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Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands

1. Date this sheet was completed/updated: 29 November 1996

2. Country: CHILE

3. Name of wetland: Soncor Basin

4. Geographical coordinates:

23°15' - 23°22'68°07' - 68°11'

5. Altitude: 2,300 metres above sea level

6. Area: 5,016 hectares

7. Overview:

The Soncor basin is formed by four shallow lakes, no more than1.5 metres deep, interconnected on the surface and undergroundand with very productive surface activity. The lakes lie on alayer of crust formed by the constant accumulation of chlorideand sulphur crystals produced by a high rate of evaporation inthe salt lake. The lakes are hosts to micro fauna andmicroalgae, a source of food for important species of migratorybirdlife such as three species of flamingos, chorlos andplayeros.

8. Wetland type:

Permanent saline lakes

9. Ramsar criteria:

10. Map of site included? Please tick yes -or- no

11. Name and address of the compiler of this form:

Jefe, Sección Fauna SilvestreCorporación Nacional ForestalUnidad de Gestión Patrimonio SilvestreSantiago de Chile

12. Justification of the criteria selected under point 9, onprevious page:

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13. General location:

Region II of Antofagasta, Province of El Loa, 161 km from Calamaand 61 km from San Pedro de Atacama

14. Physical features:

Geology and Geomorphology:

The Salar de Atacama consists basically of a large evaporationpan or crust, which can be divided in accordance with itsphysical and chemical aspects and mineral composition. Thecrust can vary from several centimetres to approximately 60metres in depth. There are three types of crust in this sector:a) crusts of chlorides with an intensely broken hard cover, b)sulphate crusts formed primarily of chalk, producing smooth anddry surfaces, and c) crusts of chlorides and sulphates formed bychlorides (halite) and chalk, in which the chalk is powdery.

The most noticeable geomorphological characteristic is theclosed tectonic basin, formed by large normal faults anddifferential movements of blocks in a north-south direction. The salt pan is at an elevation of 2,300 metres above sea level. It is defined as a dynamic geomorphological unit, subject toclimatic variations, evaporation, precipitation, surface runoff,variations in the level of underground water, subsidence andeolian deposition. These factors define a complex model thatcould be defined as a dynamic saline deposit formed by a clearzonation of detritus and saline layers.

15. Hydrological values:

The Salar de Atacama basin has a surface of approximately156,200 hectares. The hydrological network is formed by adrainage system, which joins a series of small shallow salinelakes creating an area of influence of approximately 5,016hectares. The Río Burro Muerto, which begins in springs in themiddle of the saltpan, supplies water to the lakes of BarrosNegros and Chaxas. There are also other lacustrine systemsdisconnected on the surface from this network, among which isLake Puilar.

The area of the lakes are: Barros Negros (103 hectares), BurroMuerto (1 hectare), Chaxas (37 hectares) and Puilar (84hectares). Including smaller ponds, the total area of the lakesis approximately 280 hectares and the depth of the water doesnot pass 70 centimetres.

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The sediment in Barros Negros, Chaxas and the joining channel isblack. In Lake Puilar there are sediments ranging in colourfrom light coffee to pink.

Barros Negros and Chaxas are lakes with well-defined edges,formed by white to clear coffee-coloured crusts, 30 to 40 cmhigh. Lake Puilar is composed of winding and broken shallowsurfaces with crusts around the edges no higher than 30 cm.

According to CORFO (1977), two aquifers have been identified,one free, separated from another confined by an ignimbrite orclay layer. It is replenished in the eastern sector of theCentral Cordillera of the Andes and empties primarily onto theeastern edge of the saltpan. It is quite possible that this isalso the source of water for the above-mentioned lakes.

Limnology:

Physical and chemical parameters: There are few generaldescriptions or interpretations of the chemical characteristicsof the lakes in the Salar de Atacama. Of relevance are the workof Chong (1970) "Depósitos Salinos en el Norte de Chile y ElSalar de Atacama" and some data and research carried out underthe project for the conservation of flamingos in northern Chile,which described in general terms the habitat of these species.

The Soncor Basin is classified by Chong as an area in salineefflorescences and crusts forming a band between detritus(alluvial sediments partially cemented with salts on the easternedges of the saltpan) and a central saline body. Thistransition zone is composed primarily of halite, with a largeband of chalk, anhydride and sodium chloride on the easternedge, while the western part, the core of the saltpan, ischaracterized by the presence of ions of Ca+2, Mg+2, Na+ K+,Li+, HCO-3, SO-4, Cl-, NO-3 and boron (Parada, 1990).

Parada found high levels of salinity (total solids, 142.23 mg/l)in lake Barros Negros, the most southern of the lakes in theSoncor area. In this lake, there are high levels of sodium andchlorides of 43.32 and 69.84 mg/l respectively, with a neutralpH.

This study carried out chemical and physical analyses of threelakes in the Soncor system, which in general coincide with thoseobserved in the studies mentioned. The following figure showsthis situation.

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Taking into account that the Soncorsystem has a constant north-southsurface flow, which begins in thetributaries originating in thenortheastern side of Lake Puilar andBurro Muerto and continues throughlakes Chaxas and Barros Negros, it'spossible to identify trends in theconcentrations of all of the measuredparameters. The positive gradienttowards the more southern lakes in thesystem seen in the parameters ofconductivity, nitrites and nitrates isattributable to the interaction ofseveral factors among which are thedilution caused by the presence of thetributaries in the northern part of thesystem (Lake Puilar) and the permanentdissolution downstream of salts presenton the edges of the aquifer. Thiscondition would lead to a greaterconcentration of salts and nutrientsfarther from the main tributaries ofthe system in the northern sector.

This interpretation of the dynamics forthe system is probably accentuated bythe likely underground communicationbetween Lake Puilar and the BurroMuerto-Chaxas-Barros Negros system.

Chong pointed out that the underground deposits are usuallysaturated with brine so that, if there is a connection at thislevel between Lake Puilar and Lake Chaxas, there would no doubtbe a factor that would explain the greater concentration ofsolids and dissolved nutrients in the southern most aquifers.

There is no way to compare similar environments except for thedata available for the Salar de Surire in Region I. In thisrespect, the values found in the Soncor system are in generalsimilar, calling attention to the higher levels of salinity andtotal solids found in the Barros Negros and Chaxas lakes. Thisis probably due to the conditions favourable to higher levels ofsalinity during the day caused by temperatures higher than 40°C(measurements taken in this project).

The pH for the system remains practically homogenous for thethree lakes sampled, with high levels of alkalies. Thiscondition is similar to the measurements of Chong and Parada.

Parameters PuilarChaxas Barros

Negros

pH 8.037.95 7.93

salinity (ppm) 18 180 180

total solids (ppm) 96>190 >190

NO2 (µg-at/l) 0.1 0.1 0.19

NO3 (µg-at/l) 0.10.51 0.81

PO4 (µg-at/l) 18.530.2 32.8

O2 (ml/l) 6.64.14 4.56

Figure 0 Physical and chemicalparameters in the Soncor area

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The Soncor basin is composed of three interconnected lakes (fromnorth to south: Burro Muerto, Chaxas and Barros Negros), joinedby a canal. There is also a more independent lake, probablyconnected permanently with the other system. During the winter,this condition becomes evident northeast of Lake Chaxas.

It is possible that these lakes are maintained through thecontinual recharging of underground water from the east thatbrings water to the saltpan. The total area of these lakes isapproximately 3 square kilometres and is no deeper than 1.5metres.

The following physical and chemical parameters were recorded inSeptember 1995

The water in this system can beclassified as chlorate-sodium, based onthe anion and cation of largest value. This water has an ionic structure oflarge homogeneity in terms of space andtime, with concentrations varyingproportionally to salinity. This isgreatest in the lakes farthest from thesources of underground water. The pHis alkaline, remaining homogeneous intime and space (CONAF Region II, 1996).

16. Ecological features:

There are three types of habitat in thewetland: shallow lakes of high salinity(over 10,000 total dissolved solids)hosts to Bacillariophiceae microalgaeand micro invertebrates such asartemias, copepods, ostracods and

quironomide larvae. These form the diet of the three species offlamingos that live in the saltpan (Phoenicopterus andinus, P.chilensis, P. jamesi), caitíes (Recurvirostra andina), chorlos(Charadrius alticola) and playeros de baird (Calidris bairdii). Also frequent in this habitat are patos juarjuales (Lophonettaspecularoides) and the Andean gull (Larus serranus). Anotheridentifiable habitat corresponds to the shore or intralake areain which are frequently observed processes of decomposition ofdissolved organic material in the mud. This area is thepreferred area for quironomide larvae, ephemerid flies andgastropods of the genus Littoridina. Two species of reptiles inthe genus Liolaemus feed on these species. Another habitatcorresponds to the areas of polygonal cracking that forms on theso-called saline shores, 30 to 50 cm in height. This habitat isnot occupied by plant species, being occasionally visited by

Sample (mg/l)Lakes

Chaxas Barros Negros

pH 7.957.93

Chlorate42.117 48.559

Sulphate7.314 9.259Sodium

23.457 26.574Dissolved solids

90.826 110.224

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chorlos that use the natural cracks as refuge and on the edgesof these formations by reptiles for the same purpose.

17. Noteworthy flora:

Classification of vegetation

In general, according to a study entitled "Sistema básico declasificación de la vegetación nativa chilena" (Gajardo et al.,1983), the area of the pre-puna is located in the ecologicalprovince of desert, subregion of Andean desert, represented bythe vegetative formation of Salar de Atacama desert.

This vegetative formation covers a large part of the Salar deAtacama and surrounding area and forms a homogenous landscape. There are large areas free of vegetation, especially at thecentre of the saltpan, but along the eastern border and towardsthe south, there are developed steppe communities (Gajardo,1983).

There are four vegetative associations in the Salar de AtacamaDesert (Gajardo, 1983):

Acantholippia punensis - Franseria meyenianaAtriplex atacamensis - Acantholippia trifidaAtriplex atacamensis - Pluchea absinthioidesProsopis chilensis - Geoffroea decorticans

In the salt marshes of the Salar de Atacama, the associationAtriplex atacamensis - Pluchea absinthioides dominates, withaccompanying species Distichlis spicata and Baccharis juncea.

Vegetation in the reserve

Within the environmental parameters that determine thedistribution of species in the Andean wetlands are the salinitycharacteristic directly related to variations of flora. Thismeans that the greater the percentage of saline deposits, lessis the development of vegetation and species diversity. Thereis also a high correlation between some species that arecharacteristic of high concentrations of salinity (Faúndez,1993).

In the formations in the vegas and riparian vegetation of thesalt marshes, the distribution of species is strongly influencedby the characteristics of soil moisture and the presence ofsurface runoff, with characteristic variations depending on thedegree of flooding of the soils and distance from surface water.

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The vegetation associated with the Soncor wetland is distributedprimarily on the eastern side of the lakes, in the eastern partof Salar de Atacama, because flora is almost inexistent aroundthe lakes located toward the centre of the Salar de Atacama(Chaxas - Barros Negros), areas of saturated, flooded and saltdeposits in the form of crusts.

Because of this, vegetation is concentrated on the eastern sideof the Puilar system of lakes, the part of the Soncor wetland inwhich it is clearly proven the difference in the dominance andabundance of species, to the degree that the percentage ofsaturation decreases and distance from the sources of waterincreases. In this environment, the herbaceous speciesDistichlis spicata (salt grass) grows in isolated areas in avariable-width band beginning approximately 200 metres from theedge of the system of lakes. There are relatively pure patchesof this species reaching a cover of approximately 30 to 50 percent.

Farther away from the area of influence of the lakes, toward thezone on the eastern edge of the Salar de Atacama, there arealmost pure communities of the low woody species brea (Plucheaabsintioides) reaching a cover that can exceed 60 per cent. Inthese areas, Distichlis spicata can also be found. In the areasfarthest from the water, the low woody species cachiyuyo(Atriplex atacamensis) grows in the form of bushes up toapproximately 1.7 metres high and with crowns of approximately1.5 metres in diameter. There is also the species Plucheaabsintioides and Distichlis spicata.

The most important other species that can be found in lessabundant quantities are: Nitrophila atacamensis, Scirpus acaulisPhil., Festuca hypsophylla Phil., Juncus balticus (unco).

According to the study carried out by the University of Chile(Castro et al., 1993) "Identificación y Ubicación de Vegas yBofedales de las Regiones Primera y Segunda", there are 14 vegason the edges of the Salar de Atacama, of which only the vega deCarvajal (2 hectares) is located in the area of influence of theSoncor system at a distance of approximately 3 kilometres fromthe lacustrine systems of the wetland.

Of the species mentioned, none are classified as endangeredspecies from the point of view of conservation status.

Microalgae

The composition of the phytobenthon of the sample obtained fromPuilar, Chaxas and Barros Negros in the Soncor system was atotal of 16 species. Thirteen of these correspond to microalgaeof the Bacillariophiceae family and 3 to the Cyanophyta. There

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are similar numbers of species in the three lakes, with LakeChaxas having 11 species. In general, the samples in the lakesof the system had similar indices of diversity, with thegreatest diversity (0.7649) in Lake Chaxas. The greatestabundance was in the sample from Barros Negros which reached9,199,666 cells per litre. When considering these parameters,the spacial limitations of these samples, which were primarilyqualitative, should be taken into account. The species ofgreatest representativity in the Soncor samples, concerningabundance and presence, were Navicula sp.1 and Surirella ovatawhich were common to the three lakes and showed relativeabundances between 2,166,666 and 4,466,666 cells per litre.

Given the interconnection between the lakes, it was expected tofind a high similarities of phytobethon of the samples. Fromthe point of view of biocenosis, they appear poorly related withsimilarities that do not exceed 55 per cent. This condition canbe attributed to the limitations of the sample, which asmentioned earlier is primarily qualitative. The sample fromLake Puilar with respect to the other lakes in the study appearsmore distant in the degree of similitude, a fact which can beexplained by the differences detected in the chemicalcharacteristics mentioned earlier. This could be because of theexistence in Puilar of atypical physical and chemical conditionswith respect to the more southern and internal lakes in theSalar de Atacama.

18. Noteworthy fauna:

Following the survey of hydrological and vegetational resources,it was found that two clearly differentiable environments existin the Soncor wetlands. There is one within the Salar deAtacama, extremely arid and very poor in fauna and flora andlimited to saline lakes. The other, less arid, is along theeastern edges and has a rich band of vegetation and permanentsources of underground water with very special habitat.

There is a constant exchange of fauna between the two areas,especially of predators that frequently visit the lakes to feedon young birds and eggs. There are 20 species whose presence isrecorded. Of these, only 15 per cent correspond to mammals, andthe other 85 per cent correspond to birdlife. At least 5 ofthese species (1 mammal and 4 birds) have been observed toreproduce in this area or on the edges of the area.

The following table lists the species found in the Libro Rojo deVertebrados Terrestres de Chile (Glade, 1993).

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Species of fauna found in the Salar de Tara included inconservation categories

Conservation status Species

In danger of extinction Pterocnemia pennata tarpacensis

Vulnerable Larus serranusPhoenicopterus andinusPhoenicopterus chilensisPhoenicopterus jamesi

Rare -

Poorly known Pseudalopex culpaeusPseudalopex griseus

Mammals of interest

Andean wolf (Pseudalopex culpaeus): Its permanent habitat isalong the edges of the salt marsh near the sources of freshwaterand the strip of vegetation where it probably builds its dens. It visits areas in the wetland to feed on eggs and the young ofbirds that nest in the saline lakes. There are no estimates ofthe populations of this species. There appears to be someseasonality in the frequency of sightings and a increase in thepresence of P. culpaeus toward the summer, the period fornesting by flamingos in the wetland.

Chululo (Ctenomys fulvus): It digs galleries in areas dominatedby Festuca and Parastrephia, preferring to eat roots and youngvegetation in the transitional area between the vegetationalstrip and the interior of the saltpan. There are no estimatesof this species's population.

Birds of interest

There are three species of flamingos whose habitat isexclusively the saline lakes of wetlands. They feed onmicroalgae and microinvertebrates in the saline lakes, presentprimarily in the sedimentary strata of the water. In thisstrata, highly muddy with abundant organic material and of quitespecial physical and chemical characteristics, permitting thedevelopment of species with a high tolerance for salineconditions and thermic variation.

The flamingos in the Soncor wetlands have a clearly seasonalbehaviour as the result of their migratory behaviour mentionedearlier. The numbers of flamingos in Soncor vary between a

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minimum of 597 individuals in the month of January 1995 and amaximum of 2731 specimens in September 1995. This variation isrelated to the optimal conditions that the wetland acquires forthe development of reproduction. The largest numbers (September1994 and September 1995) occurs when pairs of mating birds beginto form, increasing in intensity and numbers involved towardspring and summer. Nonetheless, a survey of species and watersurfaces revealed differences from the above generalizations.

The populations of Chilean flamingo in the wetland fluctuatebetween a general minimum of 105 specimens in the month ofJanuary 1995 (data that does not take into account Lake Chaxas)and a average maximum of 830 individuals in May 1995. Thisspecies represents an average percentage of 29.38 per cent ofthe total flamingo population in Soncor for the survey periodanalyzed.

An analysis of surveys made between September 1994 and September1995 show that the population of this species increases towardsthe spring. This can be attributed to the dynamics ofmigrations in search of conditions propitious for reproduction. Toward the summer, as a result of these same conditions, thenumbers of flamingos participating in reproductive activitiesincrease or remain with small variations in the salt flat.

Nonetheless, the figure shows a drop to a minimum during themonth of January 1995. It is quite probable that the Chileanflamingo did not find the right conditions for reproduction inthe Salar de Atacama and moved on to the area of the Antofagastapuna or other areas such as the Salar de Huasco in Region I. Infact, in that saltpan during the 1994-1995 reproductive period,there was a large population that produced 1,500 chicks of theChilean flamingo.

This dynamics is the basis for the importance of these wetlandon the pre-puna and puna for the reproductive processes of theChilean flamingo, because this species evaluates the conditionsin the wetlands in the Andes in order to choose the bestconditions for reproduction.

The population levels of the Andean flamingo varied from aminimum of 207 specimens in May 1995 to a maximum of 1547specimens in September 1995 (see figure 2 in annex II). Itrepresents an average of 46.15 per cent of the total populationand the species with the greatest population during the surveyperiod. The Chaxas and Puilar lakes are of great importance forthe Andean flamingo, because the numbers surveyed represent 85per cent of the total population of this species.

The population of the Andean flamingo, as is the case of theChilean flamingo, fluctuates according to the dynamics of

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migration related to reproduction, with the same drop inpopulation during the month of January. There is no dataavailable, however, to indicate a general movement of the Andeanflamingo to habitat on the puna, because no data is availablefor this area, and during this year there were heavy summerrains. Taking into account the population levels during thisyear and reproductive activities (the forming of couples) inBarros Negros and Puilar lakes, it is expected that reproductionwill be successful in the wetland during 1995-1996.

The population of James's flamingo from September 1994 toSeptember 1995 fluctuated between a minimum of zero specimens inJanuary 1995 (without taking into account Lake Chaxas) and amaximum of 814 specimens in September 1995. This speciesrepresents an average of 16 per cent of the total flamingopopulation in the Soncor Basin for this period. The populationsof James's flamingos react to the availability of food in theSoncor wetlands. This species reaches large numbers in LakeChaxas and Barros Negros (they represent an average of 44 percent of the total flamingo population), in the winter months, aperiod during which the lakes on the puna where it usually livesare frozen. As a result, the lowest levels of population are inthe summer, when conditions on the puna are more favourable. The presence of this species adds to the importance of theSoncor wetland because it is the wintering area for thisspecies.

The species Recurvirostra andina (caiti) which reproduces in thelakes Chaxas and Puilar and the migratory species of chorlo dela puna and playero de Baird are almost always present in thesalt marsh, with an increase in population during the summer.

Micro invertebrates

Surveys of benthic zooplankton in the Barros Negros and Chaxaslakes reveal 8 species, one in the phylum of protozoa, onenematode, 4 crustaceans and 2 insects. The survey foundhomogeneous levels with regard to the number of species found:Barros Negros Lake with 4 species and Chaxas and Puilar lakeswith 3 species. In terms of total populations, Barros Negrosand Puilar lakes have populations of more than 0.4 individualsper litre of larvae of the micro invertebrates Diphera andDyaciclops spp.

Protozoa are excluded from the previous analysis (withconcentration of more than 33,000 specimens per litre) becauseit is impossible to make comparisons between microscopicspecimens with species of copepods and larvae that are muchlarger. The samples taken in the wetland give a low populationand a low number of species. As a result of the dynamics of thesaline environments, the numerical populations of the benthic

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zooplankton is quite variable and directly correlated withenvironmental conditions determined by physical and chemicalfactors.

19. Social and cultural values:

There are no reports of important archaeological sites in thisarea. The fauna is possibly used by the rural communities inQuebrada Camar and Soncor, about 15 kilometres from the wetland.

The communities around the Salar de Atacama have traditionallygathered flamingo eggs around Barros Negros and Puilar. Thisactivity has almost completely disappeared as the result of theconservation activities begun under the project "Conservation ofFlamingos in Northern Chile" carried out by CONAF Region II. Nonetheless, the increase in visitors to the reserve, now morethan 10,000 visitors per year, is a source of concern, althoughvisitors are regulated by park wardens of the Los FlamingosNational Reserve.

20. Land tenure/ownership of:

At the study site, the land belongs to the government. In thesurrounding area, to the north and east the land also belongs tothe government (with mining concessions to SOQUIMICH); to thesouth and the west the land is also owned by the government(with mining concessions to CORFO).

21. Current land use:

Grazing

In addition to the high vegas such as Aguas Calientes, Altar andQuepiaco, the settlement of Toconao uses a series of low vegasthat are located in the same Salar de Atacama. The mostimportant vegas are: De Carvajal, Honar, Olar, Potor, Tambillo,Terar and Vilaco. These vegas are used seasonally in the summerby the local inhabitants in Toconao, except Tambillo which isused year round.

The community of Talabre is apparently most closely linked tothe vegas as grazing sites, because it has the largest number ofllamas (Lama spp.) which in 1994 reached 737 animals (SAG,1994). They also use the low vegas of Tambillo and de Carvajalin the Salar de Atacama.

The species of vegetation most frequently grazed by livestockare campaya, chasquiar, chichicón, florecilla, grama, navia,ojalar, oreja de ratón, paja, paja blanca, paja blanda, pasto

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pako, pasto de campo, pasto de semilla, pasto pako, perfilla andunquillo.

The communities of Peine and San Pedro de Atacama do not usewetlands covered under this study. Nonetheless, as reference,the community of Peine has access to the vegas of Agua Delgada,Kapur, Palao, Pular, Puruchare, Silolao, Tarajne, Tilocalar,Tilomonte, Tilopozo and Tulán; while the community of San Pedrouses the vegas of Cejas, Oyape, Purificar and Tebinquiche, allin the Salar de Atacama.

Gathering of plants

Information available on this subject is sparse and coversspecies of vega and stream vegetation used by the localinhabitants.

Settlement Species used Purposes

Camar Brea and cachiyuyo Roofing

Peine Rica-rica Medication

S.P. de Atacama Brea and unquillo Fodder, roofing

Socaire Paja brava Roofing, medication

Talabre Catarate, paja and paja grande Casualconstruction

Toconao Brea, cachiyuyo, paja and unquillo Fodder,fuel,

roofing

The table identifies four types of use for wild plants: fodder,fuel, construction (roofing) and medication. Local inhabitantsdo not feel that the use of plants has negative effects on thevega. Nonetheless, it should be pointed out that the use ofcachiyuyo has been greater than its capacity for regeneration. This has led to a considerable decrease in population,especially in the glacial sediments east of the Salar deAtacama.

Extraction of water

In light of the importance of this topic for the development andsurvival of man and the wetlands, as well as for all of thewildlife in these dry geographic landscapes, it is important topoint out that local communities usually have good knowledge ofthe conditions of good water use, especially those for

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agriculture, livestock raising and human consumption; as well asthe water used by the companies working in the area.

The following figure gives the use of water in the communitiesin the Atacama region.

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Local communities are usually aware ofseveral adverse factors in the vegas,either those used by the community orthose used by private companies,namely, manifestations of drying thatis occurring in these wetlands as theresult of a lack of precipitation andin some case the shifting ofunderground water as the result ofearthquakes. Perhaps the only case ofa negative impact caused by a miningcompany is in the Quepe vega, used bythe Peine community, although outsideof the study area, because the SociedadChilena del Litio is extracting waterfor industrial processing. It is quitecertain that water management plays animportant role in the conservation ofwetlands, whether those used by localcommunities for grazing or those usedfor their own needs as well as those ofthe mining companies and municipalwater services.

Mining

The extraction of metallic and non-metallic minerals is having animportant impact on the aquatic habitatand wildlife of the areas near themineral deposits, a situation wellperceived by the Atacama community.

Community WetlandUse User

Toconao Vega VilacoIrrigationCommunity

Vega SilapetiHuman use Community

Aguas BlancasIrrigationCommunity

Vega HonarIrrigationCommunity

Salar de AtacamaMining Litio and MINSAL

Camar Nacimiento Humanuse Community

de Camarand mining

Lagunas delRoad maintenance

Contractors Salar

Talabre Vega TumbreHuman use Community

IrrigationSaltar

IrrigationCommunity

Socaire NacimientoHumanuse Community

ChorrilloIrrigationCommunity

QuepeIrrigationCommunity

Salar de AtacamaMining MINSAL and Litio

Peine NacimientoIrrigationCommunity

Human use CommunityVega Tarajne

Mining Litio

San Pedro de Atacama San PedroIrrigationCommunity

Human consumptionCommunity

VilamaAgriculture Community

Pozo 3 and 5Agriculture Community

RecreationVisitors

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Capture of wildlife

The hunting of wild animals was acommon practice of the pre-Hispanicpopulation living in the Andes. Thissituation continued after the arrivalof the Spanish, although the conquerorsestablished a European economic modeloriented to the extraction of minerals,which led to the breakdown of theexisting social structure, traditionalrural activities and the use ofdispersed natural resources at variouslevels of the Andean ecology.

More recently, the hunting of wildlifehas persisted, reaching a high pointbetween 1930 and 1950, then graduallydeclining to the present situationwhere it is now marginal in the localcommunities. This is not the case ofhunting by external communities, whichcontinue to hunt wild animalsruthlessly.

The following results were obtainedfrom this study and indicate the mostfrequent species hunted by area, partsand derivatives and season of capture.

Species Area hunted Parts andderivatives Period

Vicuna 1,2,3,56 Hair, fur,meat Spring and summerGuanaco 1,5,6 Fur, meat

Spring and summerFox 1,2,4,5 Fur

Year roundViscacha 1,2,3,4,5,6 Meat Spring andsummerMountain lion 1,2 Fur SporadicallyChinchilla5,6 Fur, meat Spring and summerChululo 2,5 Meat Spring andsummerDucks 1,2 Meat SpringCondor 1,4 Feathers SporadicallyFlamingo 1,2,5,6 Feathers Year roundÑandu 2 Feathers, meat Spring and summerPuna quail2 Meat Spring and summer

Community WetlandUser Effects

Camar S.P. de Atacama Litio--

Vega Poqui

ToconaoLitioLoss of natural status

Disturbance ofwildlife

Noise

Degradation of the

environment

Talabre ---- --

Socaire S.P. de AtacamaLitio General loss of fauna

and floraLaco

-- --

Peine Salar de AtacamaLitio--

S.P. de Atacama Salar deAtacama Litio

Azufrera

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1)Toconao, 2) Camar, 3) Talabre, 4) Socaire, 5) Peine, 6) S.P.de Atacama

While hunting concerns twelve species, there are conservationproblems for at least nine of these (75 per cent). Of specialconcern are aquatic birdlife and three species of flamingos,which reproduce in the Antofagasta Andean salt flats and latermigrate to more benign sites in the Peruvian and Argentine Andesduring the fall.

Local inhabitants consider the cause of the decrease in theflamingo populations to be the result of mining activitiescarried out in the Salar de Atacama, which produces noise andthe circulation of heavy trucks and vehicles near thereproduction and feeding sites, as well as the disturbancescaused by the increased presence of humans and touristactivities.

It is interesting to note that the community of Peine statesthat the population of flamingos was much greater in the sixtiesand seventies. At night, during the spring, it used to bepossible to hear hundreds of flamingos, which descended from themountains to live and nest in places near this town.

Gathering of eggs

The communities admit having collected eggs of at least sevenspecies of birds, which were used for local consumption, exceptflamingo eggs which were usually sold locally in Calama and S.P.de Atacama. The Salar de Atacama (Barros Negros, Salada,Saladita and Interna) and Tara, are the most important centresfor gathering flamingo eggs. At Miscanti and Miñiques lakes,eggs of the tagua are gathered and, to a lesser extent, those ofducks and the Andean gull. This information is represented inthe following table.

Species Salar or lake Town

Flamingo Salar de Tara 1,2,3,4,6Lake Barros Negros 1,2,4,6Laguna Salada 5

Tagua cornuda Lakes Miscanti and Miñiques 3,4

Gull Lake Miscanti 6

Noonday Lake Miscanti 2,5

Ducks Lake Miscanti 2,3,4,6

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Lakes in the extremesouthern part of Salar de Atacama

Local inhabitants report that the gathering of wild bird eggs nolonger takes place, because of the decrease in bird populationsand because of regulations prohibiting this practice. Nevertheless, on the basis of the information provided, thispractice was important in the Atacama communities at least untilthe mid-1980s when the creation of protected wildlife areas andthe conservation of wildlife began.

Tourism

Tourism was of little importance and without change until the1970s when a rapid and steady increase in this activity tookplace and has remained until the present. The Servicio deTurismos estimates that more than 30,000 persons visited S.P. deAtacama last year, where there are 330 beds in hotels, guesthouses and camp grounds, 12 restaurants and 14 tour operators.

The following table indicates the sites visited by tourists,benefits to the local community and the effects of tourism onthe wetlands.

Wetlands Town Benefits Negative effects

S.P. de Atacama 1,2,5,6 handicraftDisturbance of wildlife(Burro Muerto) services Vehicular traffic sale of fruit Creation of garbage

Miscanti 6 handicrafts Disturbance of wildlife and Miñiques

Salar de Tara 3,4,6 handicrafts Creation of garbage

Laguna Lejia 4,6 handicrafts Disturbance of wildlife

Salar Aguas Calientes 5,6 handicrafts Disturbance of wildlife

In general, local communities consider the benefits of tourismto be very marginal, and few participate in offering servicessuch as accommodation, food and transportation. Theirparticipation is limited to the sale of handicrafts and fruit.

Currently, the most visited salt flats are the Salar de Atacama(Laguna Burro Muerto), the Miscanti and Miñiques lakes, Lejiaand the Salar de Tara. Other wetlands visited outside of therange of this study are the Salar de Aguas Calientes II, thevegas of Del Tatio, Jauna, Putana, Tambillo and the El Tatiogeyser.

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22. Factors (past, present or potential) adversely affecting thesite's ecological character, including changes in land use anddevelopment projects:

Pressure on the use of water resources

Little water is available in the region around Antofagasta andthe water that exists varies considerably in magnitude anddistribution. Total rainfall and the seasonality of rainfallare extremely variable, leading to conditions of vulnerabilityand fragility for the environment (University of Chile, 1994).

Over the past few years, in addition to natural commonfluctuations in climate, there has been the threat of permanentclimate change with uncertain effects on this area. The climatecan have seasonal variations and intense dryness that affectsthese environments. As a result, this affects the conditions oflife and the activities of local inhabitants (University ofChile, 1994).

Patterns of rainfall will change to an unknown degree. Based onavailable information, it is very likely that global warmingwill intensify dryness instead of attenuating it. Surfacerunoff and replenishment of underground water will be reduced,leaving less water available for nature and local communities inlarge areas (University of Chile, 1994).

One of the threatening factors that could cause a major impacton these wetlands is the use of surface or underground waterresources. Use has increased in the past ten years. Thisaspect is of great importance because part of the waterresources being used or that is authorized is fossil water.

Most of the demand for water comes from the mining companiesthat are extracting non-metallic minerals in the saltpans orfrom the water company for Antofagasta (Empresa Sanitaria deAntofagasta). This affects the Los Flamencos reserve asindicated in the following figure.

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Mining activities

Mining activities during the past fewyears in the pre-puna and puna zoneshave intensified, with a significantincrease in prospecting and extractionfor non-metallic and metallic minerals. The following large-scale operationsare currently in operation (from northto south).

Among these companies, Mineras Minsaland Sociedad Chilena del Litio areoperating in the area near the wetlandschosen for the reserve of Salar deAtacama. Minera Escondida operates inareas near the Salar de Punta Negra andalso uses underground water from wellslocated on the eastern edge of the saltpan in its productive process.

According to information available frompublic services, it is expected thatmining activities will increase in thisarea in the near future, either becauseof increases in production levels ofthe mining companies or because newcompanies will begin activities. Thereare several projects for whichfeasibility studies have been made:Project Lomas Bayas, El Abra, ProjectLitio-MINSAL are the most important. Another reason why there will probablybe an increase in mining activity inthe area is the existence of miningclaims, especially in Salar de Pujsa. Several companies, including Hunt Oiland the Empresa Nacional de Petroleo,have carried out oil prospectingprojects in large parts of the pre-punaand puna area, especially in the Salar

de Atacama.

Among the mining activities creating a negative impact onnatural resources, the most important is the use of surface orunderground water in productive processes. Next in order ofimportance are the construction of roads for prospecting andproduction activities that create a direct impact on the soiland changes in the landscape as the result of trash in thesurrounding area.

Year Affected wetland UserType

Quantity

(l/s)

1990 Salar de PujsaOctavio Brickle H. use 200

1991 SoncorRoberto Muñozexploration 450Aguas de QuelanaMINSALexploration 450

1993 Aguas de QuelanaRoberto Muñozexploration 450Soncor/QuelanaMariella Pizarroexploration 250Aguas de QuelanaMINSALexploration 50SoncorS.Q.M.exploration 300SoncorS.Q.M.exploration 300Aguas de QuelanaPatricia Muñozexploration 300

1995 Pujsa JorgeSchellman use 500

Pujsa JorgeSchellman exploration 600

Figure 0 Requests for water thataffect the Los Flamencos reserve

Commune Mining companyProduct

Calama El Abracopper

Codelco-Chuquicamata copper

S.P. de Atacama SociedadChilena del Litio

MINSAL

Antofagasta Escondidacopper

Zaldivarcopper

Autokumpocopper

Figure 0 Mining companiesoperating in the Andes

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Unregulated tourist activities

The area of the pre-puna and puna offer a variety of attractionsof interest to tourists, among which are cultural andarchaeological resources, typical fauna and flora and a uniquescenery of large volcanoes and high-altitude lakes.

This potential for the development of tourism is exploited byprivate agencies transporting tourists from the towns of Calamaand San Pedro de Atacama to the areas of greatest cultural andnatural beauty.

The following table describes the most common touristitineraries and the wetlands currently visited by the greatestnumber of tourists.

Itinerary Wetlands Total visitors

Salar de Atacama Soncor 10,000*

Valle de la Luna-Aldea Tulor - 20,000

Salar de Pujsa-Salar de Tara Pujsa and Tara 4,000

Miscanti-Miñiques Miscanti and Miñiques 3,000

*Estimated number of visitors for 1994 (CONAF, Region II)

Minibuses and trucks with a capacity for 6 to 12 persons areusually used for these itineraries without a trained guide. Most of the tourist agencies are located in San Pedro deAtacama; approximately 18 agencies during the tourist season and10 to 12 permanent agencies.

There is currently no plan for developing tourism for thisregion that takes into account legal requirements and that laysout regulations for making tourist activities compatible withthe conservation of natural resources.

A negative impact on the wetland's natural resources is causedprimarily by the creation of garbage, circulation of persons inhighly fragile areas (for example in vegas), the gathering ofwild flora and changes in the habits and reproduction ofwildlife.

The influence of the proximity of persons on the behaviour ofwildlife is of special importance in the context of protectingpopulations of migratory birds of international importance. It

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is certain that in the case of flamingos living in the Andeanwetlands, the phases of the reproductive cycle namely,courtship, mating, incubation and care for chicks, can beconsiderably changed by the presence of humans. An interruptionof any of these phases can produce irreversible changes inreproductive colonies and a significant decrease in the rate ofincorporation of chicks in the adult population.

According to systematic field studies (CONAF, Region II), it ispossible to ensure that there are changes in the behaviour offlamingos during reproduction in the presence of persons atdistances of approximately 1.5 kilometres, becoming critical atdistances of 500 metres. When human presence is permanent orfrequent, the probability of abandoning nesting colonies at allstages is significantly higher. More direct activities such asthe hunting of adult specimens, circulation among active nestsor the gathering of eggs usually produce an immediateinterruption of the reproductive phases and the abandoning ofresting and nesting sites.

There are sites of confirmed flamingo mating activities that arevariants of the present tourist itineraries. These importantbiological sites are the Soncor wetlands, Laguna Burro Muerto,Laguna Puilar and, to a lesser extent, the Tara wetlands.

Construction of roads

This activity merits mention because of the considerable adverseeffects on the environment in this area. Roads are constructedfor various reasons, primarily because of activities related tomining and civil engineering constructions for development.

In the case of the Salar de Atacama, there are secondary roadsbuilt by the mining companies for prospecting (Empresa PetroleraNorthpax) and extraction (Minera MINSAL and Sociedad Chilena deLitio) through which they have easy access to all parts of theSoncor basin and the Aguas de Quelana wetlands.

The main negative impacts on the wetlands caused by theconstruction of roads are the following:

Increase in the movement of persons affecting the behaviourof wildlife

Creation of access for predators such as the wolf whichfeed on flamingo eggs and chicks, interrupting reproduction inthe phases of nesting and the raising of chicks.

23. Conservation measures taken:

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The Soncor basin belongs to the Los Flamencos National Reserve,which was included in the National System of Protected NatureAreas in 1990.

24. Conservation measures proposed but not yet implemented:

In light of the threats in this area there are general measureswhose application will favour indistinctly each of theidentified subsystems as well as specific priority actionsoriented to particular sites.

Strengthening the system of protected wildlife areas

To strengthen the system of protected wildlife areas, theCorporación Nacional Forestal created Los Flamencos NationalReserve in 1990, covering 73,986 hectares for the protection ofrepresentative environments in the pre-puna and puna. Withinthe national reserve are the wetlands of Aguas Calientes 1,Lagunas Miscanti and Miñiques, Pujsa, Salar de Tara and part ofthe Salar de Atacama that form an important area for thebiological stability of populations of flamingos.

The main conservation activities in the reserve are:

Patrolling and monitoring of activities incompatible withthe purposes of the reserve

Monitoring and providing information to visitors to theSoncor wetlands

Monitoring populations of flamingos in the wetlands ofAguas Calientes 1, Aguas de Quelana, Miñiques, Miscanti, Pujsaand Soncor

Monitoring populations of tagua cornuda in the Miscanti andMiñiques wetlands

Providing environmental education activities at theEnvironmental Information Centre in the town of San Pedro deAtacama

This reserve has an administration and management withheadquarters in Toconao (Salar de Atacama), a staff memberresponsible for planning, supervising and technical control, astaff member responsible for operational planning and three parkwardens. There are also a pick-up and two motorcycles.

The present management is insufficient, taking into account thecharacteristics of the distance between areas that need to becovered. As a result, activities are concentrated almost

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exclusively around Soncor, relatively close to theadministrative headquarters in Toconao.

The following steps are proposed to strengthen theadministration and management of the reserve:

Increase the number of park rangers in order to permit anincrease in patrols and the regulation of incompatibleactivities (gathering of flamingo eggs and registration ofvisitors)

Obtain financing for the construction of basicaccommodations in critical areas in order to increase the rangeand intensity of inspections especially in Soncor, Tara and theMiñiques and Miscanti lakes

Develop a system for monitoring resources and a data baseto increase knowledge of the dynamics of these ecologicalsystems primarily by studying variations of water level in thelakes and fluctuations in populations of migratory birdlife

Establish a system for monitoring the atrophic activitiesthat affect the reserve and propose measures for reducingnegative effects on the wetlands, establishing priorities forthe building of roads and requests for water use

Improve equipment for research and monitoring programmes

Train professional staff and park rangers on managementtechniques for resources and environmental education

Promote the development of a management plan by carryingout projects and technical programmes

Encourage the participation of the local community inconservation management, especially in the towns of Camar,Peine, San Pedro de Atacama, Socaire, Talabre and Toconao,involving them into the development of the management plan

Promote the creation of voluntary associations of localinhabitants and institutions that support conservationmanagement

Regulating tourist activities

In order to decrease the negative impact of tourist activitieson the wetlands, especially on the flamingo population, thefollowing steps will be taken to promote the development oftourism based on a respect for natural resources and thatcontributes to conservation management and the promotion of anawareness and environmental-friendly behaviour in tourists:

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Development of training courses for tour operatorsemphasizing ecotourism, the conservation objectives of thenature reserve, planning and management considerations andknowledge of the characteristics of natural resources

Promotion of the development of tourist objectives sharedbetween the National Forest Corporation and tourist agencies,local communities and officials, which should be clearlyexpressed within the context of a specific development plan fortourism

Formulation and implementation of standards regulating theactivities of tourists near the wetlands, especially near theSoncor wetlands, incorporating the active participation of touroperators in planning

Carrying out studies that will create the technical basisfor defining regulatory norms for tourist activities, givingpriority to determining the tourist capacity of the area ofBurro Muerto-Puilar and identification of roads and accessibleitineraries for the development of activities of ecotourism andadventure tourism (climbing of volcanoes, hiking in the Andesand bus tours)

Promotion of the development of ecotourism that reinforcesthe objectives of wetlands conservation

Improvement of access to areas with important scenic valuein order to diversify tourist possibilities and to decrease theconcentration of visitors in flamingo nesting areas

Development of environmental education programmes

Environmental education activities should be oriented to keygroups that can contribute to the management of conservation,among which are local communities and officials, employees ofmining companies, tourist agencies and public services. Specialattention should be given to groups whose activities represent athreat to wetlands.

The aims of environmental education should promote the creationof an awareness of the importance of wetlands and majorenvironmental problems in order to modify attitudes and increasethe participation of individuals in the protection andconservation of wetlands. The public should be informed of theimportance of knowledge, methods and standards that make itpossible to sufficiently support conservation management and thesolving of major problems.

The following specific actions are proposed:

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Formulation and implementation of an environmentaleducation programme based on a diagnosis of the expectations,concerns and interests of tourists and local communities and thedevelopment of management practices necessary for attractingfinancing

Creation of environmental education programmes at the CONAFEnvironmental Education Centre in the town of San Pedro deAtacama

Construction of trails to concentrate visitors and provideinformation promoting knowledge about the ecological dynamics ofthe wetlands

Preparation of didactic material emphasizing the ecologicalimportance of the Andean wetlands

Involvement of the private sector in conservation activities

Mining companies working in areas near these wetlands should beinvolved in the management of conservation activities. It isproposed to develop an agreement for the conservation ofwetlands between CONAF and the mining companies working near theSalar de Atacama, taking into account the exchange ofinformation obtained from the environmental programmes of themining companies and the public sector; financial support forcarrying out specific conservation management programmes; andthe creation of institutions permitting communication.

Promotion of research activities

The following activities are proposed in order to gatherinformation about the dynamics of the natural resources in thewetlands required for the promotion of conservation andmanagement programmes:

Identification of research needs in specific thematic areas

Promotion of specialization in the natural resources of theAndean region at local universities

Identification of sources of financing for researchprogrammes in management techniques of the flamingo's habitatand bioenergy studies of the flamingo

Provide continuity to the project "Conservation ofFlamingos in Northern Chile"

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Incorporation of conservation practices for wetlands in thegovernment's environmental management programmes

The government's environmental management is carried outprimarily by the Regional Environment Commission (ComisiónRegional de Medio Ambiente) (COREMA), which brings together in atechnical committee regional and local authorities,representatives of public services in the environmental fieldand groups of high-level consultants.

The following specific programmes are proposed:

Promotion through COREMA of the importance of conservationin the wetlands of the pre-puna and puna in order to obtainsupport for conservation management

Incorporation of considerations related to the conservationof Andean wetlands into the regional environmental strategy

Incorporation of measures to mitigate potential impact intodevelopment projects carried out near wetlands at the time ofevaluation of environmental impact studies by the technicalcommittee of COREMA

25. Current scientific research and facilities:

Scientific research in the Salar de Atacama has been carried outwithin the framework of Los Flamencos National Reserve, with alarge number of studies on the populations of flamingos in thearea. CONAF for Region II has begun a programme of monitoringthese environments and mining activities in the surroundingareas. This has provided important data about the dynamics ofthe saltpan's resources, an inventory of species of microalgaeand micro invertebrates and physical and chemical conditions. There is also survey and descriptive research on identificationof existing fauna.

26. Current conservation education:

There are permanent park wardens that provide accurate and up-to-date information on resources in this area. There is generaldocumentation available and an environmental information centrefor this area at 48 km from San Pedro de Atacama.

27. Current recreation and tourism:

Approximately 10,000 tourists visit the wetland annually inorganized groups led by formal tourist agencies. These visitsincrease during the vacation periods of the northern and

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southern hemispheres (southern summer and winter). Most of thevisitors are foreign adults.

28. Jurisdiction:

II Region de AntofagastaMinisterio de AgriculturaSecretaria Regional Ministerial de AgriculturaCONAF II Region

29. Management authority:

30. Bibliographical references: