What is Information and Knowledge Management and why do organisations need it?

Changes in economy and society mean people can make a lot of money selling, manipulating, repackaging and interpreting information e.g. newspapers, books, stock exchange, online databases.

Peculiarities of Information as a Commodity

Price of information sources are not linked to them value of information contained in them

Much information obsolesces Rate of obsolescence varies from subject to subject A piece of obsolescent information can cost more than a piece of new information The cost to an organisation of ‘bad’ information

Information is never consumed You copy it over for your own purpose Information is circulated

Possession of information can increase power

Value of a piece of information hardly ever depends on whether you have the ‘original’

Information is often produced as a by-product of other processes

Individual bits of information may be of no value, but with other bits together they can be invaluable.

No agreed measure of a unit of information.

Cost of Information Acquisition

An ‘insurance policy’, investment, acquired to help make future decisions.

Price of acquisition is difficult to attributeLong term benefits may be ignored

Time saved Mistakes avoided Increased knowledge Better decisions taken

Cost and Speed of Delivery

‘Free’ information is often denigrated – its value isn’t always reflective of how cheap it was

Speed of delivery important – knowing this week’s winning lottery numbers more valuable than last.

Information

The benefit of information is not quantifiable – it is usually intangible

However, if the use of information leads to higher profits or reduction of other costs, and the cost to acquire that information is less than the benefit, than its worthwhile. Benefit – Costs = Value of info

Information only has significance when the content reaches someone and has an effect on them. Data + Context = Information – red light + traffic lights = STOP! Information must have meaning. Information has meaning to recipient because of the context in which the data is received.

We are constantly bombarded with Information – we are selective as to what we take on board. Vast number of information sources – writing, broadcasting, film, computers, telephone etc.

Knowledge

‘Understanding gained through experience or study’ (Awad and Ghaziri)

Difference between IM and KM

Information Management focuses on the management of documents and artefactsKnowledge Management focuses on the management of know-how and expertise

We are living in a knowledge society Information and knowledge are key assets for an organisation The context of information is crucial to its value The conversion processes from information to knowledge is a human process.

PURPOSEFUL

ACTION

Data, information and Knowledge

Data (Awad & Ghazhiri) ‘Unorganised and unprocessed facts’ A set of discrete facts A prerequisite to information Does not offer judgement or a basis for action

Information (Awad & Ghazhiri) Derives from the word ‘Inform’ – to give shape to An aggregation of data that makes decision making easier Facts and figures based on reformatted or processed data Focus of information is qualitative Information as ‘Data endowed with relevance and purpose’ (Drucker 1980)

Knowledge (Awad & Ghazhiri) Resides in people’s minds therefore harder to capture Human understanding acquired through study and human experience

Jashapara

Tacit and Explicit Knowledge Knowledge exists on a continuum between tacit (know how) and explicit (know what)

(Polanyi 1958) ‘We know more than we can tell’ – how can we convert tacit knowledge into explicit?

(Nonaka 1994)

Wisdom

KnowledgeInformation Data

Concepts in Information Theory

Entropy – ‘random disorder in the universe’ – ‘noise’ – higher entropy leads to less informationUncertainty – information is that which reduces uncertaintyBut overload can lead to increased confusion

Three Schools

Learning School (top) – information is seen as something that develops knowledgeExpressions School (bottom) – information is seen as something created by knowledgeUncertainty School (middle) – Realms of entropy

Two conceptions of Information

Epistemic Information – human centred – considered in the context of human knowledge and understanding.Systemic Information – systems engineer’s view – considered in the context of a particular means of physical representation.

Epistemic Information – characteristics

Uncertainty – Information often reduces uncertainty about events in the real worldAmbiguity – Information requires interpretation within a context to identify a precise meaning

Tom Stonier: “Knowledge is organised information in people’s heads”. Allows for informed action.

Information and Knowledge: creation, codification and capture

Information Management – ‘The utilisation of codified knowledge to produce formal representations of information entities, which allow the automation of transaction processing, decision making and information retrieval’ (Cronin and Davenport 1991)

The process of managing the information needs, processes and resources of an organisation.

IT as a solution

The collection, storage, manipulation and retrieval of information are much easier due to improved hardware and software.

But expensive IT is not a solution IT often leads to information overload

Three Levels of IM (Middleton 2002)

Technical/Operation – organisation of records, indexing, preparations of abstracts etc. Analytical – studies of information needs and uses; production of inventories of information

resources. Strategic – Administration of information sources; development of culture based on

effective recording and transmission of information; development of an IM strategy and information policies

Organisational decision making

Intelligent organisations Make rational, sensible decisions based on clear evidence and experts’ hunches Focus on the role of IM in aiding the decision making process.

Information Resources Management – Putting a monetary value on information

Views information as: Being of fundamental value, like money, capital goods, labour and raw materials With measurable characteristics such as methods of collection and a life cycle pattern Something that can be capitalised and which can be controlled using cost accounting

techniques An input that can be transferred into useful outputs that are beneficial to achieving

organisation goals and objectives.

Knowledge Management Cycle (simplified)

Less straight forward than IM – dealing with intangible commodity

Knowledge Creation

Knowledge resides in the individual and not in a collection of information SECI model of knowledge creation (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995) Japanese concept of ‘ba’ – a place or a platform. Knowledge is created when information is

put into context e.g. when people gather in a meeting room and share their knowledge to solve a problem, they are providing a shared context to create new knowledge.

Tacit to tacit(Socialisation) Team meetings and

discussions Informal communication

Tacit to explicit(Externalisation) Dialogue within team Answer questions Brainstorming

Explicit to tacit(Internalisation) Learn from a report

Explicit to explicit(Combination) Email a report

Knowledge Capture

‘The transfer of problem solving expertise from some knowledge source to a repository or program’(Awad and Ghaziri)

Capturing Tacit Knowledge

A process by which the expert’s thoughts and experiences are captured (Awad and Ghaziri) Involves interpretation of information and understanding of expert’s underlying knowledge

and reasoning process. Interpretation is used to build rules that represent the expert’s thought processes or

solutions.

Methods for capturing tacit knowledge

Expert interviews, observation, brainstorming, protocol analysis (thinking aloud), mentoring and apprenticeship, storytelling.

Knowledge Codification

‘The organisation and representation of knowledge for effective transfer and use to support decision making and the achievement of organisational objectives.’

Methods for Codification of Tacit Knowledge Usually more a question of pointing to a person with expertise - cannot be reproduced in

document or database, so; Knowledge sharing events Knowledge mapping – visual representation that points to people, documents and

repositories. Direct people where to go to access expertise. For tacit knowledge, limited to making the link between the seeker and source of expertise.

Decision trees – a hierarchically arranged semantic network composed of nodes with goals and links that represent decisions or outcomes – Knowledge modelling process that tries to mirror human expert thinking

Case-based reasoning – reasoning derived from relevant past cases to arrive at conclusions. It’s a technique that records and documents cases then searches appropriate cases to determine their usefulness in solving new cases e.g. medical diagnosis, car repair etc.

Explicit Knowledge

Should be organised, categorised, indexed and accessed via the company’s intranet or some other means to make it visible, accessible and useable.

Intranet/Enterprise Portal fulfils knowledge functions

Market ValueFinancial CapitalIntellectual CapitalCustomer CapitalStructural CapitalHuman CapitalSocial Capital Gateway to databases, discussion forum, e-document repository, FAQ’s etc. Document Management systems – accessible by everyone

Intellectual Capital

‘The value, or potential value, of an organisation’s intellectual assets (or knowledge assets). An attempt by organisations to place a financial value on their knowledge. Intellectual capital is often defined as the combination of three sub-categories: human capital, structural capital and customer capital.’

(Sveiby, 1997) ‘The difference between the market value of a publicly held company and its official net book value is the value of its intangible assets’.

The Formation of Intellectual Capital – Newell et al. 2002

Financial Capital

The financial assets of the organisation Measured with accountancy metrics Assets/liabilities in the balance sheets, P+L in P+L account But limitations with respect to knowledge-based businesses.

Customer Capital

Relationships developed with key customers Intangible but represent value: Brand names, loyalty and repeat business, established

distribution channels, goodwill and reputation Can be quite volatile e.g. facebook?

Structural Capital

Hardware, software, databases, information, organisational structure, patents, trademarks that support employee productivity.

Work environment, access to the internet, information systems, workgroup tools for collaboration

Everything left at the office when employees go home

Human Capital

Combined skill, knowledge, innovativeness, experience and ability of employees Also includes organisation’s values, culture, philosophy Sustained by motivation and reward, including pleasant working environment, good

support, interesting jobs, salary, perks…

Human Assets are not physically owned by the company Employees can fall ill, take holidays, be unreliable, and can hand in their notice.

Human Capital Equation

HC = (Ability + Behaviour) x Effort x Time spent

If effort or time spent = 0 then HC is also zero

Protecting Human Capital

Identify staff that have HC that the organisation values highly. Which of them have characteristics that make it likely that they might depart?

Decision time is often linked to bonuses or pay rises; promotion or non-promotion; end of a major project; changes in personal circumstances.

Social Capital

Networks of relationships that exist in the organisation The way people identify with, or use, those networks Linked to exchange of tacit knowledge Trust

o Goodwill trust (trust that the other person will not act against your interests)o Competence trust (trust that the other person has relevant skills and expertise)

Trust

Trust and mutual respect cannot be enforced – they must be earned Best to start mutual co-operation in an area that is not crucial, and then gradually build up

the trust. As organisations become flatter and ICT becomes pervasive, need for trust increases. Trust is a belief of likely outcomes based on past experiences.

IM & KM are component parts of the broader concept of IC.In 1998, 82.3% of 1300 firms named IC as the critical factor for future business success (Bertels and Savage 1998)

Measuring Intellectual Capital

Difference between market capitalisation (value) and book value Total value of company’s shares at the moment i.e. No. of shares x price per share. Book value is value of fixed assets on company’s balance sheets e.g. land, buildings, plant,

equipment, cash – those things with a lifetime of more than one year.

Calculation subject to variable factors: Gossip, hopes of new products, gut feelings about a company’s prosperity.

Gap between market value and book value grown too large – need another way to measure intrinsic value of a company.

Hi-tech companies have large gap i.e. high IC values Traditional companies have relatively low IC values.

Tobins q

Market value/book value If q > 1 then company has intangible assets, the greater the value of q the more important

are the tangible assets. Measure of amount/intensity of IC assets in relation to book value, rather than IC calculation

Significance of the values

Impossible to measure IC and q for companies not quoted on the stock exchangeo Market values can be unpredictableo Effect of changing interest rates, market sentiment and money supply for example.

Having a high q is arguably a good thing IC is trying to encapsulate non-financial measures

o More to do with human resource performance than financial measures.

Balanced scorecard (Kaplan and Norton 1992)

Intended to provide balanced information about corporate performance to management. Theoretical basis is that financial data alone is insufficient for effective decision making. BS includes measures for;

o financial performance – revenue growth, cost managemento customer base – market share, customer retention/acquisition/satisfactiono internal businesses processes – quality measures e.g. % of deliveries on timeo learning and growth – Employee capabilities, IT, motivation, empowerment

Measuring Intellectual Capital – Some issues

Lack of clear, agreed methods of calculation – benchmarking?

How do you interpret the figures? Does it provide evidence of competitive advantage? Is the measure sustainable? Is the measure anchored in the organisational culture? Does it encourage proactive changes?

Many different models of IC – all similar, no right or wrong one.

Intellectual Property

Intellectual assets for which protection has been soughto Ideas inventions, words, music, theatre, art

Protection such as Patent Acts, Trade Mark Acts, Copyright Acts, Registered Design Acts. Rights can be sold (assigned), rented (licensed), passed on Rights to prevent others making use of your property without permission Strategic management of IPR can lead to competitive advantage.

Justification for Intellectual Property Rights

Balance between rights of owners and rights of users Is it ‘right’ that the creator should be able to stop copying?

Valuing Information

Value is subjective – value to whom? Value depends on willingness to share, and on use made of the information and knowledge Can use information for leverage, as power and influence. Facebook recently been valued at $50 billion dollars. Granted, they’ve had vast donations,

but much of their value lies in their customer/structural capital, their database of the world.

In what ways is information similar to other resources?

Information is acquired at a definite measurable cost Information possesses a value which can be quantified Information consumption can be quantified Cost accounting techniques can be applied to control the cost of information Information has a life cycle Information can be processed and refined Substitutes for information are available and can be quantified as more or less expensive

Information, unlike many other resources

Can be expanded or compressed Can move extremely fast across great distances Can leak outside the organisation Is slippery, intangible and elusive (Taylor and Farrell) Can be shared without loss

Benefits of Information

Gives organisations competitive advantage Reduces risk, reduces costs, adds value and helps innovation

However, it is difficult to value because of the subjective nature of its value Nevertheless organisations want to know what the value of their information is.

Why Value Information?

If one cannot value information assets, once cannot manage them Rare to see information assets on a balance sheet Cost can be assessed objectively, value is subjective.

Need to calculate value due to mergers, takeovers, obtaining finance, restructuring…

We are a knowledge-driven economy; many quoted companies have very high levels of IC.

Research claims that current accounting methods prevent the financial reporting of about 2/3rds of the value of organisations.

Valuing to justify a particular initiative or expenditure.

Ways of valuing information

Asset-based – e.g. cost to replicate information?Cost-savings based – e.g. cost versus obtaining the information via other means?Risk-based – costs to business if information were not available?Profit-based – potential income from selling information

Value could be based on: Quality Utility Impact on productivity/effectiveness/finances The value of information in organisation is only how well it is utilised and thus is reflected in

the profits?

Two major measurement approaches

Financial Measures Performance Measures These two approaches are increasingly used together.

Why not Financial Measures alone?

They are backward looking They do not indicate future performance They do not help to manage or measure performance Even audited accounts can be unreliable indicator of value e.g. Enron

Examples of Measurement Models

Information audit Information Resource Mapping Information Resource Management Balanced Scorecard Strategic Information Alignment Framework

Information audit

An information audit is a systematic process through which an organisation can understand its knowledge and information needs, know what is knows, the information flow and gaps. Resulting from an information audit is an ‘information map’, which can be used as the basis for designing the content of intranets, as well as the foundation of a corporate information strategy or a knowledge management strategy. (TFPL)

Information Resource Mapping

Used for modelling information resources within an organisation Can focus on content, flows, or both Allows us to distinguish between ‘critical information resources’ and those of marginal value

Information Resource Management

The planning, budgeting, organising, directing, training and control of information…where information itself is a resource. (Taylor and Farrell)

Horton’s Criteria for Calculating Value

Effectiveness in supporting activities it is meant to support

Strategic importance to Activities it is meant to support

Strategic importance to activities it is meant to support to organisation as a whole.

Value = E x A x S - If any of the criteria = 0, it is of no value.

Information Resource Management Processes

Identifying and Acquiring internal information sources (information audit or information mapping).

Structuring internal information

Sourcing, acquiring and evaluating external information Integrating internal and external information. Delivering information (Abell and Oxbrow 2001)

IRM Purposes

Develop corporate information policy or strategy Establish central information service Uncover hidden assets If there isn’t high value placed on info, there won’t be high value on keeping it safe and

secure. Identify waste and duplication Uncover poor practices Guide to future investment Identify risks and dependencies

IRM views information as:

Something of fundamental value, like money, labour, raw materials, fixed assets etc.Something with measurable characteristics e.g. methods of collection, uses, life cycle etc.Something to be capitalised or expended, i.e. accounting techniques can be used to control it.Inputs that can be converted to useful outputs that are beneficial to achieving organisational goals.

Problems IRM can solve

Failure to integrate computerised and paper based systems Lack of standards and procedures for handling information High costs of storing and distributing information Loss of original records Staff having too much or too little information to do their jobs properly

o Information hoardingo Difficulties in finding required information – information relevance – filter failure?o Too many personal collectionso Retaining information just in case its needed

Problems linking information from different sources Over reliance on IT as a panacea.

Potential Benefits of Effective IRM

Reduced operating costs (especially in storing and recording information; avoiding potential legal costs if documents are lost)

Improved performance (reduction in time wasted and in duplication) Money earning potential (non-confidential information with commercial value)

Strategic Information Alignment Framework

Information has value in enabling competitive advantage in four important ways

1. Adding value2. Minimising risks3. Reducing costs4. Creating new reality i.e. could transform what the business does.

(Marchand)

Problems With Current Methods

No agreed single method Methods tend to be focussed on cost-benefit rather than overall performance Methods for valuing patents and goodwill are not necessarily appropriate for information Much information has a cost, but no value

Is Value Important When Designing KM Solutions

What are the goals of the KM system?o Could be to improve collaborationo Could be to organise documents and improve reuse of informationo But organisations will expect value from expenditure on any systemo Must realise long term gain of information

Value and KM solutions

Important to identify costs and risks Easy to measure how many documents are in a repository but much harder to value a

specific document. Information is just one factor in many elements that impact on business performance.

Culture and KM systems

Culture has an impact on value from KM:o How will KM fit into the company cultureo Different types of culture exist in different types of organisations

Some questions

Does the org reward teams or individuals? Incentive to share, but only within the teamHow do you promote knowledge sharing? Culture, rewardsIs the information valuable if it is held only by the individual employee? No

Does the value increase if the information is formalised and structured in a KM system? Yes

Information as a Resource

The cost of acquiring and maintaining information resources must be justifiable. So costs should be quantified, justified and subject to normal planning and budgetary controls, and owners of information resources should provide for their maintenance.

Information Overload and Information Politics

Information Overload

One of the major problems for individuals working in an organisation.

Information Science had tended to focus on methods of retrieval, but not on tackling overproduction of information.

Clay Shirky – info overload has been a problem since the invention of the Guthenberg’s printing press.

Hutchisson, ‘How can mankind cope with this vast store of knowledge that has been built up and which daily becomes more unwieldy? This, to my mind, is a major intellectual problem facing society today. In most fields of knowledge too much has been written for any one individual to follow.’

Causes of Information Overload

Much information is uselesso Unreliable, repetition, poorly written, off-topic

Obligation to read it allo Risk of missing the ‘golden nugget’

Methods of communication are expanding, and with it does information and difficulties managing it

Information is available more cheaply Malone, ‘Have moved from information desert to information jungle’

A feature of the E-Economy

Placing an order online triggers a vast number of transactions in various systems at various companies. Many data records, large paper trail.

An Information Glut?

More information produced in the last 30 years than in the previous 5000. Weekday edition of NYT contains more info than an average person in the 17th century

would have come across in a lifetime. Amount of electronic information doubles every 1-2 years (Lewis) BUT more is not the same as better.

Why does information Overload Matter?

The urgent drives out the important Dangers of missing vital information It can stifle organisation communication Abundance of competing information could result in decisions not being taken Financial and intellectual implications for an organisation Employee stress Costs to the organisation and to the individual Inability to find relevant information Information overload results in up to 30 million working days lost per year in UK

The Information Paradox

Individuals thrive on, and yearn for, information ‘Drowning in an ocean of data, but dying of thirst for information’ Too much information can impede work performance and cause psychological and

physiological harm.

Technology and Information Overload

Internet can generate much irrelevant information 24/7 and ‘instant response’ culture The ‘cost’ of email interruption (takes over 1 min on average for employee to return to same

work rate as before attending to the email) Can enable faster access to information

Solutions

Technology based solutions: Corporate portals Personalisation e.g. RSS.

User-based solutions:

Information / communication strategies Email training Better filters (Shirky)

Information Politics

‘Knowledge is power’ Francis Bacon 1597

Davenport’s 5 models of Information Politics

1. Technocratic Utopianism – tech will solve all information problems, just a matter of getting right bit of kit. IT is neutral, information will be shared.

2. Anarchy – Information resides in local PC’s, its sharing and use is haphazard – no common view on what to do with it

3. Feudalism – Information is controlled jealously by those who have it.4. Monarchy – top level diktats mandating how info is to be managed5. Federalism – negotiation between information holders and users. Issue is how to work out

collective agreements to meet diverse interests.

Monarchy and Federalism most effective in developing enterprise-wide quality of information management. Requires good leadership and culture that encourages co-operation and sharing.

Tacit and Explicit Knowledge

Awareness

Know

ledge

Knowledge Transfer and Sharing – A Social Process

Knowledge is;

More than information A social construct A key organisational asset Dependent on individuals A spur to action or decisions ‘People are our most valuable asset’ – their knowledge is the most valuable asset

Explicit Knowledge

‘Knowing that’ Objective and formal Tangible, even in verbal form Capable of being encoded Capable of being recorded in a systematic way Accessible and can be communicated to others.

Tacit Knowledge

‘Knowing how’

Know-how, intuition, experience Inside people’s heads Affected by value judgments, prejudices, feelings Often chaotic, difficult to codify or to store Often difficult to communicate and share Valuable rich source of learning Not easily expressed, but made available through actions, analogies, metaphors.

Tacit vs. Explicit

Nonaka and Takeuchi argue that the Japanese value tacit knowledge whilst the USA values explicit knowledge.

You can classify knowledge in other ways e.g. Meadows ‘rational’ vs. ‘emotional’

Awareness of Tacit Knowledge

If you watch an expert at his/her craft, you might understand every stage of what (s)he is doing, but still be incapable of doing it yourself.

Management of Tacit Knowledge

Needs understanding of HRM and psychological issues Tacit knowledge is views as a major personal asset that gives status and leverage An assurance against being made redundant So, it requires good people management and trust.

Communication of Tacit Knowledge

Database of expertise is a simple starting point Storytelling e.g. gossip, chats in corridors Can also be done through phone and email, but less commonly done through formal

documents Can be accurate and perceptive, but can also be inaccurate, malicious or out of date Often taken as accurate even if it conflicts with official information

Size of Organisation and Tacit Knowledge

Small orgs – problems with exchange of tacit knowledge are rareMedium orgs – can be problematic, too large for informal exchange, too small to invest in IT.Large ors – invest in IT but they can be slow moving and bureaucratic, so depends on culture

Knowledge Management is;

Not a set of technical processes, but a human and social process, which is likely to be assisted by technologies.

KM Involves People, Technology and Processes (Awad and Ghaziri)

Corporate Culture – trust, barriers to sharing, transparency, motivationStructures to encourage knowledge sharingTechnology – hardware, software and telecoms infrastructure

KM is Primarily about People

Invest 80% on people and 20% on technology Knowledge is complex, so KM is a multilayered concept that will vary greatly form one

organisation to another Associated with flatter structures, reduction of bureaucracy, decentralisation, and use of IT. There is an over-reliance on IT – assumes most knowledge is explicit and therefore can be

conveniently captured and codified.

KM Involves

Using accessible knowledge from external sources Embedding and storing knowledge in business processes, products and services. Representing knowledge in databases and documents

Promoting knowledge growth through organisation’s culture and incentives Transferring and sharing knowledge throughout the organisation Assessing the value of knowledge assets and impact on a regular basis (Awad and Ghaziri)

Why Share Knowledge?

Retirement, redundancy, resignation, promotion etc. Specialisation Avoid reinventing the wheel, reduce, duplication, and avoid same errors Large, distributed enterprises with virtual (global) teams.

Storytelling

Helps corporate learning Ensures organisational memories grows Builds teams and Communities of Practice Overcomes fear of change Helps employees reflect on experiences Promotes sharing of ideas

Communities of Practice

‘Groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis.’(Wenger 2002)

Communities of Practice – Characteristics

Self-organised and informal Everyone can learn regarding a common goal Common important business-related purpose Short or long-lived Cut across functions, divisions, seniority Support by senior management Repositories of tacit knowledge Keep organisation ahead in knowledge creation and exploitation

Other KM Techniques for Knowledge Sharing

Knowledge Fairs and Open Forums Cross-functional Teams

Job rotation and mentoring Web 2.0

The Importance of Culture

KM involves; Encouraging key individuals to stay – therefore it is more about people management than IT A total commitment by the organisation to sharing knowledge – therefore the reward

system must reflect this commitment Career development, appraisal and training that is geared to KM strategy Culture of trust and leadership by example.

Personal Motivational Factors and Knowledge Sharing

Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation Challenges faced Skills and knowledge

Organisational Structure and Knowledge Sharing

Freedom from rules Participative and informal Many views aired and considered F2f communication; little red tape Interdisciplinary/interdepartmental teams Emphasis on creative interaction Outward looking – willingness to take on external ideas Flexible and non-hierarchical Information flows downwards and upwards.

5 Factors Impacting on Willingness to Share

Core cultural values Recruitment of suitable personnel Role of human networks Rewards as motivational tool Role of a champion.

‘Sharing Knowledge is Power’. Open communication Hire people who are good at learning & teaching. Creating CoPs – bring people together. E.g. office layout, secondment, job rotation etc.

Barriers to Knowledge Sharing Lack of trust Knowledge is power Knowledge sharing is not my job “Virtual” offices and teams Lack of time and meeting places Narrow idea of ‘productive work’ Not-invented-here syndrome Intolerance for mistakes or need for help Inherent difficult of ‘unlearning’ Status of the knower IPR.