaps toincrease their independence and develop their interests

and abilities;v. to help interested pupils to undertake detailed study ofcomputing and to design IT systems for solvingproblems.


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OBJECTIVES FOR IT 5-16

Objectives for IT 5-168. All pupils should use a range of IT resources in core,other foundation and, where relevant, non-foundationsubjects and cross-curricular themes. In the four key stagessuch resources might include electronic toys, calculators andmusical instruments, as well as word processors and othercomputer software. The examples given within the followingobjectives are for illustration only. Opportunities for using ITwithin the classroom are many and technological changecontinues to add to and change them. Some of the objectivesthemselves may need review within a short span of time.9. The differences in the backgrounds of pupils, theirinterests and the level of IT provision to which they haveaccess outside school mean that confidence and skills in usingIT are not related solely to the ages of pupils. Schools mustbuild on whatever skills pupils bring with them and giveindividuals opportunities to share their knowledge with othersand to employ such IT as is available in school and outside tofurther their learning.10. During their time at school pupils' experience with ITshould enable them to acquire certain knowledge, skills andunderstanding. Through work required within the NationalCurriculum and also related to other areas they should developthe general capability:1. to communicate ideas and information in a variety offorms using IT where appropriate (e.g. using word

processing, electronic mail or desk-top publishing);11. to capture, store, gain access to, change and interpretinformation (e.g. using databases, spreadsheets orviewdata systems);111. to assess critically the content and presentation ofinformation from various sources, including that mvarious databases (e.g. using viewdata or examples of

computer-generated unsolicited personalised mail).


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In addition they should be able:IV. to carry out mathematical investigations or explorecomputer-based representations of imaginary situationsor of real processes (e.g. using a simulation of anarchaeological exploration or power supply network, orstudying an economic model);v. to make appropriate use of an IT system in the aestheticactivities of drawing, designing and making or composing(e.g. using an electronic music synthesiser, graphicssoftware or a lathe controlled by a computer);vi. to measure and control environmental variables andmovement, using IT as appropriate alongside otherresources (e.g. building an automatic device to count thenumber oftimes people enter a room);Vll. to consider and discuss some of the social changes andethical considerations implicit in some uses of IT (e.g.databases containing financial information aboutindividuals).11. As they progress through the four key stages engaging inactivities related to the above objectives pupils should acquiregrowing confidence and satisfaction in using IT and sensitivityto the wider implications of its use. They should develop abroad understanding of the ways in which particular systemswork; familiarity with concepts associated with hardware andsoftware; a vocabulary of terms associated with IT; and thecapacity to learn from simply worded instructions how tooperate unfamiliar technological devices. These aspects shouldbe addressed within the context of mainstream curricularactivities rather than in isolation.12. The objectives are expanded on pages 9-32 to indicatethe detail and depth of study appropriate to pupils in primaryschools (key stages 1 and 2) and secondary schools (key stages3 and 4). Some older secondary pupils, stimulated by theirexperience with IT, may wish to study a wide range of moreadvanced applications of computing. The last section dealswith specific objectives for those pupils following specialistcourses in computing or IT.


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THE GENERAL IMPLICAnONS OF IT FOR LEARNING AND TEACHING

The general implications of IT forlearning and teaching13. Working with IT can motivate, excite and give pleasureto pupils of all ages. Both boys and girls often achieve levels ofexpertise with IT that surprise their teachers and themselves.There is value in allowing competence with IT to grow in thecontext of pleasurable learning. Such competence should bedeveloped through activities which might be creative,investigative or involve games of strategy and tactics. Thesecan provide fun and satisfaction while serving useful purposes.14. It is important that schools identify the IT experiencespupils encounter outside school and seek to extend them. Inprimary schools boys and girls handle IT equipment withsimilar confidence. For various reasons, the interest boys havein technical artefacts is frequently reinforced during the lateprimary years and adolescence, whereas that of girls oftenlacks encouragement. Primary and secondary schools need toensure that tasks set with IT systems match the level ofexpertise and interest of all pupils. Opportunities may need tobe provided to compensate for limited experience of thetechnology .15. IT is especially valuable in enabling pupils to take chargeof their own learning and to work at their own pace. Inparticular, pupils with learning difficulties find stimulationthrough enjoyable repetition, coupled with a gradual increasein level of challenge. Extension work can sometimes beprovided for more-able pupils using computer software.Pupils at any level who show specific aptitude and interest inIT must be encouraged to move ahead by exploringapplications, and, for instance, writing software or designinghardware. This may occur individually or in groups, whetherin class or in extra-curricular clubs.16. Some approaches to work with IT can promoteperseverance and self-esteem. If, after a series of tries, a pupil,or a group of pupils, fails to complete a task they will often redefine or subdivide the problem to bring it within the boundsof what is achievable. Moreover, no loss of face is involved inthis process. Errors, wild approximations and apparent


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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FROM 5TO 16

malfunctions cease to be threatening indications of failure.Instead, they become inevitable, amusing, annoying and oftenfruitful stages in the process of creating, designing or finding asolution. Dissatisfaction with a written paragraph, musicalcomposition, logic circuit or graphical design becomes achallenge to refine or improve. On some occasions, successivestages of development can and should be retained in order toallow review and to emphasise the value of the process as wellas the final product.17. IT has had a significant impact on the quality ofpresentation of pupils' work. It enables all pupils, includingthose with difficulties of physical co-ordination, to produceneat and accurate work and to concentrate on the quality ofthe content. This use of IT does not detract from theimportance of handwriting as a component of the NationalCurriculum.18. Although learning to use IT commonly involves practicalwork, it does not mean that tasks should constantly involvepupils in handling equipment. Much useful work takes placeaway from the hardware. For instance, in a simulation ofpioneers crossing the American West, important processeswill include research from facsimiles of original sourcematerials, maps, artefacts and books; the exercise ofimagination through discussions or role play about the lives ofboth settlers and indigenous people; and the formulation ofcollaborative decisions.19. It is important for teachers to recognise that IT is onlyone of a range of sources of information but one withparticular qualities. These include the speed of retrieval, thevastness of some databases and the facility to providecontinuously updated material. A class project on life in thelocal community 100 years ago could make use of a database ofcensus returns. Similarly a group of pupils producing anewspaper could have access to minute-by-minute reportsfrom news agencies via a telecommunications link. Bothexamples would require pupils to decide which informationwas relevant to their tasks and to be discriminating in theirchoice of source. Census data stored on computer has theadvantage ofeasing retrieval, but it is also important for pupilsto be able to scrutinise facsimiles oforiginal documents.


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THE GENERAL IMPLICATIONS OF IT FOR LEARNING AND TEACHING

20. IT facilitates individual work, as when programsrespond to a pupil's actions, and group work where, forexample, there is a sense of shared ownership of a piece ofcollabor.ative writing on a screen. In such approaches, teachersbecome more than purveyors of knowledge or assessors ofpupils' performance. They need, in particular, to be able toenter into the thinking of a group working on a task, in orderto monitor and promote progress. This can be challengingbecause some uses of IT obscure the traces of pupils' thoughtprocesses as they work towards a solution or a finishedproduct. Discussion may be needed to reveal insights or areasof difficulty and pupils should sometimes be encouraged torecord interim stages of their work.21. Increasingly, specially adapted IT systems offer anunprecedented degree of individual access to the curriculumfor pupils with severe visual or physical impairment. Blindpupils could use a work station with Braille input and output,synthetic speech and text transcription facilities. Pupils withlittle or no hand control might use a computer throughspecialised switches. Large print displays or adaptedkeyboards can support pupils with less severe difficulties.22. In the main, pupils should not regard IT andinformation-related activities as a distinct area of study whoseprinciples and concepts need to be formally studied by allpotential users. Most will find the technology easy to use. Inschools the territory of IT should be the curriculum as a wholebecause it is there that its range of applications can be morefully exemplified and practised.23. The nature and balance of much work within thecurriculum are likely to be radically changed by the featuresdescribed above. Compared with current practice there islikely to be increasing emphasis on the quality ofcommunication; and greater stress on high-level thinking, oninterpretation and on creative expression. Especially in thelater key stages, the use of technology to measure, to collateand to display the results of experiments or investigationsallows increased time for, and emphasis on, analysis andinterpretation. More is then likely to be expected of pupils interms of creative expression and conceptual understandingbecause of the reduced need to engage in or master routinetechniques.


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24. Teachers are increasingly making use of IT for their ownprofessional purposes and for the organisation and planning ofthe curriculum, for school management and for pupilassessment. Word processing and desk-top publishingencourage the production and regular revision of high-qualityworksheets, schemes of work and school reports. Such use ofIT will probably increase in the foreseeable future. Themanifest use of computers in the management of a schoolincreases pupils' awareness of IT. As their confidence grows,teachers may increasingly offer useful models to pupils.


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IT IN THE PRIMARY CURRICULUM

IT in the primary curriculum25. Young children readily accept IT; this is reflected in theway they assimilate new computer techniques. Whereas manyadults may be hesitant and afraid of damaging an unfamiliarelectronic device, children often attack it with uninhibitedgusto. I f particular keys do not have the desired effect, otherswill be tried. Even reception class infants can surprise theirteachers by their adeptness in loading and accessing programsbefore being taught explicitly how to do so. Having watchedothers, they want to try - and frequently succeed - bythemselves. It is important that children's capacities arerecognised and encouraged throughout the primary age range,and that teachers are prepared to share their pupils'enthusiasm and to learn with them.26. To provide experience of sufficient depth, primaryschools must inevitably be selective in their choice of ITactivities although some elements will be mandatory in keystages 1 and 2 of the National Curriculum. In general,however, the knowledge and skills individual childrenacquire will necessarily vary from school to school, oftendepending on the extent of hardware available and on staffexpertise. Some applications (control technology for instance)require prior technical knowledge before they can besuccessfully introduced. During their primary years all pupilsshould develop confidence in the applications of IT identifiedby the school. The range of IT experiences needs to bewidened progressively so that they support each of theobjectives listed on pages 9-18.

Objective (i): Communicating ideas andinformation27. Text handling using word processors can significantlyimprove both the quality and quantity of children's writing.Very young children with limited vocabulary can generatesubstantial pieces of writing by 'touching in' whole words


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using an overlay keyboard. This facility can also supportchildren with learning difficulties. The ease with which textcan be drafted encourages more extended composition thandoes use of paper and pencil. Knowing that text may be easilymanipulated encourages children to put their initial ideas intowords. Older pupils may find it helpful to use the technologyin order to plan and organise their ideas in visual and writtenform directly on the screen.28. Writing with pencil and paper is an essential skill and animportant aspect of the National Curriculum. The teaching ofhandwriting should be complemented by giving childrenexperience of text handling using word processors so that theycan concentrate their attention on content and style.Redrafting (formerly an unwelcome, slow and messy chore)can be transformed into an easy, pleasurable and purposefulactivity. The clear presentation of a child's work on a screenenables it to be read by groups of pupils and so opens upopportunities for sharing ideas about how a particular piece ofwriting can be improved. The lively debate that can ensue inthe process of refinement of the text is as valuable, in learningterms, as the end product.29. When children have much that they want to write, lackof keyboard skills can be a serious handicap. I t not only causesthem to work at a painfully slow pace and thereby preventothers from using the hardware, but also frustrates thosewhose thinking races ahead of their ability to generate text onscreen. In these circumstances a systematic approach to theacquisition of keyboard familiarity is necessary: childrenshould undertake brief, structured practice using a suitablesoftware package immediately before they start on a majorwriting task. The skill needed requires neither fingeringtechnique, nor touch typing. It is necessary only insofar as itencourages children effectively to capture ideas as text in aform suitable for subsequent review and amendment. Suchpractice must not be tackled in isolation or become an end initself.30. Pupils quickly appreciate the advantages of being able touse a simple computer thesaurus and to print text in varioustypefaces; of considering the role and layout of illustrations; ofediting or using 'cut and paste' facilities; and adapting thestyle of presentation to meet different needs and readers. Not


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all work need be destined for print: electronic mail andteletext format enable the children to present their writing to avariety of audiences. The desire to achieve high standards ofcontent and presentation for such purposes may lead tocollaborative working. This should fully involve pupils of allabilities and interests, whatever their level of skill in handlingIT.Related objectives31. Through using IT as a medium for communicatinginformation and ideas, pupils should, by the end of theprimary years:a. understand the ways in which a word processor can helpin planning and undertaking a writing task;b. be sufficiently familiar and adept with the standardkeyboard to enable them effectively to translate ideas intotext, and to produce a piece of work using such editingfacilities as insertion, deletion and movement of text;c. be able to rework their writing showing a sensitiveawareness of readership, purpose and potential of themedium;d. understand that the choice and order of words andillustrations, the format and size of text and graphicsaffect readability and impact.

Objectives (ii) and (iii): Information handling32. Collecting, sorting and interpreting information arecommon practices with children of all abilities throughout theprimary age range. For instance, infant children often gatherdata on their favourite colours or pets and then display this inpictorial or graphical form. The manual sorting of informationon cards previously compiled by the children in an interestingcontext can serve to demonstrate how data can be structuredand accessed. Subsequently, technology can extend the scopeof such activities. For example, data collected on a particular


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occasion can easily be compared with that obtainedpreviously. The speed of operation vf database or spreadsheetsoftware enables more time to be devoted to the interpretationof results.33. Children might start with an empty database containinga small number of previously prepared headings under whichthey enter their own data and begin to make simplecomparisons. As they gain in experience and confidence moreadvanced techniques will be required. For instance, pupilswill need to realise that if certain relationships are to beidentified thought must be given to the headings under whichinformation is stored and to the framing ofquestions by whichit is to be interrogated. Older juniors might collect dataabout birds under different headings, such as physicalcharacteristics, eating habits, habitats and predators. Thisinformation could subsequently be recorded on a computerdatabase for display, discussion, analysis and interpretation.34. IT facilitates the presentation of information in variousforms, induding graphical and tabular displays. Judiciouschoice of types of display can reveal interesting patterns ofinformation. The excitement of discovering an obscure fact orunexpected quirk in a general pattern of information leads tochildren forming hypotheses to explain them. These can thenbe checked - and if necessary reformulated - by usingreference books or source material. Typically, much of thiswork takes place away from the hardware and involves a highlevel of collaboration, research and discussion. However, theability to access national or international databases through atelecommunications link can add exciting new dimensions tosuch work.35. It is important from the outset that children adopt acritical attitude to the plausibility of displayed information.They also need to realise that a simple error in entering datacan invalidate the results of an entire database or spreadsheetinvestigation.Related objectives36. Through handling and displaying information with ITwhere appropriate, pupils should by the end of the primaryyears:


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a. know that computer-based information may exist II Idifferent forms (text, numbers, graphics);b. be able to extract and display information in differentways from data previously stored by themselves or byothers;c. understand the need to question the reliability ofdisplayed information and the fact that results producedby a computer may be influenced by the incorrect entryof data;d. be able to interpret processed data and examine itsplausibility;e. be able to design a simple structure within which alimited set of data may be captured, stored and retrieved;f. be able to interrogate data to examine patterns andrelationships in the information and to form and testsimple hypotheses.

Objective (iv): IT representations of real orimaginary situations and mathematicalc ~ d c u l a t i o n s 37. First-hand experience and educational visits are valuableways of promoting learning but are not always feasible as somesituations are too dangerous and some processes are toocomplex or expensive for pupils to witness. In thesecircumstances judiciously chosen computer simulations andadventures may be used instead. Pupils can encounter theunknown through journeys of discovery which introducehistorical or mythical characters, locations, events andconcepts. For young pupils, and some children with specialeducational needs, computer simulations can be a source ofstimulus for language development. They also provide richopportunities for collaboration in making decisions,examining ethical considerations, forming strategies and


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solving problems. The capacity to retrace steps in a process,the ability to learn from mistakes and the development ofsocial skills are valuable outcomes. So too is the unexpectedrevelation of qualities of organisation and leadership amongmembers of groups working on simulations. However,judgement needs to be exercised over the relative quality ofexperiences offered by different media. A story can sometimesoffer more than an adventure game and a film or televisionprogramme more than a simulation.38. Computational skills are an important requirement ofthe attainment targets and programmes of study formathematics. Such skills need to be practised. Access to anelectronic calculator or computer can prevent childrenspending time unnecessarily on routine computation wherethis could obscure their understanding of underlying patternsand relationships. Typically, results of mathematicalinvestigations undertaken in the classroom can be extrapolatedto a degree or with an ease not otherwise feasible. Similarly,hypotheses can be speedily checked for their reasonablenessand accuracy.

Related objectives39. Through the use of computer-based adventures orsimulations pupils should, by the end of the primary years:a. understand that a computer may simulate a situation byfollowing a set of rules consistently, although sometimesrandom elements may be incorporated;b. understand that computer simulations are not completeand accurate representations of reality;c. understand that a computer is able to act on a sequence ofinstructions from a user and that such a sequence may bestored;d. be able to participate effectively in collaborative decision

making, whether as leader or team member;e. be able to recognise when the use of an electroniccalculator or computer is appropriate to the mathematicaltask in hand and be able to handle it competently.


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Objective (v): The aesthetic aspect of thecurriculum40. Drawing, painting, modelling, performing, composingand listening provide exemplars of activities that contribute tothe aesthetic and creative development of young children.Elements of visual imagery and sound are increasinglyproduced electronically. Children need opportunities toexplore these through the use of IT, alongside more familiarand longer-established media.41. Technology can be used to initiate and extend ideas in avariety of visual forms as well as to modify them. For example,images can be filled, rotated, overlaid or moved around thescreen to develop pupils' visual perception, stimulate theimagination or to identify a range of possible designs. Animage can be easily copied to produce a repeating pattern andthe perspective of a three-dimensional shape can be alteredalmost instantaneously. The integration of text and images cantransform an animated strip into an illustrated story, in whichthe visual elements and the time dimension in the presentationassume proper importance. Pupils' experiences can be furtherextended by using IT to investigate and capture a wider rangeof sounds than was previously possible. These sounds can beused alongside more traditional instruments to buildconfidence in exploring an exciting musical world. Programs,and hardware such as keyboards, synthesisers and otherdevices for capturing and modifying sound, can be used toenable children of all abilities either through group orindividual activity to improvise, perform and experil;,nent withboth visual and musical ideas and to devise sustainedcOmpOSItIOns. Improvisations can be captured andcompositions can be changed or edited to enable children toexplore varying rhythms, structures, modes, tempi or soundcolours. The continuing development of sensitive listeningskills is an important feature of all these activities, which canbe further extended by being harnessed to enhance otherartistic endeavours such as dance or drama.

Related objectives42. By exploiting IT in order to develop creative andaesthetic aspects of the curriculum, children should by the endof the primary years:


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extension of model-making and design activities is the use ofinterfaces. For instance, in connection with a topic on animalschildren could design a device that records the number ofvisits of birds to a feeding-table. The device might betriggered by micro switches, light beams or pressure pads.Besides skills of designing and making, such projects requirethe application of knowledge and skills gained from scientific,mathematical and environmental work. As well as masteringthe technical operation of control systems, children shouldhave their attention drawn to the need for quality in otheraspects of the design process, particularly the aestheticdimension.Related objectives45. Working with various tools, materials, sensors, switchesand computers in science, mathematics, art and design,technology and environmental studies, children should by theend of the primary years:a. understand from personal experience that certain toys,switches, domestic appliances and computers canrespond to given signals or commands;b. understand that a computer can control devices by means

of a series of commands, and appreciate the need forprecision in the framing of such commands;c. know from personal experience that environmentalchanges can be detected, measured and responded to,particularly in domestic appliances or scientific

measurements;d. be able to construct a working model which respondsonly to certain environmental conditions;e. be able to build a set of commands (a procedure) tocontrol the movement of a screen image or a robot in aneffective manner.


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Objective (vii): Some consequences of IT forsociety and the individual46. Throughout their years in the primary school, there willbe many occasions when the children's work covers aspects oflife on which IT exercises a significant influence. Some will beobvious. For instance, a visit to the supermarket in connectionwith a topic on 'Food' could include the impact of bar codingon stock control or on the format and readability of shoppingbills. Use of IT in some libraries can enable children todiscover book titles of interest to them which may be on theshelves at other libraries. They might be made aware of sometypes of data stored on computers, about books, aboutthemselves as borrowers and about their recent borrowings.47. Other changes may not be immediately apparent tochildren. A survey of the local community is unlikely to revealthe changing work practices brought about by theintroduction of robotics in manufacturing industry. Similarly,children using electronic communications may not appreciatethe distances messages travel or the large audiences they canreach, unless their attention is drawn to such facets. I t isimportant, within such contexts, for children to consider theimpact of the new technology.Related objectives48. Through visits in the community, general reading and thediscussion of news items, pupils should by the end of theprimary years:a. know about everyday jobs which make use of IT;b. know about types of information of interest to themselvesand their families which may be held on computers;c. be able to identify particular effects that a new ordifferent IT application has had on themselves, theirfamilies or the community;d. understand that technological developments have bothadvantages and disadvantages.


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School policy49. Although the 'new technology' has been generallyavailable to primary schools only in the last few years, alreadycomputers have established their value in the primaryclassroom. The objectives discussed above offer a generalguide for the directions in which schools might develop overthe next few years. To achieve these objectives a clear schoolpolicy for realising the potential of IT across the curriculum isessential.50. A starting-point could be to evaluate the type and extentof current use against the criteria outlined on pages 9-18. Forinstance, none of the four objectives in paragraph 31 would bemet i f the children were using a word processing package onlyto obtain printed copies of previously handwrittencompositions corrected by the teacher. I f such an evaluationrevealed that while a broad range of work in IT had beencovered much of it was superficial, a concentration on specificapplications might be necessary to provide due rigour.51. Modification of existing classroom practice could havesignificant implications for a school's deployment ofhardware. A rota, for example, whereby IT resources areregularly allocated to certain classes for portions of a week,might not facilitate the depth of experience required: a systemof negotiation by which particular classes retain the equipmentfor an extended period might be better. In that case carewould be needed to ensure that no class suffered disadvantageover the school year. Alternatively, it might be decided toconcentrate the use of all the school's IT equipment in certainclasses or year groups.52. The IT experience enjoyed by individual children withinthe school's chosen applications needs to be monitored andpassed on to the secondary school. The development ofconfidence and competence for all the pupils involves far morethan ensuring that each has access to the hardware on a similarnumber of occasions. Records should be maintained ofindividual progress and attainment along the principlesdescribed on pages 34-36. This need not be an onerous or timeconsuming task, particularly if the technology itself isemployed for the purpose.


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53. Reference to the potential of IT to enhance the variousaspects of the children's work should be made throughout theschool's curricular documentation, and reviewed regularly. ITobjectives should be included. Supplementary materials, suchas descriptions of suitable tasks involving IT with notesconcerning commonly occurring technical problems, can be ofconsiderable assistance to teachers.54. Whatever the school's existing IT provision, realistictargets and a calendar for development need to be set. Indetermining which additional IT activities can successfullybe incorporated into the work of the school, and at whatstage, the issues of staff development and resourcepriorities will need to be considered. Because of the expertisemany teachers have acquired through working with computersin their classrooms, many schools are more self-sufficient inIT matters than they realise. However, the introduction of awider range of applications requires a prior programme ofprofessional development, which, because of the nature of adeveloping technology, will require regular updating.55. Involvement and commitment on the part of theheadteacher are critical to the development of IT, but oftenthe day-to-day leadership in this field is devolved to a memberof the staff. Once an agreed plan of action has been adopted,however, every teacher - not just the head or 'IT expert' -should contribute to its implementation and periodic review.


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IT IN THE SECONDARY CURRICULUM

IT in the secondary curriculum56. Secondary schools need to identify what pupils fromdifferent primary schools have learned so as to complementand build upon their previous IT experiences. Learning acrossthe curriculum should continue to be enriched through IT.The use of IT should sharpen judgement, improve skills andincrease rigour and understanding of the technology itself.Such work is appropriate to pupils ofall abilities.57. IT in the secondary curriculum does not presuppose anyparticular form of organisation. Some schools are alreadymoving towards the teaching of IT through different subjectsof the curriculum rather than as a separate stuqy. Others havechosen to provide specific computer awareness courses,mainly for pupils aged 11-13, a strategy which can be effectivewhen courses are differentiated, fairly brief and especiallywhen designed to build on pupils' experience of IT in theprimary school. This may allow the teacher of English, forexample, to assume that pupils have already been taughtsomething about the elements of word processing. It isarguable, however, that these skills would be better developedfrom application within the programme of work in English.Many secondary schools operate a mixture of the twoapproaches.

Objective (i): Communicating ideas andinformation58. The benefits of text handling packages in gIvmgconfidence to reluctant writers and allowing neat presentationregardless of physical co-ordination are just as applicable atthe secondary stage as at the primary. Pupils increasinglyappreciate the advantages of being able to enter text indifferent sizes, add paragraphs, 'cut', 'paste' and organiselayout to accommodate illustrations. Use of a variety of fontsmay become relevant at this stage, and it is important toconsider the quality of visual impact of the final product.School news sheets and anthologies of pupils' writing have


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proved excellent vehicles for composition and design as well asfor group discussion. Where 'real' news is gathered, perhapsfrom a national agency through a modem, the selection ofitems as well as their editing and display becomes an issue fordiscussion. Sometimes this has to take place against deadlinesimposed by a publication schedule. Care is needed in groupwork of this kind to ensure that all pupils are properlyinvolved.59. The redrafting of a pupil's unaided work on a computeris still uncommon in secondary schools, often becauseequipment is not readily available or suitably located. Wherethere are facilities, which might include programs to checkspelling or offer synonyms, they may be used in a variety ofways. Sometimes successive drafts might have to be producedquickly as new information comes to light while on otheroccasions it is desirable to concentrate on the process ofchange in a document and the reasons for changes. Thepurpose of reviewing written work should be to consider toneand style, to refine description and perhaps to evaluate thework from the point of view of a variety of readers, as well asto correct spelling and sentence construction. As ever,extensive and varied reading helps understanding of thesefeatures. With the proliferation of forms of communication, itis useful to consider both their appropriateness for differentpurposes and the formality of language, for instance, whichare suitable to them. Many of the foregoing considerationscould be applied within the context of modern languageteaching, where the ability to redraft writing and prepareforeign language news sheets has proved stimulating tochildren.60. Access to word processors may offer valuable supportand greatly increased motivation to pupils with specialeducational needs.Related objectives61. Many of the technical skills for handling text needed inthe secondary school may well have been acquired at theprimary stage. Progression here should be pursued in terms ofmore demanding writing tasks across a wide range ofcurriculum contexts rather than through the introduction ofincreasingly sophisticated word processing techniques. By theage of 16, all pupils should be able:


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a. to understand the power of text handling packages to helporganise and reflne writing in terms of style and eleganceoflanguage, appropriateness or accuracy;b. to select an appropriate IT application to create andcommunicate spoken or written text;c. to exercise judgement in selecting and reflning material inresponse to changing circumstances or new information,using IT where appropriate;d. to use an IT system to compose a page of text which iseasy to read and has visual impact.

Objective (ii): Information handling62. Pupils will continue to collect, organise and analyse databut they should begin to take more responsibility for itsvalidity and accuracy. They should also be encouraged todecide the appropriateness of various methods for handlingdata. For example, a spreadsheet might be used to carry outanalyses of the nutritional value of meals being prepared inhome economics and a database to record observedcharacteristics of insects found by a local pond. Whengathering the data and using it to answer questions, testhypotheses or simply add to the database, pupils should learnto assess the accuracy of the data being used and its suitabilityfor various analyses. Larger amounts of data, for example onthe weather, may be aggregated over a period of time andcompared with the data collected on another occasion, perhapsby a different class.63. The skills of sorting, displaying and interpretinginformation are important throughout the years of schoolingand should be practised along with other approaches to detectpatterns and to present conclusions. It is important rp.at thecomputer database does not replace flrst-hand use ofdocuments, data, specimens or artefacts. The computershould be used to allow pupils more time to interpret patternsof data and results from investigations and to gain confidencein summarising information in various ways, including


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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FROM '$ TO 16

graphical and tabular forms. The handling of census datausing spreadsheet or database software, for example, does notalways require extensive use of the keyboard; a large part ofthe work will take place away from the machine and willfrequently involve discussion in groups. Similarly, the mostvaluable aspect of the experience of devising a teletextdatabase of employment opportunities in the school'sneighbourhood is the classification and organisation on paperof a system of menus and routes through which the intendeduser may gain access to the information rather than detaileddesign of individual screens.Related objectives64. By the age of 16 pupils should be able:a. to retrieve previously stored information in order todetect patterns and to form and test increasinglysophisticated hypotheses;b. to recognise circumstances in which IT offers anappropriate solution to a problem in data handling;c. to understand that techniques of enquiry may fail toreveal full information;d. to design a structure by which a set of data may becaptured, stored and retrieved.

Objective (iii): Accuracy and validity ofinformation65. Work in IT should provide opportunities for pupils tolearn that inaccurate data or too loosely constructedexpressions in a questionnaire can lead to unexpected results.Above all, the gathering of large volumes of data should alertpupils to the need for care in assessing accuracy and reliability.Measurements derived from IT devices should be subjected tocommonsense scientific and mathematical checks and viewedalongside data obtained by previously conventional means.


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Related objectives66. By the age of 16 pupils should be able:a. to recognise unexpected or odd results;b. to employ regularly commonsense methods to check thevalidity of data;c. to understand that an enquiry can only be as successful asits source material is accurately and consistentlygathered.

Objective (iv): Simulation and modelling67. Older pupils may explore computer simulations of realenvironments, such as the ecology of an island. They mayinvestigate the effect on local ecology of changingenvironmental factors in the island, such as the enclosure ofland for grazing or its development for mining or industry.Within their geographical studies pupils may discusspopulation growth by using the UN's demographic data. Instudying economic awareness they could manipulate factorswhich affect the running of a company. Similarly it is possibleto study the effects of gravity and propulsion on the trajectoryof a rocket and observe and calculate parameters governingradioactive decay. In this way processes can be studied whichwould not be accessible to pupils for a variety of reasons, suchas the time scale of an observation, cost or the danger of actualmeasurement.68. There are aspects of the curriculum concerned withdesigning and making where simulations can mirror industrialpractice to avoid the waste of time and valuable materials orcomponents. For example, complex calculations involved indesigning a beam to carry specific loads may be carried out bya computer program or the action of a computer-controlledlathe simulated on a screen before committing the cutting toolto metal.69. I t is important that a simulation is not accepted as a truerepresentation of reality. The existence of an underlying

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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FROM 5 TO 16

26

mathematical basis and its nature should be discussed as far asthis is comprehensible to pupils. The use of simulations rarelymeans that pupils need to spend a lot of time working atcomputers. It is important to have time and space to thinkabout the implications of particular simulation runs and tointerpret at particular stages the information obtained fromthem, such as summary statistics or results in a business game.Pupils should also have opportunities to construct their owncomputer models of situations and to refme and investigatethem. For example, they may construct a model of a tuck-shop budget using a spreadsheet in order to forecast profitsand stock purchases given different pricing policies. They mayexplore the behaviour of mathematical functions theyencounter by studying the characteristics of their graphs on acalculator or computer display.70. While it is not envisaged that all pupils would undertakethe detailed study of a programming language they shouldunderstand the concept of a computer program as a set ofinstructions. This understanding can be promoted by the useof certain drawing or control packages where a sequence ofmoves can be 'saved up' and executed together. Thecontribution of particular instructions to the whole can beexamined without discussing in detail the underlyingalgorithm. Some pupils will have acquired a detailedknowledge of programming by using computers at home or byspecialist study at school. It is important to take account ofwhat will be a much greater divergence in attainment than isoften found in other areas of the curriculum so as not tofrustrate interested pupils.71. Many of these aspects of IT will affect mathematics.Using elementary principles of programming pupils can, withperhaps only a few lines of coding, tackle a mathematicalproblem or investigation, perhaps using probability theory tomodel a real event such as the forming of queues at a petrolstation. Mathematical tools which carry out certain functions(graph plotters, spreadsheets, statistics packages, interpretersof algebraic expressions, etc.) are available for themicrocomputers used in schools, offices and homes. Moreoversome of these functions are becoming available on mass-produced calculators. Pupils need to be confident and sensiblein handling numbers, formulae and numerical relationshipsmentally so that they are sufficiently competent to turn to IT


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only when necessary, but then to use it effectively. Thosemanipulations and skills which are essential to thedevelopment of sound mathematical concepts and fluency inapplying them will continue to need strengthening but there islittle sense, for instance, in spending many weeks teachingfluency with routine techniques for solving particularequations when solutions can be obtained by pressing a fewkeys on a calculator. Instead, the time is needed for thedevelopment of other skills and knowledge, such as how toinvestigate and detect mathematical relationships and drawconclusions from them; how to let IT tools represent statisticalinformation; how to check that results obtained using IT aresensible; and how to formulate a problem in ways which allowthe use of IT in the solution.Related objectives72. As a result of using simulations and modelling in anumber of subject areas, by the age of 16 pupils should beable:a. to understand that dangerous or costly investigations, orthose not easily measured because of long or short time

spans, can be simulated by using IT;b. to understand that a computer procedure or program is aset of instructions to be followed in a pre-determinedsequence;c. to understand that simulations rely on underlyingmathematical models and procedures, devised by adesigner, which can only approximate to reality;d. to use suitable software to implement a computer model;e. to change the data and the rules governing a simplecomputer model and explain the effects;f. to select appropriate instructions or rules and proceduresto model given situations;g. to carry out a mathematical investigation using IT,particularly where the calculations would be unwieldyotherwise.


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28

Objective (v): The aesthetic aspect of thecurriculum73. Within creative, design and artistic activities a computercan be particularly effective in both the exploratory andrefining stages. I t complements established and more familiarmedia.74. In understanding the characteristics of effectivecommunication, pupils should appreciate the match betweenpresentation, content and the needs of a target audience. Tothis end practical activities might, for example, involveenquiries into the communication implications of variation oftypeface styles, sizes and weights, alternative juxtapositions oftext and illustrations within page layouts, and theopportunities presented by 'cut and paste' techniques.75. In art and design, the computer can provide theopportunity to create images using a combination oftraditional skills and such images can be captured, developedand manipulated using a variety of devices. Some physicallyhandicapped students with difficulties of motor control findIT devices easier to manipulate than conventional media. ITcan also provide the scope to explore the elements associatedwith the development, analysis and evaluation of visualimagery such as line, colour, pattern, texture, shape and formby copying, moving, changing, filling and combining areas onthe screen without having to repeat sometimes tediousprocesses. The ability to recall and refine drawings, usingcomputer-aided drawing and design (CAD) packagescombined with the facility to translate two-dimensional viewsinto three-dimensional representations, are powerful tools forworking out ideas which may subsequently be realised in suchresistant materials as wood, metal, plastic or textiles.76. The use of IT can enhance and extend the range of pupils'experiences in music. I t enables them to explore new sounds;to create, develop, refine and record their musical ideas andimprovisations irrespective of their previously learnedinstrumental skills. Pupils may work together or individuallyon a variety of musical tasks; some using synthesisers andsequencers to compose their music, building up the strandspart by part while exploring such aspects as texture and form;others may play their pieces to one another for immediate


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critical appraisal and subsequent refinement. Addingimprovisations on traditional instruments to electroniccompositions can enhance the music and increase musicaldemands made of the pupils. The selective use of headphonescan instil confidence because initial efforts are audible only tothe pupils involved and their teacher, and recentdevelopments with touch screens are making the musicalpotential of the computer more accessible to all, includingthose with special educational needs. The role of the teacher assensitive consultant and classroom manager is crucial in thesecircumstances, where, ofnecessity, different musical activitiesmay be going on simultaneously in various teaching spaces.Related objectives77. As a result of a wide variety of experience in a number ofcurricular areas, but particularly in creative and artisticactivities, by the age of 16 pupils should be able:a. to draw, model, design and compose or improvise using

IT and refme as necessary;b. to understand the value of IT to the creative process inproviding a bank of images or sounds from which it ispossible to select and which can be altered;c. to explore two- and three-dimensional images, using ITas an aid to visualising and making an artefact;d. to use IT to con


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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FROM 5TO 16 -

30

the ambient temperature could all be detected and used totrigger a microelectronic circuit supplying a given quantity offeed or switching on a heater.79. Such experiences of control bring together knowledgeand skills from a variety of subjects, particularly mathematics,science and technology. Used alongside conventionaltechniques ofmeasurement and recording, IT can allow pupilsto take rapid, accurate and multiple readings of physical andenvironmental quantities and of rapid processes. Thetemperature of a pond may be measured over several days orthe voltage across a capacitor measured 100 times in one tenthof a second. Such measurements can yield more accurate andrapid results than some conventional methods, and canencourage pupils to assess the quality of data and refineexperimental technique. Pupils' understanding of the dynamicnature of such phenomena as weather patterns and plantgrowth would also be improved. Similarly, directmeasurement of the position of a trolley on a slope or of anobject on an air track allows c a l ~ u l a t i o n and display of velocityand acceleration as they take place. Pupils with visualimpairment, who find conventional techniques ofmeasurement inaccessible, may be helped by devices usinglarge-scale visual displays or synthetic speech.Related objectives80. By the age of 16 pupils should be able:a. to understand that devices can be made to respond to datafrom sensors, distinguishing analogue from digitalsignals;b. to understand that experimental results can be obtainedover long or short periods of time or at a distance usingdata-logging equipment;c. to set up simple experiments using IT to sense environmental variables;d. to construct a simple device which responds to data fromsensors;e. to invent a procedure to control the movement of adevice.


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Objective (vii): Some consequences of IT forsociety and the individual81. Pupils should be encouraged to identify and discussapplications of IT in which the accuracy of information aboutindividuals is particularly important, for instance whencreating and using a database containing personal information.They might discuss the social and economic consequences ofIT such as the effect on the nature and pattern of employment;electronic surveillance; and access to, security and possiblemisuse of personal information stored on computers.Discussion of these topics is perhaps best undertaken in thecontext of humanities or personal and social education and ofpractical activities. For instance, a greater understanding ofthe changing nature of office work, and IT links enablingpeople to work from home, is more likely to come about whenthe topics arise incidentally within a practical word processingsession than if discussed in isolation. As well as those jobswhich have become more demanding as a result of theincorporation of IT, mention should be made of the effects ofde-skilling on some craftsmen.82. Pupils should also be made aware of some of the ethicalimplications of too easy access to personal information oncomputer databases. The impact of IT on such issues asthe ownership of confidential information or the easyreproduction of copyright material might be explored withinpersonal and social education or religious education.Similarly, the opportunities IT affords to pupils or others toproduce newspapers or information sheets and reach relativelywide audiences raises pertinent issues of the selection of newsitems and balanced reporting.Related objectives83. By the age of 16 pupils should:a. know about a range of jobs, the nature of which haschanged as a result ofIT;b. understand that electronically stored personalinformation is easier to misuse than that kept inconventional form;c. know about some effects of inaccurate data on filesrelating to personal information;


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d. understand the implications of access to such informationby various people or organisations;e. be able to identify potential benefits and disadvantagesfor individuals, groups or society brought about by theintroduction oflT.

Issues for school management84. The learning objectives discussed above offer a generalguide for the directions in which schools might develop overthe next few years. The shift of emphasis towards theintegration of IT into the curriculum as a whole placesdemands on both the management and teaching force ofsecondary schools. These demands relate to the formulation ofa school strategy, curriculum design, provision and deployment of resources, and staff support.85. It is part of the role of senior and middle management toreview the use of IT regularly so as to ensure that sensible,planned experiences in IT are available to all pupils, and notonly those taking certain subject options or taught byparticular teachers. Curriculum planning should also takeaccount of the need to arrange appropriately demanding ITwork for pupils of varying levels of ability, interest andexperience, including those whose IT skills are still insecure.86. The identification of IT's potential contribution to thework of a wide range of subjects is clearly essential in ensuringbetter co-ordinated experiences for pupils. Discussions aboutthis and the contribution of individual departments to theschool's overall IT objectives must involve heads ofdepartment and subject staff. The drawing-up of detailedschemes of work setting out the place of IT in various areas ofthe curriculum is more likely to lead to a change of practice forthe better if individual departments identify with the plans.87. The distribution of resources within the schoolinfluences classroom practice in IT. There are occasions whena room is needed with enough equipment to occupy a whole


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class, perhaps with two or three pupils working together ateach micro. On other occasions teachers will need the use ofjust two or three micros located in their normal teaching basesas additional resources - the monitoring of scientificexperiments and the use of a nutrition database during thepreparation of meals in home economics are obviousexamples. In addition some teachers will feel more at easebringing IT equipment into their usual teaching room ratherthan moving to what they perceive to be a high-technologyenvironment. Flexible arrangements are needed to meetindividual teachers' circumstances. The balance of usebetween specialist computing or IT courses and themainstream curriculum is a matter for senior management toconsider since it very often entails a departure fromestablished practice and a conflict of needs which areindividually justifiable. The school library should be regardedas a natural place for IT alongside other information andlearning resources.88. Suitable in-service training is crucial to success in an arealike IT, which evolves so rapidly. While some teachersregularly exploit the potential of IT in their subject many lackthe necessary confidence and expertise. There is a need forbasic familiarisation with IT, but this is best provided in thecontext of a common classroom application. Regular updatingis needed for teachers who are already confident in the use ofIT and, in particular, for those with responsibility forspecialist teaching in IT or computing. The pressing need formore training in applications of IT should not, however,obscure the need for guidance, preferably provided byteachers whose background is in the subject concerned, ingood general classroom practice involving the use of IT.89. Some schools have set up working parties to address theissues discussed above. Such working parties are mostsuccessful when they represent a wide cross-section ofdepartments within the school, make use of the expertise of ateacher with designated responsibility for IT across thecurriculum and have the guidance and support of a member ofthe senior management team. The latter should have oversightof all aspects of resources for learning, including IT and thelibrary. The support of a technician can increase staffconfidence in the use of IT.


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Assessment and progression90. Pupils' individual interests, their experience of IToutside school and the emphasis placed on different aspects ofIT by particular primary schools mean that performance levelsare likely to vary greatly. For instance, a pupil who hasattended a primary school where information handling is aprominent feature of the work might achieve high levels ofperformance in that field but not in applications of control.91. Assessment in IT as in other fields is inseparable fromthe teaching process and should build upon good classroompractice. The major purpose of assessment is to giveinformation about the achievement of pupils so that teacherscan arrange progressively demanding tasks or, as the report ofthe National Curriculum Task Group on Assessment andTesting (TGAT-1988) indicates, obtain a 'well articulatedpicture of the individual child's current strengths and futureneeds'.92. Progression in this context means not that pupilsnecessarily use more sophisticated IT tools but that they applysuch techniques as they have mastered to progressively moredifficult problems through their curricular studies, or usethem to extend themselves in their work in terms of quality,quantity or both.93. Published schemes designed solely to assess technicalcompetence in operating the equipment may motivate somepupils but have little educational value. They may also lead toimpoverished classroom activities by focussing teachers' andpupils' attention on technical aspects alone. A test which aimsonly to reveal whether children are able to copy and erase fileson a particular computer system would not be a good indicatorof their ability to apply this knowledge in practical contexts,either at work or in school. These simplistic procedures couldmislead parents, teachers and the pupils themselves.94. Everyday classroom activities provide the most effectivesetting for reliable evaluation of pupils' use of IT, and theprofessional judgement of teachers must continue to be thefoundation of assessment. Observation of children applyingIT within their work across a range of subjects reveals theextent to which they have assimilated the technology's


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ASSESSMENT AND PROGRESSION

potential to advance, enrich or enhance t h e i r p e ~ f o r m a n c e . For example, the use of a computer to analyse and display dataabout the types of organism found on a seashore might wellhave raised the level of a pupil's understanding of this studybeyond that which would otherwise have been expected. Suchinsight cannot be achieved by testing a narrow range of ITskills in isolation.95. The objectives set out on pages 9-32 should beaddressed, as far as possible, through various tasks designed toassess knowledge, skills and understanding across a range ofcurricular areas, as described in the TGAT report. Due creditshould then be given for the attainment of these IT objectives,as well as for those relevant to other aspects of the curriculum.For example, a class of older children might be given the taskof deVeloping and concluding a story after listening to itsopening episodes. In assessing the piece of work attention willbe paid to linguistic and literary features such as the quality ofthe vocabulary, the sequencing of events, sensitivity toreadership and the richness of characterisation. Some childrenmay have used a word processor to undertake this work. Thiswill give the teacher an opportunity to assess the pupils' ITskills by observing their competence in such aspects as usingthe technology in planning their key ideas, in transferringtheir thoughts to the screen with appropriate speed and inrefining their initial efforts. This redrafting may involvereplacing words with synonyms after using a computerthesaurus or moving blocks of text. A secondary science classmay be asked to design experiments to investigate the effect ofenvironmental factors on the rate of growth of plants in agreenhouse. Pupils' competence in setting up equipmentand using software to obtain readings and graphicalrepresentations of these results would be assessed as a measureof their attainment of IT objectives. The choice of appropriatevariables to measure, the placing of sensors and the timeintervals chosen in order to test a clearly stated hypothesiswould give some indication of their understanding of thescientific principles involved.96. Assessment of pupils' competence to use IT by theteacher of another subject will take time to becomeestablished. Until schools and teachers have become familiarwith a variety of applications of IT, testing of some aspects ofIT capability may have to take place separately, albeit within


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the context of tasks that have meamng for the individuallearner.97. Assessment by the pupil of his or her own achievement isoften an intrinsic part of learning. Children are often morecritical of themselves than an observing adult would be,particularly in the case of IT. They are inclined to accept theresponse of the technology to their own instructions as a fair,impartial and unthreatening indicator of the quality of theirwork. Moreover, as pupils become familiar with a particularIT package or artefact their expectations of it, and con-sequently of themselves, often rise appreciably.


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COMPUTING AS A SPECIALIST SUBJECT

Computing as a specialist subjectAims of computing as a specialist study98. The secondary curriculum should also cater for theneeds of those pupils with a special interest in studyinginformation systems and computer applications in greaterdepth. Computing as a specialist subject now has to build onpupils' cumulative experience of IT within the school andelsewhere, as described in previous sections. The aim ofcomputing as a specialist study should be to extend, unify anddeepen pupils' understanding of computer technology and itsapplications. In particular computing should help pupils: to study the capabilities and limitations of a broad range ofapplications and the contexts in which they are useful; to analyse systems and to apply IT creatively in thesolution of problems using reasoning, judgement andpersistence; to study ways in which computer applications affect theoperation and management of industrial and commercialconcerns or public services; to gain some understanding of the working of systemswhich extend users' mental and physical functions andcapabilities; to carry out sustained pieces of work that are formallyassessed related to the application of computer technologyin society.

Objectives of computing99. The pace of technological change, and pupils' growingfamiliarity with IT, mean that objectives in computing need tobe reviewed at frequent intervals. Pupils specialising incomputing should have acquired the facility with IT indicatedin earlier sections. In addition, by the age of 16, they shouldbe able:


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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FROM 5 TO 16

to make explicit the techniques used in arnvmg atsolutions using computers. This is a fundamentalobjective and involves:I . the formulation of a problem and determination ofwhether a computer solution would be appropriate;11. the collection and management of data relevant tothe solution ofa problem;iii. the iterative processes of evaluation and refinementboth ofproblem formulation and of solution;IV. subdivision, where necessary, of a problem into anorganised collection of smaller problems;v. the choice of appropriate software, equipment andmethods to design and implement a solution to aproblem;VI. the presentation of a solution together with appro-

priate documentation. to understand the context in which computers are used,and in particular:

I . be familiar with a broad range of contemporarycomputer applications, including those used inschools;11. know the range of commercial and industrialcontexts in which computers are used;i l l . know about social effects that the aggregation ofinformation in computer systems and its generalaccessibility may have;iv. be able to discriminate between good and poor userguides to computer applications.


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to understand the fundamentals of computer-basedtechnology, i.e.:1. understand the function of software and of hardwarein a computer system (e.g. different levels ofsoftware, software controlling peripherals,firmware);11. know how computers store, manipulate and transmitinformation;i l l . know about a range of common computing

machinery and the principal functions of devices thatmay be attached (e.g. devices for communicationbetween mainframes and micros, or for processingremotely sensed data);IV. know the broad principles of how communicationswithin and between computer systems work;v. understand how to construct simple programs in a

structured programming language.

Teaching and learning100. Solving problems is an activity which appears in mostsubject areas. Computing, however, offers a particularly richsupply of problems which can be dealt with at different levelsand which can be solved in different ways. A solution,however effective, can almost always be improved, and it isoften possible to suggest improvements to the way theproblem was originally described. The problem may succumbto a wide range of solutions, from rapier thrust to' sustainedbludgeoning. For example, a street ofhouses may be drawn ona screen by means of the painstaking repetition of elementarycommands in the LOGO language or more briefly andelegantly by calling a few previously built routines. Both typesof solution need to be developed at various stages of learning,and students should be encouraged to generate their ownproblems.101. Even at the simplest level, the first answer to a problemrarely works as its author expects it to, so that the process of


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exhaustively testing and correcting a solution is an integralpart of the activity. More complex problems, such as thosetackled in project work, require clear problem delineation,planning and subdivision into more manageable tasks.102. Projects produced in computing are extremely varied,and at their best can contribute to the life of the community.For instance, a stock control system designed by a pupil for asmall local factory may subsequently be used by its staff;hardware and software are often designed to help disabledpersons; a database of local parish records may be compiledfor use by the church; and systems could be devised to helpwith the administration of school sports fixtures and theirteams. All these require the skills set out above as problemsolving objectives, and should involve pupils in many contactsoutside the classroom. The project work done by the mostable students may be of an almost professional standard,which may raise the expectations of examiners and teachers toan unrealistically high level. I t is clearly desirable to encouragework of such a standard, but it should not lead to the setting ofperformance levels that penalise the competent student.103. Not all pupils will be interested in solving computational problems by developing programs in a language likeBASIC, LOGO or PASCAL or in assembly code. They mayuse applications software such as a spreadsheet to investigatepossible methods of solution when solving realistic problems.Where programming is involved, a 'tool-box' approach hasbeen found useful. It can enable students to complete and testcomplex programs without being subjected to the frustrationsof having to produce accurate detailed coding. Such a 'toolbox' may be a set of accurately coded routines, or parts ofprograms, written by professional programmers. Eachroutine, or module, performs a specified task, such asdisplaying a pie-chart or checking whether data is numeric oralphabetic. The use of these pre-written routines allows pupilsto construct whole systems by selecting and linking themwithout getting involved in too much detail. It is common tofind that the modules do not satisfy their users for long andthat pupils have to modify them as they refine their problemspecification and improve their solution.104. A computing class may undertake to provide acomprehensible guide to an application such as a computer-


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aided learning package. In doing so they need to bear in mindthe expectations and needs of different users of the package;for instance teachers and students, with and without somecomputing expertise, would form a useful forum fordiscussion of the need for and requirements of gooddocumentation.105. The above activity lends itself well to differentiation ofprovision for pupils with various needs and interests. Thelevels of challenge and the areas of interest of any applicationbeing scrutinised should be matched as far as possible to thestudent group. In lessons involving an introduction to solvingproblems through programming, for example, all pupils,including those familiar with some aspects of programming,should have available a progression of problems of increasingchallenge. For instance, two problems might be introduced,one involving the simple manipulation of characters on thescreen and another involving arithmetic calculation. Afterclass discussion of a handful of relevant programmingcommands some pupils might be helped by having versions ofsimple programs which go some way towards a solution. Moreexperienced and knowledgeable pupils may be given relatedbut harder programs, or some which contain omissions oreven errors. Similar principles might apply in solvingproblems using spreadsheets, control technology or databases.106. I t is particularly important that a variety of teachingand learning styles should be used in computing work. Muchof the work should be practical, but it need not necessarily allbe done at the computer. The teaching of all the objectiveswould be assisted by the use of directed reading, extendedclass discussion, note-taking by the students, s ~ m u l a t i o n bythe teacher of certain processes on a computer, class visits tocomputer installations, demonstration of computer conceptswith the computers available, and the use of films and videos.Such a varied approach is still unusual; all too often theteaching is characterised by lecturing and dictated notes,many of which, however accurate, are not fully understood bythe students.107. A great deal of the methodology of teaching computingevolved when computers were scarce - often there was onlyone slow terminal or micro in a class for a limited time. Thecontent and style of teaching now need to be adapted to take


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account of the access boys and girls have to increasinglysophisticated computers and information both inside andoutside schools.

Assessment108. The assessment of project work has always been a partofcomputing courses. This has developed from simply writingprograms to the systematic description of a solution, perhaps,but not necessarily, involving programming. The assessmentof this work has necessarily been carried out by teachers ratherthan by examination boards directly. The testing of problemsolving skills is attempted largely by project or extendedcourse work whereas the knowledged-based objectives aremainly tested by written examinations. This is not necessarilythe best approach. Extended problem-solving exercises basedon a case study or design brief can be devised and are likely tobe better indicators of pupils' capacities than many conventional projects.109. Assessment of course work in computing poses a majorquestion of how teachers and examiners might assess workproduced co-operatively. Such co-operative work wouldmirror common and effective practice in the world outside ofschool. There is experience of assessing group projects withinhigher education, and the move to more assessment byteachers gives the flexibility that is needed if this is to be triedin schools.

Organisation110. The number of pupils opting for examinable courses incomputing is usually greater than the school can provide for.This is either because of a lack of equipment or, morecommonly, of appropriately trained staff. Disappointedstudents become disenchanted, as do some who startcomputing courses but find their expectations unfulfilled.This situation can be avoided through counselling and offeringpupils first-hand experience of IT in various subjects beforeoptions are chosen. Pupils specialising in computing shouldhave access to computers in at least half of their lesson time,


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with a ratio of about three pupils to two micros in theselessons. These lessons may be in special computer rooms or inclassrooms close to shared computing facilities if supervision issatisfactory. Those lessons not taught in computer rooms neednot necessarily concern themselves entirely with theory.Practical aspects of computing can be demonstrated using asingle micro equipped with a large screen.111. The ratio of boys to girls in computing classes is about 2to 1, which is unsatisfactory. It is even greater in computerclub activities, which are almost entirely confined to boysunless special arrangements are made to set aside time orcomputers for the exclusive use of girls. Since it is difficult tosee what is intrinsically more appealing to boys than to girls inthe nature of computing, considerable care, and often positiveencouragement, are needed in counselling pupils aboutavailable courses. Computer clubs can be successful inattracting girls when activities are chosen which do notemphasise traditional male preoccupations with technicalities.112. There is at present a number of courses entitled'information technology' which are different in emphasis from'computer studies'. In general, information technologycourses are concerned less with how computers work and littleabout using a programming language. However, changes inemphasis in recent years have meant that both subjects arenow more concerned with the application of computers.Nevertheless, there can be a divergence of interest and it maybe that two courses will continue to develop. One may be abasic course in information technology with an emphasis onthe practical use of database, text handling, spreadsheet andgraphics packages and the other a more demanding computingcourse. The latter would place greater emphasis on theanalysis and design of systems, an understanding of computersand their applications, and the production of software.Whatever pattern of courses evolves, the main concern willremain the improvement of the quality and range ofeducational activity in these various areas and an accent onunderstanding.113. For this to happen there will need to be a properconsideration of curriculum development in computing, forthe training and re-training of specialist teachers and for theprovision of material resources. Firmer links will also beneeded between computer users outside schools and teachers


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involved in specialist work. Implementation

Documents

Information Technology from 5 to 16 - Curriculum Matters 15 - An HMI Series