Information and Communication Technology Competencies of English Language Teachers in Unity Schools of South

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INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

COMPETENCIES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS IN UNITY

SCHOOLS OF SOUTH-EAST ZONE OF NIGERIA

RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT PRESENTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION (EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY) UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF MASTERS DEGREE IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

BY

ONUZULIKE IKEDICHUKWU

PG/M.ED/08/50032

SEPTEMBER 2011


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TITLE PAGE

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

COMPETENCIES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS IN UNITY

SCHOOLS OF SOUTH-EAST ZONE OF NIGERIA

RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT PRESENTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION (EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY) UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THEAWARD OF MASTERS DEGREE IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

BY

ONUZULIKE IKEDICHUKWU

PG/M.ED/08/50032

SEPTEMBER 2011


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APPROVAL PAGE

THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF

ARTS EDUCATION (EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY), UNIVERSITY OF

NIGERIA NSUKKA.

BY

-------------------------------- ------------------------------

Dr. T Ofoegbu Dr. Uche Asogwa

SUPERVISOR INTERNAL EXAMINER

-------------------------------- --------------------------------

Prof. Eya Prof. U. Umo

EXTERNAL EXAMINER HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

--------------------------------------------------

Prof. S.U Ezeudu

DEAN, FACULTY OF EDUCATION


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CERTIFICATION

ONUZULIKE, IKEDICHUKWU, A post graduate student in the Department of

Arts Education (Educational Technology), with Registration number

PG/M.ED/08/50032, has satisfactorily completed the requirement for the

research work for the degree of Masters in Educational Technology.

The work embodied in this project is original and has not been submitted in part

or full for any other Diploma or Degree of this or any other University.

---------------------------------- ---------------------------------------

Dr. (Mrs) Theresa Ofoegbu Onuzulike IkedichukwuSUPERVISOR STUDENT (PG/M.ED/08/50032)


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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to the memory of my late brother, Chidinma Onuzulike.

Chidinma,

You did not die forgotten

For in my heart,

You are eternally in bloom.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My sincere gratitude and appreciation go to God and His faithful Servant, Ben

Unegbu for seeing me through this programme. I acknowledge my debt to my

supervisor, Dr T. Ofoegbu, under whose tutelage this work was carried out. I am

grateful for the patience and motherly care with which she guided me along the way

of this project. You ma, is worthy of emulation, I promise not to disappoint.

Dr J.U Akabogu, mum, thanks for being there always. Mr Chris Ibeneme,

thanks for accepting me as a brother. Prof. U Umo and Dr U. Asogwa, thanks for

making me stand on my feet. Pastor Innocent Eleke, words fail me.

I am immensely indebted to my parents Mr and Mrs Nathan Onuzulike for theirall round support. I will make you proud. Brother Echezona and wife, God will surely

reward you. Dabere and Chiemerie, your contributions can never be forgotten. Brother

Anayo Ahanonu (Camai) you were always there: thanks a million. Dr Ozioma

Onuzulike, academically you inspire me. I will get there. Chimdilim and wife, without

you I wonder how my defence would have been. Mr Victor Onuzulike, thanks for

teaching me the difference between being educated and learned. Uncle Levi and Uncle

Ngozi thank you very much.

Chukwuma and Uzochukwu, my brothers from another mother, hold on for we

are almost there. Chukwudubem Ojeah, it all started with you. Nnaji Ekene, words fail

me. Special thanks to Elochukwu Francis, Callistus Eke, Ilokanuno (Bonchor), Eze

Kenneth, Kelechi Nwaike, Chidinma, Edeh Okwudili and my entire classmates, your

support was immeasurable. Maureen Obiezu and Madam Agatha Ugwu, your care

was awesome.

I acknowledge also, the English H.O.Ds in all the South-East Unity schools

who served as my research assistants and the English language teachers for their time

and patience.The numerous authors whose works were consulted and other lecturers

who in one way or the other encouraged or assisted me during the course of this study,

I am grateful.

Onuzulike IkedichukwuPG/M.ED/08/50032


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TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page - - - - - - - - - - i

Approval page - - - - - - - - - ii

Certification page - - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - v

Table of contents - - - - - - - - - vi

List of tables - - - - - - - - - viii

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION - - - - - 1

Background of the study - - - - - - - 1

Statement of the problem - - - - - - - 12

Purpose of the study - - - - - - - - 13

Significance of the study - - - - - - - - 13

Scope of the study - - - - - - - - - 15

Research questions - - - - - - - - 15

Hypothesis - - - - - - - - - - 15

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW - - - - 18

Conceptual framework - - - - - - - - 17

Information and communication technology (ICT) - - - - 19

Nigeria ICT policy - - - - - - - - - 25

ICT in Nigeria school education - - - - - - 30

Information and communication technology (ICT) in English language

teaching - - - - - - - - - - 34

Teacherscompetencies - - - - - - - - 40

Teacher qualification and teacher competence - - - - 49

Gender and age - - - - - - - - - 50

Unity schools: A brief history - - - - - - - 53


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UNESCOICT competency standards for teachers - - - 58

Theoretical framework - - - - - - - - 61

Empirical studies - - - - - - - - - 67

Summary of literature review - - - - - - - 71

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD - - - - 74

Design of the study - - - - - - - - 74

Area of the study - - - - - - - - - 74

Population of the study - - - - - - - - 75

Sample and sampling technique - - - - - - 75

Instrument for data collection - - - - - - - 75

Validation of the instrument - - - - - - - 76

Reliability of the instrument - - - - - - - 76

Method of data collection - - - - - - - 76

Data of data analysis - - - - - - - - 77

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS 78

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION - - 94Educational implications - - - - - - - - 97

Conclusion and Recommendation - - - - - - 98

Limitation of the Study - - - - - - - - 99

Suggestion for further studies - - - - - - - 100

Summary of the study - - - - - - - - 101

REFERENCESAPPENDICES


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Mean and standard deviation responses on the ICT competencies

possessed by English language teachers - - - - 78

Table 2: Mean and standard deviation scores of the influence of qualification on

the ICT competencies possessed by English language teachers 80

Table 3: Mean and standard deviation scores on the influence of gender on the

English language teachers ICT competencies - - - 85

Table 4: Mean and standard deviation scores on how age affects the ICT

competencies of English language teachers - - - 88

Table 5: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) scores on teachers qualification as it

affects their ICT competencies - - - - - 91

Table 6: T test scores on ICT competency possessed by English language

teachers - - - - - - - - - 92

Table 7: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) score on age as a factor in the ICT

competencies of English language teachers - - - 92


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ABSTRACT

This study investigated the Information and Communication Technology

competencies possessed by English Language teachers in Unity Schools ofsouth-east zone of Nigeria. It also examined the influence of gender, age and

qualification on their ICT competencies. The study was guided by four (4)

research questions and three (3) hypotheses. The population consisted of all the

English language teachers in Unity Schools of South-East Nigeria. A 30-item

questionnaire was used for data collection. Mean and standard deviation were

used in analyzing the research questions while T-test and Analysis of variance

(ANOVA) were used for the hypotheses. The findings revealed low-level ICT-

competencies on the part of the teachers. T-test analysis indicated no significantdifference between male and female teachers ICT competencies. ANOVA

showed that age and qualification are not significant factors in the ICT

competencies possessed by English language teachers. Based on these findings

some recommendations were made. Among them are: that the Federal

Government should make the development of teachers ICT competencies a

priority and set targets when all long-serving and newly qualified teachers are

expected to become ICT-competent to mandatory standard. It is also

recommended that ICT should be made a compulsory course in all teachertraining-institutions.


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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The English language is an invaluable legacy of colonialism which has

increasingly assumed a great importance all over the world. Many countries,

especially the former British colonies, realized the importance of English as a

language of International Communication and voluntarily adopted it for official

and, sometimes inter-ethnic communication purposes (Akabogu, 2006).

Consequently, there have emerged different varieties of English as a result of

the nativization of the non-native varieties of the language. This is so because

whenever languages come into contact they are bound to influence one another.

In this case, according to Akabogu, the English language, which is external to

the Nigerian society, has been radically transformed to adapt and integrate fully

to the cultural and linguistic milieu of the society. This tends to explain the

emergence of new domains for English usage especially from the late 20th

century. In the over 1,500 years of its use, English has changed substantially

reflecting patterns of contact with other languages and the changing

communications needs of the speakers.

Modern means and tools of communication have been very influential

factors in the cross-fertilization of languages. The English language is one of

the popular modern languages that have oiled the wheels of contemporary

technologies of communication and information dissemination. Information and


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Communication Technology as a modern means of communication is usually

called ICT and is often used as a synonym for Information technology (IT) but

it is a more general term that stresses the role of telecommunication(telephone

lines and wireless signals) in modern information technology. ICT consists of

all technical means used to handle information and aid communication,

including computer and network hardware as well as necessary software. ICT

covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive

information electronically in a digital form. In other words, ICT consists of IT

as well as telephony, broadcast media, and all types of audio and video

processing and transmission.

One major outcome of the expansion of the domains of English language

to Information and Communication Technology is the increase in the number of

English language users of these ICTs most especially the young ones. In

addition, the electronic media provide new context for the writing process.

According to Kupelian cited in Akabogu (2006), the electronic media

encourages the younger ones to participate in writing activity because it

provides a non-threatening atmosphere in which writers feel less inhibited about

expressing themselves.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is an indispensable

part of the contemporary world. In fact, culture and society have to be adjusted

to meet the challenges of the knowledge age. The pervasiveness of ICT has

brought about rapid technological, social, educational, political and economic


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transformation, which has eventuated in a network society organized around

ICT (Castells, 1996).

The field of education has not been unaffected by the penetrating

influence of information and communication technology. Undoubtedly, ICT

has impacted on the quality and quantity of teaching, learning and research in

traditional and distance education institutions. In concrete terms, ICT can

enhance teaching and learning through its dynamic, interactive, and engaging

content; and it can provide real opportunities for individualized instruction. ICT

has the potential to accelerate, enrich and deepen skills; motivate and engage

students in learning. It also helps to relate school experiences to work practices,

create economic viability for tomorrows workers, strengthen teaching and

provide opportunities for connection between school and the world (Davis and

Tearle, 1999; Lemke and Coughlin, 1998).

Indeed, Information and Communication Technologies are essential tools

in any educational system. They have the potentials of being used to meet the

learning needs of individual students, promote equality of educational

opportunities, increase self-efficacy and independence of learning among

students and improve teachers professional development. It offers great

potentials for revolutionizing school administration (Kirsschner & Selinger,

2003). According to the Milken Exchange on Educational Technologies (1998),

it has been found that ICT, under the right condition, has the potential to

accelerate, enrich and deepen skills in reading, writing, mathematics and the


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sciences. It motivates and engages students in learning as they are encouraged

to be more independent and responsible for their own learning. It helps to relate

academics to the practices of todays work as the influence of ICT is pervasive

in every field. Furthermore, it is relevant in increasing the economic viability of

tomorrows workforce, as students are prepared to be fluent in thinking with

and using technology in ensuring efficiency and effectiveness in their work

places, thereby increasing productivity. ICT strengthens teaching as it provides

powerful tools to teachers repertoires, thereby enabling them to meet individual

learners needs, and also allow for networking with other teachers, enabling

them to exchange ideas, share resources and improve teaching practices. As

catalyst for education they also contribute to changes in school learning

environments. In addition, ICTs provide opportunity for connecting schools to

the world, as learning is expanded beyond the classroom, thus relevant real life

contact can be established. Finally, student and teachers can access information

and resources and they can communicate with experts and peers and make

useful contributions to knowledge through electronic publication.

In view of the role of ICTs in modern societies, especially in the field of

education and business, Nigeria developed a National Policy on Information

and Communication Technology (2001) which states the countrys perspective

on ICT in the 21st century. Some of the objectives of the ICT policy for the

nation are as follows:


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To ensure that ICT resources are readily available to promote efficient

national development.

To guarantee that the country benefits maximally and contribute

meaningfully by providing the global solutions to the challenges of the

information age

To empower Nigerians to participate in software and ICT development.

To encourage local production and manufacture of ICT components in a

competitive manner

To establish and develop ICT infrastructure and maximize its use

nationwide

To empower the youth with ICT skills and prepare them for global

competitiveness

To integrate ICT into the mainstream of education and training

To create ICT awareness and ensure universal access in promoting ICT

diffusion in all sectors of national life.

To create an enabling environment and facilitate private sector national

and multinational investment in the ICT sector.

To encourage government and private sector joint venture collaboration

To develop human capital with emphasis on creating and supporting a

knowledge based society


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To build a mass pool of ICT literate manpower using the National Youth

Service Corps (NYSC), National Directorate of Employment (NDE) and

other platforms as a train-the-trainer scheme for capacity-building.

Of interest to the current study is Nigerias ICT policy as it affects

education and human development. Incidentally, in the last chapter of the policy

document, education is discussed to cover human resource development and

mainstream levels of education, including virtual university initiatives, distance

learning networks, internet connectivity, collaboration with IT companies and

IT services providers, train the trainer scheme with the National Youth Service

Scheme (NYSC) and the National Directorate of Employment (NDE).

The National Policy on Education (2004) also prescribes the introduction

of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into school curricular.

Specifically, the policy introduced Computer Education as one of the pre-

vocational electives at the junior secondary schools and as a vocational elective

at the senior secondary school respectively. At the university level, and in the

colleges of education, computer literacy is a compulsory course in the curricula.

At the secondary school level, which is the focal point of this study, the unity

schools represent a significant point of interest because of the huge amount and

effort already invested in the ICT sector of the schools as stipulated by the

National Policy on ICT and Education.

Unity schools are federal government funded and managed secondary

schools which are supposed to serve as role models to other secondary schools


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in Nigeria and also serve as unifying institutions. Unity schools were

established across the country after the Nigerian civil war and spread across the

various political zones. As role models, the federal government, after signing

its ICT policy into law built and equipped ICT laboratories with multi-billion

naira facilities to the standard stipulated by United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization and each year provision is made in the

national budget for the maintenance and upgrade of these facilities. This huge

investment of the federal government in the ICT sector especially in the unity

schools made the unity schools the focus of this study

From the foregoing, it is observed that the numerous benefits of ICT can

only be realized when teachers who still remain the key to learning have

developed the necessary pedagogical competencies for instructional use of ICT

(Akudolu, 2008). There is a global awareness of the centrality of the teachers

role in the learning process, even in ICT-rich contexts teachers cannot be

replaced by the best Technology. Jones (2003:3) reiterates this fact and opines

that no matter what educational systems mandate and expects, in the end

effective learning is very dependent on the will and competence of the teacher.

In recognition of this fact, country members of the European Union entered the

twenty-first century in the throes of a major programme of equipping schools

and training teachers (Abbott, 2001). Also the ICT in Schools Commission

(1997) warns that if we wish to ensure that our children and country reap the


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benefits of ICT we must cherish our teachers and do everything we can to help

them to have it on board. UNESCO-ICT-CST (2009) postulates that for

students to become comfortable and effective users of ICTs, teachers must be

able to make wise and informed decisions about ICTs, meaning that all English

language teachers and in fact, all teachers should be confident in using ICTs for

instructional purposes when and where appropriate. For the successful

implementation of ICT policies and programmes in Nigeria schools especially

in the unity schools, it will undoubtedly begin with the question of teachers

possessing the basic ICT literacy skills that can empower them to demonstrate

any kind of competence in actual instruction. We cannot think of ICT

integration without determining whether the teachers are acquainted with the

operational skills of the ICT components. So far it have not been ascertained if

the teachers are competent to carry on with this enormous task of integrating

ICT into our school system as there is no such record, hence the need for this

research.

Competence will be needed for successful integration of ICTs in the

teaching and learning process. One thing is to possess the basic skills another is

to successfully achieve predetermined objectives which are the responsibility of

competence. Therefore, teachers of English language require the needed ICT

competences for there to be successful achievement of the objectives of the ICT

policy. The required teachers ICT-competencies to be developed include ICT


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literacy, content development, and pedagogical teaching approaches using ICT,

the use of ICT for management and administration and technical skills on

implementation, management and maintenance of ICT facilities.

It is believed, that the level of ICT competences among teachers in

Nigerian schools, such as the Unity schools under study, is determined by a

number of other factors including qualification, age and gender.

Uzoagulu(1992) while discussing attributes that affect students performance

noted that teacher qualification is a factor of students level of achievement in

school subject. Domingo Inyang (1998) observed that students taught by

qualified teachers perform better in examination than students taught by less-

qualified teachers. These assertions will be subjected to new verification in line

with ICT-competencies of these teachers. FRN (2004) stated that National

Certificate in Education (NCE) is the minimum qualification for entry into the

teaching profession. But the federal ministry of Education in 1991 stated that by

1999 that the minimum qualification to teach in the Unity schools is University

or Higher National Diploma (HND) but there is no record to show that this has

been enforced. Consequently, any teacher with NCE is qualified to teach

English language and so teachers with a minimum qualification of NCE are

considered qualified for the purpose of this study. Age is a strong factor that

determines ICT competencies and integration of ICT into the teaching process.

Studies show that older teachers find it difficult to adapt to the present form of


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teaching with ICT. Studies by Kotrlik and Smith (1989) and Thang and Padron

(1997) found that younger teachers felt more comfortable working with

computers, had higher levels of computer literacy, and had less computer

anxiety than older teachers. In terms of usefulness, the Princeton Research

Associates, Inc (1993) found that almost two third (59% of teachers under 35

years of age believed computers in the classroom were essential while only 29%

of teachers over age 35 shared this belief. The age bracket of English teachers in

the eastern unity schools needs to be known and determined if they are in any

way impending the success of the ICT policy.

Gender is a set of characteristics distinguishing betweenmaleandfemale,

particularly in the cases of men and women as well it refers to the socially

constructed roles, behaviour, activities and attributes that a particular society

considers appropriate for men and women. Gender issues themselves affect all

aspects of the society to the extent that access of woman to certain

profession/competencies in higher institution is constrained by these same sex-

role stereotypes. It has been argued that this long-standing gender bias also

reflects in performance levels. Gender was identified as a critical factor that

affects teachers attitudes towards computer (LU, 2002). Loyd and Gressand

(1984) found that females have lower scores on computer technology

competencies than males. Chan (1980) also found that female teachers had less

experience working with computer than male colleagues. Coakes (1986)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Womanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Womanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Womanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male


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showed that there are sex differences in language and in communicative

competencies. All these prejudice limit the performance level of women in

some courses. The gender issue in mathematics and ICT has been a source of

aversion as mathematics and ICT has been male stereotyped and regarded as

difficult (Okafor 2006). This suggests that gender may affect interest and

confidence in the teaching of English with ICT. If these assertions about the

female gender are true, it is left to be found, what the federal government is

doing about it to avoid the failure of its investment in ICT education because

according to Eke, C(2009) the number of female teachers outnumber that of

their male counterparts.

The ability of English teachers to use computer to develop, enhance, and

expand students understanding of English is in the context of this study is

termed: ICT Competency. This study is out to look at the ICT Competencies of

English teachers in Nigerian unity schools, South-East Zone based on the ICT

Standard stipulated by UNESCO for all member countries.

Statement of the Problem

Although, the federal government of Nigeria has equipped its Unity

schools with ICT facilities so as to achieve the aim and objectives of the

countrys ICT policy, the ICT competencies of teachers in these unity schools

are not known. This poses a great danger to the aspiration and expectation of the


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federal government who have invested so much in ICT. Secondly, there has

been a worldwide clamour for a re-orientation of teaching and learning towards

greater use of ICT facilities. The success of such clamour, the federal

government having done their own part, however, depends largely on the level

of ICT competencies possessed by teachers and its actual use in classroom

instruction. This is so because teachers are at the center of any educational

innovation implementation and when they are not competent to carry on with

the implementation, the innovation becomes a failure. So for there to be an

envisaged success of the ICT policy, there is need to ascertain if teachers who

are expected to implement the policy are competent in doing so.

Therefore, the problem of this study is to find out the ICT- Competencies

possessed by English language teachers in Unity Schools of South East Nigeria

and the extent to which it is it is influenced by gender, age and qualification.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to determine the ICT-competencies of

the English language teachers in Nigerian unity schools in the South-East Zone.

Specifically the research intends to:

- Find out the ICT- competencies possessed by English language

teachers in Unity Schools of south-east Nigeria

- Find out if the qualifications of English language teachers affect

their ICT competencies


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- Determine the influence of gender on Teachers of English language

as it affects their ICT competencies.

- Determine the influence of English language teachers age as it

affects their ICT competencies

Significance of the Study

Many researchers have confirmed the positive contribution of ICT as a

flexible language learning tool which leads itself to a variety of uses in realistic

contexts (Maduekwe, 2006). It is hoped that the result of this study will be of

great benefit to Policy makers in government, Teachers, Students, and the

Ministry of Education. For policy makers, this study will help them determine

the ICT competencies of teachers in unity schools thereby knowing if the

objectives of the policy can be achieved as teachers competencies can aid or

mar the achievement of the objectives. It will also enable them to know if the

items in the ICT policy are well understood by teachers.

This study will greatly benefit the teachers in so many ways. First, it will

help them to know the ICT- competency standard as stipulated by UNESCO.

Secondly, it will enlighten them more on the objectives and aim of the ICT

policy in Nigeria. Thirdly, it will make them to know the usefulness of ICT in a

language classroom. Lastly but not the least, it will re-awaken the need for the


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teachers who are not ICT competent to go for training and not to be left out in a

first changing world and classroom.

When the teachers are ICT-competent enough the learners reap the profit.

The students stand to gain more from this research, if the level of teachers ICT-

competency is known and enforced, it will encourage the idea of constructive

approach to learning thereby making the learners to learn at their own pace

As the supervising ministry, this study will help the ministry of education

know the ICT competencies of their teachers which will help them determine

how to improve the ICT skills of their teachers, either by sending them for a

refresher course or organizing in-service training for them. The result of this

study will also make the ministry of Education to liaise with the pre-teachers

training institution to make sure that the new teachers attain the required ICT-

competency standard. As well, they will liaise with the policy makers to make

sure that the ICT policy is well understood by the teachers and achievable

within the context of the classroom.

Scope of the Study

The study is focused on the assessment of Information Communication

Technology competencies of English language teachers in unity schools. The

study was conducted in the unity schools of South-East Nigeria.

The content scope of this work covered the standard ICT competencies as

stipulated by UNESCO (2009).


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Research Questions

The following research questions guided this study.

1. What are the ICT competencies possessed by English language teachers

in the unity schools?

2. What is the Influence of English Language Teachers Qualification on

their ICT competencies?

3. What is the Influence of Gender on the English language Teachers ICT

Competencies?

4. To what extent does age affect teachers ICT competencies?

HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses was formulated and tested at 0.05 level of

significance.

1. ICT Competencies possessed by English language teachers in Unity

Schools do not depend significantly on Teachers Qualification.

2. Gender is not a significant factor in the mean rating of ICT competencies

possessed by English language teachers in unity schools of South-East

Nigeria.


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3. Age is not a significant factor in mean rating of ICT Competencies

possessed by English language teachers in Unity Schools of South-East

Nigeria.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW


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This chapter deals with the review of related literature to this study. The

review will be organized and arranged under the following sub-headings;

Conceptual framework, Theoretical framework, Empirical studies and Summary

of literature review.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework to this study will be discussed under the

following headings;

i. Information and Communication Technology

ii. Information and Communication Technology Policy in Nigeria

iii. Information and Communication Technology in Nigeria Secondary

schools.

iv. Information and Communication Technology in English language

class

v. Teachers competencies

vi. Teachers Qualification

vii. Teachers Gender and Age

viii. Unity Schools. A Brief History

ix. UNESCO ICT competency standard for teachers

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)


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Information and communication technology (ICT) is the catch-phrase

used to describe a range of technologies for gathering, storing, retrieving,

processing, analyzing and transmitting instruction (Uroko, 2006).

The term, Information according to Ajayi (1999) can be viewed as crude

data that are processed into meaningful form; Oyeyinka (2001), Thomas and

Ballard (1995) cited in Uroko (2006) state that information is never valuable

unless it is communicated in the right way to the user.

Communication on the other hand is a process of passing information.

This information may be fact told, heard or disc used etc. Communication

covers a wider spectrum than information. Communication according to Laudon

(1997) is the process of transmitting information and understanding from one

individual to another. In the view of Hadiza (1999) as cited by Uroko (2006), it

is an interpretive medium of self-expression. The materials are just like tools

with which the communicator expresses his or her creative ideas. Also,

communication is a transaction; symbolic process which gives peoples the

opportunity to relate and manage the environment in establishing human

contact, exchanging information, reinforcing the attitude and behaviours of

others (Ike 1989). On the same line, communication is a process of information

exchange between two or more individuals or organization. Thus,

communication is a two-way process which involves the imparting of

information to people (Danape, 2000).


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Technology is seen as the systematic application of scientific or other

organized knowledge to practical tasks in schools and industries (Okeke, 2006).

It is a complete integrated process for analyzing problems, controlling and

evaluating solution to those problems. More so, technology is seen as a complex

integrated organization of men and machines, ideas, procedure and

management. It also includes process, system management and control

mechanism both human and non-human (Imogie, 1998). Communication

technologies include all media employed in transmitting audio, video, data and

multimedia such as cable, satellite, fibre optics, wireless, radio, infra-red,

bluetooth, and Wifi. Network technologies include Personal Area Networks

(PAN), Campus Area Network (CAN), intranets, extranets, Local Area

Networks (LANs), Wireless Area networks (WANs), MANs and the internet.

Computer technologies include all removable media such as optical discs, disks,

flash memories, video, books, multimedia projectors, interactive electronic

boards, and continuously emerging state-of-the-art PCs. Mobile technologies

comprise mobile phones, PDAs, and palmtops. These technologies have

information as their material object. Information is not reserved for use in

isolation, but, rather communicated among users.

Vincent and Vincent (1985) in Ajayi (1999) cited by Uroko (2006)

defines information technology as new way of storing, processing and

transmitting information which was brought about by rapid development in


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electronics, computing and telecommunication. Information and communication

technology (ICT) is the study of concepts, skills, processes and applications of

designs for representing physical, hypothetical or human relationships created,

collected, stored, retrieved, manipulated, protected and presented electronically.

It refers to a whole range of technologies involved in information processing

and electronic communications.

French (1996) cited in Nworgu (2006) defines ICT as a broad based

technology including its methods, management and application that supports the

creation, storage, manipulation and communication of information. Haag and

Keen (1996) defined information technology as a set of tools that helps you

work with information and perform tasks related to information processing.

According to Nworgu (2006), ICT originated as information technology until

recently when it is thought that the communication component ought to be

highlighted because of its significance. It was then that the concept transformed

to information and communication technology (ICT).

According to Ofoegbu (2010), the configuration of a basic ICT system

comprises eight (8) essential elements or components which Haag and Keen

(1996) described as the building blocks of an IT system, these are:

1. Input Devices: These enable the user to enter information and

commands into the system. Examples include mouse, keyboard,

microphone, scanner, Joy stick, light pen and Touch screen.


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2. The Processing Unit:This is made up of the central processing unit

(CPU) and the internal memory or Random Access Memory (RAM).

The central processing unit executes the instructions provided by or in

a particular software or command in order to perform a task. The

internal memory (or the RAM) is where the instruction or software is

stored temporarily.

3. Software: This is the set of instructions given to the computer to

enable it perform a particular tasks or operations. Examples include

Ms-word, SPSS, Excel, Coral Draw, Power point etc.

4. Communication Devices: These are devices used to connect ICT

systems and people in different parts of the globe. Some examples

include modems, satellite, coaxial cables etc.

5. Information: This is what is processed; it may be textual, audio,

practical/visual or motion.

6. Output Devices: These are devices that enable us to retrieve

information from the system. Some examples include monitor/screen,

printer, loudspeaker etc.

7. Storage Devices:These are used to store information on a permanent

basis. They include CD-ROM, Tapes (Audio and Video) floppy disk,

flash discs etc.

8. People: This is the most important component of an ICT system.

Without people the ICT system will be non-functional. According to


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Haag and Keen (1996) without you, an IT system really is nothing

more than an expensive piece of electronic requirement that takes

up space and gathers dust.

Advances in ICT have progressively reduced the costs of managing

information, enabling individuals and organization to undertake the information

related tasks much more efficiently and to introduce innovation in products,

processes and organizational structures. In particular, is the use of electronic

computers and computer software to invert, store, protect, process, transmit and

retrieve information from anywhere and anytime.

ICT when applied to education enhances the delivery and access to

knowledge, and improves the curriculum. It produces richer learning outcomes

compared to education without ICT. It encourages critical thinking and offers

unlimited means of achieving educational goals. The key thing is not in ICT

itself, but, in understanding ICT and effectively employing it in the delivery of

knowledge and reaching goals in less time. ICT is used as a means but not as an

end. Four major approaches have been identified for effectively employing ICT

in education. They are the Emerging, Applying, Infusing and Transforming

approaches that constitute ICT optimization stages in education

Information and communication technology (ICT), for this study, is an

electronic based technology generally used to collect, store, process and

package information as well as providing access to knowledge. More also, it


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includes various technologies and their application such as the use of computer,

micro-electronic devices and satellite and communication technology. It is the

processing and maintenance of information, and the use of all forms of

computer, communication, network and mobile technologies to mediate

information

Nigeria ICT Policy

In order to husband the potentials of ICT, most nations of the world have

evolved national information and communication technology policies to serve

as a framework for ICT integration in all facets of the society especially

education. African countries, and particularly Nigeria, are not exceptions to this

practice. The digital divide between advanced and developing countries,

particularly in Africa, is well established. Like most African countries, Nigeria

as a nation, came late and slowly in the use of ICT in all sectors of the nations

life. Jensen (2002) notes that Africa has 12 percent of the world total

population; the continent has two percent present in ICT use. In Africa, there is

a low access to basic ICT equipment, low internet connectivity, low

participation in the development of ICT equipment and even low involvement

in software development. In fact, New York City has higher internet

connectivity than the whole of Africa (Ajayi, 2002; Hall 1998).


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The seeming backwardness of the African continent in ICT necessitated a

continental-wide initiative, the African Information Society Initiative (AISI),

which had its origin in the African regional symposium on telematic for

development, held in Addis Ababa, in April, 1995. The symposium organized

by the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), the International

Telecommunication Union (ITU), United Nation Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organisation UNESCO, the International Development Research

Centre (IDRO), and Bellanet International, urged the ECA conference of

ministers to consider the importance for Africa to join the global information

revolution (Ajayi 2002). Based on this recommendation, the ECA conference of

ministers in May 1995 passed resolution 795 titled Building Africas

Information Highway, which called for work on national information and

communication networks for planning and decision-making group, made up of

African experts in ICT, to prepare Africas entry into the information society,

subsequently in May 1996, the ECA conference of ministers through its

resolution 812 approved the plan of action prepared by the high-level working

group entitled the African Information Society Initiative an action framework

to build Africas information and communication infrastructure (Ajayi 2002).

The AISI action plan framework called for the formation of National

Information and Communication Infrastructure (NICI) plans and strategies. This

was to be an on-going process through planning, implementation, and regular


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evaluation of programmes and pilot projects, developed according to the needs

and priorities of each country (ADF, 1999). According to Yusuf (2005) Nigeria

did not achieve much on the NICI plan and strategies at the beginning of 1999.

But by October 1999, Nigeria issued a document on telecommunications

development strategy and investment opportunities in Nigeria (Yusuf, 2005).

Similarly, in October 1999, the national policy on telecommunication was

approved (Ajaya, 2002). The document contained policy statements on

objectives, structure, competition policy, satellite communication, management

structure, finance and funding manpower development and training internet,

research and development, safety and security, international perspectives and

policy implementation and review (FRN, 2000).

The national policy on telecommunication was a step in the development

of infrastructural base for ICT. In 2001, the Federal Government approved the

Nigerian National Policy for Information Technology (IT), and followed this up

with the establishment of the National Information Technology Development

Agency (NITDA), which was charged with the implementation of the policy

(Ajayi, 2002).

Nigeria started implementing its ICT policy in April 2001 after the

Federal Executive Council approved it by establishing the National Information

Technology Development Agency (NITDA) the implementing body. The policy

empowers NITDA to enter into strategic alliances and joint ventures and to


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collaborate with the private sector to realize the specifics of the countrys vision

of making Nigeria an IT capable country in Africa and a key player in the

information society by the year 2005 through using IT as an engine for

sustainable development and global competitiveness .

Information and communication technology (ICT) policy, as noted by

Rowland (1996) and cited in Hafkin (2002), can be categorized into vertical,

infrastructural, and horizontal policies. Vertical ICT policy addresses sectoral

needs, such as education, health and tourism. The infrastructural aspect deals

with the development of national infrastructure and this is closely linked with

telecommunication. The horizontal aspect deals with the impact on broader

aspects of society such as freedom of information, tariff and pricing, privacy.

These three aspects are adequately addressed in the Nigerian IT policy.

The IT policy mission statement recognized the need To use IT for

education (p.iii). in addition, the general objectives in three (xv, xvi, and xxiv)

of the stated objectives stressed that information technology must be used to:

xv) empower the youth with IT skills and prepare them for global

competitiveness.

xvi) integrate IT into the mainstream of education and training

xxiv) establish new multifaceted IT institutions as centers of excellence to

ensure Nigerias competitiveness in international markets (p.vi)


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In other to achieve these objectives, 20 strategies were outlined. The fifth

strategy was stated this way: Restructuring the education system at all levels to

respond effectively to the challenges and imagined impact of the information

age and in particular, the allocation of a special IT development fund to

education at all levels (p. vi)

It should be noted that although as the mission, general objectives, and

strategies recognized the importance of ICT in education, the document has no

sectoral (vertical) application to education. Issues relating to education are

subsumed under sectoral application for human resources development. Under

this sectoral application objectives 1to 4 relates to education as follows:

To develop a pool of IT engineers, scientists, technicians, and

software developers;

To increase the availability of trained personnel;

To provide attractive career opportunities; and

To develop requisite skills in various aspects of IT.

In order to achieve the objectives for human resources development, nine

major strategies are outlined. These strategies are targeted at the building of

knowledge and skills in information technology. These includes (a) making the

use of ICT mandatory at all levels of educational institution; (b) development of

ICT curricular for primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions; (c) use of ICT in

distance education; (d) ICT companies investment in education; (e) study grant


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and scholarship on ICT; (f) training the trainer scheme for National Youth

Service Corp members (g) ICT capacity development at zonal, state, and local

levels; (h) growth of private and public sector dedicated ICT primary,

secondary, and tertiary educational institutions; and (i) working with

international and domestic initiatives for transfer of ICT knowledge.

The Nigerian Ministry for Education ICT Department was created in

February 2007. Different initiatives by government agencies and private sector

to introduce and promote ICT in education are ongoing. The major drawback to

these programmes is the generally sporadic and insufficient supply of electricity

(Osei, 2007).

ICT in Nigeria Secondary School Education

The Federal Ministry of Education has launched an ICT-driven project

known as School Net (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2006; Adomi 2005).

School-Net Nigeria is a non-profit organization created to address the use of

ICT in Nigerian secondary schools with the support of several government

ministries. It is a public sector initiative geared at mobilizing Nigerias human

and financial resources for the purpose of using ICT in education. School-Net

creates learning communities of educators and learners to use ICT to enhance

education by;


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Implementing, supporting and coordinating ICT development projects in

education

Providing and supporting lower-cost, scalable technology solutions and

internet for schools.

Providing support mechanisms for schools for technical infrastructure

connectivity.

According to Osei (2007) school-net Nigeria has in collaboration with the

mobile phone operator MTN, established ICT laboratories/Cyber Cafes for four

schools in four states in each of a four-phase project using local Internet Service

Providers (ISPs). Furthermore, School-Net Nigeria, in collaboration with the

computer company Busynet, is setting up ICT laboratories/Cyber cafes in four

schools in 12 states across the federation.

Another initiative by Zinox computers, a private computer company in

collaboration with Microsoft, is revolutionalizing ICT usage in education from

the primary to the university level. Zinox targets the students, lecturers and

institutions themselves. They provide computers at highly subsidized prices and

hopes with government support to achieve 75% ICT application in Nigeria

schools by the end of 2010. First bank of Nigeria is bankrolling the project. ICT

labs are built for schools that can repay in two or three years while teachers

repay the cost of their laptops in one year.


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The ICT revolution in secondary schools has also registered corporate

backing not only with computer companies like Zinox but also with the banks.

Over 80 schools have benefited from Zenith Banks ICT for youth

empowerment system. The scheme focuses on assisting Nigerian youths in

secondary schools to bridge the digital divide through early introduction to ICT.

Each school receives a minimum of 10 computers.

To encourage the use of ICT, the bank organizes an annual ICT

empowerment forum for youth totaling 2000 secondary and tertiary level

students. The bank distributed 100 personal digital assistants (PDAs) to the first

100 students to arrive at the venue in 2006.

In June 2003, at the African Summit of the World Economic Forum held

in Durban, South Africa, the New Partnership for African Development

(NEPAD) launched the e-Schools Initiative, intended to equip all African high

schools with ICT equipment including computers, radio and television sets,

phones and fax machines, communication equipment, scanners, digital cameras,

and copiers, among other things. It is also meant to connect African students to

the Internet. The NEPAD capacity-building initiative will be executed over a

ten-year period, with the high school component being completed in the first

five years. Three phases are envisaged, with fifteen to twenty countries in each

phase. The phases are to be staggered, and an estimated 600,100 schools are

expected to benefit. The aim of the initiative is to impart ICT skills to young


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Africans in primary and secondary schools, and to harness ICT to improve,

enrich, and expand education in African countries (Aginam, 2006).

In October 2006, Nigerian government approved the sum of N1.32 billion

for building physical structure for ICT centres in all the 102 unity schools in

Nigeria, to be equipped with multi-billion naira ICT facilities. This project was

funded by Petroleum Technology Development Fund (PTDF).

The Nigerian Federal Government has commissioned a mobile Internet

unit (MIU) operated by the Nigerian National Information Technology

Development Agency (NITDA). The MIU is a locally-made bus that has been

converted into a mobile training and cyber centre. Its interior has ten

workstations, all networked and connected to the Internet. The MIU is also

equipped with printers, photocopiers, and a number of multimedia facilities.

Internet is provided via VSAT with a 1.2m dish mounted on the roof of the bus.

It is also equipped with a small electric generator to ensure regular power

supply. The MIU takes the Internet to rural areas and various primary and high

schools (Ajayi, 2003). The number of buses is so small; however, that most

rural areas and schools have not yet been covered. Although efforts have been

made to ensure that ICTs are available and used in Nigerian secondary schools,

the level of uptake is still low.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in English Language

Teaching


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ICT can perform multi-talent roles in English language teaching

especially in a second language setting. It can be a complement to the teacher;

can also serve as a coping strategy where the teacher as a role model is

contestable.

In the developed world, the role of technology as a resource for teaching

and learning of second language is increasing as educators recognize its ability

to create both dependent and collaborative learning environments in which

students can learn the new language (Butler, 1997). Butler draws attention to the

silent characteristics and benefits of a technology enriched curriculum for

second language learners that underscore the central role technology can play in

second language teaching and learning. According to Akabogu (2006), Butler

argues that technology can provide students with language experiences as they

move through various stages of language acquisition and can be used to support

the writing process approach. Also, it can be used for drill and practice designed

to reinforce class instruction. Akabogu went on to point out the limitless

opportunity provided by on-line database for students to have access to

authentic audiences and allow second language learners to compare the voice

patterns of their speech with that of a native speaker. According to Akabogu

(2006), this is akin to computer-based immersion method, which is based on the

theory that language is best mastered if the learners are surrounded by only

native speakers.


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Warshauer and Healey (1998) cited in Akabogu (2006) stated that in a

technologically developed world, there has been an explosion of interest in

using computers for language teaching and learning. Warshauer and Healey

identified three main stages in the 30 + years history of Computer Assisted

Language Learning (CALL). These are Behaviouristic CALL, Communicative

CALL and Integrator CALL. Bahaviouristic CALL, according to Warshauer

and Healey was characterized by repetitive language drills referred to drill-and-

practice. In this mode, the computer was viewed as a mechanical tutor who

never grew tried or judgmental and allowed students to work at an individual

pace (Akabogu 2006). Communicative CALL emerged in the later 1940s and

early 1980s. Proponents of this mode according to Akabogu (2006) stressed that

computer based activities should focus more on using forms than on the form

themselves, teaching grammar implicitly rather than explicit, allowing and

encouraging students to generate original utterances rather than just

manipulated prefabricated language and use the target language predominantly

or even exclusively.

Blake (2004) according to Akabogu (2006) believes that increasing

contact with the target language is one of the most critical factors for successful

second language learning. In the absence of going to the regions where the

target language is spoken and immersing oneself in the society and culture,


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ability to exercise choice, work independently and make connections between

their work in English language and in other subjects. For example, ICT can help

students:

use a wide range of strategies to explore contrasts, comparisons and

connections dynamically

annotate text in innovative ways

enrich or broaden the context of literary study

see texts in alternative versions

use a wide range of analytical and critical techniques

sort and process text and data quickly and efficiently

order and arrange text and data experimentally, using combinations of

word, image, sound and hypertext

save, record, edit and adapt their work quickly and efficiently

retain evidence of the editing process so that it can be examined

change the organisational structure and qualities of texts to suit different

audiences and purposes

compose multi-authored texts

select from a wider range of audiences, throughout the world

exercise choice of medium and design while composing

According to Rathore (2001) ICT has been found highly relevant in

developing all the four skills of language learning. Otagburuagu (2006)


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outlined how some of these ICT programmes can be used in a language

classroom.

Different programmes in the computer can be used to teach Oral English

for example, the Microsoft word office 2003 can be used to teach the

speech sounds of English language and prosody. This can be done by

connecting a headphone to the computer and tuning on the Microsoft word

and clicking the tools menu to select speech input on the headphone which

will show on the task bar. This mechanism has speech, voice and

correction commands. When the speech sound is activated, the

teacher/learner can speak and write sentences without the use of the

keyboard. The voice command indicates what to save; close or delete from

the system while the correction command is used to correct mistakes. This

programme is adequate for the teaching of English pronunciation because it

can indicate both right and wrong pronunciations. It is effective in teaching

pronunciation and spelling simultaneously.

Microsoft word for windows can be used in the teaching and learning of

grammar. The application package has to do with graphics and text editing.

The computer will correct the use of redundancy/tautology, inappropriate

use of punctuation marks, correction of grammatical errors, or wrong

expressions. The software will detect and underline all grammatical errors,

wrong spelling and provide options from the in-built dictionaries.


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The oxford advanced learners dictionary software performs speaking

functions, when you type a word, and click on it, the dictionary will

pronounce the word, and it has American and British pronunciation. This

function helps in pronunciation and other dictionary functions.

Thus ICT not only makes language learning easy and fun but also spices the

text with real life experiences which make a learner more broad minded and

humane. ICT when used properly enables a student to go beyond the textbook to

have the feel in real life situations. A lesson on child labour encourages a

student to get more information about the condition of child labour in different

parts of the world and also to think and devise the ways to help and support

them. The students may also be asked to carry out small research related with

the topic. This undoubtedly will sharpen their mental abilities and make them

more creative. Similarly a poem on River can make the student collect pictures

of ever flowing rivers filled with sparkling clean water as well as polluted dirty

rivers of today. Thus making the students think over the present scenario.

Poems like I Love a Tree when taught with the use of ICT will succeed in

developing environmental awareness and sensitivity towards nature. Kindling

the spark of imagination, making students aware of the reality existing outside

classroom, stretching their perception, sensitizing them with the values, refining

their perceptions are some of the merits of using ICT in the English language

classroom. Information and communication technology can greatly improve the

teaching and learning if teacher of English language are ICT competent.


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Teachers Competencies

Competencies are defined as the set of knowledge, skills and experience

necessary for the future which manifests in activities (Katane, 2006). Gupta

(1999) defines competencies as knowledge, skills, attitudes, values,

motivations and beliefs people need in order to be successful in a job. The

common understanding related to teachers competencies is divided into three

main areas as field competencies, pedagogical competencies and cultural

competencies. Teachers professional competencies are composed of different

dimensions other than these three main areas (Bukjieava, 2003).

Selvi (2007) carried out a research regarding the professional

competencies of English language teachers. The conventional Delphi Technique

was applied in order to constitute the competencies of new teachers based on

the teachers and teacher education views. Delphi process was completed after

third rounds collecting the responses from experts and Delphi round continued

until the group language was achieved. The results of this study indicated that

teachers professional competencies were composed of four main subgroups

such as curriculum, life-long learning, social-cultural and emotional

competencies. The results showed that teachers competencies must be

discussed from a different point of view. Selvi, (2010) analyzed the literature

and outlined the following competencies which he tried to redefine depending


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on different dimensions of teachers professional competencies. Among the

listed competencies only our area of concern which is ICT will be discussed.

Field competencies

Research competencies

Curriculum competencies

Literature learning competencies

Social-cultural competencies

Emotional competencies

Communication competencies

Information and communication technologies (ICT) competencies

Environmental competencies

Information and communication technology competencies are based on

using tools and technical equipments for the teaching, distributing and

transferring the knowledge. They include any technology that helps to produce,

manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information. ICT

competencies are concerned with the use of technology for the manipulation

and communication of information; it means that the ICT competency is very

important to improve the communication in the learning and teaching process.

The inner core of the teacher education curriculum pyramid shown in

Figure 1.1 comprises core teacher competencies, which are grouped into two

major clusters: Pedagogy and Technology. These two clusters of teacher


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competencies, although discussed separately below, are not independent of each

other in a curriculum where ICT is infused in pedagogical practice.

Figure 1.1 A framework for ICT in teacher education (from A Planning

Guide 2002, p. 41)

1. Pedagogy

A Planning Guide nominates pedagogy, along with content, as the most

important aspect of infusing technology in the curriculum (p. 41). Infusion of

ICT begins with teachers mastery of the content of the subjects. As they begin

to incorporate ICT in their teaching, they develop new ways of doing things,

gradually changing the focus of classroom activities from an emphasis on

teaching to an emphasis on learning. The adoption of ICT in the classroom

generally proceeds in stages as depicted in the model of ICT development


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(Figure 1.2). At first, teachers discover ICT tools such as, for example,

presentation software. They then begin applying ICT tools in place of previous

instructional activities, such as preparing a PowerPoint presentation in place of

a lecture. As teachers become more familiar with ICT in the subjects they teach,

they explore new ways of using ICT, and so how they previously taught begins

to change. In time their classroom practice becomes transformed as the focus of

the classroom becomes learner-centered and students use ICT to solve real-

world problems that cut across traditional subject boundaries.

Pedagogy includes much more. It includes theoretical knowledge and

pedagogical skills. The theoretical and practical components of pedagogy

included in the teacher education curriculum at East China Normal University,

China, as reported by Zhu (2003) is shown in Table 1.1 Examination of Table

1.1 shows the wide view taken of pedagogy: it includes, for instance,

knowledge of learning theories and instructional process and design, it includes

assessment and evaluation strategies, and it includes planning and designing

lesson plans. To these might be added selection and presentation skills.


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Figure 1.2 Stages of ICT development that educational systems and schools

pass through in the use and adoption of ICT

Theory (Lectures) Pedagogy (Activities)

Learning theories Media and instruction

Instructional process Instructional design

Evaluating technology Studying theories

Discussing pedagogical issues Designing lesson plans

Self/peer evaluation Communicating/publishing

Internet Explorer Search engines

Bulletin boards Chat rooms

Table 1.1 Theory and pedagogy in the teacher education curriculum

at East China Normal University, China

Collaboration and networking are other aspects of pedagogy. The real

power of ICT comes from new ways of communicating beyond the four walls


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of the classroom and by locating information from worldwide sources wherever

these may be located. The implications for teachers as they assist their students

in collaborating with other learning groups and using networks to research

assignment topics is that they cease to be the main source of knowledge in the

classroom. Instead, teachers roles change from being a sage on the stage to

becoming a guide on the side. Teachers need to accommodate a philosophical

shift in their approach to teaching. A Planning Guide asserts that the

development of teachers competencies in collaboration and networking is

essential to infusing ICT in the curriculum:

Through collaboration and networking, professional teachers promote

democratic learning within the classroom and draw upon expertise both

locally and globally. (A Planning Guide,p. 43)

2. Technology

Whole books have been written about the ICT competencies required by

teachers in the classrooms of today and tomorrow. At the emerging stage (see

Figure 1.1) when teachers discover and learn about ICT tools, they need to go

through a process similar to that of their students in schools. These

competencies, often termed ICT literacy, include knowledge of ICT concepts

and operations. Anderson and van Weert (2002), for example, include under

ICT literacy the following:


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BasicconceptsofICT

Using computers and managing files

Word processing

Working with spreadsheets

Working with databases

Composing documents and presentations

Information and communication

Besides the kinds of ICT competencies relating to concepts and

operations, there are many social, healths, legal and ethical issues associated

with the use of ICT about which teachers need to know. The facility, for

instance, to access information easily from remote sources, download it to a

personal computer, and then utilize the information in a classroom assignment

brings with it a host of social, legal, and ethical issues relating to copyright,

evaluation of information sources, and appropriate forms of acknowledging

electronic information. Health issues arising from extensive use of ICT include

considerations of correct posture, placement of hands and wrists on keyboards,

avoidance of eyestrain, as well as safety issues concerning power supplies and

care of equipment.

At the next stage beyond the emerging stage, described as the applying

stage in Figure 1.2, teachers need to learn how to use ICT tools in different

subject areas in which they teach. And from this stage, teachers need to advance


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to an understanding of how and when to use ICT tools for particular purposes,

in teaching as well as for professional and management tasks. Teachers need to

have a clear understanding of why ICT is useful to themselves and their

students.

Allied to the contextual factors of change and lifelong learning, further

technology competencies required of teachers are the need to update constantly

their skills with hardware and to familiarize themselves with new generation

software.

Technological competencies have an attitudinal dimension also: as

Cabanatan (2003) reported, among the ICT competencies required of teachers

are a positive attitude toward ICT, along with a clear understanding of the

education potential of ICT.

Teacher Qualification and Teacher Competence

Certification is a measure of teacher qualification that combines aspects

of knowledge about subject matter and about teaching and learning. Aminu

(1987) sees a professional teacher as a person who has the registerable

professional qualification which enables him to teach at any appropriate level of

education and who is of a sound mind and mentally alert. Anderson (1982)


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describes the qualified teacher as one who is able to bring about intended

learning outcomes. Three areas which are needed to help produce learning

outcomes include;

Command of theoretical knowledge and learning the science subject and

genuine human relationship.

Command of the subject matter to be taught

Control of technical skills of teaching that facilitates learning

In the review of the national school curriculum, the federal ministry of

education (1991) set that by 1999 all teachers in the school system must possess

a minimum of the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) and for the unity

schools, the minimum standard is University degree or Higher National

Diploma (HND). Gwanyama (1992) showed in his study that teacher

qualification has positive effect on students achievement, which invariably is

attached to competence. According to DarlingHummond (2000) tests of basic

skills, subject matter, knowledge and teaching knowledge or skills are basis for

teacher qualification. She suggested that among students who become teacher,

those enrolled in formal pre-service preparation programs are more likely to be

effective than those who do not have such training. It is then important to look

at teacher qualification and teacher competence

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Gender has several controversial definitions but it here refers to an

individual's inner sex or psychological sense of being a male or female

irrespective of one's (outer) sex identity as determined by one's sexual organs.

There are two main genders: masculine (male) or feminine (female). Gender

identity refers to the options available to members of a society to choose from a

set of social identities, based on the combination of one'ssex identity on the one

hand, and one's natural gender, interests and social experiences on the other.

A gender role is a theoretical construct in the social sciences and

humanities that refers to a set of social and behavioural norms that, within a

specific culture, are widely considered to be socially appropriate for individuals

of a specific gender. Proponents of gender role theory assert that observed

gender differences in behaviours and personality characteristics are, at least in

part, socially constructed, and therefore, the product of socialization

experiences; this contrasts with other models of gender that assert that gender

differences are "essential" to biological sex. Research supports this theory,

finding gender differences in almost all societies, but with differences in the

norms adopted, suggesting that gender differences are, at least partly, influenced

by culture.A gender role refers to the set of attitudes and behaviours socially

expected from the members of a particular gender identity. Gender roles are

socially constructed which are often politicized and manipulated, which then

result in the oppression of people.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_identityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socially_constructedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socially_constructedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_identityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculine


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Even though women have made great strides in the law, medical, and

social science professions, very few can be found in graduate programs or

professions in mathematics, computer science, physics, engineering, or

information technology jobs (Eccles, 2001). Many ideas have been put forth on

why high achieving women may not be entering these professions including

discrimination, gender-typed socialization, self-concept of ability in these areas,

and the value and interest that women have in these professions (Eccles, 2001).

Given the mounting pressure ICT has placed on the educational

community, there is a dramatic surge in the new teaching competencies

expected of teachers in Unity schools. All academic staff are expected to use

and integrate new technologies into their instruction, communication and

research. However, findings from local and international studies have suggested

that gender differences exist in relation to the use of ICT and of late, this issue

is beginning to gain the attention of researchers. This is evident by the amount

of research carried out in recent years to investigate whether gender differences

exist with ICT usage (Ong & Lai, in press; Atan et al., 2002; Houtz & Gupta,

2001). Conducted studies have mostly been based on the perceptions of target

audiences towards ICT. Savery (2002) stated that examining the perception

of a target audience is a widely used strategy based on the premise that

perceptions matter and often influence behaviours (p. 1). For example, Cope

& Ward (2002) suggested that teachers perceptions of learning technologies are

likely to be crucial in their successful integration. In other words, measuring an


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individuals perception is pertinent as it is likely to influence the human

behaviour.

In recent years, the gender gap issue has caught many scholars attention

and as a result, many studies have been conducted to study this gap in

technology internationally. In a very recent study, Ong & Lai (in press) reported

that males had more positive attitudes toward e-learning than females. They

found significant gender variations where males ratings of perceptions towards

computer self-efficacy, perceived usefulness and ease of use and behavioural

intention to use e-learning were all higher than those of females. This is not

surprising as Liaws study (2002) had earlier indicated that males had more

positive perceptions toward computers and Web technologies than females.

Chen & Tsai (2005) also reported that males exhibited more favourable

attitudes toward Web-based learning than females. Their results suggested that

males perceived the proliferation and development of the Internet to result in a

better tool in reducing the digital divide and establishing a society of equity and

justice. Jackson (2001), however, found that while females used e-mails more

than males, the latter used the Web more. Houtz & Guptas (2001) study found

significant gender difference in the way females and males rated themselves in

their ability to master technology skills. Even though both genders were positive

about their technological ability, males rated the

Documents

Information and Communication Technology Competencies of English Language Teachers in Unity Schools of South