Influences of organisational image on applicant attraction in the recruitment … · 2010-06-09 · Influences of organisational image on applicant attraction in the recruitment process

Influences of organisational image on applicant attraction in the recruitment process

By

Natalie Emma Rose BBus (Management)

School of Management, Faculty of Business

Queensland University of Technology Master of Business (Research) (BS92)

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ABSTRACT

In the present investigation, factors related to prospective applicants

impressions of an organisation at the pre-interview stage of the recruitment

process, and how these perceptions influence decisions to pursue an

organisation for possible employment were explored. A heightened

understanding of these factors is of relevance to organisations in the

current labour market environment, and is of critical importance when

considering that recruitment in the pre-interview stages remains under-

researched and lacking in a strong theoretical foundation. To address this

weakness in the recruitment research the present investigation will integrate

two disparate areas of literature – recruitment and marketing – within the

theoretical context of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) theory of reasoned action.

The theory of reasoned action is well tested in the social psychology arena

and provides a sound theoretical platform to underpin the relationships

applicable to this investigation. In applying the marketing literature to the

recruitment context, the concept of brand image is specifically utilised.

Additionally, a problem that plagues much of the recruitment research is the

heavy reliance on college and university students as a source of research

data. The present study responds to this issue by sourcing data from a

population of active job seekers submitting applications for advertised job

vacancies at a large, Queensland-based higher education institution. A total

of three hundred and fifty-one survey responses were obtained. The

measures included perceptions of organisational image, attraction, and

application intentions. The results indicated that there is support for the

assertion that positive image perceptions held by applicants towards an

employing organisation will lead to attraction to the organisation and active

pursuit behaviour. Within this framework, it is evident that the ‘impression

management’ capability of organisations in the contemporary business

environment may hold the key to sustained competitive advantage in the

critical search for qualified talent.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION

Introduction………………………………………………………………………1 Research Issue…………………………………………………………………..1 Research Foci……………………………………………………………………3 Thesis Outline……………………………………………………………………5

CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction and Overview……………………………………………………8 Review of Recruitment Literature……………………………………………8

Recruitment Context……………………………………………………...9 Recruitment Sources……………………………………………………12 Recruiters………………………………………………………………...15 Realistic Job Previews………………………………………………….19 Image, Attraction and Pursuit Intentions……………………………….....23 Brand Image and its Application to the Recruitment Domain………25 Employer Branding……….…………………..…………………………27 Theory of Reasoned Action…………………………………………….30

Image and Attraction……………………………………………………36 Attraction and Application………………………………………………50 Summary………………………………………………………………………...66

CHAPTER THREE – METHODOLOGY

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..67 Method…………………………………………………………………………...67 Participants……………………………………………………………….67 Procedure………………………………………………………………...67 Measures…………………………………………………………………69 Image……………………………………………………………..70 Attraction………………………………………………………….72 Application………………………………………………………..73 Summary………………………………………………………………………...75

CHAPTER FOUR – RESULTS

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..76 Preliminary Analyses……………………………………………………….…76 Data Cleaning……………………………………………………………76 Scale Reliability………………………………………………………….79 Demographic Characteristics…………………………………………..79 Results of Hypothesis Testing………………………………………………79

Hypothesis One………………………………………………………….79 Hypothesis Two………………………………………………………….82 Hypothesis Three………………………………………………………..84

Mediated Regression Results..………………………………………………84

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CHAPTER FIVE - DISCUSSION

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..88 Hypotheses and Related Findings………………………………………….88 Hypothesis One………………………………………………………….88 Hypothesis Two………………………………………………………….93 Hypothesis Three………………………………………………………..98 Implications for Theory.............................................................................98 Directions for Future Research……………………………………………101 Implications for Practice…………………………………………………….104 Limitations……………………………………………………………………..108 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….111 APPENDIX 1……………………………………………………………………116 APPENDIX 2……………………………………………………………………123 APPENDIX 3……………………………………………………………………131 APPENDIX 4……………………………………………………………………132 APPENDIX 5……………………………………………………………………133 APPENDIX 6……………………………………………………………………134 APPENDIX 7……………………………………………………………………135 APPENDIX 8……………………………………………………………………136 APPENDIX 9……………………………………………………………………137 APPENDIX 10………………………………………………………………….138 REFERENCE LIST…………………………………………………………….139

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Theory of Reasoned Action…………………………………..31

Figure 2 Conceptual Framework………………………………………..35

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Means, standard deviations and correlations..………………78

Table 2 Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients………………...…….79

Table 3 Standard multiple regression of attraction to

the organisation………………………………………………….80 Table 4 Standard multiple regression of attraction to the job…………………………………………………………….82

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made. Signature: __________________________________________________ Date: _____________________________________________________

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Arriving at this point in time is a memorable achievement. In so doing, I

would like to formally acknowledge a number of people who along the way

have either supported me emotionally or psychologically, inspired me to

achieve greater things, or who have provided me with a treasured learning

experience – both on a personal and professional level.

Firstly, to my soulmate, Barron, who so enthusiastically and unfailingly

endured the ‘ups’ and the ‘downs’ of my incredible journey. For this, a

sincere thank you.

Secondly, to my supervisor, Dr Lisa Bradley for her support, patience, and

constructive feedback of my work, particularly her ability to continue to instil

a sense of motivation and will to achieve towards the end of this eventful

experience.

A heartfelt thank you to my mum ‘Maurcie’ who although no longer alive in

body supported me in taking my first steps on the path of this incredible

journey; and whose spirit continued to inspire and drive me to complete the

journey that I had started. To you, mum, I dedicate this achievement.

Lastly, I would like to thank the organisation for allowing me to conduct my

research. Importantly, I would like to thank the anonymous individuals who

completed the survey – for without their responses I could not have arrived

at this point. So, thank you, your support and effort was greatly appreciated.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION Introduction

The purpose of Chapter One is to provide an overview of the present

investigation. Firstly, a rationale for the study will be formulated. This will be

followed by a brief description of the research issues and finally an outline

of the structure of the study will be presented.

Research Issue Over the last 30 years, most industries have benefited from the general

abundance of qualified individuals across various labour markets

(Highhouse, Zickar, Thorsteinson, Stierwalt and Slaughter 1999: 151). In

this environment, human resource planning models have traditionally

assumed that a labour market is a static, unchanging entity, and relies on

the quality and the demographic makeup of the ‘talent pool’ remaining the

same (Martin and Franz 1994: 33). Many industries are currently

experiencing a crumbling of this static labour market assumption in the

wake of significant shifts in the demographic composition of labour markets

and rapid changes in technology (Franz and Martin 1994: 34; Boswell,

Roehling, LePine and Moynihan 2003: 23). These significant changes have

resulted in organisations devoting considerably more resources to activities

oriented towards attracting qualified individuals (Turban 2001: 293). As

recruitment is the primary mechanism used by organisations to attract

quality applicants, this discipline is receiving increased recognition in the

popular and academic press as organisations seek to establish a

competitive advantage over competitors in response to shifts in labour

market conditions (Carlson, Connerley and Mechan 2002: 463).

Taken as a whole, recruitment remains under-researched (Aiman-Smith,

Bauer and Cable 2001: 219). In 1982, Belt and Paolillo observed that

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empirical research on the attraction of individuals to organisations was

‘virtually nonexistent’ (p.105). According to the authors, the ‘lack of

definitive and on-going research in the field results in most practitioners

being forced to rely on personal experience, myth, and intuition’ (Belt and

Paolillo 1982: 106). Some ten years later, Rynes (1991: 400) lamented that

some of the most important questions about applicant attraction remained

‘almost completely unaddressed’ despite a number of conceptual advances

in how recruitment might influence applicant behaviours. While

considerable research has focused on components of the attraction process,

this research has predominantly focused around three core topics:

recruitment sources, realistic job previews, and the impact of recruiter

(interviewer) characteristics on job applicant choices post-interview

resulting in a misrepresentation of the complexity of the recruitment process

(Breaugh and Starke 2000: 406; Collins and Stevens 2002: 1121).

In 1992, Turban and Dougherty postulated that the concentration of

research on recruitment sources, realistic job previews, and the impact of

recruiter characteristics on job applicants post-interview could be largely

attributed to the historical abundance of individuals across labour markets

which in turn focused research attention on components of the recruitment

process for which the organisation’s perception of applicants was a prime

consideration (p. 739). Unfortunately, the practice of concentrating a large

body of research around the three aforementioned topics has prohibited the

adequate investigation of the immediate objective of recruitment – applicant

attraction (Rynes 1991: 403). Thus, there is limited empirical evidence to

guide organisations in attracting applicants at this critical stage of the

recruitment process (Turban 2001: 294). Consequently, research still

remains to be conducted in terms of understanding the influence and

impact of job and organisational attributes on applicant perceptions and job

choice intentions when seeking employment with an organisation in the pre-

interview stages (Thomas and Wise 1999: 376; Breaugh and Starke 2000:

406). Given this identified gap in the recruitment research, the current

investigation proposes to contribute to the literature by broadening the

knowledge base and understanding of factors related to prospective

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applicant impressions of an organisations image as an employer, and how

these perceptions of image influence applicant decisions at the initial (pre-

interview) stage of the recruitment process.

Research Foci

In the context of this paper there are 4 main foci. Firstly, the study will focus

on recruitment as distinct from selection. Whereas recruitment is aimed at

attracting individuals to an organisation, selection is aimed at identifying the

most qualified from among those individuals (Barber 1998: 3). Each of

these processes involves ‘matching’ organisations and individuals, but the

nature of the matching differs. In recruitment, organisational and job

characteristics are matched with individual needs, with the individual

assessing the suitability of the match (Barber 1998: 3). In selection,

however, applicant attributes are matched with organisational needs, and it

is the organisation that determines whether a suitable match exists (Barber

1998: 3).

Secondly, the aim of the study is to investigate factors related to potential

applicant impressions of an organisation’s attractiveness as an employer

prior to interview. Much of the empirical work examining applicant attraction

to organisations has measured attraction after the interview (Turban 2001:

294). However, recent evidence indicates that an applicant’s pre-interview

attraction to an organisation is a much stronger predictor of job choice

decisions, but little is known about factors related to early impressions of an

organisations attractiveness as an employer (Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996:

447; Turban, 2001: 294).

Thirdly, a problem that plagues much of the organisational image research

is the heavy reliance on college and university students as a source for the

generation of research data (Breaugh 1992: 82; Rynes and Cable 2001: 55).

Although some studies (for example Harris and Fink 1987; Albinger and

Freeman 2000) have surveyed students seeking full-time positions, there is

concern about whether findings based on relatively young student samples

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can be generalised given their potential lack of seriousness in rating

organisational and job attribute attractiveness when considering positions

for possible employment (Breaugh 1992: 82). Alternatively, a genuine job

seeker may carefully consider the value attached to a specific job and/or

organisational attribute in making a job pursuit decision; whereas, a student

may quickly consider job and/or organisational attributes with limited

serious reflection when considering a job for possible employment (Breaugh

1992: 82). This sentiment is reiterated in a recent paper presented by

Ziegert and Ehrhart (2004) and called for ‘the use of non-student samples in

order to advance the understanding of applicant attraction’ (p. C5).

The present study will aim to respond to these calls to extend research on

attraction by sourcing data from a population of active job seekers. This

population is perceived to be in a prime position to comment on the

elements constituting overall organisational image, as it is likely that active

assessments of image are being made on a frequent basis while making

job choice decisions. It is important to note that the approach of this

investigation aims to examine why prospective applicants are attracted to

an organisation from the applicant perspective. The study is not designed to

investigate the organisations evaluation of the applicant. In so doing, the

present investigation will explore attraction to a non-hypothetical

organisation thereby aiming to further contribute to the recruitment research

literature.

Finally, the study will integrate recruitment and marketing literature

(specifically the principles of brand image) in conjunction with Fishbein and

Ajzen’s (1975) theory of reasoned action (TRA) to address criticisms that

recruitment research lacks a clearly articulated theoretical foundation.

Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA is a dominant theoretical framework within

the social psychology arena and is well tested within that context

(Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar 2003: 987). On this basis, the present

investigator perceives the TRA to be a credible platform to support and

enhance the understanding of variables applicable to this study. Given the

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theory’s core applicability to the present investigation, an in-depth review is

undertaken in the following Chapter of this paper.

While it is acknowledged that there are a number of aspects of the

marketing literature that may be relevant to recruitment, it is perceived by

the present investigator that the concept of brand image forms a strong

basis with which to support the present study; particularly when exploring

the role of organisational image perceptions in the pre-interview stages of

the recruitment process (Cable and Turban 2001: 120). Within this

framework, it is proposed that an employers role in contemporary

recruitment is that of marketing jobs in a labour market of competing

opportunities, each of which is a ‘product’ differentiated from others based

on organisational and job attributes. It is reasoned that available jobs

constitute products that are ‘consumed’ by job seekers (Maurer, Howe and

Lee 1992: 809). A job seeker’s decision to consume a product is ultimately

based on an individual’s attitude towards the perceived characteristics of

the organisation based on an assessment of communicated attributes.

Conceptually, a job seeker is expected to be attracted to an organisation

that supports their salient identity, with positive perceptions of

organisational image translating into applications for advertised job

opportunities. In integrating the recruitment and marketing literature, it is

acknowledged that the marketing perspective is not the panacea for

understanding applicant attraction to organisations in the recruitment

context. However, the marketing orientation does provide concepts to

contribute to the recruitment domain that have been well tested in the

marketing arena (Martin and Franz 1994: 35).

Thesis Outline To explore the role of organisational image perceptions at the pre-interview

stage of the recruitment process, the present investigation will be structured

as follows:

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Chapter Two provides an extensive literature review examining underlying

concepts and relationships inherent in a job seeker’s pre-interview

perceptions of organisations. Specifically, the Chapter draws together the

two disparate literatures – recruitment and marketing – to illustrate their

applicability to the present study. The study hypotheses are developed and

presented based on the integration of these literatures in combination with

Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA. The conceptual framework is also

presented diagrammatically in this Chapter.

Chapter Three reports the design, methodology, and administration of the

investigation. A description of the questionnaire design process is outlined

examining scale development and instrument test procedures. Subject

demographic information is also presented.

Chapter Four presents study results. The results are examined in light of

the stated hypotheses.

Chapter Five provides a discussion and conclusion to the investigation. The

results were discussed in the context of the presented hypotheses and the

wider recruitment and marketing literature. Implications for theory, practice,

and future recruitment research were also identified and discussed. Finally,

the limitations of the study are acknowledged as a means to assist future

recruitment studies in this area.

In summary, the purpose of the present investigation is to contribute to

research in the recruitment domain by enhancing the understanding of

factors related to prospective applicants impressions of an organisation at

the pre-interview stage of the recruitment process, and how these

perceptions of image influence applicant decisions to pursue an

organisation for possible employment. In so doing, the investigation will

integrate the recruitment and marketing literature in conjunction with

Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA to address criticisms that the recruitment

literature lacks a clearly articulated theoretical foundation. A heightened

understanding of the image-application relationship is of pertinent relevance

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to organisations in the current labour market environment, and is of critical

importance when considering that recruitment in the pre-interview stages

remains under-researched.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction and Overview

This investigation draws together two previously disparate bodies of

literature. The first body of literature relates to recruitment, while the second

body of literature relates to marketing (specifically the concept of brand

image). This appears to be a significant research omission within the

recruitment domain considering the primary objective of recruitment is to

attract a quality ‘pool’ of talented individuals to an organisation. In providing

a framework for the review of these bodies of literature in the recruitment

context, it is appropriate to review previous investigations that have delved

into the combination of these two disciplines relevant to the present

investigation. The study hypotheses are developed and presented based on

the integration of these literatures in unison with Fishbein and Ajzen’s

(1975) TRA.

Review of Recruitment Literature

In commencing a review of the recruitment literature it is first necessary to

clarify what is meant by recruitment. Barber (1998: 5) defines recruitment

as ‘those practices and activities carried out by an organisation with the

primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees’. This

definition implies the engagement of a wide range of organisational

activities targeted towards establishing an organisation’s ‘presence’ in an

attempt to attract suitably qualified individuals (Barber 1998: 5). In seeking

the engagement of the ‘best and brightest’ talent, the organisation attempts

to increase the utility of the process by achieving a suitable return on

investment on the recruitment dollar spent (Cable and Turban 2001: 2244).

As outlined by Thomas and Wise (1999: 375), recruitment has three

primary functions: (1) to develop a pool of applicants at minimal cost to the

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organisation, (2) to assist the organisation in ensuring that its workforce is

demographically representative; and (3) to ensure that the applicant pool is

comprised of candidates who have the required attributes to perform the

specified job. Therefore, recruiting effectiveness is a critical competence for

organisations (Thomas and Wise 1999: 376). In the wake of significant

shifts in the makeup of ‘traditional’ labour markets, as outlined earlier,

organisations which are adept at effectively recruiting from diverse applicant

pools will develop a significant competitive advantage (Thomas and Wise

1999: 376). With this foundation and definition, attention will now be drawn

to a review of the recruitment literature to more fully develop the direction of

the present investigation based on its relationship with previous recruitment

research.

In terms of structure, this literature review will first provide an overview of

early recruitment research to provide a contextual grounding. Some of the

earliest research on organisational choice will be reviewed as it is this

research that has laid the foundation for subsequent investigations in the

recruitment arena. Although not strongly linked to the present investigation,

discussion will then focus around the three core topics identified earlier

(recruitment sources, recruiters, and realistic job previews) due to a large

majority of previous recruitment research being concentrated in these

domains. In reviewing these topics it should be noted that each topic has

developed in isolation from the others, with the result that there is little basis

for integration across the various recruitment streams (Rynes 1991: 399).

Recruitment Context

Prior to the 1990’s, the majority of recruitment research produced

inconsistent empirical findings (Rynes and Cable 2001: 55). In addition,

Rynes and Cable (2001: 55) postulated that pre 1990’s recruitment

research was restricted by a narrow range of research questions and

almost exclusive concentration of research data being collected in either

college or university environments. In combination, these phenomena have

left some of the most important recruitment questions unanswered.

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Early recruitment research drew from vocational behaviour literature and

investigated job and organisational choice by using measures of anticipated

job satisfaction (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 220). As far as the present

investigator is aware, the earliest research on organisational choice was

conducted by Vroom in 1966. Vroom’s investigation examined

organisational choice as a function of instrumentality perceptions as viewed

by students enrolled in a graduate program who were in the process of

selecting an organisation in which to begin their managerial careers (Vroom

1966: 215). Eight weeks prior to graduation, subjects were instructed to

conduct a survey of the market and to list three organisations in which the

subjects were most interested in obtaining possible employment (based on

individual ratings of fifteen job goals). Subjects then rated each of the fifteen

job goals in terms of the extent to which each individual perceived their

ability to attain the goals within each of the three identified organisations

(Vroom 1966: 216). Four weeks later (when all subjects had received formal

offers of employment with an organisation), each subject completed a

second questionnaire designed to re-measure the variables initially

presented. Vroom discovered that after choice (the point at which a job

offer with one of the three organisations had been accepted by a subject),

there was a high correlation between the ranking of the chosen organisation

and the perceived likely satisfaction of their goals. Alternatively, the

perceived likely satisfaction from the unchosen organisations decreased

(Vroom 1966: 224).

Although Vroom’s research formed the foundation for a number of

subsequent studies (for example, Harris and Fink 1987) particularly with

regards to the wording of survey questions investigating organisational

choice, one major criticism of Vroom’s 1966 investigation was the absence

of a standardised test environment. As such, due to the potential for

immense variance in the number of organisations being ranked by subjects

(Vroom did not clarify the extent to which there were any similarities in the

type of industry or general attributes of the organisations being ranked by

subjects) it is difficult to determine subjects’ reasoning as to why certain

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organisations were selected over others as potential employers. In the

context of the present investigation, the capturing of such information would

have been of immense value in informing the research direction.

Additionally, Vroom’s investigation did not measure the degree of effort

applied by an individual to secure a job with the three identified

organisations, thus, the degree to which a subject was ‘satisfied’ relative to

the final job choice decision was not captured.

Fisher, Ilgen and Hoyer (1979) were the first to assess organisational

attraction using more than a single item measure (Highhouse et al. 2003:

988). Fisher et al.’s investigation examined the impact of the favourability of

information about a job and the source of information upon applicant

perceptions of source credibility and its influence on job offer acceptance as

viewed by university students (Fisher et al. 1979: 95). Subjects were

presented with information about a hypothetical job. This job information

had two levels of information favourability (positive and negative), and four

sources of information (campus interviewer, friend, job incumbent, and

university professor). One paragraph per information source was provided

to subjects to define each source. In being presented with the job

information, subjects were instructed to imagine that they had applied for

the job described and had gathered the presented job information from a

face-to-face discussion with one of the four information sources. The

students then answered questions about the job (presented in both positive

and negative information sets). A number of Likert items followed the

information sets to assess the subjects’ attitudes towards the information

source and the attractiveness of the organisation. Fisher et al. (1979: 100)

discovered that trust in source was a significant main effect for information

favourability, and that there was also a significant main effect for

information favourability such that subjects perceived a source to be

significantly more trustworthy when negative as opposed to positive

information was presented about a job.

In terms of organisational attractiveness, Fisher et al. (1979: 101)

discovered that subjects were substantially less likely to accept the job if

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their source of information about a job was the campus interviewer. Unlike

those results relating to favourability of job information and source credibility,

the authors discovered that subjects were more likely to accept a job with

an organisation if they were presented with positive information about the

organisation.

Although Fisher et al.’s research provided some valuable outcomes to the

recruitment domain, particularly in terms of the need to address applicant

perceptions of campus recruiters as a credible source of job (and

organisational) information, a major criticism of the study is that the

information presented to subjects in the investigation was entirely

hypothetical. On this basis it is questionable as to whether study subjects

provided genuine responses to the items presented; thus, raising questions

as to the validity of some of the research findings. To Fisher et al.’s credit

their investigation did provide the basis for measures in subsequent

organisational choice investigations (for example Honeycutt and Rosen

1997) and was the first investigation of its kind to combine organisational

attractiveness and intention items. As such, the investigation moved beyond

the passivity of organisational choice in previous studies (Highhouse et al.

2003: 989).

In summarising the research of Vroom (1966) and Fisher et al. (1979) in a

broad recruitment context, it becomes evident that an applicant’s attraction

to an organisation is influenced by a variety of variables that exert varying

degrees of influence at the pre and post interview stages of the recruitment

process. Within this framework, there exists a body of recruitment research

that concentrates on investigating the influence of recruitment sources on

applicant attraction to organisations. An overview of this research will now

be presented.

Recruitment Sources

The earliest recruitment source research focussed on how individuals

searched for jobs (Zottoli and Wanous 2000: 354). Starting in the 1960’s,

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the primary research emphasis shifted to on-the-job effectiveness of

individuals who were recruited via different sources. Recruitment sources

that have been historically studied by researchers include referrals (by

friends, relatives, or work colleagues), re-hires, internal job postings, walk-

ins, direct applications, employment agencies, and advertisements (Schwab,

Rynes and Aldag in Ferris and Rowland 1990: 29; Zottoli and Wanous

2000: 354). Although the results of recruitment source studies are not

entirely consistent, studies have frequently found that employee referrals

and direct applications result in lower levels of turnover and higher levels of

job satisfaction than individuals recruited via more formal sources (Breaugh

and Starke 2000: 419). The failure of research to explain source differences

have been largely attributed to two methodological weaknesses: samples

utilised and variable measurement (Breaugh and Starke 2000: 419). For

example, source data has been predominantly collected from new

employees rather than applicants. Thus, the immediate objective of

recruitment – applicant attraction – has not been fully considered in

recruitment source research. Given the historical focus on new employees

rather than applicants as the source of research data it is difficult to draw

solid conclusions in this domain (Breaugh and Starke 2000: 422). Having

said this, one exploratory study by Highhouse, Stierwalt, Bachiochi, Elder

and Fisher (1999) investigated attraction to job advertisements in the pre-

interview stage of the recruitment process – this study will now be

discussed.

Highhouse et al.’s (1999) investigation was designed to gain a better

understanding of job seeker reactions to job advertisement characteristics

by an identified minority group in the United States of America. Of

significant interest was the influence of advertised human resource

practices on job seeker perceptions of the organisation’s attractiveness as a

place to work (Highhouse et al. 1999: 426). Study subjects were

engineering students and employed engineers. The student sample

consisted of 1019 subjects, while the engineer sample consisted of 303

subjects (Highhouse et al. 1999: 431). All subjects were randomly mailed a

hypothetical job advertisement for an engineering consultant position in a

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fictional organisation (the advertisement was adapted from an actual

engineering consultant advertisement) that the researchers had

manipulated on three characteristics: staffing policy (identity blind versus

identity conscious), work structure (individual-based versus team-based),

and compensation system (pay based on individual performance versus

pay based on workgroup performance) (Highhouse et al. 1999: 432). Prior

to completing the questionnaire subjects were instructed to imagine that the

job advertisement was for an actual job in a real organisation.

Research results found that both groups of subjects reported being more

likely to apply for the advertised position when the staffing policy was

identity conscious (affirmative action) than when the information presented

was identity blind (equal employment opportunity). Interestingly, only the

student sample reported being more likely to apply when the advertisement

described team-based work structures instead of individual-based work

structures. Both subject groups reacted negatively to the combination of

individual-based work structures and group-performance based pay

systems (Highhouse et al. 1999: 437 - 438). Although Highhouse et al.’s

(1999) investigation was the first of its kind specifically designed to measure

attraction to an organisation based on impressions of information sourced

from a job advertisement, considering the characteristics of the targeted

minority group (highly educated and professionally oriented) it is possible

that research results can only be generalised to these populations. In

addition, although the investigators were afforded the luxury of a

considerably large subject population, concern is raised that participants

responded to a hypothetical job advertisement. Although it is acknowledged

that the test instrument was adopted from an actual advertisement, concern

is raised as to whether subjects provided genuine responses to the

presented items.

Although Highhouse et al.’s (1999) investigation offered some preliminary

insights into job seeker attraction to job advertisements in the pre-interview

stage of the recruitment process, Zottoli and Wanous (2000: 375) asserted

that there is much to be learned regarding the reasons for differential

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recruitment source effectiveness. Specifically, Zottoli and Wanous (2000)

stated that ‘despite decades of academic research on the inferiority of

newspaper ads compared to referrals, re-hires, and walk-ins, many

practitioners continue to believe that ads are the most effective source of

new recruits at lower/entry level positions’ (p. 379). Within this framework,

the authors asserted that researchers need to be more effective at

disseminating the conclusions of recruitment source research.

An overview of literature pertaining to the influence of recruiters on

applicant attraction to organisations will now be undertaken to illustrate an

alternative avenue of interest to researchers in exploring job seeker

attraction to organisations.

Recruiters

In general, previous recruiter research has focussed considerably less on

organisational recruitment than on selection (Turban and Dougherty 1992:

739; Goltz and Giannantonio 1995: 110). As a result, researchers have

typically focussed on the influence of interviewer’s (or recruiters as they are

commonly referred to) perceptions of applicants; thus leaving a void in

research knowledge relating to pre-interview influences on applicant

attraction to an organisation. With a couple of exceptions, research subjects

have been college or university students interviewing for positions through

campus placement offices (Rynes 1991: 405). Additionally, in terms of

methodology, most research data has been collected immediately following

a campus interview (Rynes 1991: 405; Goldberg 2003: 562). As such,

although research on recruiters has established a link between applicant’s

perceptions of recruiter traits and their perceptions of an organisation

(positive or negative) post-interview, inconsistent findings have forced

recruiter-oriented research to become more methodologically sound

(Breaugh and Starke 2000: 425). For example, early studies of recruiters

(such as Alderfer and McCord 1970) typically only gathered data from

college students immediately following a campus interview. More recently,

recruiter-oriented researchers have collected data both before and after

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interview (such as Turban, Forret and Hendrickson 1998). Due to the

rudimentary nature of early recruiter research a review of Harris and Fink’s

(1987) study will be undertaken due to select item measures utilised in this

study being adapted in the present investigation (specifics outlined in more

detail later). A critique of Turban et al.’s (1998) investigation will then follow

to provide a more contemporary review of recruiter-oriented research.

Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation adopted a pre-interview and post-

interview design to examine whether recruiter characteristics influenced

perceived job attributes and intentions to accept a job. Study subjects were

students participating in campus interviews at a university placement office.

Seventy-one percent of the sample was male (as was seventy-eight percent

of the recruiters) (Harris and Fink 1987: 770). Prior to interview, subjects

were asked to complete a questionnaire that measured both perceptions of

job attributes and recruiter characteristics. Twenty-five items were

presented to subjects to measure job attribute perceptions, while thirty-

three items were developed to measure recruiter characteristic perceptions.

The job attribute items were structured around four categories: job itself,

compensation/job security, work/company, and minor fringe benefits; with

recruiter characteristics being structured around four categories:

personableness, competence, informativeness, aggressiveness (Harris and

Fink 1987: 771). A single item was used to measure perceptions of the

likelihood of being presented with a job offer; while perceptions of obtaining

alternative employment was measured using three items. As subjects were

being interviewed for full-time, permanent jobs within their chosen career, it

was speculated that questionnaire responses would be more thoroughly

considered than if the sample had been drawn from a younger student

sample (Harris and Fink 1987: 771).

Immediately after completing their interview, students completed a post-

interview questionnaire. In addition to the items presented in the pre-

interview questionnaire, subjects also responded to questions aimed at

gauging prior interview experience to inform the extent to which this

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experience might moderate perceptions of recruiter characteristics (Harris

and Fink 1987: 771).

Research results revealed a significant relationship between recruiter

characteristics and applicant perceptions of available jobs for employment.

Additionally, perceptions of recruiters extended to influence applicant

perceptions of job attributes and intentions to accept a job with an

organisation. As such, of the four categories of recruiter characteristics

measured, ‘personableness’ and ‘informativeness’ were found to be most

influential in terms of perceived regard for the organisation and likelihood of

accepting a job offer. Further, ‘personableness’ was found to be a

significant predictor of a subjects’ expectation of receiving a formal job offer

from an organisation that they had interviewed with.

A potential disadvantage of Harris and Fink’s methodology is that subjects

may have been able to recall their pre-interview responses when

responding to the post-interview questionnaire. Thus, sensitisation could

have been a potential threat to the validity of the results (Harris and Fink

1987: 780). A further perceived limitation of Harris and Fink’s investigation

is the large percentage of males constituting both the student and recruiter

populations. As such, the small number of females represented in the

investigation precludes generalisability of results to this group.

Turban, Forret and Hendrickson’s (1998) investigation extended earlier

recruiter-oriented research by examining the influence of organisational

reputation perceptions, organisational attributes, and recruiter behaviours

on applicant attraction to organisations. Within this framework, Turban et al.

(1998: 27) explicitly investigated whether recruiter behaviours influenced

applicant attraction through perceptions of job and organisational attributes,

and by examining possible recruiter influences on applicant perceptions of

organisational reputation. Similar to Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation,

Turban et al. (1998) adopted a pre-interview and post-interview research

methodology.

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Study subjects were students participating in campus interviews at a

university placement centre. Interviews with recruiting organisations were

the initial contact between the student and the organisation. Prior to

interview, subjects were approached by research assistants and asked to

complete a survey that measured perceptions of job and organisational

attributes, perceptions of organisational reputation, and attraction to the

organisation.

Immediately after completing their interview, subjects completed a post-

interview survey. Similar to the process in the pre-interview stage, subjects

responded to the same job and organisational attribute items and

organisational attraction items. In addition to these measures, subjects

were presented with twenty-seven statements describing recruiter

behaviours to rate their perceptions of recruiter attributes displayed in the

interview.

Turban et al.’s (1998) research results confirmed the importance of

applicant perceptions of job and organisational attributes in influencing

applicant attraction to organisations; and provided some insight into how

recruiters influence attraction to organisations. The researchers revealed

that subjects’ perceptions of recruiter behaviours did not have a direct

influence on applicant attraction to the organisation, however, did have an

indirect effect through influencing subject perceptions of job and

organisational attributes (Turban et al. 1998: 38). As such, Turban et al.’s

research results suggested that applicants interpret recruiter behaviours as

signals for unknown job and organisational attributes.

A limitation of Turban et al.’s (1998) research should be acknowledged.

Similar to an identified weakness in Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation, a

potential disadvantage of Turban et al.’s research is that subjects may have

been able to recall their pre-interview responses when responding to the

post-interview questionnaire. Thus, sensitisation could have been a

potential threat to the validity of the results.

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Although Harris and Fink’s (1987) and Turban et al.’s (1998) investigations

offer empirical evidence to support the assertion that recruiters are capable

of influencing applicant perceptions of organisations (and subsequent levels

of attraction), Highhouse and Hoffman (2001: 43) put forward the notion

that recruiters are most likely to influence job seeker perceptions when

limited job or organisational information is available, or when individuals are

making employment decisions based on a limited pool of potential

employers. Further, the authors asserted that it may be the case that

recruiters are effective not so much in creating an impression (positive or

negative) of an organisation, but in maintaining an impression that already

exists. As such, Highhouse and Hoffman (2001: 43) stated that the

relationship between recruiters and organisational/job choice is rarely a

simple one despite organisations continuing to subscribe to the view that

recruiter behaviours are an important determinant of applicant attraction. An overview of literature pertaining to the influence of realistic job previews

(RJP’s) on the recruitment process will now be undertaken as the final

domain of researcher interest in examining job seeker attraction to

organisations.

Realistic Job Previews

RJP’s have attracted substantial research attention over the last thirty years

(Breaugh and Starke 2000: 426). Similar to recruitment source research,

RJP studies have been inconsistent in their findings and have fallen prey to

some pessimistic conclusions. Some confusion in RJP literature can be

attributed to the fact that almost half of the research studies administered

the RJP after an individual had been appointed to an organisation (Breaugh

and Starke 2000: 427). As such, providing a RJP after appointing an

individual to an organisation has the potential to lessen its influence. Within

this framework, RJP’s have been hypothesised to be effective because they

increase self selection, increase perceived employer trustworthiness, and

increase an individual’s commitment to the job choice decision (Hom,

Griffeth, Palich and Bracker 1999: 105; Breaugh and Starke 2000: 427).

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However, when a RJP is administered after an individual has already

accepted a job with an organisation the primary functions of the RJP are

undermined. Another possible reason for the inconsistent RJP research

results could be attributed to the nature of the job previews provided in

respective research investigations. As such, Breaugh and Starke (2000:

427) postulated that applicants desire specific information about a job and

the organisation that they are considering for possible employment; and it

may be possible that the RJP’s administered in many studies did not

appropriately communicate the RJP information, thus resulting in the

generation of varied research outcomes.

Highhouse, Stanton and Reeve (2004: 86) asserted that researchers have

shifted their attention from the effects of realistic information on employee

adjustment upon commencement of employment with an organisation to

shorter term criteria such as applicant attraction and expectations based on

concern over the degree to which realistic information negatively effects an

organisation’s attractiveness as an employer. Highhouse et al. (2004) cited

the research of Saks, Wiesner and Summers (1994) and Wiesner, Saks

and Summers (1991) in this regard. These studies determined that a

traditional (positive) recruitment message led to greater applicant attraction

than a RJP for the same vacancy (Highhouse et al. 2004: 86). However, a

study by Coleman and Irving (1997: 129) found the opposite effect: that

subjects presented with a RJP were more attracted to a job than

participants provided with a traditional recruitment message for the same

job.

In reviewing conflicting research on the influence of realistic information on

organisational attractiveness, Highhouse and Hoffman (2001: 45)

concluded that a problem endemic to RJP research is the issue of ‘radical’

differences in how RJP information is presented. As such, Highhouse and

Hoffman noted that the RJP’s used in research tended to differ significantly

in the amount and type of information presented to prospective applicants.

Thorsteinson, Palmer, Wulff and Anderson (2004: 127) concurred with

Highhouse and Hoffman’s point of view citing that the challenge for

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researchers in the contemporary business environment is to determine how

different job seeking populations (qualified versus less qualified) respond to

negative versus positive recruitment information; and the need to identify

‘credibility’ thresholds accordingly. As such, Thorsteinson et al. (2004: 127)

suggested that future research on prospective applicant reactions to

recruitment messages examine the ‘finer details’ such as how individuals

react to the same attribute when presented in a positive and negative

context.

Highhouse et al. (2004) extended earlier RJP-oriented research by

examining reactions to specific positive and negative information (of a

realistic nature) as presented in a recruitment message. In so doing, the

authors investigated whether individuals discount negative vocational

outcomes more than positive ones. Specifically, the researchers

hypothesised that reactions to negative information in recruitment

messages would be less extreme than reactions to positive information on

the same attribute.

Study subjects were university students. Subjects were presented with a

recruitment message via a specifically designed computer software

package that simulated a job fair on-line. Students were instructed to

imagine that they were seeking employment with two presented

hypothetical organisations. The recruitment message conveyed for each

organisation had been manipulated by the researchers and presented

subjects with four attributes (two positive and two negative). Participants

were further instructed to assume that salaries, benefits, and opportunities

for promotion were equivalent in each organisation. As subjects listened to

and watched the on-line preview of each organisation, participants

responded to a series of items that assessed overall attraction to the

organisation.

Highhouse et al.’s (2004) research results found that negative information

presented to subjects about prospective employing organisations is

discounted more than positive information. As such, the results showed that

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subjects were more likely to actively respond to a recruitment message of a

prospective employer when an attribute was presented in a positive manner

for one organisation than in response to a negative presentation of the

same attribute. These research results contributed to a further extension of

the RJP literature by suggesting that in conveying ‘realistic’ information to

job seekers, organisations need to be conscious of obtaining a balance in

the degree to which ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ information is communicated in

the recruitment messages of organisations – being conscious not to lose

credibility by discounting the communication of negative information entirely

(Highhouse et al. 2004: 94).

As is a weakness in most recruitment research, the utilisation of university

students as the source of research data calls into question the validity of

responses. On this basis, it is recommended that Highhouse et al.’s (2004)

investigation be replicated utilising a population of job professionals to

determine whether an organisation could more effectively manipulate

organisational and/or job attributes to its advantage when advertising

available jobs.

In summary, there is preliminary evidence from the RJP literature that the

projection of an organisation’s image can influence the level of applicant

attraction to a prospective employer.

In providing an overview of early recruitment research on recruitment

sources, recruiters, and RJP’s it can be concluded that although the

predominant focus for these studies is on the post-interview stage of the

recruitment process, researchers have acknowledged that job seekers have

preferences for seeking employment with some organisations over others

based on the perceived attributes of organisations. Within this framework,

Rynes and Cable (2001) stated that the ability of organisations to attract

qualified applicants ‘will be the number one force in business strategy by

the end of the decade and will keep recruitment at the forefront of corporate

strategy’ (p.73).

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Image, Attraction and Pursuit Intentions

Recruitment sources, recruiters, and realistic job previews aside, there

exists a body of recruitment research that asserts that an organisations

image can provide a sustainable source of competitive advantage by

attracting high-calibre applicants (Turban and Cable 2003: 733). Within this

framework, Fombrun and Shanley (1990) stated that ‘just as firms compete

for customers, so also do they vie for reputational status’ (p.234). Borrowing

from Turban and Cable’s (2003: 734) definition of organisational image as

its foundation, the present investigation conceptualises organisational

image as a perceptual representation of an organisations overall appeal as

defined by the job seeker. As such, recruitment scholars (Lievens,

Decaesteker, Coetsier and Geirnaert 2001; Turban and Cable 2003)

recognise that an organisations image is influenced by factors such as size,

media exposure, and type of industry. In the private business sector

advertised financial performance has also been cited as a contributor to the

formulation of applicant image perceptions of organisations (Fombrun and

Shanley 1990: 234). Indeed, Ferris, Arthur, Berkson, Kaplan, Harrell-Cook

and Frink (1998) argued that as organisations seek to establish an

advantage over competitors as competition for qualified labour intensifies,

organisations will become ‘pre-eminently involved with the business of

impression management in relation to factors capable of influencing their

wellbeing’ (p.248). Further, Ferris et al. (1998: 251) postulated that in this

contemporary business environment, organisations should capitalise on

information to actively promote their images to create ‘reputational capital’.

Underlying this conceptualisation of image is the suggestion that a job

seeker must develop a minimal level of attraction to an organisation. If this

minimum level of attraction is not achieved the individual will not become

motivated to process further information about the organisation (Cable and

Turban 2001: 145). Further, Cable and Turban (2001: 145) asserted that

the fundamental importance of attraction during recruitment is the concept

of a ‘consideration set’. In the marketing literature, a consideration set

refers to a group of possible brands available to a consumer that will be

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considered from which to make a purchase decision (Abougomaah,

Schlacter and Gaidis 1987: 67; Hauser and Wernerfelt 1990: 393). Similarly,

recruitment scholars have noted that a potential employer must enter a job

seekers consideration set before it is even considered as an employment

option (Power and Aldag 1985: 51). When an employer is excluded from a

job seekers consideration set it is proposed that there will exist no

motivation on behalf of the individual to process information about that

organisation regardless of how actively an organisation may promote its

corporate image (Power and Aldag 1985: 51; Abougomaah et al. 1987: 67).

However, this particular concept is not a focus of the present investigation.

Prospective applicants early impressions of an organisations image as an

employer has been found to be related to initial attraction to an organisation

and influence behaviours associated with intentions to pursue an

organisation for possible employment. However, as recruitment researchers

have only begun exploring job seeker pre-employment perceptions of

organisations, a problem that plagues image research in the recruitment

context has been the practice of labelling similar concepts by different

names, and labelling different concepts by the same names (Cable and

Turban 2001: 118). For example, the terms “image”, “culture”, “reputation”,

and “familiarity” have been used interchangeably by recruitment

researchers despite significant variance in what these terminologies signify

(Cable and Turban 2001: 118). Due to this lack of consistency in

terminology and concept application in the recruitment literature, it has been

difficult to clearly articulate how, why, and when recruitment influences

prospective applicants in the initial stages of the organisational choice

process (Cable and Turban 2001: 118).

Despite the variance in terminologies applied by recruitment scholars in

previous image studies, there appears to be a consistency of understanding

among these authors in terms of the underlying concepts and relationships

inherent in the term applied in any one particular study. As such, there

appears to be universal recognition that individuals do not enter into a

relationship with a prospective employer as a ‘clean slate’, but rather, that

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individuals have preferences for certain organisational and/or job attributes

and that an individuals’ perceptions as to the availability of these desirable

attributes within an organisation influence ‘purchase’ decisions (Cable and

Turban 2001: 118). Within this context, Cable and Turban (2001: 115)

stated that marketing scholars have long recognised the strategic

importance of brand image.

Brand Image and its Application to the Recruitment Domain

Brand image has been an important concept in the consumer behaviour

domain of the marketing literature since its formal introduction to academia

in the early 1950’s (Dobni and Zinkhan 1990: 110). In this context,

practitioners and academics alike have embraced the concept as the

embodiment of the reality that individuals do not purely purchase products

on the basis of their physical attributes or functions (Dobni and Zinkhan

1990: 110). Indeed, Jamal and Goode (2001) stated that ‘consumers do not

consume products for their material utilities but consume the symbolic

meaning of those products as portrayed in their branding images’ (p. 482).

Within this framework, Kotler (in Keller 1993) defined a brand as: a name,

term, sign, symbol, or design, or combination of them which is intended to

identify the goods and services of one seller or group of sellers, and to

differentiate them from those of competitors (p. 2). Inherent in this definition

is that these individual brand components (name, term, sign, symbol,

design, or combination) act as brand identifiers and, in their totality, create

perceptions of the brand to which individuals attach an affective meaning

(Kotler in Keller 1993: 2). The underlying value of a brand is often the set of

associations or impressions (its image) that is perceived in the ‘hearts and

minds’ of individuals (Duncan 2005: 70). Thus, at the foundation of the

concept of brand image is an understanding of the attributes and functional

consequences individuals associate with a specific entity (Padgett and Allan

1997: 50).

Applying the marketing principles of brand image to the recruitment context,

the present investigation conceptualises the influence of organisational

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image as a process whereby the buyer (the applicant) makes a cognitively

demanding purchase decision to enter into a long-term and dynamic

purchase decision with the seller (the organisation) based on the applicants

individual assessment of the organisations attributes (Maurer et al. 1992:

808). For the purposes of the present investigation, it is theorised that an

individual having a positive affective attitude towards an organisation will

view the organisation as a desirable entity and want to engage in some

relationship with it (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 219). Although there are

innumerable ways to categorise specific attributes that collectively

determine an individuals attitude towards an organisations image, a review

of past research suggests that three broad components of organisational

image are important to job seekers: organisational information, job specific

information, and people information (Cable and Turban 2001: 125).

Organisational information. According to Cable and Turban (2001: 126)

organisational information refers to descriptive details of an organisation,

ranging from factual or historical attributes to organisational policies,

procedures, and norms. Within this conceptual boundary, it is

acknowledged that individuals have their own distinct requirements and will

inherently seek to become affiliated with those organisations that best meet

those needs (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 221). Further, Aiman-Smith et al.

(2001) stated that ‘inherent in this relationship is the underlying assumption

that a job seeker will be attracted to an organisation when the individual has

a positive attraction to that organisation’s attributes before any action to

initiate a relationship with the organisation is undertaken’ (p. 221).

Job specific information. Cable and Turban (2001: 126) state that job

information relates to the extent to which an individual has knowledge about

the specific attributes of a job at an organisation that they might be

interested in pursuing a relationship with. Cable and Turban (2001: 126)

cite job title and job description (including type of work to be performed) as

specific examples of job information that may be sought by individuals

pursuing positions for possible employment. Given that job advertisements

are often the only source of information available to an individual when

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making a decision about whether or not to pursue a job with an organisation,

it is important that organisations attempt to understand how job seeker

reactions vary as a function of the features of job advertisements (Turban,

Campion and Eyring 1995: 196). Although this course of study will not be a

specific feature of the present investigation, the influence of information

about the job itself will be tested as a component of organisational image in

the current study in recognition of the importance this attribute plays in

informing an individual’s initial perceptions of an organisation as a possible

employer.

People information. Cable and Turban (2001: 126) state that people

information refers to the type of individuals that comprise an organisation,

and who would be potential co-workers to an individual seeking

employment with a particular organisation. Essentially, individuals that

currently reside in an organisation send ‘signals’ to potential applicants

about the organisation’s work environment and culture. The job seeker in

turn processes this information to determine the level of perceived fit with

the organisation (Cable and Turban 2001: 126). Within this framework,

Judge and Cable (1997: 359) state that applicants are most attracted to

organisations that are perceived to be compatible with their personal

characteristics and beliefs. For example, an individual who values work and

family responsibilities as a priority (and perceives that an organisation’s

people do) is more likely to be attracted to an organisation that is perceived

to offer flexible career paths and offers family friendly policies as compared

to an organisation that does not offer (or is not seen to offer) these

opportunities (Honeycutt and Rosen 1997: 274).

Employer Branding

Sutherland, Torricelli and Karg (2002) stated ‘that to remain competitive in

the contemporary business environment companies need to ensure that

they position themselves as an employer of choice’ (p. 13). Sutherland et

al.’s statement was made within the context of a study conducted by The

Conference Board (2001) in the United States that advocated that the

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‘hiring process has become nearly indistinguishable from the marketing

process’ (Cappelli in Sutherland et al. 2002: 13). Linking this phenomena to

the concept of ‘consideration sets’ advocated by Abougomaah et al. (1987)

and Hauser and Wernerfelt (1990) earlier in this Chapter, it is of vital

importance for organisations to position their respective brands into a job

seeker’s evoked consideration set to increase the probability of pursuit

intent. Within this context, Sullivan (in Sutherland et al. 2002) referred to an

employer of choice as ‘a company that because of its status and reputation

is always the first choice (or at least on the short list) of world class

candidates. Employers of choice are those organisations that outperform

their competition to attract people with business-required talent’ (p.14). On

this basis, with an increased insight and understanding of the strategic

potential of brand image as a sustainable source of competitive advantage,

managers within organisations will be better positioned to capitalise on the

intrinsic preferences of preferred job seeker groups by developing

specifically targeted ‘branding’ campaigns tailored to appeal to the identified

audience.

As advocated by Duncan (2005: 70), at the foundation of employer

branding is an understanding of the attributes and functional consequences

individuals associate with a specific entity. Further, Heilman, Bowman and

Wright (2000: 139) postulated that ‘brand’ image is based on the notion that

choices made by consumers (job seekers in the recruitment context) are

driven by two competing forces: the desire to collect information about

alternatives; and an aversion to trying (or engaging) in risky ones. In the

marketing context these forces give rise to three stages of purchasing: first,

an information collection stage that focuses initially on low-risk, big-brand

names; second, a stage in which information collection continues but is

extended to lesser known brands; and third, a stage of information

consolidation leading to brand preferences that provide the greatest utility

for the individual (Heilman et al. 2000: 140).

Weigelt and Camerer (1988: 443) advocated that an organisation’s image

building capability is strategically important in incomplete information

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settings. Within this framework, Turban and Cable (2003: 735) postulated

that as it is difficult for job seekers to acquire substantial and complete

information about an organisation prior to engaging in employment with it, it

is logical to assume that job seekers may use an organisation’s image as a

point of reference to signal information about attributes such as working

conditions. Thus, an organisation perceived to engage in more socially or

environmentally responsible activities has the potential to be perceived

more favourably by a job seeking population (who value those attributes);

as opposed to an organisation engaging in socially or environmentally

irresponsible activities in the absence of additional contextual information

(Turban and Cable 2003: 734). In this environment there is reason to

assume that organisations with positively established brand images will

attract higher-quality pools than those organisations with poorly established

brand images (Weigelt and Camerer 1988: 448). On this basis, the image of

an organisation can play a strategically advantageous role in realising the

leveraging potential of its brand in the absence of holistic information.

Thus, an organisation’s ‘brand image’ can be considered a multi-

dimensional construct in which an individual job seeker will select

themselves into an environment that they perceive will fulfil their personal

values and needs (Cable and Turban 2001: 144). Within this framework, it

is acknowledged that individual job seekers will be interested in pursing

different types of organisations for possible employment based on personal

assessments of an organisation’s perceived attributes; and if a minimum

level of attraction does not develop there will be no motivation exerted on

behalf of the individual to process subsequent information about the

organisation (Cable and Turban 2001: 145). For example, some job

seekers will not consider employment in organisations affiliated with the

military or tobacco industries because such organisations do not represent

the core values of certain individuals; and are thus perceived as possessing

a negative image (Cable and Turban 2001: 145).

Further, from a marketing context, Collins and Stevens (2002: 1124) stated

that the impact of a product’s brand is greatest in a crowded marketplace

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where circumstances make it difficult for consumers to cognitively compare

available products based on key attributes. In this environment, consumers

use their perceptions of brand image to evaluate available brands against

their personal needs and select those that provide the most appropriate

match. Recruitment literature suggests that many parallels exist between

the marketing conceptualisation of brand image and the situation faced by

job seekers in the pre-interview stages of the recruitment process (Collins

and Stevens 2002: 1124). When considering that many industries are

currently experiencing significant shifts in the demographic composition of

labour markets and rapid changes in technology, organisations are likely to

increasingly engage in direct competition for the ‘affections’ of applicants

(Franz and Martin 1994: Boswell et al. 2003: 23). In this context, the

employer branding strategies of organisations becomes a critical

consideration in the contemporary business environment whereby

organisations themselves will represent a potential crowding of markets in

which they will actively compete to attract qualified individuals from limited

‘talent pools’. Within this framework, Sutherland et al. (2002) advocated that

‘employer branding is therefore a new approach in order to gain an edge in

the war for talent’ (p.14).

In applying the fundamentals of brand image to the present investigation,

the principles offer a complimentary platform to the application of Fishbein

and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA. Specifically, brand image can facilitate an

understanding of how measures such as organisational familiarity

influences the cognitive process of job seekers prior to engaging in active

pursuit behaviour.

Theory of Reasoned Action

According to the TRA the best predictor of behaviour is intention to perform

that behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975: 16). Intention is determined by

two components: attitude and subjective norm. Attitude towards the

behaviour is the extent to which an individual has a favourable or

unfavourable evaluation of the behaviour in question (Fishbein and Ajzen

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1975: 16). Specifically, attitude towards the behaviour is predicted by

beliefs about the outcome of the behaviour based on an estimation of the

likelihood that performing that behaviour will result in a preferred outcome

(Thompson and Vourvachis 1995: 36). Subjective norm is the degree to

which other people influence an individual’s intention to undertake the

behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975: 16). Similar to attitude formulation, an

individual will comply with the advice of others based upon an assessment

of the ‘weight’ of the referents opinion relative to the behaviour under

consideration (Thompson and Vourvachis 1995: 36). The theory is

specifically concerned with situations where individuals consider the

implications of their actions before deciding on whether or not to act. Thus,

inherent in Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA is the assumption that

individuals predominantly take account of available information and

implicitly and explicitly organise the information in some meaningful manner

to inform their actions. The TRA is represented diagrammatically below in

Figure 1:

Figure 1 – Theory of Reasoned Action

Source: Fishbein, M. and Ajzen, I. (1975) Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An

Introduction to Theory and Research, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,

pp.16

The theory itself has a sound empirical track record and in the opinion of

Hedeker, Flay and Petraitis (1996) ‘not only is TRA elegant, its central

predictions have been widely supported having been applied in studies

ranging from re-enlisting in the National Guard to making a sandwich’ (p.

109 – 110). Applied in the recruitment domain, the present investigator is

halla

This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

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only aware of three studies (Powell and Goulet 1996; Highhouse et al.

2003; Schreurs, Derous, De Witte, Proost, Andriessen and Glabeke 2005)

that have utilised the TRA as a theoretical framework. Highhouse et al.’s

(2003) investigation will not be outlined here as it is reviewed in greater

depth later in this Chapter within the context of the ‘image and attraction’

literature that follows this section of the paper. Although a review of Powell

and Goulet’s (1996) study will be undertaken, it should be noted that the

focus of the author’s research was on the post-interview stage of the

recruitment process as opposed to the pre-interview stage which is the

prime focus of the present investigation. Regardless, the present

investigator is of the view that a review of Powell and Goulet’s (1996) study

is warranted to illustrate the versatility of the theory in the recruitment

context, albeit at the post-interview stage. Schreurs et al.’s (2005)

investigation focused on the pre-interview stages of the recruitment process

thus being directly relevant to the scope of the present study.

Applying the TRA to the recruitment context, Powell and Goulet (1996:

1621) investigated the relationship between individual’s intentions to

engage in the behaviour of pursuing an employment relationship with an

organisation, and subjects actually engaging in the behaviour post-interview.

Further, the authors investigated recruiter intentions to actively pursue an

interviewed individual. Data was gathered from college students

interviewing for positions at a campus placement facility, and recruiters

conducting the interviews. Students were asked to rate the job for which

they were interviewed on 12 attributes, in addition to responding to three

intention items to measure the likelihood of accepting a job offer and

perceived recruiter intentions of offering a follow-up interview. Recruiters

were asked to rate applicants on eight attributes, in addition to two items to

capture intentions to offer an applicant a follow-up interview and one item to

measure the recruiter’s perception of an applicant’s intention to accept a job

offer.

Research results offered general support for the applicability of the TRA to

the recruitment process (Powell and Goulet 1996: 1633). As such,

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applicants’ post-interview intentions to accept a job offer were related to

decisions to accept follow-up interviews and whether to accept actual job

offers. Regardless of how many other job offers an individual had turned

down in the past, was considering at the same time, or expected to receive

in the future, the stronger the post-interview intention to accept a job offer

the more likely a subject was likely to accept a job that was actually offered.

Further, recruiters’ post-interview intentions to invite a student for a follow-

up interview were related to an organisation’s decisions about whether to

extend such invitations (Powell and Goulet 1996: 1633). In conclusion,

post-interview intentions were related to organisation’s decisions about

whether to invite applicants for follow-up interviews and to applicant’s

decisions about whether to accept such invitations and job offers. Thus,

Powell and Goulet’s (1996) study offers empirical support for the

applicability of the TRA in the recruitment context.

Schreurs et al. (2005) investigated potential applicant attraction to the

military. The military context was selected by the researchers due to some

European countries experiencing difficulties in attracting and enlisting new

recruits. Consistent with the TRA, Schreurs et al. (2005: 109) hypothesised

that the relationship between career counsellor characteristics and potential

applicant intentions toward the organisation was mediated by potential

applicant attitudes towards the organisation; and that career counsellor

characteristics had a positive effect on potential applicant decisions to apply

to the military.

Data was collected from 408 individuals who had visited a career office of

the Armed Forces, and who had engaged in a conversation with a

counsellor regarding job opportunities with the military. These identified

individuals were sent a survey and asked to rate: (1) career counsellor

characteristics according to three prescribed attributes (warmth,

informativeness, and competence); (2) attitude towards the organisation; (3)

intentions towards the organisation; and (4) application behaviour.

Application behaviour was verified via a central database that identified

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whether an individual had applied for a position with the Armed Forces

(Schreurs et al. 2005: 111).

Research results found a positive relationship between the counsellor

characteristics of ‘warmth’ and an individual’s attitude towards the

organisation; between ‘warmth’ and intentions towards the organisation;

and between ‘competence’ and application behaviour. Consistent with

Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA, Schreurs et al. (2005: 115 – 116) found

that the relationship between the set of career counsellor characteristics

and potential applicant’s intentions towards the organisation was fully

mediated by attitude toward the organisation, and that intentions fully

mediated the relationship between career counsellor characteristics and

application behaviour.

In the context of this study, Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA provides a

strong theoretical framework to underpin the relationships of interest (as

outlined diagrammatically in Figure 2). In applying the TRA to the

relationships illustrated in Figure 2 the present investigator proposes the

following: a job seeker assesses the higher education institution’s brand

‘identifiers’ (name, term, corporate logo or combination) to inform their

overall perceptions of the organisation’s image as a prospective employer.

When a job seeker develops a positive perception of the institution’s ‘brand’

image, attitude as prescribed by Fishbein and Ajzen is articulated as

attraction in the present investigation. As such, it is theorised that an

individual having a positive affective attitude towards the institution will view

the organisation as a desirable entity and want to actively engage in an

employment relationship with it. On the basis of this positive attitude

towards the higher education institution, it is proposed that a job seeker will

display an intention (as prescribed by Fishbein and Ajzen) to become an

employee of the organisation by actively pursuing an advertised job

vacancy – thus consolidating an individual’s conscious decision to pursue

the institution as a potential employer. This active pursuit behaviour on

behalf of the job seeker is articulated as application in the present

investigation. In articulating the behaviour quadrant of Fishbein and Ajzen’s

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(1975) model to the current study it should be noted that as all participants

had applied to the higher education institution (all had submitted an actual

application for an advertised job vacancy) this particular quadrant could not

be measured as the behaviour had already been undertaken.

At this point it should be noted that with reference to the influence of

subjective norms as outlined in Fishbein and Ajzen’s model, the present

investigator acknowledges that some individuals may experience a degree

of social pressure relative to the social circles to which they belong in

seeking employment with some organisations over others. However, given

the acutely personal nature of the decision being made (submit a job

application to the institution versus not submitting a job application) in this

study, the present investigator perceives that an individual job seeker’s

personal attitude toward the behaviour would be a more dominant influence

in the context of this study. On this basis, the influence of subjective norms

on job seeker attraction to organisations will not constitute a primary focus

of the investigation. Thus, in summary, of the utilisation of Fishbein and

Ajzen’s (1975) TRA in the current study, the attitude and intention

quadrants (in unison with the principles of brand image) will be actively

applied to inform the exploration of variables of interest to the study as

outlined in Figure 2.

Figure 2 – Conceptual Framework

Using the diagrammatic conceptualisation in Figure 2 as a framework, an

exploration and discussion pertaining to previous recruitment research

Organisational Image Attraction Application

• Job Itself • Work/Organisational

Environment • Compensation/Job

Security

• Interest in organisation • Interest in the job

• Intention to pursue a job with the organisation

• Intention to pursue the job applied for

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conducted in relation to the identified relationships will now occur to

establish support for the proposed linkages.

Image and Attraction

Research (Belt and Paolillo 1982; Turban and Greening 1996; Cable and

Graham 2000; Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar 2003; Lievens and Highhouse

2003; Cable and Turban 2003) has found that an applicant formulating a

positive perception of an organisation’s image will be attracted to that

organisation as a potential employer. Each of the aforementioned research

investigations will now be reviewed in turn in chronological year order to

illustrate how the image-attraction research has developed over time.

Belt and Paolillo (1982) studied reactions of college students to

advertisements for restaurant management positions in the fast food

industry to examine the impact of corporate image perceptions and

qualification specificity on intentions to pursue a job for possible

employment. The researchers utilised the ‘fast food’ industry as the point of

reference for the investigation as it was perceived that, overall, the subjects

would have sufficient knowledge and familiarity of the industry to participate

in the study. Belt and Paolillo (1982) developed their rationale as to the

appropriateness of the industry on the basis of two primary considerations,

that ‘college-age and college-educated individuals are very often the object

of recruitment activities of such organisations; and students often frequent

‘fast food’ establishments’ (p. 107). To measure corporate image

perceptions, subjects were asked to individually rank twenty-five

organisations engaged in the fast food industry in the local area. Based on

the rankings, an index of corporate image was computed for each fast food

organisation.

Recruitment advertisements were then developed by the researchers to

specifically examine the relationship between corporate image perceptions

and qualification specificity on intentions to pursue employment with an

organisation. Applying the names (and associated logos) of the highest

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ranked fast food organisation and the lowest ranked fast food organisation

(as determined from the initial ranking exercise) a series of four

advertisements (two for each organisation) was developed. These

advertisements were manipulated by the researchers in terms of the degree

of qualification specificity communicated (either specific or non specific) for

each of the two organisations. Thus, the four test advertisements illustrated

either: high image organisation/specific qualifications, high image

organisation/non specific qualifications; low image organisation/specific

qualifications, or low image organisation/non specific qualifications (Belt

and Paolillo 1982: 109).

A second independent student sample was then developed. Subjects were

randomly divided into four groups of fifty students; and were presented with

one of the four manipulated advertisements and five neutral advertisements.

The five neutral advertisements had not been manipulated by the

researchers, being sourced from the initial pool of twenty-five fast food

organisations (excluding the highest and lowest ranked organisations).

Subjects were instructed to assume that they were seeking a management

position in the fast food industry; and to indicate on a Likert scale whether

they would seek employment with the six organisations based on the

presented information.

Four months later a retest was conducted. The retest utilised an additional

sample of students. As a result of the re-test outcomes, the ratings of the

five neutral advertisements were dropped and only the four manipulated

advertisements were considered for analysis.

Belt and Paolillo (1982: 111) found that qualification specificity did not

significantly influence the likelihood of responding to an advertisement.

However, slightly more than thirty percent variation in whether subjects

stated they would apply for a job could be attributed to perceptions of

corporate image: the more favourable the image, the more likely that

subjects would apply for jobs (Belt and Paolillo 1982: 111). These research

findings lent support to the popular perception that if applicants were given

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a choice to pursue a job with a positive image organisation or a poor image

organisation, the positive image organisation would be the more attractive

employer, and therefore possess a competitive advantage (Belt and Paolillo

1982: 111).

Belt and Paolillo’s (1982) study has the potential to form a significant basis

for future replication, particularly if investigating the perceptions of job

professionals rather than exploring the preferences of college or university

student populations. A disadvantage of the study is that results could not be

assumed to generalise to applicant populations outside the fast food sector,

nor outside the type of job applied for in the investigation. In this vein, it

would be interesting to replicate Belt and Paolillo’s study across multiple

industries.

Turban and Greening (1996) hypothesised that an organisation’s corporate

social performance (CSP) is related to perceptions of its image and its

subsequent attractiveness as an employer. Turban and Greening (1996)

defined CSP as a ‘construct that emphasises an organisation’s

responsibility to multiple stakeholders (employees and the community at

large) in addition to its traditional responsibilities to economic shareholders’

(p. 658). Within this framework, Turban and Greening (1996: 658)

postulated that identifying certain socially responsible characteristics may

translate to competitive advantage opportunities for organisations. As such,

organisations adopting more socially responsible actions may lead

individuals to develop positive perceptions of that organisation’s image

which yields a competitive advantage by attracting a higher quantity and

quality of individuals applying for available jobs with the organisation

(Turban and Greening 1996: 659).

In Turban and Greening’s (1996: 662) study, CSP data for 189

organisations was obtained from an independent corporate database.

These 189 organisations were then individually rated by college students on

the basis of these subjects’ perceptions of the organisation’s reputation.

Using a different group of students (from the same course of study from

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which the previous subjects were drawn), the subjects followed a similar

procedure as applied previously to rate their perceptions of each of the 189

organisation’s attractiveness as an employer. As Turban and Greening

(1996: 663) concluded that the larger, more profitable, organisations

generally received more publicity and therefore had greater name

recognition, the researchers controlled for organisational size and

profitability.

Turban and Greening’s (1996: 666) research results indicated that

organisations higher in perceived CSP have more positive images and were

perceived to be more attractive as employers than organisations lower in

CSP. As such, results suggested that job seekers possess an awareness of

particular organisation’s CSP and that those organisations perceived by the

individual to have a positive ‘rating’ are more likely to attract that individual.

More broadly, the research extended previous study results by indicating

that an organisation with a positive CSP has the potential to achieve

competitive advantage over other organisations that are not viewed so

positively (Turban and Greening 1996: 666). In terms of gauging the extent

to which an individual’s unfamiliarity with an organisation may influence

perceptions of that organisation’s image and attractiveness as an employer,

Turban and Greening (1996: 666) determined that industry did not predict

unfamiliarity. The degree of unfamiliarity appeared to be correlated with

those organisations that advertised less frequently in newspapers (as

compared with those organisations that advertised frequently), and tended

to have weaker overall linkages with the community.

In considering Turban and Greening’s (1996) research outcomes in the

context of the importance of ‘consideration sets’ as espoused by Cable and

Turban (2001: 145) earlier in this Chapter, the research results provide

evidence that it is of pertinent importance (from an organisation’s

perspective) that a potential employer enter into a job seeker’s

consideration set before it is even considered as a potential employment

option. In the event that an organisation does not achieve this ‘status’, an

organisation may be rendered uncompetitive in the search for qualified

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talent. As such, although Turban and Greening’s (1996) research suggests

that organisations should publicise their CSP in an attempt to attract

applicants for their advertised positions, additional research is required to

investigate the importance of CSP for individuals actively engaged in the

job search process. It should also be noted that the researchers removed

from analysis those organisations that they perceived were unfamiliar to

most subjects, therefore, students rated organisations that were for the

most part familiar to them. As a result, it was not possible to determine how

subjects might have reacted to a sample of largely unfamiliar organisations.

Cable and Graham (2000) applied three different research methodologies:

verbal protocol analysis (VPA), policy capturing, and a field study to

investigate the antecedents of job seeker image perceptions when

assessing organisations for possible employment. Each of the

methodologies offered unique, complementary information about the

antecedents of job seeker image perceptions and, as such, Cable and

Graham (2000) described each methodology as an independent study.

Each of the three independent studies (VPA, policy capturing, and field

study) will now be reviewed in turn.

In an attempt to better understand the holistic role of organisational image

in influencing initial pursuit intentions of job seekers, Cable and Graham’s

(2000) first investigation applied a VPA methodology to study

undergraduate university student reactions to three employing

organisations (one each representing the industries of manufacturing, retail,

and business consultancy) to examine image perceptions. Subjects read an

instruction sheet that directed them to verbalise their thoughts when

evaluating the image of three employing organisations. Verbalised subject

thoughts were tape recorded. To control for job characteristics, subjects

were presented with a job description for a management trainee position

and advised by the researchers that the description was consistent across

the three organisations. Additionally, subjects were handed a recruitment

brochure from the three organisations to assist in considering each

organisation’s image. Each respective brochure was the standard

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recruitment pamphlet produced by each organisation and was not modified

for the purpose of the investigation.

Before identifying and categorising the subjects’ thoughts, the researchers

examined data generated from two pre-test subjects to develop a consistent

procedure. Cable and Graham (2000: 932) independently identified and

isolated statements verbalised by the two subjects. To maximise accuracy,

the unique thoughts were coded into one of twelve categories that the

researchers had formulated based on factors that previous recruitment

research had found to be important to job seekers. These categories were:

industry, opportunities for personal development, organisational culture,

organisational familiarity, historical information, endorsement of

organisation by trustworthy people, size, legitimacy, globalisation,

profitability, diversity, and corporate headquarters. The percentage of time

spent by subjects on each category was also recorded to determine the

relative importance of factors to subjects. As an outcome of the evaluative

process, the majority of subject statements revealed four core antecedents

of organisational image perceptions: industry, opportunity for personal

development, organisational culture, and organisational familiarity. Thus,

the VPA data revealed factors that had not been examined in previous

image research.

To improve confidence in the VPA results, a policy capturing methodology

was employed by the researchers. Cable and Graham (2000: 936) applied

the policy capturing technique on the proviso that the methodology obviates

problems associated with self-insight and social desirability. Undergraduate

university students (from a different university to the first investigation)

constituted the test group. Subjects read a series of scenarios that

described an organisation according to five attributes: industry,

opportunities for personal development, organisational culture, profitability,

and pay level (Cable and Graham 2000: 936). All scenarios contained

information on each of the five attributes, and had been manipulated by the

researchers to illustrate either a positive image or a poor image. After

reading each scenario, subjects completed a survey to evaluate

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perceptions of the organisation’s image. In general, the policy capturing

results supported the VPA results: job seeker image perceptions were

influenced by opportunities for personal development, industry, and

organisational culture. Profitability was also found to have large effects on

job seeker image perceptions.

To redress potential limitations of the VPA and policy capturing research

designs, Cable and Graham (2000: 940) conducted a field investigation. A

total of 112 undergraduate university students completed a survey. None of

the subjects were part of the samples applied in the earlier two

investigations. Subjects reported their familiarity with, and beliefs about, six

organisations in response to six items. Three weeks later, the same

subjects completed a second survey to assess subject perceptions of each

of the same six organisation’s image. The three week interval between

surveys served to mitigate potential survey biases such as mood effects

and self-consistency biases, for example (Cable and Graham 2000: 941).

Consistent with the policy capturing study, pay level was related to job

seeker perceptions of an organisation’s image. Consistent with the VPA

study, an individual’s familiarity with an organisation was significantly

related to perceptions of that organisation’s image. Results also confirmed

the policy capturing results that job seeker image perceptions are related to

the industry in which the organisation operates.

Overall, Cable and Graham’s results lend support for the assertion that an

organisation’s ‘brand image’ is a multi-dimensional construct in which an

individual job seeker will select themselves into an organisational

environment that is perceived to fulfil their personal values and needs.

Specifically, Cable and Graham’s outcomes suggest that individuals do

indeed have a predisposition to formulate and apply collective image

perceptions to organisations operating within specific industries. As such, in

the VPA methodology, Cable and Graham determined that subjects spent

20% of the time discussing industry alone. Although the data provided by

the authors did not outline specific details of subject perceptions of the

prescribed three industries, the results have implications for organisations

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nonetheless. For example, in the case that an entire industry is readily

considered by job seekers to possess a poor image (and the industry wants

to redress that image), it can be asserted that the organisations operating in

that industry would have to collectively invest in an industry-wide public

relations initiative in an attempt to modify job seeker perceptions (Cable and

Graham 2000: 943). Such a scenario has important implications for the

value of brand image particularly when considering Sorrell’s assertion (in

Hart and Murphy 1998) that ‘in future, the real competition in international

markets will be between companies – between company reputations’ (p.

63).

As is a weakness in most recruitment research, the utilisation of university

students as the source of research data calls into question the validity of

responses. As such, a replication of this study utilising subjects with

professional work experience is advisable. Additionally, due to the small

number of organisations used to represent different industries, research

results should be applied with caution and not assumed to be relevant

across all industrial environments.

Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar (2003) studied university student reactions to

examine the dimensionality of organisational attraction. Due to the

researcher’s perceived lack of consistency in the use of dependent

measures in previous recruitment research, the authors examined three

components: attraction, intentions, and prestige to explore the

dimensionality of organisation attraction in the job pursuit process. In

examining the three components, Highhouse et al. applied Fishbein and

Ajzen’s (1975) TRA. In applying this theory to the recruitment context, the

researchers postulated that favourable organisations (as perceived by

subjects) would result in positive pursuit behaviour.

To measure the dimensionality of organisational attraction, university

students were randomly assigned to one of five organisations. A description

of the allocated organisation was provided to subjects based on information

that the researchers had sourced from recruitment materials obtained from

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the university’s career resource centre. Although the organisational

descriptions varied in content, all clearly assumed a recruitment focus and

presented approximately the same amount of information. After reviewing

the relevant organisational description, subjects responded to a series of

questions about the organisation in terms of perceived attractiveness,

intention to pursue a job with the organisation, and perceived prestige of the

organisation (Highhouse et al. 2003: 991). A final section of the

questionnaire invited subjects to provide their name, contact details, and if

they wished to be contacted by the organisation about corporate internships,

co-op programs, and full-time job opportunities (Highhouse et al. 2003: 992).

This section of the questionnaire served as a behavioural indicator of

subjects’ job pursuit intentions in line with the TRA.

The primary implication of Highhouse et al.’s (2003: 992) research results

suggest that the generic ‘organisational attraction’ concept historically

applied in recruitment research may need to be supplanted with a more

multivariate conception of the construct. As such, the researchers

discovered that prestige and attractiveness were individually significant

predictors of organisational pursuit intentions. Additionally, results

suggested that the three components (attraction, intentions, and prestige)

were consistent with the propositions of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA.

As such, within the context of the theory of reasoned action, Highhouse et

al.’s results illustrated that favourable subject perceptions of an organisation

influenced intentions to pursue the organisation for possible employment,

and appeared to mediate the effects of organisational attractiveness and

prestige on organisational choice. Within this framework, prestige

perceptions appeared to possess significant potential as a construct for

future research in terms of its potential strength in influencing pursuit

behaviours.

Overall, Highhouse et al.’s results lend support for the assertion that human

behaviour is the culmination of a rational sequence of cognitions. The

author’s results suggest that a closer match between one’s self-concept

and a proposed behaviour exists within the context of organisational pursuit

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intent. Specifically, through Highhouse et al.’s finding that perceived

organisational prestige appears to motivate job seekers to actively pursue

an organisation for possible employment provides organisations with a

potential platform from which to launch ‘branding’ campaigns. As such, in

applying the TRA within the recruitment domain, Highhouse et al.’s results

suggest that individuals seek to align themselves with organisation’s that

are identified as being congruent with their preferred self-concept. Thus,

there is evidence to suggest that an organisation’s image is potentially more

than a ‘cosmetic’ construct to define an organisation from its competitors

(Fitzmaurice 2005: 925).

Highhouse et al.’s (2003) investigation has a methodological weakness.

Due to the researcher’s presenting subjects with organisational descriptions

that, although similar, did not provide the same scope in terms of

information content, it is possible that some organisations may have

communicated additional organisational attributes relative to other

organisations that led to a strengthened perception of certain organisations

by individuals; thus influencing associated pursuit behaviour and perceived

prestige. Although it is recognised that the purpose of the study was not to

investigate the relative attractiveness of the five organisations, it is still

considered a valid concern due to the ‘playing field’ not being consistent.

Lievens and Highhouse (2003: 77) drew from the marketing literature to

posit that applicant’s initial attraction to an organisation is based on the

symbolic meaning (in terms of inferred traits) that individuals associate with

organisations; and that individuals will apply trait inferences as points of

differentiation among various employing organisations. As such, the authors

postulated that applicant’s ascribe specific traits (for example prestige or

innovativeness) to organisations, and that individuals are attracted to those

organisations perceived to possess the core traits of interest to the

applicant. Further, Lievens and Highhouse hypothesised that the perceived

trait inferences of organisations formulated by applicants would exert a

greater influence on job seeker attraction to an organisation than job and

organisational attributes alone.

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In recognition of the fact that a large percentage of previous image

researchers had prescribed the specific job and/or organisational attributes

that subjects considered when assessing an organisation’s image, Lievens

and Highhouse adopted an inductive strategy for determining the job and/or

organisational attributes to be assessed in the study’s two subjects groups:

final year university students with a primary major of interest to the banking

sector and employees currently employed in the banking industry. To

structure the identification process the university subjects were presented

with pairs of actual banks in a pre-test environment. Students were then

instructed to indicate which of the two presented banks they would prefer to

work for and to list three reasons that motivated their choice of bank. The

same procedure was adopted utilising subjects in the bank employee group.

From these responses, two graduate students independently categorised

the rationales to parsimoniously explain the responses of both groups.

Agreement was reached in 84.6% of cases, and served as the basis for

writing survey items to measure the job and organisational attributes.

To allow for the investigation of trait inferences relevant to the banking

sector, Lievens and Highhouse adopted Aaker’s (1997) 42 item scale to

determine trait adjectives relevant to the evaluation of organisations

conducing business in this sector. As an outcome of this exercise, five core

traits were identified: sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and

ruggedness; and served as the basis for the development of survey items.

275 final year university students and 124 banking industry employees

completed a questionnaire. With regard to the student sample, research

assistants distributed questionnaires to subjects during a job fair. Each

subject was then randomly assigned to one of five banks and completed the

questionnaire in the context of perceptions of that bank. In the employee

sample, research assistants distributed questionnaires to employees who

worked in the corporate headquarters of one of the five banks represented

in the study sample (Lievens and Highhouse 2003: 84). Employees who

agreed to participate in the study were randomly assigned to one of four

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banks, and completed the questionnaire based on their perceptions of this

bank. Only four banks were utilised as subjects were not asked to complete

a questionnaire related to their own place of current employment (Lievens

and Highhouse 2003: 84).

Lievens and Highhouse’s (2003: 95) research results determined that trait

inferences were a stronger predictor of an organisation’s attractiveness as

an employer than was job or organisational attributes. However, the authors

discovered that not all trait inferences played a critical role in influencing

perceptions of an organisation’s attractiveness. As such, in both subject

groups the two trait inferences ‘excitement’ and ‘competence’ were found to

be of most importance in assessing an organisation’s attractiveness.

Overall, Lievens and Highhouse’s results lend further support for the

assertion that an organisation’s image is a multi-dimensional construct.

Within this framework, the authors results contribute to an emerging field of

factors related to a job seeker’s early impressions of organisational image

not traditionally applied in the recruitment research (Lievens and Highhouse

2003: 95). Specifically, the results illustrate a broader and potentially more

integrative framework of the various factors related to the formulations of

organisational image assessments of job seeking populations. On this basis,

it is suggested that Lievens and Highhouse’s (2003) research has the

potential to form a significant basis for future replication, particularly in

broadening conceptualisations of organisational image to further investigate

the symbolic meanings (trait inferences) associated with perceptions of an

organisation; and how these characteristics may be manipulated to provide

competitive advantages for organisations in the recruitment context.

Some limitations should also be acknowledged. Concern is raised that the

items applied to the employee subject group were adapted based on the

perceptions of a demographically different test group. As such, all items

relevant to the employee group may not have been considered for

investigation. Additionally, as the study focussed on the banking industry,

research results could not be automatically generalised outside this industry.

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The study would, therefore, need to be replicated in other industrial

environments to increase generalisability of results.

Cable and Turban (2003: 2244) applied the brand-equity perspective from

the marketing literature to extend the recruitment literature. Within the

brand-equity framework, Cable and Turban (2003: 2246) proposed that a

job seeker’s perception of an organisation’s corporate reputation is a

function of the organisation’s general reputation, recruitment

advertisements, and the job seeker’s familiarity with the organisation. Thus,

the researchers posited that an individual’s reputation perceptions influence

recruitment outcomes on the basis that these perceptions affect the job

seeker’s perceptions of job attributes and the pride that they expect from

organisational membership (Cable and Turban 2003: 2246). Building on the

brand-equity perspective, it is of interest to note that Cable and Turban

(2003: 2246) introduced two new measures of recruitment effectiveness

that had not been tested in previous investigations: minimum salary

required to accept a job; and memory of recruitment material to determine

the influence of an organisation’s perceived ‘brand’ on recruitment

outcomes. As such, researchers suggested that a job seeker may be willing

to pay a premium in the form of a lower salary to work for an organisation

perceived to have a positive reputation; and that these reputation

perceptions may influence the degree to which a job seeker recalls

information presented in the organisation’s recruitment materials.

The researchers gathered data from 368 university students. At random,

subjects viewed one of a possible eight job advertisements representing

four different industries. Two organisations from each of the four industries

were represented: one with a positive reputation and one with a poor

reputation. In terms of familiarity, the selected organisations were perceived

by Cable and Turban to be those that the subjects would have at least

some familiarity with. The relevant job advertisements contained the logo of

the relevant organisation and the content had been manipulated by the

researchers with regards to three features: corporate reputation, reputation

advertising, and salary.

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After studying the allocated job advertisement, subjects completed a

questionnaire. The questionnaire assessed the student’s perceptions of the

organisation’s reputation, familiarity, job attributes, expected pride from

membership, job pursuit intentions, and minimum salary required to accept

the job. Reputation perceptions were measured on four items; familiarity

was assessed on three items; job attributes were assessed on eight items;

job pursuit intentions were measured on four items; and pride of

membership was assessed on three items. For minimum salary, subjects

wrote their required minimum salary to accept a job (Cable and Turban

2003: 2256). One week after subjects had completed the questionnaire,

individuals received an email questionnaire that assessed their recall of

information presented in the organisation’s job advertisement. Memory was

assessed by presenting students with nine items about the job (Cable and

Turban 2003: 2256). Of the 368 students who completed the initial

questionnaire, 339 completed the email questionnaire.

Cable and Turban’s (2003: 2260) research results indicated support for the

brand-equity perspective in that impressions of an organisation’s corporate

reputation and familiarity influenced individual perceptions of that

organisation’s reputation, which in turn influenced perceived job attributes

and expected pride obtained from organisational membership. These

perceptions also influenced job pursuit intentions and the minimum salary

required to accept a job with an organisation. Interestingly, with regards to

minimum salary expectations, results suggested that individuals are willing

to pay premiums (in the form of lower salaries) in organisations that are

perceived to possess a positive reputation. Additionally, Cable and Turban

(2003: 2260) discovered that individuals were more likely to recall

recruitment information for jobs advertised with organisation that were

familiar to the job seeker; and that recruitment advertisements did not

influence perceptions of an organisation’s reputation.

A weakness in the study should be acknowledged. As such, due to the

small number of organisations utilised to represent the four different

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industries rated in the research, results should be applied with caution and

not assumed to be relevant across all industrial environments.

In summary, limitations of the aforementioned literature notwithstanding, it

does appear that an individual’s perceptions of an organisation’s image

does influence the degree to which an individual is attracted to an

organisation at the pre-interview stages of the recruitment process. Thus,

drawing on the concept of brand image, there is evidence in the recruitment

context that individual brand components (such as an organisation’s name,

term, sign, symbol, design, or combination) act as brand identifiers and, in

their totality, create perceptions of a brand to which individuals will attach

an effective meaning. Further, an individual having a positive affective

attitude towards an organisation will view that organisation as a desirable

entity and want to engage in some relationship with it (Aiman-Smith et al.

2001: 219). In considering this conceptualisation in the context of the

variables prescribed in Figure 1, the following hypotheses are presented in

reference to the image-attraction relationship:

Hypothesis 1a. Positive perceptions of an organisation’s image will be

positively related to attraction to the organisation.

Hypothesis 1b. Positive perceptions of an organisation’s image will be

positively related to attraction to the job.

Following from the above, it is believed that the more attractive the

organisation to the individual, the more likely the individual will actively

pursue employment intentions with the organisation.

Attraction and Application

Research (Gatewood, Gowan and Lautenschlager 1993; Bauer and Aiman-

Smith 1996; Honeycutt and Rosen 1997; Highhouse, Zickar, Thorsteinson,

Stierwalt and Slaughter 1999; Albinger and Freeman 2000; and Aiman-

Smith, Bauer and Cable 2000) has found that when job seekers are

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attracted to an organisation, these positive perceptions are highly correlated

with intentions to actively pursue the organisation as a potential employer.

Each of the aforementioned research investigations will now be reviewed in

turn. Consistent with the presentation of literature in the preceding section

of this paper, the research will be presented in chronological date order.

Gatewood, Gowan and Lautenschlager (1993) studied college student

reactions to examine the impact of corporate image perceptions on

intentions to pursue employment with an organisation. In an attempt to

better understand the holistic role of corporate image perceptions in

influencing initial job choice decisions, two separate image constructs were

considered by the researchers. These constructs were: general corporate

image and recruitment image. With regards to general corporate image

perceptions, Gatewood et al. were interested in the degree of perception

consistency among subjects. Consistent perceptions would suggest a

universal image; while inconsistent perceptions would suggest that

significant alternative impressions exist (Gatewood et al. 1993: 416). In

terms of recruitment image, the researchers were interested in the degree

to which perceptions developed as a result of viewing recruitment

information.

A total of five groups (totalling 470 subjects) were formed to collect

research data. Data collected involved four sets of measures. The four

types of measures included: three forms of general corporate image to test

perception consistency; one form of recruitment image to test consistency

between corporate and recruitment image perceptions; two sets of

correlates of image to understand the basis for image perceptions; and two

forms of probability of continuing the application process (Gatewood et al.

1993: 417). In formulating perceptions of general corporate image and

recruitment image to inform overall corporate image impressions, subjects

evaluated a total of 39 organisations. In presenting information to subjects

about these organisations, it should be noted that only the names of the

respective companies were presented - no associated logos or bi-lines

were communicated at any stage of the investigation.

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Gatewood et al. (1993: 423) discovered that perceptions of general

corporate image and recruitment image were significantly correlated with

intentions to pursue a job with an organisation. Within this framework,

recruitment image was a slightly stronger predictor than general corporate

image indicating that exposure to an organisation’s recruitment information

has the potential to exert significant influence on an individual’s perceptions

of corporate image. Within this framework, it should be noted that

recruitment information presented to subjects communicated positive

organisational characteristics. When considering this research finding in the

context of Highhouse et al.’s (2004) investigation, had Gatewood et al.

presented more ‘balanced’ information to subjects in terms of its content

(contained positive and negative organisational characteristics) research

results may have indicated a stronger correlation between perceptions of

general corporate image alone and associated intention behaviour.

Gatewood et al.’s investigation has a methodological weakness. In terms of

generalisability of results, as organisations presented to subjects were not

identified in terms of industry representation or type of job advertised it is

difficult to determine if these results can be appropriately applied across a

variety of industrial environments or specific category of job. This weakness

considered, Gatewood et al.’s (1993) study does highlight the importance of

image perceptions in influencing a job seeker’s initial organisational pursuit

intentions.

As such, Gatewood et al.’s investigation contributed to a broadening of the

recruitment literature by determining that (from an applicant’s perspective)

key distinctions exist in terms of the influence of recruitment image (the

information conveyed to applicants via recruitment information) and

corporate image (based on an organisations’ name alone) on formulating

perceptions of an organisation as an employer. Further, from a ‘branding’

perspective the research provides evidence that an organisation’s name

alone can influence job seeker perceptions of potential employers.

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Bauer and Aiman-Smith (1996) studied reactions of university students to

examine the impact of a pro-environmental stance on perceptions of

organisational image and intentions to pursue employment with an

organisation. The researchers utilised corporate environment policy as the

point of reference for the investigation on the basis that ‘environmental

concerns have triggered the biggest change in consumer behaviour since

the oil price explosion of the early seventies’ (Peattie and Ratnayaka in

Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996: 446). Within this framework, Bauer and

Aiman-Smith (1996: 449) postulated that all other considerations being

equal, organisations displaying environmentally responsible characteristics

would be more attractive to job seeking populations than organisations

possessing poorly perceived environmental policies.

The researchers gathered data from 161 university students. In

acknowledgement of the diverse range of policies, standards, and public

opinions towards the importance of environmentally responsible actions of

organisations in the United States, Bauer and Aiman-Smith (1996) gathered

data from diverse regions of the United States in the event that geography

influenced research results. As such, data was collected from a large mid-

western university and a large west coast university. The west coast

university was located in a state ranked high on environmental policy; the

mid-west university in a state ranked low on environmental policy (Bauer

and Aiman-Smith 1996: 450). At both experimental locations subjects were

randomly presented with a package of materials that the researchers had

prepared. The package contained instructions, a recruitment brochure of a

fictitious organisation, and a questionnaire. The content of the recruitment

brochure had been manipulated by the researchers on the basis of

describing the environmental stance of a fictitious organisation under two

conditions: experimental and control. The experimental brochure contained

environmental information about the organisation; while environmental

information was excluded from the control brochure. Just over half of the

subjects received packages containing the experimental brochure.

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After reading the recruitment brochure, subjects completed a questionnaire

to assess perceptions of the organisation’s image, intentions to pursue

employment opportunities with the organisation, and the likelihood of

accepting a job if offered one by the organisation. A second questionnaire

was then distributed to subjects to assess personal environmental stance.

In the west coast sample, a questionnaire to measure social desirability in

responding was also distributed to subjects as the researchers perceived

that the issues of ‘political correctness’ could influence subjects to respond

in a socially desirable manner (Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996: 453).

Bauer and Aiman-Smith’s (1996: 454) research results determined that an

environmentally oriented organisation is a more attractive employer than an

organisation offering no environmental statement. Further, subjects were

more likely to actively pursue employment opportunities and accept a job

offer with an environmentally concerned organisation. Of note, the

researchers found no support for the idea that the higher an individual’s

environmental rating, the more attractive an environmentally-oriented

organisation would be rated, suggesting that social desirability did not

significantly predict subject responses. Thus indicating that subjects were

not simply answering in socially desirable ways. From a practical

perspective, Bauer and Aiman-Smith’s (1996: 456) research suggests that

organisation’s that are proactive in preserving and protecting the

environment may reap positive benefits from communicating those values

to job seekers in the early stages of the recruitment process. As such, an

environmentally conscious organisation adopting a recruitment strategy

emphasising its ‘greenness’ could prove to be a source of competitive

advantage in attracting qualified applicants to consider available positions.


study did not address the influence of a negative environmental stance on

perceptions of organisational image. As such, although this study found that

social desirability did not serve as a significant predictor of subject

responses, in order to achieve a holistic representation of scenarios it is

recommended that future research address this issue. Further, as subjects

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responded to items based on assessments of a fictitious organisation,

concern is raised as to whether subjects provided genuine responses to the

presented items.

Honeycutt and Rosen (1997) studied reactions of Executive MBA and MBA

alumni to investigate the influence of family friendly policies, salary levels,

and salient identity on organisational attraction and intentions to pursue a

job. Within this framework, Honeycutt and Rosen (1997: 271) proposed that

as the composition of the workforce changed to include increasing numbers

of working women, couples, and parents, career paths and policies that

supported the family would become increasingly attractive to the job seeker.

Thus, the researchers posited that individuals with salient family and

balance identities would be attracted to organisations with flexible and dual

career paths and policies; whereas individuals with salient career identities

would be most attracted to organisations with traditional career paths and

policies. As such, the researchers defined the three career paths and policy

levels as follows: traditional career paths and policies required employees

to put their careers first and to keep family from interfering with their work;

dual career paths and policies proposed two career choices (one for

employees who chose to put their career first; and one for employees who

chose to balance work and family responsibilities); and flexible career paths

and policies proposed that all employees were afforded flexibility to balance

work and non-work regardless of family responsibility (Honeycutt and

Rosen 1997: 277).

To determine validity and reliability of the experimental instruments a pre-

test was conducted. On the basis of the pre-test results items were refined

based on feedback received from 120 MBA students. A total of 263

subjects constituted the study sample. At random, subjects were assigned

to one of three groups and presented with a job advertisement that had

been manipulated by the researchers in terms of type of career path and

policy (traditional, dual, and flexible) and salary level to ascertain interest in

the job.

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After reading the presented job advertisement, subjects completed a

questionnaire that measured participant’s attraction to the organisation and

intentions to pursue the job. Additionally, subjects were instructed to

consider roles personally undertaken at work and within their family to

indicate a salient identity. Analysis of the responses indicated three

predominant levels of salient identity: family salient, career salient, and

balance salient.

Honeycutt and Rosen’s (1997: 279) research results indicated that

organisational attraction lead to intentions to pursue an organisation for

possible employment. As such, an organisation that offered flexible career

paths and policies was significantly more attractive than an organisation

that offered dual career paths and policies, or traditional career paths and

policies. Further, the researchers found a significant interaction effect

between reported salient identity and career path and policy on intentions to

pursue a job for possible employment. As hypothesised, family salient and

balance salient subjects were most attracted to the organisation offering a

flexible career path and policy. However, contrary to the hypothesis, career

salient subjects were also found to be most attracted to the organisation

offering a flexible career path and policy. Further, contrary to the authors

expectations salary was not found to be significantly related to attraction;

thus suggesting that individuals may be willing to trade-off salary in

preference for organisations valuing the flexibility needs of employees. It is

also interesting to note that gender did not predict salient identity; thus

suggesting that there may be a fundamental shift occurring in the value set

of job seekers towards a preference for workforce flexibility over and above

the immediate remuneration level of jobs (Honeycutt and Rosen 1997: 280).

Honeycutt and Rosen’s (1997) investigation has some methodological

weaknesses. As a limitation, results are only generalisable for the specific

career paths and policies presented in the study. Clearly policies vary

across organisations with the potential for a vast array of hybridisations

across industries. Thus, for organisations considering communicating

corporate career paths and policies to job seekers in an attempt to attract

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qualified individuals, the research results should be applied with caution.

Although it is acknowledged that the researchers utilised subjects with

substantial work experience (11 - 15 years) concern is raised that due to

subjects being presented with a manipulated, fictitious job advertisement,

participants may not have treated the study seriously.

Limitations aside, Honeycutt and Rosen’s investigation did contribute to a

broadening of the recruitment literature by ascertaining that salary was not

the prime motivator of organisational pursuit intentions for a large cross

section of job seekers representing different groups of potential applicants.

Specifically, contrary to the findings of previous studies investigating the

impact of salary on organisational choice, Honeycutt and Rosen’s research

contributes further evidence for the assertion that work-life balance

considerations are becoming key job seeker considerations in the

contemporary business environment (Vansteenkiste, Lens, De Witte, De

Witte and Deci 2004: 347). Thus, Honeycutt and Rosen’s results suggest

that organisations may benefit (in terms of the utility of recruitment

initiatives) from building flexibility provisions into career pathways and

policies; and communicating this commitment to job seekers via recruitment

information.

Highhouse, Zickar, Thorsteinson, Stierwalt and Slaughter (1999) studied

high school student and retiree reactions to examine the influence of

company employment image (CEI) perceptions on intentions to pursue a

job for possible employment in the fast food industry. The researchers

sourced data from populations of high school students and retirees as it

was perceived that these populations were more frequently targeted by fast

food organisations in the U.S.; and thus subjects would be in a position to

adequately identify with organisations in the study. Additionally, the

researchers considered that the two populations combined were estimated

to comprise approximately seventy-five percent of employees working in the

industry (Highhouse et al. 1999: 154). In recognition of the fact that

previous image research had not specifically aimed to identify CEI

dimensions in a specific industry (to in turn allow for the examination of

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specific dimensions that explain most variance between organisations), the

authors first focussed attention on identifying CEI dimensions to inform the

investigation.

To structure the identification process, undergraduate university students

were presented with pairs of actual fast food establishments. This

procedure focussed the subjects on considering the differences between

the two organisations (Highhouse et al. 1999: 154). Within this framework,

subjects were instructed to indicate which of the two presented fast food

establishments they would prefer to work in and why. From these

responses, Highhouse and Zickar independently identified dimensions that

appeared to reasonably and parsimoniously explain student responses. The

remaining co-authors then coded the student rationales for their choices

into one of fourteen dimensions. These dimensions were: advertising,

atmosphere, chain size, customers, location, pay, product image, related

experience, hearsay, respectability, task demands, co-workers, work hours,

and work variety (Highhouse et al. 1999: 155). In addition, the researchers

included the dimension ‘advancement’ due to this dimension emerging as a

common theme in fast food recruitment. A questionnaire was then

developed using the fifteen identified dimensions.

336 high school students and 102 retirees completed the questionnaire.

Each subject was randomly assigned to one of eight well known fast food

organisations. To make the image of the allocated organisation salient for

the subjects, the organisation’s logo was placed on the first page of the

questionnaire. After providing responses to the fifteen dimensions, subjects

were instructed to indicate their agreement with five items designed to

measure intentions to pursue a job with the organisation.

Highhouse et al.’s (1999: 169) research determined that all 15 dimensions

were positively correlated with CEI perceptions across both subject groups,

with all but three (work hours, location, and chain size) being statistically

important in the retiree sample. In terms of mean differences between the

high school student and retiree groups’ perceptions of dimensions, two

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dimensions (related experience and task demands) were found to be

significantly different. It should be noted, however, that although mean

differences existed between the groups on their perception of dimensions

there were few differences in the way these dimensions related to CEI

perceptions of organisations (Highhouse et al. 1999: 169).


fifteen identified dimensions may not have been entirely relevant to the

sample populations due to the initial data being derived from a sample not

representative of the populations from which the research data was

ultimately drawn. As such, as the dimensions were derived from a

population of university students (with minimum work experience) it could

be assumed that their assessments of organisations were more aligned

with those of the high school students than the retiree sample who

collectively had significant prior work experience. On this basis, it is

asserted that some of the image dimensions applied in the study may not

have been as acutely relevant to both groups. Further, some dimensions of

importance to the retiree sample may have been excluded all together.

Additionally, as subjects identified factors relevant to only a select few

organisations within the fast food industry (mostly those who were market

leaders in their respective specialisations) it is difficult to generalise

research results to the entire sector as lower image organisations were not

fully considered within the scope of the investigation. Within this framework,

it would have been interesting to consider differences in image perceptions

for each of the eight fast food organisations across sample groups had

qualitative data been collected. Had this data been collected, the

researchers may have developed a greater understanding of the underlying

components of each organisation’s image that may have influenced subject

responses.

In considering Highhouse et al.’s research outcomes in the context of Jamal

and Goode’s (2001: 482) assertion that consumers consume products on

the basis of the symbolic meaning of the products as portrayed in their

branding images, Highhouse et al.’s (1999) investigation provides support

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for this assertion as applied in a recruitment context. That is, the outcomes

provide evidence that ‘brand’ leaders in a respective industry (based on the

identification with an organisation’s logo alone) has the capacity to influence

job seeker perceptions across a broad spectrum of image dimensions (to

the organisation’s advantage) in attracting an individual to consider the

organisation for possible employment. Thus, the image of an organisation

can play a strategically advantageous role by offering a ‘leveraging’

platform for organisations to successfully compete for qualified talent

(Weigelt and Camerer 1988: 448).

Albinger and Freeman (2000) studied job seeker reactions to examine the

influence of corporate social performance (CSP) perceptions on intentions

to pursue a job for possible employment. The researchers proposed that

the relationship between an organisation’s CSP and its image as an

employer would be moderated by the level of job-choice possessed by a job

seeking population.

A total of three groups (totalling 200 subjects) were formed to collect

research data. Each group represented a different category of job seeker:

high choice job seeker, medium choice job seeker, and low choice job

seeker (Albinger and Freeman 2000: 247). The high choice sample was

constituted from a group of employed university graduates undertaking

postgraduate studies. The medium choice group was represented by

undergraduate students and unemployed graduate students from the same

university. The low choice sample was constituted from a group of low-

income earning individuals.

In Albinger and Freeman’s (2000) study, CSP data was generated for 25

large organisations that conducted business in the local area. The

researchers selected these organisations as it was perceived that the

organisations would offer job opportunities relevant to each of the three

categories of job seeker being investigated in the study. In addition, it was

assumed that, being local organisations, a large proportion of subjects

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would be aware of the organisations and be able to form an opinion of the

perceived image of the organisations (Albinger and Freeman 2000: 248).

A reputation index for all 25 organisations was then developed. The index

was developed based on ratings applied by business faculty members at a

local university on four dimensions of CSP. The four dimensions were:

community outreach, diversity, workplace and employee issues, and the

natural environment. Ratings from the faculty members were averaged to

calculate a rating for each of the four dimensions for all 25 organisations.

Additionally, an overall CSP rating for each organisation was generated.

Due to the internal consistency of the ‘natural environment’ dimension being

unacceptably low, that dimension was dropped from subsequent analysis.

Subsequently, overall organisational CSP was recomputed omitting the

scores of the omitted dimension.

Following a similar procedure as applied to the pre-test group, subjects in

each of the three groups representing different categories of job seeker

completed a survey instructing them to rate the perceived attractiveness of

the same 25 organisations. For each group of job seeker, the organisation’s

ratings were averaged to calculate an overall attractiveness rating for each

organisation per group.

Albinger and Freeman’s (2000: 248) research results indicated that job

seeking populations with low choice perceive the attractiveness of various

employing organisations differently than do groups of job seekers with

greater job choice – the low choice group wanted any job with any employer

regardless of an organisation’s CSP rating. Whether these effects stemmed

from a lack of information or a low value placed on CSP is an area for future

investigation. Further, the results indicated little difference between

organisational image perceptions possessed by medium choice and high

choice job seekers. Of note, however, was the significant relationship

between job-choice group and the ‘workplace and employee issues’

dimension suggesting that all categories of job seeker respond more

favourably to an organisation’s corporate performance in areas that will

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affect them directly (Albinger and Freeman 2000: 250). This finding is

consistent with Turban and Greening’s (1996) research that found that

organisations demonstrating higher levels of CSP have an increased ability

to attract job seekers to consider the organisation for possible employment.

Albinger and Freeman’s (2000) investigation has some methodological

weaknesses. Concern is raised that the four prescribed dimensions of CSP

may not have been entirely relevant to the sample populations. As such, all

dimensions relevant to the groups may not have been identified and

therefore could not be considered for investigation. Additionally, concern is

raised that the reputation index of all 25 organisations was developed

based on perceptions of a demographically different population than the

test group. Thus, it calls into question the objectivity of the CSP ratings.

Further, the utilisation of largely non-active job seekers in the high choice

and medium choice samples raises the concern of a potential lack of

seriousness in rating the organisations presented in the study.

Aiman-Smith, Bauer and Cable (2001) studied university student reactions

to examine the relative importance of four factors (pay, promotional

opportunity, lay-off policy, and ecological rating) on perceptions of

organisational image and associated job pursuit intentions. In an attempt to

clarify and differentiate the constructs of organisational image and job

pursuit in recruitment research, the researchers viewed organisational

image and job pursuit as distinct concepts. Within this framework, Aiman-

Smith et al. (2001: 221) postulated that each concept would be predicted by

different variables. On this basis, the researchers categorised ‘pay’ and

‘promotional opportunity’ as job factors; while ‘lay-off policy’ and ‘ecological

rating’ were considered organisational image constructs for the purpose of

the study. With regards to job factors, Aiman-Smith et al. (2001: 222)

adopted the variables of pay and promotional opportunity based on

previous recruitment research consistently finding these variables to be

important to job seekers when considering positions for possible

employment. The two organisational image constructs were selected by the

researchers based on the perception of growing public interest in lay-off

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policies and the ecological stance of organisations as significant points of

consideration made by individuals when considering whether to engage in a

positive relationship with an organisation by way of seeking out available

job opportunities.

Aiman-Smith et al. (2001: 225) gathered data from 78 university students

adopting a policy capturing approach. At random, subjects were presented

with a package containing experimental materials that the researchers had

prepared. The packages contained instructions, scenarios, questionnaires,

and answer sheets. The content of the scenarios had been manipulated by

the researchers with regards to four features: pay, promotional opportunity,

lay-off policy, and ecological rating. Accordingly, each variable had been

allocated a high, medium, and low level rating.

Approximately half of the subjects received a package that contained a

questionnaire designed to investigate how attracted the student was to the

organisation described in the scenarios. The other subjects received a

questionnaire designed to examine students’ job pursuit intentions with the

organisation described in the respective scenario. When reading the

scenarios, subjects were instructed by the researchers to imagine that all

organisations were exactly the same except as described in the specific

scenario. That is, the organisations were consistent in type of business,

geography, industry, and type of job (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 228).

Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001: 229) research results indicated that ecological

rating most strongly predicted perceptions of organisational image, followed

by lay-off policy, pay, and finally, promotional opportunity. In contrast, when

analysing job pursuit intention results, pay was the strongest predictor of

pursuit behaviour, followed by lay-off policy, promotional opportunity, and

lastly, ecological rating. As such, one implication from Aiman-Smith et al.’s

(2001) research suggests that job seeker perceptions of organisational

image and associated job pursuit behaviour was not as closely related to

one another as some previous recruitment research had treated them. More

broadly, the research extended previous research results by indicating that,

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from a recruitment perspective, organisations perceived as possessing

positive corporate citizenship practices (having pro-environmental policies)

have the potential to achieve competitive advantage over organisations that

are not viewed so positively. Such positively perceived organisation’s might

then focus on pay and other job characteristics to evoke job seekers to

actively pursue a position for possible employment. Alternatively, an

organisation suffering from a poor perception of its image might have to

offer job seekers higher market salaries to attract candidates to consider

available positions (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 233).

Although Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) research presented some interesting

results in terms of the relationship between organisational image and job

pursuit intentions some methodological concerns are raised. Concern is

raised that the policy capturing approach was applied to manipulated

scenarios and not real-life situations. As such, all dimensions relevant to a

job seeker making active assessments of an organisation’s image or

specific job characteristics when considering positions for possible

employment may not have been identified; and, therefore, could not be

considered for investigation. Additionally, as subjects provided responses

based on assessments of fictitious organisations it is difficult to generalise

research results to a specific industry or business sector. It is therefore

recommended that the study be replicated in specific industrial

environments utilising established businesses as the test scenarios to

increase generalisability of results. Although it is acknowledged that

subjects considered a number of scenarios, research results should be

applied with caution when considering the relatively small sample size.

Limitations of the aforementioned literature notwithstanding, it does appear

that an individual attracted to an organisation is more likely to actively

pursue that organisation as a possible employer. Within this framework, it is

acknowledged that individual job seekers will be interested in pursuing

different types of organisations for possible employment based on personal

assessments of an organisation’s perceived attributes. As such, if a

minimum level of attraction does not develop there will be no motivation

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exerted on behalf of the individual to process subsequent information about

the organisation. In considering this conceptualisation in the context the

variables prescribed in Figure 1, the following hypotheses are presented in

reference to the attraction-application relationship:

Hypothesis 2a: High levels of attraction will positively influence

applicant intentions to apply to the organisation.

Hypothesis 2b: High levels of attraction will positively influence

applicant intentions to apply for a job.

Based on the previous two hypotheses and the conceptual framework

applicable to the current study, the present investigator has an expectation

that mediation will occur. Specifically, that positive image perceptions will

lead to a job seeker’s intention to apply to the organisation. Within this

relationship it is expected that this effect will be mediated by levels of

attraction as outlined in the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 3a: Positive image perceptions lead to intentions to apply

to the organisation with the effect mediated by levels of attraction.

Hypothesis 3b: Positive image perceptions lead to intentions to apply

for a job with the effects mediated by levels of attraction.

Although the present investigator is not aware of the existence of any

empirical evidence to specifically support such hypotheses, in considering

the overarching relationships that have been presented in the literature

within this Chapter it is reasonable to assume that such relationships would

exist. As such, the relationships will be tested in this study.

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Summary

Despite the variance in terminologies applied by recruitment scholars in the

reviewed studies, there appears to be a consistency of understanding

among researchers in terms of the underlying concepts and relationships

inherent in the image-attraction-application relationship. As such, there

appears to be a universal recognition that individuals do not enter into a

relationship with a prospective employer as a ‘clean slate’, but rather, that

individuals have preferences for certain organisational and/or job attributes

and that an individuals’ perceptions as to the availability of these desirable

attributes within an organisation influence pursuit decisions (Cable and

Turban 2001: 118). When considering this evidence in light of Ferris et al.’s

(1998: 248) assertion that organisations will become pre-eminently involved

with the business of impression management as competition for qualified

labour intensifies in response to shifts in the composition of labour markets,

enhanced understanding of the factors related to applicant’s impressions of

an organisation at the pre-interview stage of the recruitment process, and

how these perceptions influence applicant pursuit decisions is of prime

relevance for organisations. As discussed earlier, the present investigation

will aim to broaden the knowledge base and understanding of factors

related to prospective applicant’s impressions of an organisation’s image as

an employer, and how these perceptions of image influence applicant

decisions at the initial pre-interview stage of the recruitment process by

sourcing data from a population of active job seekers. The strategy for

which is outlined in the next Chapter. In so doing, the investigation aims to

redress criticisms that organisational image research is plagued by a heavy

reliance on students as the source of research data – as evidenced in the

reviews of recruitment literature in this section of the paper.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

Introduction Chapter Three outlines the design and methods of data collection as they

relate to the current investigation. Firstly, a discussion on the instrument

testing will be undertaken. This will be followed by a discussion of the

adopted data collection method; followed by detailed information on the

measures used to collect the data. A concluding statement will then be

presented.

Method

Participants

A total of 351 job seekers submitting applications for advertised job

vacancies in a large, Queensland-based higher education institution

participated in this study. Of the participants, 65.5% were female, and the

average age was 38 years old. The participants had an average of 16

years work experience.

Procedure

Due to logistical difficulties associated with conducting an instrument test

utilising a population of active job seekers, the instrument test participants

were representatives from the higher education institution’s human

resources department. The instrument test was conducted utilising these

representatives as it was perceived by the present investigator that these

individuals would be able to effectively identify with the target population

and therefore be able to objectively consider the test instrument and

provide constructive feedback accordingly. Although it was recognised that

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the instrument test population was demographically different from the actual

test population it was considered imperative that an instrument test be

conducted to enhance the effectiveness of the instrument in terms of face

validity and content validity (Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran 2001: 238). As

an outcome of the instrument testing, a few minor adjustments were made

to the wording of some questionnaire items. The adjustments were made in

light of the base items in this study originating from investigations applied in

a predominantly U.S. context; and thus some of the terminology applied did

not directly translate to commonly applied Australian business terminology.

In these cases, terms were converted to a relevant equivalent. Ethical

clearance was granted by the higher education institution prior to

distributing the test instrument to the target population. Specific items that

were modified for the purposes of the current investigation will be identified

later in this section.

In attempting to respond to criticisms (Dineen, Ash and Noe 2002; Ziegert

and Ehrhart 2004) that recruitment research has generally failed to

incorporate a widespread technique used by over 90% of large

organisations as well as numerous applicants – web based recruitment –

the present investigation utilised the higher education institution’s well

established web presence as a predominant mechanism to distribute the

test instrument to the target population.

Job seekers applying for advertised job vacancies at the educational

institution were afforded the opportunity to submit an application via one of

four available methods. The four available methods were: email, postal mail,

facsimile, or hand delivery to the institution’s human resources department.

These job application submission options were the institution’s established

corporate standards, and were not modified in any way for the purposes of

the study. Given that the most utilised job application submission method of

the four options was the email option, for convenience, an on-line

questionnaire was developed on the basis that it was assumed that this

method presented the avenue that would yield most responses. The

questionnaire was administered via an automated email response

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mechanism to the job seeker that was automatically activated when a job

application was submitted to the institution via the specified corporate email

‘address’. This automated response message acknowledged receipt of the

submitted application and invited job seekers to complete the on-line survey

by ‘clicking’ on the specified website URL that housed the on-line

questionnaire. Participants were provided with a standard logon password

to enter the on-line survey website. The standard logon code acted as a

mechanism to maintain job seeker confidentiality. To supplement the on-

line questionnaire responses, job seekers who had submitted a job

application either by facsimile, postal mail, or hand delivery were also

invited to complete and return a hard copy version of the same

questionnaire. Confidentiality of responses was assured through the

provision of a prepaid and preaddressed envelope that was included in the

mailed package. At no time did on-line or hard copy questionnaire

responses influence the job seeker’s application for employment. This fact

was communicated and reinforced to job seekers.

Of the 351 survey responses obtained, 268 were received via the on-line

questionnaire; with 83 received in hard-copy format. See Appendix 1 and

Appendix 2 to view examples of the on-line and hard-copy questionnaire

respectively.

Measures

Data collected involved three sets of measures. The three sets of

measures included items developed to capture job seeker perceptions of

the higher education institution’s organisational image; attraction inherent in

the perceptions of the institution’s image that resulted in job seeker interest

in the organisation as a place for possible employment; and intentions to

pursue a job with the organisation. Where possible, the investigation

assessed constructs using established scales from existing studies that

were found to be previously reliable when measuring conceptually similar

constructs to those being investigated in the present study.

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Image

Perceptions of organisational image were measured on applicant

responses to a total of 22 items. Within this framework, eight items

assessed perceptions of the job itself, five items assessed perceptions of

compensation/job security at the organisation, while nine items assessed

perceptions of work/company. All items were adapted from measures

applied in Harris and Fink’s (1987) study.

Job Itself. Similar to Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation, eight items were

applied to assess applicant perceptions of the job itself. In Harris and Fink’s

investigation one of the survey items requested respondents to indicate the

degree to which it was perceived that the job would provide them with

“challenging/interesting work”. It was the opinion of the present investigator

that ‘challenging’ and ‘interesting’ work are two fundamentally different

concepts; and thus perceived that it was justified to test the two concepts

individually in the present investigation. As a result, one item per concept

was developed. Additionally, the remaining items adopted from Harris and

Fink’s (1987) test instrument were expanded to provide additional

clarification based on feedback from the instrument testing exercise

indicating that the wording of items applied by Harris and Fink were

potentially ambiguous due to the lack of context surrounding the item

statements. For all items, respondents indicated perceptions on a five-point

scale ranging from 1 “very unlikely” to 5 “very likely” consistent with Harris

and Fink’s (1987) test instrument. Respondents were also provided with an

“unsure” option. The coefficient alpha reliability from Harris and Fink’s

(1987) study was .82. See Appendix 3 for a full list of items and their

adaptations from Harris and Fink’s initial instrument.

Compensation/Job Security. Applicant perceptions about the salary and

benefits linked to the job applied for was measured according to participant

responses to a total of five items adapted from Harris and Fink’s (1987)

investigation. Again, based upon feedback from the instrument testing

exercise, the wording of all five items was expanded to allow for items to be

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contextualised to the Australian environment in line with commonly applied

business terminology. For example, in Harris and Fink’s investigation one of

the survey items requested respondents to indicate the degree to which it

was perceived that the job would provide them with “good fringe benefits”. It

was the opinion of the present investigator that the term ‘fringe benefits’

was not commonly applied in the Australian business context and therefore

had the potential for job seekers to misinterpret the question. As a result,

the item wording was modified to “provide you with competitive non-salary

benefits”. For all items, respondents indicated perceptions on a five-point

scale ranging from 1 “very unlikely” to 5 “very likely” consistent with Harris

and Fink’s (1987) test instrument. Respondents were also provided with an

“unsure” option. The coefficient alpha reliability from Harris and Fink’s

(1987) study was .75. See Appendix 4 for a full list of items and their

adaptations from Harris and Fink’s initial instrument.

Work/Company. Nine items were applied to assess applicant perceptions of

the work/company. In Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation, eight items

were applied; with one item requesting respondents to indicate the degree

to which it was perceived that an organisation would provide them with

“competent and sociable co-workers”. It was the opinion of the present

investigator that “competent” and “sociable” co-workers are two

fundamentally different concepts; and thus perceived that it was justified to

test the two concepts individually in the present investigation. As a result,

one item per concept was developed. Again, based upon feedback from the

instrument testing exercise, the wording of all nine items was expanded to

allow for items to be contextualised to the Australian environment in line

with commonly applied business terminology. For all items, respondents

indicated perceptions on a five-point scale ranging from 1 “very unlikely” to

5 “very likely” consistent with Harris and Fink’s (1987) test instrument.

Respondents were also provided with an “unsure” option. The coefficient

alpha reliability from Harris and Fink’s (1987) study was .78. See Appendix

5 for a full list of items and their adaptations from Harris and Fink’s initial

instrument.

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Attraction

Attraction was measured on applicant responses to a total of eight items.

As articulated earlier, ‘attraction’ as it applies to this investigation is

conceptualised as both an applicants overall interest in the organisation as

an employer, and subsequent interest in jobs advertised by that employer.

Within this framework, four items assessed interest in the organisation;

while four items assessed interest in the job. Items relating to interest in the

organisation were adapted from measures applied in Aiman-Smith et al.’s

(2001) study; while items relating to interest in the job were adapted from

measures applied in Thomas and Wise’s (1999) investigation.

Interest in the Organisation. The degree of applicant interest in the

organisation was measured according to participant responses to a total of

four items adapted from Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) investigation. Unlike

the practice applied to previous questionnaire items, whereby item wording

was expanded to provide contextual clarification, Aiman-Smith et al.’s item

wording was largely maintained with the only adaptations being the

interchange from the word “company” to the word “organisation” to more

accurately reflect terminology applied in the Australian context. For all items,

respondents indicated perceptions on a seven-point scale ranging from 1

“strongly disagree” to 7 “strongly agree” as per the item structure applied in

Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) study. This being said, it should be noted that

Aiman-Smith et al.’s investigation utilised five items to measure attraction to

an organisation. The present investigator removed one of the items from

testing (“I would want a company like this in my community”) on the basis

that it was not perceived to hold the same acute relevance in the Australian

business context as it did when applied in the original U.S. context. As such,

in the U.S. entire communities are developed around one core organisation

as its foundation. This situation is not characteristic of the business

landscape applicable to the region in which the higher education institution

is located in the study. The coefficient alpha reliability for organisational

attractiveness in Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) investigation was .98. See

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Appendix 6 for a full list of items and their adaptations from Aiman-Smith et

al.’s initial instrument.

Interest in the Job. The degree of applicant interest in the job was

measured according to participant responses to a total of four items

adapted from Thomas and Wise’s (1999) investigation. In Thomas and

Wise’s (1999) investigation three items were applied with one item

requesting respondents to indicate interest in the job according to the

perceived opportunity for “challenging and interesting work”. As applied

previously, it was the opinion of the current investigator that “challenging”

and “interesting” work are two fundamentally different concepts, and thus

perceived that it was justified to test the two concepts individually in the

present investigation. For all items respondents indicated perceptions on a

seven-point scale ranging from 1 “extremely unimportant” to 7 “extremely

important” consistent with Thomas and Wise’s (1999) test instrument. The

coefficient alpha reliability for Thomas and Wise’s (1999) instrument

was .78. See Appendix 7 for a full list of items and their adaptations from

Thomas and Wise’s initial instrument.

Application

Application intentions were measured in response to a total of eight items.

Within this framework, five items assessed intentions to pursue a job with

the organisation; while three items assessed intentions to pursue the job

applied for. All items were adapted from Highhouse et al.’s (2003) study.

Intention to Pursue a Job with the Organisation. The degree to which an

applicant intended to actively pursue the organisation for possible

employment was measured according to participant responses to a total of

five items adapted from Highhouse et al.’s (2003) investigation. In this

instance Highhouse et al.’s item wording was largely maintained with the

only adaptations being the interchange from the word “company” to the

specific name of the organisation relevant to this study. These modifications

were deemed necessary to more accurately frame item wording relevant to

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the present investigation. To illustrate, one of the items applied in

Highhouse et al.’s (2003) study was worded “I would make this company

one of my first choices as an employer”. To make this item more salient to

the job seeking population completing the survey, the present investigator

modified the item wording to “I would make Company X one of my first

choices as an employer”. It should be noted that the actual survey

contained the specific name of the test organisation in place of reference to

Company X. Company X as applied here is utilised for the purpose of

maintaining confidentiality as the present investigator is not in a position to

name the test organisation in the body of this thesis. For all items,

respondents indicated perceptions on a five-point scale ranging from 1

“strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree” as per the item structure applied in

Highhouse et al.’s (2003) study. The coefficient alpha reliability for intention

to pursue the organisation in Highhouse et al.’s (2003) investigation was .82.

See Appendix 8 for a full list of items and their adaptations from Highhouse

et al.’s initial instrument.

Intention to Pursue the Job Applied For. The degree to which an applicant

intended to actively pursue the job applied for was measured according to

participant responses to a total of three items. In this instance it must be

noted that a thorough search of the recruitment literature did not reveal

established scale items that the present investigator perceived to be

relevant in the context of the present study. On this basis, the present

investigator developed all item measures designed to explore job seeker

intentions to pursue the job applied for. This being said, the present

investigator was conscious that the underlying substance of Highhouse et

al.’s (2003) scale items that had been previously utilised to measure

intentions to pursue a job with the organisation could be applied to this

section of the survey. As such, three of Highhouse et al.’s original five items

were adapted. These modifications were deemed necessary to more

accurately frame item wording relevant to the target population of active job

seekers completing this survey. For all items, respondents indicated

perceptions on a five-point scale ranging from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5

“strongly agree” as per the item structure applied in Highhouse et al.’s

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(2003) investigation. See Appendix 9 for a full list of items and their

adaptations from Highhouse et al.’s initial instrument.

Summary

In summary, the data collection method and the specific measures have

been identified as well as the rationale for these choices. In terms of the

target population, job seekers applying for formally advertised jobs at a

large Queensland-based higher education institution constituted this group.

A report of findings and the actual data analysis follow in the next chapter.

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

Introduction

The previous chapter outlined the development and application of the test

instrument (the questionnaire). The primary objective of the questionnaire

was to facilitate the capture of data to test the hypotheses posed in Chapter

Two.

The objective of this chapter is to explore the strength of relationships

between the variables of interest in this study and present the results of the

data analyses. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version

13 was employed as the mechanism to perform the data analyses.

The first section provides descriptive statistics. A brief overview of the data

cleaning approach, together with an outline of checks for normal distribution

compliance comprise this section. Further, a discussion pertaining to scale

reliability will be undertaken in this section of the chapter. The next section

presents the results of the hypothesis tests. The statistical tests performed

for each hypothesis are described followed by an examination of the data.

Preliminary Analyses

Data Cleaning

Prior to analysing the research data it was checked for accuracy and

missing values. Missing values were coded as either a number “9” or “99”.

For scales with less than nine ranking scales, the code “9” was input to

indicate a missing value, while the “99” code was input against scales with

more than nine rankings to indicate a missing value to ensure that data

accuracy was not compromised. As a direct result of the identification of

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missing values, two items were removed as both had approximately 97

missing responses. The missing responses to these two items were

attributed to a technical failure in the on-line survey. The two removed items

were: item 4 “do you believe the organisation will provide you with a

prestigious job title” from the “pay image” scale, and item 1 “how likely is it

that the organisation will provide you with access to competent co-workers”

from the “work image” scale. Analysis was conducted utilising the remaining

compliant data.

Secondly, the data was examined for normal distribution compliance. Upon

examining the histograms it was revealed that skew statistics were present

for a number of item measures thus indicating violations of normality.

Examination of the skewed statistics revealed that job interest, job image,

pay image, and work image were negatively skewed. On this basis, a

number of data checks were performed as recommended by Tabachnick

and Fidell (1989: 67). Data was checked to ensure that it had been entered

correctly and that missing values had been correctly coded. Upon satisfying

the integrity of the base data, performing a transformation of the data was

then considered as an option to remedy the normality violations. Upon

further investigation, it was decided not to pursue this course of action as it

was determined that applying this methodology would not result in a

significant improvement in the data due to the nature of the skewness. Thus,

the original data was retained for use in subsequent analyses.

Table 1 contains means, standard deviations, and the correlations among

the variables of interest in this study.

Table 1: Means, standard deviations and correlations M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. job interest 5.90 1.23 1 2. organisation interest 4.19 0.76 .036 1 3. intention to apply for job

4.60 0.73 .053 .670** 1

4. intention to apply to organisation

4.46 0.73 .039 .452** .763** 1

5. job image 4.36 0.80 .076 .331** .286** .342** 1 6. pay image 4.05 0.98 .126* .460** .346** .282** .461** 1 7. work image 4.25 0.81 -.031 .512** .394** .311** .513** .578** 1

78

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Scale Reliability

Cronbach’s alpha statistics were examined for each scale to examine the

internal reliability of items. Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients are

presented in Table 2. As an outcome of this analysis it was discovered that

all scales have strong internal reliabilities, approximating or exceeding an

alpha of .78.

Table 2: Internal Reliabilities of the Included Scales

Demographic Characteristics

Effects of demographic gender characteristics of study subjects was also

examined to determine whether this demographic data exerted significant

influence on subject responses to the survey items. Based on the

assessment of the aforementioned characteristics no significant effects

were identified. See Appendix 10 to view results.

Results of Hypothesis Testing Hypothesis One

Hypothesis One tested the relationship between positive job seeker

impressions of the organisation and the job on attraction to that

organisation, with the following two hypotheses:

Scale No. of items Cronbach’s alpha

Job image 8 .87

Pay image 4 .78

Work image 8 .88

Job Interest 4 .82

Organisation interest 4 .84

Intention to apply to organisation 5 .84

Intention to apply for job 3 .87

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Two regressions were conducted, one each for the prediction of attraction

to the organisation and the job (the two measures of attraction). To test the

abovementioned hypotheses, the three variables which make up

organisational image (as presented in Figure 2, Chapter 2) were

investigated to determine if there was any association in explaining a job

seeker’s overall attraction to the organisation. These three variables were

termed “job image”, “pay image”, and “work image” for the purpose of the

analysis.

Predictors of Attraction

Regression 1: Attraction to the Organisation

The first analysis was performed to determine what variables predict

attraction to the organisation. Table 3 reports the results of the first

regression analysis testing. The overall model was significant accounting

for 29% of the adjusted variance [AdjR2 = .29] in predicting attraction to the

organisation.

Table 3: Standard Multiple Regression of Attraction to the Organisation

Variables B Std. error

β

Job image .06 .06 .05

Pay image .20 05 .24***

Work image .37 .06 .34***

Model: F (3, 341) = 48.38, p < .001

* p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001

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As shown in Table 3, two predictors were significant at the p < .01 level,

which were: pay image (p < .001); and work image (p < .001).

Firstly, in regards to pay image, the results suggest that a job seeker’s

perception of an organisation’s communicated rate of pay for an advertised

position is a significant predictor of initial attraction to an organisation as an

employer. Secondly, a job seeker’s overall perception of an organisation’s

image was also revealed to be a significant predictor of attraction. Of

interest to the present investigator was the finding that a job seeker’s

perception of job image was not revealed to be a strong predicator of initial

attraction to the organisation as a potential employer. However, having said

this, it should be noted that all three variables were significantly correlated

with the dependent variable (DV). Further, it is noteworthy that the three

independent variables were correlated suggesting that job image does have

a positive relationship with organisational attraction, however in the

presence of the other variables it is not considered by job seeker’s to be a

significant point of reference in assessing an organisation as a prospective

employer.

Regression 2: Attraction to the Job

The first analysis was performed to determine what variables predict

attraction to the job. Table 4 reports the results of the second regression

analysis. Whilst the overall model was significant, examination of the

adjusted variance [AdjR2 = .03] reveals that only 3% of the variance was

accounted for in the model. Ultimately the variables were revealed to not be

efficient in predicting attraction to the job.

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Table 4: Standard Multiple Regression of Attraction to the Job

Variables B Std. error

β

Job image .13 .11 .08

Pay image .24 .08 .20*

Work image -.30 .11 -.19

Model: F (3, 341) = 4.30, p < .05

* p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001

As shown in Table 4 above, only one predictor (pay image) was significant

(albeit weak) at the p < .05 level.

In considering the output of the two performed regressions, there is support

for Hypothesis One (a) that positive perceptions of the organisation will lead

to attraction to the organisation. However, support for Hypothesis One (b)

was not found.

In summary of discussions pertaining to Hypothesis One, there exists

support, at the organisational level at least, that a job seeker possessing a

positive perception of an organisation’s image will be attracted to the

organisation as a potential employer. At the job level, however, results

suggest that although image perceptions do influence attraction to a job, the

variables tested in this study do not sufficiently illustrate and account for

those considerations of upmost importance to individuals when registering

attraction to a job.

Hypothesis Two

Hypothesis Two predicted that when a job seeker has high levels of

attraction to an organisation, the positive perceptions would translate to

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intentions to actively pursue the organisation as a potential employer, with

the following hypotheses:





Two regressions were conducted, one each for the prediction of intention to

apply to the organisation and intention to apply for the job. Unlike the

previous hypothesis, tables will not be presented due to only one variable

being tested in each respective regression.

In the first regression, the overall model was significant accounting for 44%

of the adjusted variance [AdjR2 = .44; F (1, 350) = 284.10, p = .001]. Thus,

this output suggests significant support for a job seeker’s attraction to the

organisation being translated to an active intention to apply for a job with

the organisation.

In the second regression, the overall model was again found to be

significant however at a reduced variance [AdjR2 = .20; F (1, 350) = 89.80, p

= .001]. Thus, this output suggests that although a job seeker’s attraction to

the organisation is a factor of relevance in intending to apply to an

organisation, there are additional factors that can be considered as being a

stronger predictor of intentions to pursue employment.

In considering the output of the two performed regressions, there is support

for Hypothesis Two (a) that high levels of attraction will positively influence

applicant intentions to pursue an organisation for possible employment.

However, support for Hypothesis Two (b) was not found.

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Hypothesis Three

Hypothesis Three predicted that positive image perceptions will lead to a

job seeker’s intention to apply to the organisation, with the effects being

mediated by levels of attraction as outlined in the following hypotheses:





Based on the outcomes of Hypothesis One and Hypothesis Two, four tests

to explore the mediating effects of attraction were applied following the logic

presented by Baron and Kenny (1986: 1176). As discussed by Baron and

Kenny (1986: 1176) the following three conditions must be met: (1) the

independent variable must influence the mediator; (2) the independent

variable must influence the dependent variable; and (3) the mediator must

affect the dependent variable while controlling for the independent variable,

whereas the independent variable does not influence the dependent

variable when the mediator is controlled. Support for these three conditions

would indicate full mediation.

Mediated Regression Results

Test A – Interest in Organisation

Two mediated regressions were conducted to test Hypothesis 3a. These

mediations are represented diagrammatically below:

Test A: Regression One

Organisational Image

Interest in the organisation

Intention to pursue the organisation

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Test A: Regression Two In Test A, job image, pay image, and work image were entered as the

independent variables (IV’s), with organisation interest being input as the

mediator in the first test; and job interest being input as the mediator in the

second test. Intention to apply to the organisation was then entered as the

DV to test the relationship between variables in both tests for mediation.

The output correlations indicated that two independent variables (job image

and work image) were significant (β = .238 and β = .126) at the p < .01 level

and p < .05 respectively in predicting intentions to apply to the organisation.

When the mediator variable (organisation interest) was entered into the

relationship, the results indicated that the mediator was a significant

predictor of intention to apply to the organisation (β = .383), however job

image remained as a significant predictor at the p < .01 level (albeit at a

reduced level of significance β = .219). It should be noted at this point that

work image became insignificant after the mediator was entered into the

relationship. Thus, although a direct effect was evident in the first test a fully

mediated relationship was not supported.

Consistent with the output correlations in the first test, the two independent

variables of job image and work image were significant in the second test

for mediation (β = .238 and β = .129) at the p < .01 level and p < .05 level

respectively. However, when the mediator variable (job interest) was

entered into the relationship, job image and work image remained

significant maintaining levels of significance of β = .237 and β = .129

respectively. Although there was support for a direct effect (albeit weak) of

the mediator on the independent variables, again, support for a fully

mediated relationship was not found.


Interest in the job

Intention to pursue the organisation

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Test B – Interest in Job

Two mediated regressions were conducted to test Hypothesis 3b. These

mediations are represented diagrammatically below:

Test B: Regression One

Test B: Regression Two In Test B, job image, pay image, and work image were entered as the

independent variables (IV’s), with organisation interest being input as the

mediator in the first test; and job interest being input as the mediator in the

second test. Intention to apply for a job with the organisation was then

entered as the DV to test the relationship between variables in both tests for

mediation. The output results indicated that two independent variables (pay

image and work image) were both significant at the p < .01 level (β = .159

and β = .261) in predicting intention to apply for a job in the first test. When

the mediator variable (organisation interest) was entered into the

relationship, the correlations indicated none of the independent variables

remained significant in predicting intention to apply for a job. Further, the

mediator was significant at the p < .01 level in predicting intention to apply

for a job. Thus, in this instance support for a fully mediated relationship was

supported.


Interest in the organisation

Intention to pursue the job


Interest in the job

Intention to pursue the job

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In the second test, consistent with the output correlations in the first test the

two independent variables of pay image and work image were respectively

significant (β = .159 and β = .261). When the mediator variable (job interest)

was entered into the relationship, pay image and work image remained

significant (β = .150 and β = .270) at the p < .01 level. Although there

existed support for a direct effect, a fully mediated relationship was not

found in this case.

In considering the output of the two performed mediated regressions, there

is support for Hypothesis Three (b) that positive image perceptions lead to

intentions to apply for a job with the effects mediated by levels of attraction.

However, full support for Hypothesis Three (b) was not found. Thus, it

appears that is that job seeker perceptions of organisational image mediate

the relationship between applicant attraction and intentions to pursue a job

with the organisation. This finding and its implications for recruitment

research will be discussed in more detail in the following Chapter.

The next chapter provides a discussion on the findings in light of theory,

implications for further research and practice, and the limitations of the

present study.

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CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

Introduction

This Chapter provides a discussion and conclusion to the investigation. In

the first section, the study results are discussed in light of the proposed

hypotheses. Following the discussion of each of the hypotheses,

implications for theory will then be highlighted, followed by directions for

future recruitment research and implications for practice. Issues relating to

study limitations are then considered, followed by a conclusion to the

investigation.

Hypotheses and Related Findings

In this investigation it was theorised that a job seeker having a positive

perception of an organisation’s image will view that organisation as a

desirable entity and want to engage in some relationship with it. Inherent in

this framework was the assumption that job seekers consider available

organisation information and organise this information in a meaningful

manner to form perceptions of the organisation that in turn inform their

actions to pursue an organisation for possible employment. Three core

hypotheses were developed around the relationships applicable to this

investigation.

Hypothesis One

Hypothesis One expected to reveal that positive job seeker perceptions of

the organisation’s image would result in attraction as evidenced by job

seeker interest in both the organisation and the job. Results provided

support for the hypothesis that positive perceptions of the organisation will

lead to attraction to the organisation, but not the job. Therefore, Hypothesis

One (a) was accepted (but not Hypothesis One (b)). This study’s finding

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that positive perceptions of an organisation’s image results in attraction to

that organisation as a prospective employer is consistent with the outcomes

of previous recruitment research (for example, Belt and Paolillo 1982;

Turban and Greening 1996; Cable and Graham 2000; Highhouse et al.

2003; Lievens and Highhouse 2003; and Cable and Turban 2003) that

identified that positive perceptions of an organisation’s image results in

attraction to that organisation. In one of the first empirical studies to

investigate the influence of organisational image perceptions on job seeker

attraction, Belt and Paolillo (1982) found that organisations perceived as

possessing favourable attributes were more likely to attract an individual to

consider that organisation for potential employment; as opposed to an

organisation perceived to possess low image attributes. Turban and

Greening (1996) also assessed job seeker perceptions of organisational

image and subsequent attractiveness as an employer. However, Turban

and Greening went further to postulate that an organisation adopting

socially responsible characteristics may yield a competitive advantage for

the organisation. Results supported this assumption whereby study

subjects rated organisations as more attractive, the higher the level of

perceived social responsibility. Thus, the aforementioned investigations

lend fundamental support for this study’s findings that positive assessments

of an organisation’s image will lead to attraction to the organisation as a

potential employer.

Results of the present investigation suggest that job seekers appear to

have a higher propensity to value macro considerations such as job security

and overarching contextual factors such as the perceived organisational

culture when displaying interest in an organisation as an employer. Further,

at this macro level of assessment, it appears that job seekers do not

automatically consider specific job attributes or potential role responsibilities

as significant factors of consideration when formulating image assessments

of organisations – contrary to a common perception within much of the

recruitment literature. Consistent with the results of Cable and Graham’s

(2000) study, results of the present investigation suggest that similar to the

concept of brand image in the marketing literature, a strong brand has the

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potential to initiate ‘purchase’ decisions in individuals whereby they actively

endeavour to associate themselves with that identity. When considering this

finding in the context of Rynes and Cable’s (2001: 73) statement that the

ability of organisations to attract qualified applicants will be the number one

force in business strategy by the end of the decade, it could be said that the

degree to which an organisation develops a capacity to project a strong

brand image will determine its ability to effectively compete for talent on a

global scale.

The research of Low and Lamb (2000) and Myers (2003) has found

additional support for the assertion that brand image influences purchase

intentions on the basis of the perceived ‘identity’ of the brand. Although the

studies of Low and Lamb (2000) and Myers (2003) were conducted from a

marketing perspective, the findings have implications for the recruitment

domain nonetheless. Low and Lamb (2000: 353) proposed that corporate

brand image perceptions would lead logically to the formulation of an

attitude and quality judgement towards the brand. Based on this ‘branding’

collective, the authors postulated that individuals develop high brand-

association memory structures for familiar brands than for less familiar ones

on the basis that individuals will actively seek out and process information

on brands that are perceived to possess qualities consistent with the

preferred ‘identity’ (Low and Lamb 2000: 354). To test the hypothesis,

advertisements were utilised to elicit brand associations over a range of

product categories. The results confirmed that well-known brands have a

higher propensity to influence the pursuit behaviour of individuals consistent

with the assertion that consumers have more developed memory structures

for familiar brands, and are more readily able to identify with the ‘persona’

of a brand. Further, the researchers found that individuals expend more

energy in processing information regarding familiar brands compared to

unfamiliar brands; and that overarching corporate brand images rather than

individual product item images had a greater influence on pursuit intent

(Low and Lamb 2000: 361).

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Myers’ (2003) research supported the findings of Low and Lamb (2000).

Further, Myers (2003: 48) found that the intangible attributes of products

may contribute significantly to the formulation of brand images than tangible

attributes alone. As such, although the study did not explicitly capture the

qualities of the intangible attributes, it was found that (based on an

assessment of physical attributes such a product price) subjects

subsequently assigned an intrinsic value to a brand beyond the physical

attributes presented (Myers 2003: 48). It was also found that an

organisation possessing a high market share within a specific product

category was not automatically perceived by subjects as having a superior

image. Indeed, Mottram (in Hart and Murphy 1998) stated that

organisation’s ‘increasingly compete on the basis of intangible factors and

the reputation of the corporation itself is often the most valuable and most

misunderstood intangible of all’ (p. 63). From a contemporary business

perspective, Mottram (1998: 64) stated that the benefits of corporate

branding have been most clearly illustrated in Japan and the Far East. For

example, Sony and LG have established strong global businesses quickly

and efficiently by focusing clearly on the visions and values of the

corporation. Specifically, Mottram (1998: 64) cited that the corporate brand

is used consistently by the aforementioned organisations to add ‘higher’

brand values to all products.

In applying these marketing principles to the recruitment domain, the

research of Low and Lamb (2000) and Myers (2003) strengthen this

investigation’s finding that perceptions of an organisation’s corporate image

can act as a stronger predictor of pursuit intent than job-specific information.

Specifically, in recognising the value of an organisation’s corporate image

as a public expression of the organisation’s core values and attributes, the

brand itself acts as a mechanism to which job seekers will formulate image

perceptions based on a consideration of their personal mindsets and

broader social considerations such as the environmental stances of the

entity.

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At the job level, an important implication revealed by this investigation was

that neither job image, pay image, nor work image were found to be

efficient predictors of applicant attraction to a job with the organisation. To

this end, it was discovered that although pay image was significant in

predicting attraction to the job, the relationship was weak. It was also

revealed that a negative relationship existed between work image and

overall attraction to the job, thus suggesting that there exists a number of

un-tested attributes that are more efficient in predicting initial applicant

attraction to the job. Based on this finding, it is plausible to assert that just

as organisations are experiencing significant shifts in the demographic

composition of labour markets; job seeker values and expectations of

employing organisations have evolved accordingly. Thus, it can be

suggested that the ‘traditional’ variables (as utilised in this study) applied to

capture image assessments of job seekers need to ‘move with the times’ to

more accurately identify those elements of importance to job seekers in the

contemporary business environment. Therefore, just as Lievens and

Highhouse (2003) broke with convention, it is suggested that mainstream

recruitment research needs to embrace a revised philosophy as to potential

‘new’ factors of importance to applicants.

In summary of discussions pertaining to Hypothesis One, there exists

support, at the organisational level at least, that a job seeker possessing a

positive perception of an organisation’s image will be attracted to the

organisation as a potential employer. At the job level, however, results

suggest that although image perceptions do influence attraction to a job, the

variables tested in this study do not sufficiently illustrate and account for

those considerations of upmost importance to individuals when registering

attraction to a job. Further, it could be asserted that job seekers may have

been sufficiently stimulated by the impact of the organisation’s corporate

image that the specificity of the job itself was not considered critical in

determining the likelihood of applying to the organisation. This being the

case, the finding offers support for a growing body of evidence that

suggests that positive image perceptions can yield competitive advantage

in the marketplace (Park and Srinivasan 1994: 271).

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Hypothesis Two

Hypothesis Two expected to reveal that when a job seeker had high levels

of attraction to an organisation the positive perceptions would translate to

intentions to actively pursue the organisation as a potential employer. As

presented in the previous Chapter, results provided support for the

hypothesis that high levels of attraction positively influence applicant

intentions to pursue an organisation for possible employment, but not the

job. Therefore, Hypothesis Two (a) was accepted (but not Hypothesis Two

(b)). This study’s finding that job seeker attraction leads to a conscious

decision on behalf of an individual to actively pursue an organisation as a

potential place of employment is consistent with the outcomes of previous

recruitment research (for example, Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996;

Honeycutt and Rosen 1997; Highhouse et al. 1999; Albinger and Freeman

2000 and Aiman-Smith et al. 2001).

Research (for example Dutton, Dukerich and Harquail 1994) has suggested

that an individual’s employer is an important element in the development of

one’s self-concept and social identity. As such, Dutton et al. (1994) stated

that an individual’s assessment of an organisation’s attractiveness as a

potential employer is expected to be particularly strong during the pursuit

stages of the recruitment process on the basis that in the minds of some job

seekers joining a particular organisation is a public expression of an

individual job seeker’s values and abilities (Cable and Turban 2003: 2249.

In relating this information to the research results in the present

investigation it could, therefore, be asserted that individuals submitting

applications for advertised job vacancies at the higher education institution

were potentially seeking to improve or maintain their self-esteem by

associating themselves with an organisation perceived to possess a

positive image both within the framework of their personal mindset and the

broader social circles in which they belong or aspire to become affiliated

with (Dutton et al. 1994: 242). On this basis, it could be plausibly asserted

that when organisations employ strategies geared towards increasing

applicant exposure to the organisation’s brand in an attempt to evoke

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positive brand perceptions to influence the likelihood of active pursuit

intentions, organisations are better to focus attention on communicating

information pertaining to their commitment to their workforce (as evidenced

by level of salary offered relative to the wider marketplace and tenure

philosophy, for example), as well as the organisation’s corporate culture

and related values (Cober, Brown and Levy 2004: 203).

Research (Meglino, Ravlin and Adkins 1989; Judge and Bretz 1992; and

Judge and Cable 1997) has indicated the importance of culture on job

seeker attraction to organisations. Of these authors, the research findings

of Judge and Bretz 1992 have greatest relevance to the present

investigation. Judge and Bretz (1992: 269) found that when an organisation

developed a ‘core values’ image (and communicated this information to job

seekers via recruitment information), the collective ‘values image’ exerted

more influence in informing organisational attractiveness than did pay and

promotional opportunities. This finding suggests that in the contemporary

business environment, organisations with strong corporate cultures (based

on solid core values) may benefit from developing specific ‘branding’

identities that are aligned with the corporate value philosophy. This being

said it is recognised that the extent to which a job seeker identified with the

communicated value framework would influence the degree of attraction to

the organisation as a potential employer (Judge and Bretz 1992: 269).

Additionally, Cable, Aiman-Smith, Mulvey and Edwards (2000: 1076)

asserted that the cultural messages organisations convey to applicants

during the recruitment process may serve to pre-socialise applicants prior to

actively pursuing a prospective employer. Further, Cable et al. (2000)

stated that ‘when newcomers enter a firm with accurate culture beliefs, their

behaviour is guided in ways that transcend the objectives of a particular job’

(p. 1076). That is, the researchers advocated that the accurate

communication of an organisation’s cultural framework to applicants at the

pre-interview stage of the recruitment process was potentially

advantageous from the dual perspective of both increasing applicant

attraction to the organisation (based on the alignment of an organisation’s

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value set with that of the individual’s), and enhancing the likelihood of

organisational fit based on the commonality of that value set post-

appointment thus increasing the utility of the recruitment process (Cable et

al. 2000: 1077). Further, when considering ‘culture’ within the context of

organisational attractiveness, it is recognised that in a business context

individual departments within organisations, although operating within the

preferred cultural framework, develop operationally distinct sub-cultures

relevant to the core business of that unit (Legge 1995: 180). In taking into

consideration that jobs advertised by the higher education institution contain

information regarding the job and the broader organisational unit in which

the job is located, it would be plausible to assume that cultural

considerations could have been pertinent to a job seeker’s thought

processes when assessing a job for possible employment.

Consistent with this investigation’s findings that overarching contextual

factors have a higher propensity (than job attributes) to inform perceptions

of organisational attractiveness, a number of ‘new’ concepts not traditionally

applied in recruitment research present themselves as potential alternative

avenues for investigation. As such, drawing on the dimensions of brand

personality as espoused by Aaker (1997: 347), the present investigator

considers ‘excitement’ and ‘competence’ as possessing potential in forging

alternative pathways for capturing applicant attraction to the organisation.

In recognition of the value of creating branding identities that attract

applicants in the contemporary business environment, Cable et al. (2000:

1077) stated that numerous market leaders in the U.S. (for example,

Hewlett-Packard, Xerox, and Motorola) are actively attempting to modify

their ‘traditional’ public images from being perceived as bureaucratic and

conservative to being recognised as experimental, innovative, and results-

driven as a strategy to increase applicant attention in the organisations as

‘exciting’ employers. Further, recent scholarly and practitioner literature (for

example De Cieri, Holmes, Abbott and Pettitt 2005; Nord, Fox, Phoenix and

Viano 2002; Lambert 2000) have drawn attention to the business issues of

work/life balance to engage the energy and motivation of individuals to

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consider organisations as interesting places to work. The higher education

institution of relevance to this study is committed to work/life balance and

staff wellness concepts. Thus, in considering the broader social implications

of this factor, it is plausible to assume that this could have been a key issue

of relevance in attracting individuals to the higher education institution as a

potential employer.

Researchers (De Cieri et al. 2005; Nord et al. 2002; Lambert 2000) have

asserted that in the contemporary business environment, organisations

aiming to achieve competitive advantages in the recruitment domain must

adopt strategies and policies to accommodate the work/life balance needs

of a diverse range of job seeking individuals. Within this framework, De

Cieri et al. and Nord et al. stated that the emergent challenge for

organisations is to develop structures capable of limiting barriers to the

achievement of flexible employment options for individuals. However,

Taylor and Collins (in Cooper and Locke 2000: 328) urged organisations to

‘avoid the faddish implementation of practices that offer no clear advantage

for the business’ on the basis that simply adopting another organisation’s

initiatives is unlikely to offer strategic value in the longer term if operational

practices are not appropriately aligned with the overarching core values of

the organisation. Indeed, Taylor and Collins (2002: 328) suggested that

inconsistencies could represent significant costs for organisations in terms

of unnecessarily high recruitment expenses and the premature loss of

‘talent’ to competitor organisations adopting fully integrated strategies.

With regards to ‘competence’, the present investigator views this factor as

being a logical consideration in the thought processes of applicants. As

such, it is plausible to assume that individuals would not seek to align

themselves with an organisation (and a job) that was not perceived to be

operationally competent (in the eyes of the job seeker) relative to industry

standards and those minimum levels of achievement for which an applicant

would deem necessary to evoke consideration as a potential option for

employment.

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At the job level, the result that job seekers do not consider job attributes as

a critical consideration when first displaying attraction to the organisation,

could be attributed to the fact that applicants had an average of 16 years

work experience. As such, it is possible that a significant number of

applicants applying for advertised vacancies at the higher education

institution already held comparable positions at other organisations. This

being the case it would be logical to assume that job seekers would already

possess knowledge pertaining to the likely duties and responsibilities of the

position for which they were potentially applying. Further, it would also be

logical to assume that in such a scenario, job seekers displaying positive

pursuit behaviours would have a natural predisposition to value features

that distinguished the higher education institution from their current

employer. In addition, when considering the recent changes to the industrial

relations fabric of the Australian business landscape, it could be asserted

that job seekers view the tertiary education sector as a stable employment

option by virtue of its regulated workforce agreements (Lansbury 2004: 103).

Thus, it could be plausible to assume that if applicants applying for

positions at the higher education institution were currently employed in the

private sector, that is largely less regulated, individuals would have a higher

propensity to be interested in (and thus attracted to) these macro level

organisational attributes.

In summary of discussions pertaining to Hypothesis Two, there is again

support to draw attention to the overarching influence of organisational

attractiveness perceptions and its influence on pursuit intentions. Indeed, as

has been discussed, it appears that individuals will select themselves into

organisational environments that are perceived to fulfil their personal values

and needs. On this basis, the higher the attraction, the more likely a job

seeker will engage in positive pursuit behaviour. Implications for theory

based on these findings will now be discussed.

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Hypothesis Three

Hypothesis Three expected to reveal a mediated relationship between

variables of interest in the current study. Results pertaining to Hypothesis

Three found support for the existence of a mediated relationship.

Consistent with the findings of Hypothesis One and Hypothesis Two,

stronger support for a mediated relationship was found for the relationship

between the influence of organisational attributes as opposed to job

attributes in explaining the significance of mediation; however this influence

was found to be stronger when examining interest in the job. As such, as

advocated by Turban (2001: 306) it appears that a job seeker’s ‘mere

exposure’ to an organisation’s corporate branding identity has the potential

to influence an applicant’s perceptions of the organisation as an employer.

This finding has significant strategic implications for organisations from the

perspective of confirming that an organisation’s branding identity does have

the ability to act as a source of sustainable competitive advantage in the

contemporary business environment. With many industries currently

experiencing a crumbling of the traditional, static labour market assumption

in the wake of shifts in the demographic composition of labour markets and

rapid changes in technology, recruitment as the primary mechanism used

by organisations to attract quality applicants arises at the forefront of

strategic organisational planning (Martin and Franz 1994: 33). When

applying this outcome to the marketing assumption that a brand preference

is achieved only after an extensive exercise of information consolidation,

there is strong support for the value of organisation’s establishing and

maintaining preferred ‘branding’ positions as a strategy for positioning

themselves as an ‘employer of choice’ within their preferred labour market.

Implications for theory will now be discussed.

Implications for Theory

Findings from the present investigation revealed that when a job seeker

rates an organisation’s image highly, the collective positive perceptions

translate to active intentions to pursue an organisation as a prospective

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employer. Thus, similar to the principles of brand image in the marketing

literature, a strong brand has the potential to initiate ‘purchase’ decisions.

However, it is not clearly identifiable from the present investigation’s

findings which specific components of an organisation’s image convincingly

account for the formulation of positive image perceptions – for the current

investigation’s results suggest that factors outside those tested have a

greater potential influence of image formulations - as previously discussed.

Within this framework, the present investigation has found support for Ferris

et al.’s (1998: 248) assertion that an organisation’s image can create

‘reputational capital’ capable of generating competitive advantage by virtue

of the fact that it has been found that an individual job seeker will select

themselves into an organisational environment that is perceived to

positively fulfil their personal needs. When applying this outcome to the

marketing assumption that a brand preference is achieved only after an

extensive exercise of information consolidation, there is strong support for

the value of organisation’s establishing and maintaining preferred ‘branding’

positions within the contemporary business environment as a strategy for

positioning themselves as an ‘employer of choice’ within their preferred

labour market. When applied in a specific business context, the proposition

of branding has the potential to create strategic value for organisations

conducting business in niche markets, for example. As such, given the

nature of their business, niche market organisations typically require the

acquisition of talent within highly specialised areas of technical expertise

(Collins and Stevens 2002: 1121). In the event that a niche market

organisation can effectively establish and convey a strong branding position

of interest to the preferred job seeking population; based on the results of

the present investigation, the organisation would be in an advantageous

position in terms of increasing the likelihood of entering a job seekers

‘radar’ as a possible employer. As an outcome, there would exist significant

potential (for the organisation) to increase the utility of the organisation’s

recruitment initiatives.

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The results of the present investigation have a further strategic implication.

As such, the findings suggest that, similar to Lievens and Highhouse’s

(2003) research outcomes, distinct dimensions of image motivate job

seekers when assessing organisational and job attributes of a potential

employer. For example, in discovering that job seekers have a higher

propensity to value macro considerations such as the perceived

organisational culture over and above specific role responsibilities when

formulating initial image assessments of an organisation, it is suggested

that employers focus attention on developing strategies and marketing

initiatives geared towards increasing ‘branding’ exposure from the

perspective of communicating information pertaining to an organisation’s

corporate philosophy and related operational values; rather than exclusively

promoting the virtues of the job itself. On this basis, if an organisation does

not enter into a job seekers preferred ‘set’ of organisations of choice, an

organisation will find it challenging, if not impossible, to attract the job

seeker to consider the organisation as a potential employer.

Further, the present investigation has illustrated that in applying the

fundamentals of brand image to the recruitment domain, the principles offer

a complimentary platform to Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) theory of

reasoned action (TRA). Specifically, the concept of brand image can

facilitate an understanding of how measures such as organisational

familiarity influence the cognitive processes of job seekers prior to engaging

in active pursuit behaviour. In so doing, the credibility of Fishbein and

Ajzen’s (1975) TRA (in unison with the principles of brand image) has been

confirmed as an appropriate theoretical framework for exploring the

influence of organisational image perceptions of job seekers at the pre-

interview stage of the recruitment process. Thus, historical criticisms that

recruitment research lacks a clearly articulated theoretical foundation have

been addressed. Further, the applicability of incorporating two disparate

literatures – recruitment and marketing – has been confirmed as a relevant

combination in such a recruitment context. This finding is valuable to the

recruitment domain from the perspective of offering a viable platform to

enhance the generation of knowledge relating to applicant impressions of

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organisations as employers; and subsequent pursuit decisions at the pre-

interview stage of the recruitment process.

In applying Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA as a platform for the further

exploration of behavioural intentions in the pre-interview stages of the

recruitment process, it should be acknowledged that the model possesses a

potentially significant limitation when applied in this context. As such, as

originally developed and typically used, Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) model

focuses primarily on the determinants and performance of a single

behaviour. Fishbein and Ajzen (in Sheppard, Hartwick and Warshaw 1988:

326) have acknowledged that not considering the possibility that individuals

choose among alternative behaviours represents a serious omission in the

model. As such, job seekers, like consumers in the marketing context, are

constantly presented with choice among organisations as potential

employers. It is therefore important for recruitment researchers to

acknowledge the limitation of the theory of reasoned action in its extension

to studies in which job seekers are presented with choice among alternative

behaviours (Sheppard et al. 1988: 326). Regardless, the TRA still

possesses contextual relevance to future recruitment studies designed to

capture the behavioural intentions of job seekers based on assessments of

a single organisation’s image as a potential employer. However, when

considering the studies of Belt and Paolillo (1982) and Highhouse et al.

(1999) whereby subjects in both investigations simultaneously assessed

multiple organisational images in the fast food industry, the validity of

Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) model applied in its original form would be

questionable based on its inability to be utilised outside a single choice

scenario. Directions for future research will now be discussed.

Directions for Future Research

Recruitment’s potential significance for both individuals and organisations

make it a relevant topic for continued research. Drawing on the research of

Heneman and Berkley (1999) that identified that small organisations

dominate the business landscape within the U.S., a future research

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direction to draw out from a brand image perspective is whether there exists

marked distinctions in a small businesses’ ability to effectively compete

against ‘big business’ in a recruitment context. As such, there is evidence to

suggest (for example Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996 and Aiman-Smith et al.

2001) that on face-value, organisations promoting socially responsible

virtues by way of pro-environmental policies can achieve a competitive

advantage over competitors in the same industry that do not actively

embrace environmentally conscious behaviours. In transferring this

‘branding’ framework to a small business versus big business scenario, the

present investigator is not aware of a single study that has investigated the

potential for a small business to effectively compete against a large

organisation on the basis of ‘branding’ identity in a recruitment context. In

considering Ferris et al.’s (1998: 248) assertion that organisations will

become pre-eminently involved with the business of impression

management as competition for qualified labour intensifies in response to a

crumbling of the static labour market assumption; this future research

direction is of pertinent importance.

Kramar (2002: 66) asserted that a number of drivers exist that will influence

the shape of Australian organisations conducting business by the year 2010.

Specifically, that the ‘typical’ organisation would be predominantly smaller in

size to allow it to more effectively respond to changes in the business

landscape. Although Kramar (2002) wrote from an Australian viewpoint,

other writers (Hunt in Wiesner and Miller (2003) and Beer (1997), for

example) have identified with Kramar’s drivers as being applicable on a

global scale. In addition, as niche markets continue to evolve for specialised

talent and expertise across industries, it is to an organisation’s advantage to

understand the ‘science’ of brand image with its consumer behaviour

underpinnings to increase the utility of recruitment initiatives. On this basis,

the ‘branding’ position and capabilities of organisations comes to the fore in

being able to effectively compete for qualified talent in the contemporary

business environment; thus strengthening the argument for further brand

image research in the recruitment context.

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While much recruitment research has focused on measuring organisational

attraction as a generic concept collectively encompassing assessments of a

number of potentially distinct dimensions; research outcomes highlighted in

the present investigation suggest that from a measurement perspective,

future research should focus on the identification and development of new

scales that more appropriately measure distinct components of attraction.

As such, organisational image as a construct has received increased

attention in the organisational sciences in recent years as a necessary

ingredient in building and maintaining effective workforces; thus highlighting

the need for research to remain at the cutting edge to effectively

complement practice (Berkson, Harris and Ferris 1999: 83). Drawing on

research results highlighted in the present investigation, it appears a

plausible assertion to make that advancements in the measurement of

attraction (in response to image perceptions) are required to adequately

achieve this end. Indeed, it is recommended that future recruitment

research draws on the foundations laid by Highhouse et al. (2003) to more

accurately explore organisational attraction as a construct. As previously

discussed, Highhouse et al. broke with convention in testing three distinct

components of attraction. As a result of this action the researchers

determined the viability and value of pursuing this framework to achieve a

greater depth of understanding of how organisational choice behaviour is

influenced based on applicant perceptions of image. In particular, prestige

perceptions appear to possess significant potential as a construct for future

research in terms of its apparent strength in influencing pursuit behaviour

based on Highhouse et al.’s (2003) findings.

A further viable option for future research concentration is the continued

engagement of active job seekers from which to source recruitment data.

As highlighted previously, recruitment research has been plagued by a

heavy reliance on college and university students as a source of research

data. In light of this fact, it is suggested that in order to increase the

credibility and generalisability of research results to the wider business

community, recruitment researchers should make a conscious decision to

utilise job seekers with professional work experience from which to

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generate research data. Although it is acknowledged that college and

university students offer researchers a convenient and geographically

compact population from which to source data, given both the importance of

organisational image to organisations as potential sources of competitive

advantage, and advances in technology that offer alternative avenues for

data collection (such as the internet), it is recommended that future

research be directed towards developing further knowledge based on non-

student perceptions of organisational image.

Continuing on the path of increased research credibility and generalisability

of results to organisations, it is recommended that future recruitment

research utilise established businesses as the focus for data collection. As

such, some image studies (Honeycutt and Rosen (1997), for example) have

measured attraction based on image perceptions of hypothetical jobs and

organisations. Alternatively, where non-fictitious organisations have been

utilised, some detail with regards to the portrayed image to study subjects

has been manipulated by researchers. It is suggested that more value can

be provided if future recruitment research (particularly focusing on the pre-

interview stages of the process) utilise established businesses whose

images have not been modified to achieve more credible research

outcomes. Some practical implications are now addressed.

Implications for Practice

This investigation offers a number of viable implications for recruitment

practice. Firstly, as stated previously, marketing scholars have long

recognised the strategic importance of the concept of brand image to evoke

a set of associations or impressions in the ‘hearts and minds’ of individuals

to influence purchase decisions. In providing a linkage between these

conceptualisations to organisational image research in the recruitment

context, organisations have a very powerful resource available to them in

the form of their corporate websites that can facilitate the achievement of

strong brand identities. Within this framework, Dineen et al. (2002: 723)

stated that an organisations corporate website, when utilised as a dedicated

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recruitment mechanism, can reduce costs by up to 95% over those

traditionally utilised recruitment sources (such as printed newspaper media).

Further, Cober, Brown, Blumental, Doverspike and Levy (2000: 479) argued

that the ability of an organisations corporate website to enhance the

communication of organisational information to broad audiences is not

restricted to the realm of technologically sophisticated organisations. Indeed

there are several key advantages that can be emphasised in utilising an

organisations corporate website as a cost-effective recruitment and

branding tool. For example, in what the present investigator refers to as

‘wholesale’ job boards (such as SEEK and MyCareer), organisational and

job relevant information is presented to applicants in a generic format that

does not facilitate the ability for organisations to adequately promote the

unique qualities of the organisation; thus inhibiting the differentiation of

organisations from their respective competitors. In this environment, the

business of ‘impression management’ that is crucial to the formulation of

brand identities is severely restricted.

Alternatively, a corporate website that is under the ‘control’ of the

organisation, and provides adequate opportunities for strategic decision

makers to provide content on the three broad components of organisation

image of importance to job seekers - organisational information, job specific

information, and people information - is better positioned to market

themselves in a manner likely to generate applicant attention (Cable and

Turban 2001: 125). As stated by Dineen et al. (2002: 729), the use of

corporate websites as a holistic, cost-effective tool for attracting applicants

still remains a relatively novel concept with organisations generally adopting

this resource in a disjointed and ad hoc manner. However, the internet as a

platform offers organisations a sustainable framework for enhancing image

perceptions by actively engaging job seekers to consider positions for

possible employment.

A further practical implication to draw out is that, at the organisational level,

the human resource (HR) department should be poised to bring the

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principles from product branding to the recruitment realm to build an

organisations external brand (Sartain 2005: 90). Building on this

perspective, Sartain (2005: 90) went further to advocate the role of HR as

“speaking the language of business” by externalising an organisations

branding identity to achieve a deeper emotional connection with prospective

employees. Thus, rather than HR being a passive contributor to the

achievement of organisational objectives, a ‘boundary spanning’ role is

proposed whereby HR professionals are actively engaged as organisational

information processors that functionally relate the organisation to both its

internal and external business environment to inform the appropriate

projection of the organisations public image (Russ, Galang and Ferris 1998:

126). In this vein, Russ et al. (1998: 127) proposed that the image

enhancing activities of HR should be embraced as a strategic

organisational tactic to increase the utility of the recruitment process by

achieving a suitable return on investment on the recruitment dollar spent;

and to ensure that those practices and activities carried out by an

organisation with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting the ‘best

and brightest’ talent are appropriately informed to capitalise on recruitment

opportunities. With specific reference to the intensification of competition for

qualified talent in the global marketplace, HR professionals within

organisations must learn to become informed risk takers confident in their

ability to experiment with new ideas and act to create sustainable business

impact within the preferred brand identity of the respective organisation. In

staying alert to shifts in the broader political and social contexts in which

business is conducted, HR professionals will be in a sustained position to

offer strategic recommendations regarding the tailoring of brand images as

required.

Lastly, in terms of the recruitment process itself, a practical implication

stemming from this investigation is the need for organisations to focus

increased attention on achieving recruitment efficiencies. As discussed

earlier in this paper, there is universal recognition that individuals do not

enter into a relationship with a prospective employer as a ‘clean slate’.

Rather, individuals have preferences for certain attributes, and an

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individual’s perceptions as to the availability of these desirable attributes

within an organisation influence pursuit intentions. Thus, recruitment does

not occur in a vacuum. Rather, it occurs in a real-world context in which a

host of factors can influence both the types of recruitment activities

organisations engage in and applicant responses to those activities (Barber

1998: 3). Within this framework, it has already been discussed that

organisations should actively embrace the internet as a platform to actively

engage and attract job seekers to consider positions for possible

employment.

However, in achieving further recruitment efficiencies in organisations it is

suggested that a fundamental shift in the psyche of organisations is

required to realise this strategic potential. As such, organisations have

traditionally focused attention on processes related to the selection of new

recruits – a fact largely attributable to the previously abundant supply of

qualified labour across industries (Franz and Martin 1994: 34). With this

developed recruitment practices that have entered the ‘comfort zone’ of

many organisations due to their standardised application over time. With

the tightening of labour markets organisations need to challenge traditional

recruitment assumptions and practices accordingly. As such, a common

practice to date has involved the standard application of recruitment

methodologies (for example the placement of newspaper advertisements)

to draw attention to jobs regardless of the type of industry or the knowledge,

skills, and abilities required by applicants to perform successfully in these

advertised roles.

As niche markets continue to evolve for specialised talent and expertise

across industries, it is proposed that organisations need to ‘get smarter’ in

terms of the means by which different talent pools are attracted to consider

organisations for possible employment. For example, rather than

organisations attempting to persuade job seekers to become applicants

through ‘safe’ options such as placement office postings, it is proposed that

organisations may need to conduct extensive market research that delves

into the preferred lifestyles of the desired applicant population to determine

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if there exists a higher propensity for individuals to be attracted to a certain

leisurely pursuit. As such, it may become a viable option for some

organisations within specific industries to actively engage in socially

responsible and community minded events (such as through the sponsoring

of an event or activity) to increase the likelihood of potential applicants

becoming exposed to the organisation and its preferred branding position;

thus, achieving ‘an edge’ over competitors (Collins and Han 2004: 689).

Within this framework, it is acknowledged that ultimately the opportunity

cost for the engagement of such strategies is a prime consideration in

achieving recruitment efficiencies. Regardless, it is suggested that

recruitment practices within organisations ‘move with the times’ and are not

applied purely on the basis of tradition.

Limitations Some limitations associated with the present investigation should be

acknowledged. A criticism is that characteristics of the instrument testing

group were not consistent with the population from which the research data

was drawn. As such, due to logistical difficulties associated with conducting

an instrument test utilising a population of active job seekers, the instrument

test participants were representatives from the higher education institution’s

human resource department. Although it was perceived by the present

investigator that the instrument test participants could offer objective

insights and feedback on the test instrument, it became evident at the data

analysis stage of the investigation that distinct subtleties in the framing of

survey items, particularly the introductory paragraphs, could have resulted

in some items not being as specifically targeted to the respective content as

had been hoped. For example, with reference to items framed to explore

applicant “intention to pursue a job with the organisation” and “intention to

pursue the job applied for” subtle, but in hindsight distinct, variations in the

introductions to these respective scale items existed that could have

compromised the quality of data collected. As such, the introductory

sentence related to “intention to pursue a job with the organisation” was

worded unambiguously as “the following questions explore your motivations

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for pursuing a job with this organisation”. However, when introducing items

related to “intention to pursue the job applied for”, the sentence was worded

“the following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing the job

that you most recently applied for”.

Although it is acknowledged that respondents were invited to complete the

survey only after having submitted an actual application for an advertised

position with the higher education institution, the leading sentence is

considered, in hindsight, to be ambiguous enough to have potentially

compromised the objectivity of applicant responses. Further, as the wording

of the corresponding scale items were not framed with specific reference to

the test organisation, it is perceived by the present investigator that there

could have arisen the situation whereby a job seeker responded to these

items with reference to a job they had potentially applied for outside the

higher education institution. Thus, the research data could have been

compromised.

Secondly, as job seekers responded to survey items that had been

prescribed by the present investigator, other elements potentially relevant to

the study were not captured for consideration. As such, previous

recruitment research conducted by Cable and Graham (2000) and Lievens

and Highhouse (2003), by design, facilitated the identification and

categorisation of a myriad of elements considered by job seekers as

important when considering organisations as potential places of

employment. The two studies revealed critical areas of importance (from

the applicant’s perspective) that had not previously been considered by

recruitment researchers as mainstream considerations when assessing

image perceptions of job seekers. As such, being relatively new findings the

present investigator was not aware of any subsequent studies that

incorporated Cable and Graham’s (2000) and Lievens and Highhouse’s

(2003) results into newly developed survey items that more inclusively

tested applicant image perceptions. Although it was realised by the present

investigator that there existed potential to develop lines of questioning

around the broader elements discovered by Cable and Graham (2000) and

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Lievens and Highhouse (2003), the conservative path was chosen that

adopted ‘tried and tested’ scales that had acceptable levels of reliability.

Nonetheless, results from the present investigation have revealed that it

would be a plausible assertion to make that elements outside those tested

in this study could be influential to job seekers when considering both

organisations and jobs for possible employment – as discussed earlier in

the Chapter.

The fact that applicants provided survey responses based on the

assessment of only one organisation is also considered a limitation. This

situation contrasts with applicant’s actual perceived practice of considering

multiple opportunities over a prescribed period of time. Although this study

was designed to only test job seeker perceptions related to one employer,

relating back to the marketing literature, it is asserted that individuals refer

to a group of possible brands that are perceived to meet their most basic,

fundamental ‘buying’ criteria; and it is from this ‘set’ of brands that decisions

regarding organisational pursuit intentions are drawn. Logically, it would

then follow that although a job seeker may be actively pursuing one

employer from their ‘set’ of preferences, the applicant would be

subconsciously assessing one organisation against the others in that group.

Thus, it is possible that when applicants were providing responses to the

survey ‘exclusive’ answers were not being provided. As such, it is a

possibility that job seekers were subconsciously responding based on the

assessment of the study organisation relative to other organisations

contained in their personalised ‘consideration set’. On this basis, research

data could have been compromised.

The technical failure of the on-line survey is considered a further limitation.

Directly attributed to the technical error in the on-line survey, data collected

in response to two items had to be discounted from subsequent analysis

due to missing responses. As a result, the ability to holistically examine the

research data was compromised.

Finally, a disadvantage of this study is that results could not be assumed to

generalise to applicant populations outside the higher education sector.

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Thus, research results should be applied with caution and not assumed to

be relevant across all industrial environments. It is therefore recommended

that the study be replicated in specific industrial environments utilising

established businesses as the test sites to increase generalisability of

results.

Conclusion

In summary, the objective of this investigation was to contribute to the

recruitment literature by broadening the knowledge base and understanding

of factors related to prospective applicant impressions of an organisation’s

image as an employer, and how these perceptions of image influence

applicant decisions at the pre-interview stage of the recruitment process. A

rationale for this research focus was justified on the basis that the

immediate objective of recruitment – applicant attraction – remains under-

researched resulting in practitioners being forced to rely on personal

experience, myth and intuition. With many industries currently experiencing

a crumbling of the traditional, static labour market assumption in the wake

of shifts in the demographic composition of labour markets and rapid

changes in technology, recruitment as the primary mechanism used by

organisations to attract quality applicants arises at the forefront of strategic

organisational planning. Within this framework, the historical abundance of

individuals across labour markets has previously focussed research

attention on three core components of the recruitment process (recruitment

sources, recruiter characteristics, and realistic job previews). Thus, there is

limited empirical evidence to guide organisations at the critical pre-interview

stage of the recruitment process in response to shifts in labour market

conditions. To address this weakness in the recruitment research the

present investigation integrated two disparate areas of literature –

recruitment and marketing – within the theoretical context of Fishbein and

Ajzen’s (1975) theory of reasoned action. The theory of reasoned action is

well tested in the social psychology arena and provided a sound theoretical

platform to underpin the relationships applicable to this investigation. In

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applying the marketing literature to the recruitment context, the marketing

principles of brand image were utilised.

While it is acknowledged that there were a number of potential aspects of

the marketing literature relevant to recruitment, it was perceived that the

principles of brand image formed a strong basis with which to structure the

present investigation due to it being well tested in the marketing arena. In

applying the marketing principles of brand image to the recruitment context,

the present investigator conceptualised organisational image as a process

whereby the buyer (the applicant) made a cognitively demanding purchase

decision to enter into a long-term purchase decision with the seller (the

organisation). On this basis, it was theorised that an individual having a

positive affective attitude towards an organisation would view the

organisation as a desirable entity and want to engage in a relationship with

it. To explore the role of organisational image perceptions at the pre-

interview stage of the recruitment process, six hypotheses were developed

around the core relationships applicable to the investigation:











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Chapter Two provided an extensive literature review examining underlying

concepts and relationships inherent in a job seeker’s pre-employment

perceptions of organisations. It was argued that inherent in a positive

applicant-organisation relationship would be a translation to active

organisational pursuit behaviour. This argument stemmed from the

literature reviewed which indicated that job seekers will generally react

positively towards an employing organisation when that organisation’s

image is perceived in a positive light. The conceptual framework was

presented diagrammatically in this Chapter.

Chapter Three reported the design, methodology, and administration of the

investigation. Data was collected from job seekers submitting applications

for advertised job vacancies at a large, Queensland-based higher education

institution, thereby addressing criticisms that organisational image research

is plagued by the heavy reliance on college and university students as a

source of research data. The study predominantly collected data using an

on-line questionnaire. A hard copy version of the same questionnaire

supplemented on-line questionnaire responses. A description of the

questionnaire design process was outlined examining scale development

and instrument test procedures. Demographic information was also

presented.

Chapter Four presented study results. The results were examined in light of

the stated hypotheses. Results presented some positive and significant

results for the organisation.

Chapter Five provided a discussion and conclusion to the investigation. The

results were discussed in the context of the presented hypotheses and the

wider recruitment and marketing literature. Implications for theory, practice,

and future recruitment research were also identified and discussed. Finally,

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the limitations of the study were acknowledged as a means to assist future

recruitment studies in this area.

As advocated by Ferris et al. (1998: 248) organisations will become pre-

eminently involved with the business of impression management as

competition for qualified labour intensifies in response to the crumbling of

the static labour market assumption. Specifically, that organisations should

capitalise on information to actively promote their images to create

‘reputational captial’ capable of generating significant intangible wealth in

the form of competitive advantage. Within this framework, the present

investigation has found support for Ferris et al.’s (1998) assertion that an

organisation’s image can create ‘reputational capital’ capable of generating

competitive advantage by virtue of the fact that it has been found that an

individual job seeker will select themselves into an organisational

environment that is perceived to positively fulfil their personal needs. When

applying this outcome to the marketing assumption that a brand preference

is achieved only after an extensive exercise of information consolidation,

there is strong support for the value of organisations establishing and

maintaining preferred ‘branding’ positions within the contemporary business

environment as a strategy for positioning themselves as an ‘employer of

choice’ within their preferred labour market.

The results of the present investigation have a further strategic implication.

As such, the findings suggest that, similar to Lievens and Highhouse’s

(2003) research outcomes, distinct dimensions of image motivate job

seekers when assessing organisational and job attributes of a potential

employer. For example, in discovering that job seekers have a higher

propensity to value macro considerations such as the perceived

organisational culture over and above specific role responsibilities when

formulating initial image assessments of an organisation, it is suggested

that employers focus attention on developing strategies and marketing

initiatives geared towards increasing ‘branding’ exposure from the

perspective of communicating information pertaining to an organisations

corporate philosophy and related operational values; rather than exclusively

promoting the virtues of the job itself. On this basis, if an organisation does

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not enter into a job seekers preferred ‘set’ of organisations of choice, an

organisation will find it challenging, if not impossible, to attract the job

seeker to consider the organisation as a potential employer.

To this end, future investigations focusing on the pre-interview stage of the

recruitment process offer researchers rich opportunities to enhance the

image-building capability of organisations and have a key role to play in

complementing and enhancing an organisations preferred competitive

position and influencing organisational efficiencies in terms of the

organisation’s interactions with external constituents. Thus, although it is

recognised that there is a tightening of labour markets and the deep pool of

applicant talent that once existed across industries has become shallow,

strategic decision makers in organisations have cause to remain optimistic.

As such, despite the limitations, this study has re-affirmed previous

academic research findings that organisational image perceptions of

applicants do influence intentions to pursue an organisation for possible

employment. Thus, applied in a recruitment context, this line of research

enquiry holds promise for organisations in offering a viable platform for

enhanced understanding of the strategic impact of organisational image

perceptions on job seeking populations.

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APPENDIX 1

Example of On-Line Survey Format

A Study of the Recruitment Process

Complete Survey

• What is This Survey? • Project Descriptions • Expected Benefits • How Should I Respond? • Who Will See My Answers? • Questions • Concerns

What is This Survey?

This survey is being conducted as part of our Master of Business (Research) studies at Company X. This survey is designed to capture your views and opinions of recruitment processes and sources. Participation is voluntary. This is not a test and there are no right or wrong answers. We are merely interested in your views and opinions.

The responses you give are confidential. At no time will your questionnaire responses influence your application for employment at Compnay X. There will be no relationship between what you say and getting a job. Answers will only be seen by us as Masters students and not by anybody who will be involved in your selection process. Project Descriptions

This study aims to extend the recruitment literature by investigating applicant impressions of organisational image and e-recruitment effectiveness. Expected Benefits

It is envisaged that our research will build on the recruitment literature by determining the major components of organisational image, from an applicant’s perspective and ascertaining whether e-recruitment is a worthwhile source for organisations to continue to invest in when advertising vacancies. The data received from the surveys will be valuable to gauge the perceptions of applicants on the usage of, and usefulness of, the original recruitment source used in locating the job. This is new research as previous research on recruitment has not included the Internet as a source and has predominantly involved surveying employees and not applicants.

It is hoped that as an outcome of this research, organisations may be better positioned to cost-effectively tailor recruitment information and the use of appropriate recruitment sources to both capture and increase applicant interest in an organisation as an employer.

While your involvement in this project will not directly benefit you, we

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hope that by increasing understanding of these issues, recruitment information provided to people such as yourself can be improved in the future. Therefore, we would greatly appreciate your participation in this survey. How Should I Respond?

For each question you are asked to select the one response that best fits your views. Please answer all the questions as openly and honestly as possible.

For example, the following question asks about the ease of locating the job advertisement. If you believe that it was extremely easy to locate this particular position advertisement, you might answer like this:

Was there sufficient information about the position provided in the job advertisement?

Extremely Insufficient More Than

Enough

Who Will See My Answers?

The responses you give are confidential and will remain anonymous. At no time will Company X have access to any of the questionnaires completed by individuals. Findings will be made available on request to all who participate and complete the questionnaire, but in such a way that it is not possible for individuals to be identified. Questions

For additional information about the project, or to have questions answered, potential participants should contact either of the Chief Investigators: Natalie Rose, on email ne.rose@Company X.edu.au, or Erica Marr on e-mail e.marr@Company X.edu.au, or the Masters Study Supervisor, Dr Lisa Bradley, on email lm.bradley@Company X.edu.au. Concerns

Potential participants should be advised that if they have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of the project, they should contact the Research Ethics Officer, Company X, on (telephone number withheld to maintain confidentiality). Thank you very much for your participation in this project. It is

greatly appreciated.

Complete Survey

A Study of the Recruitment Process

Recruitment Source

This question investigates the sources people use to find jobs to apply for. Please respond by marking one box corresponding with your answer.

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1. Where did you first locate the job you most recently applied for at Company X?

Newspaper

Internet

Friends/Relatives

Other (please provide details) 2. What is the likelihood that you would use each of the following sources to find a job you could apply for? Please mark one box for each source.

Very Unlikely Very

Likely Unsure

Newspaper Internet Friends/ Relatives Other (eg employment agency) Advertisement Placement/Information

The following questions aim to investigate your thoughts about the placement of, and information contained in, the position advertisement. Please mark one box for each question.

3. How easy was it to find the advertisement?

Extremely Difficult Extremely Easy

4. How much impact did each of the following characteristics have on bringing the advertisement to your attention?

No Impact Some

Impact High Impact

Job Title Advertisement Location Advertisement Layout

5. How easy was it to understand the information contained within the advertisement?

Very Difficult Very Easy

6. Did you obtain additional information about the job after first locating the advertisement?

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Yes

Please indicate where you obtained this information from?

Organisational Website

Telephone request to organisational employee for duty statement mail-out

Other (please specify)

No Interest in the Job

The following question explores what characteristics of a position are of most interest to you when looking for a job. Please mark one box for each question.

7. How important are the following four factors to you when you consider applying for a job?

Extremely Unimportant

Somewhat important

Extremely Important

Salary Opportunity to use my abilities Challenging work Interesting work Perceptions of Job Itself

The following questions explore your thoughts and understanding about the job you have applied for. Please mark one box for each question.

8. Do you believe that the job you have applied for will:

Very Unlikely Very

Likely Unsure

Provide adequate opportunities for you to use your abilities to your full potential in performing job tasks?

Provide you with adequate opportunity to develop and learn new work skills?

Provide you with adequate opportunity to show your supervisors effective performance in completing work tasks?

Provide you with a variety of work tasks to maintain your interest in the job?

Provide you with adequate opportunities for career

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advancement? Provide you with the freedom to do the job your own way? Provide you with challenging work? Provide you with interesting work? Perceptions of Compensation/Job Security

The following questions explore your thoughts about the salary and benefits linked to the job you have applied for. Please mark one box for each question.

9. Do you believe that Company X will:

Very Unlikely Very

Likely Unsure

Provide you with a competitive salary? Provide you with strong job security? Provide you with competitive non-salary benefits? Provide you with a prestigious job title? Provide you with good career paths? Perceptions of Work/Company

The following questions explore your thoughts and understanding about the organisation, Company X, where the job is located. Please mark one box for each question.

10. How likely is it that Company X will provide each of the following:

Very Unlikely Very

Likely Unsure

Provide you with access to competent co-workers? Provide you with access to sociable co-workers? Provide access to appropriate training programs? Provide you with a pleasant work environment? Offer you a job that fits with your life style? Provide you with a supervisor that you can work with? A good reputation as an employer? A desirable geographic location? An appropriately sized company for you?

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Interest in the Organisation

The following statements relate to how much interest you have in working for Company X. Please mark one box for each question. Remember answers will only be seen by Masters students (authors) and not by anybody who will be involved in the selection process for the job you have applied for. Your answers will in no way influence the job selection panel.

Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the following statements. Please select one response for each question.

Strongly Disagree

Neither Agree or Disagree

Strongly Agree

11. Company X would be a good organisation to work for 12. I would like to work for Company X 13. Company X cares about its employees 14. I find Company X a very attractive organisation Intention to Pursue for a Job with this Organisation

The following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing a job with this organisation (Company X). Please mark one box for each question.

Strongly Disagree


Strongly Agree

15. I would accept a job offer from Company X 16. I would make Company X one of my first choices as an employer 17. If Company X invited me for a job interview I would go 18. I would exert a great deal of effort to work at Company X 19. I would recommend Company X to a friend/family member looking for a job Intention to Pursue the Job Applied For

The following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing the job that you most recently applied for. Please mark one box for each question.

Strongly Disagree


Strongly Agree

20. I would accept the job I applied for 21. I would make this job one of my first choices

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22. I would exert a great deal of effort to get this job This section asks for demographic information. It is important that you complete this section. Remember that you will not be able to be identified by this information

What is your sex? Male Female

What is your age? years

Where are you from? Country...

What is the highest level of education you have completed? Up to and including Grade 10 or equivalent

Approximately how many years have you been in the workforce for?

What job category is the position you have applied for? (please mark one box per job applied for in the appropriate category)

General Staff HEWA1 ($14,065-$29,434)

HEWA2 ($15,082-$30,887)

HEWA3 ($15,807-$35,163)

HEWA4 ($18,051-$37,983)

HEWA5 ($39,238-$44,258)

HEWA6 ($45,521-$49,288)

HEWA7 ($50,224-$54,941)

HEWA8 ($56,502-$64,036)

HEWA9 ($65,922-$69,061)

HEWA10 ($70,632)

Academic Staff Associate Lecturer Lecturer Senior Lecturer

Associate Professor Professor

Senior Staff

What type of position are you applying for (Please mark one of each A and B)

A Full-time Part-time B Ongoing Fixed-term

What is the campus location of the position you are applying for? (please mark one box)

Note: Campus locations withheld to maintain confidentiality.

Submit your survey responses Reset

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR COOPERATION We greatly appreciate the time you have taken to complete this survey

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APPENDIX 2

Example of Hard-Copy Survey Format

INFORMATION SHEET

Title: A Study of the Recruitment Process

What is This Survey? This survey is being conducted as part of our Master of Business (Research) studies at Company X. This survey is designed to capture your views and opinions of recruitment processes and sources. Participation is voluntary. This is not a test and there are no right or wrong answers. We are merely interested in your views and opinions. The responses you give are confidential. At no time will your questionnaire responses influence your application for employment at Company X. There will be no relationship between what you say and getting a job. Answers will only be seen by us as Masters students and not by anybody who will be involved in your selection process.

Project Descriptions This study aims to extend the recruitment literature by investigating applicant impressions of organisational image and e-recruitment effectiveness. Expected Benefits It is envisaged that our research will build on the recruitment literature by determining the major components of organisational image, from an applicant’s perspective and ascertaining whether e-recruitment is a worthwhile source for organisations to continue to invest in when advertising job vacancies. The data received from the surveys will be valuable to gauge the perceptions of applicants on the usage of, and usefulness of, the original recruitment source used in locating the job. This is new research as previous research on recruitment has not included the Internet as a source and has predominantly involved surveying employees and not applicants. It is hoped that as an outcome of this research organisations may be better positioned to tailor recruitment information and the use of appropriate recruitment sources to both capture and increase applicant interest in an organisation as an employer. While your involvement in this project will not directly benefit you, we hope that by increasing understanding of these issues, recruitment information provided to people such as yourself can be improved in the future. Therefore, we would greatly appreciate your participation in this survey.

____________________________________________________________

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How Should I Respond? For each question you are asked to select the one response that best fits your views. Please answer all the questions as openly and honestly as possible. For example, the following question asks about the information contained in the job advertisement. If you believe that there was plenty of information in that particular position advertisement (the one for the job you recently applied for) you might answer like this: Was there sufficient information about the position provided in the job advertisement? Inadequate More than

enough

Who Will See My Answers? The responses you give are confidential and will remain anonymous. Company X will at no time have access to any of the questionnaires completed by individuals. Findings will be made available on request to all who participate and complete the questionnaire in full, but in such a way that it is not possible for individuals to be identified. Questions For additional information about the project, or to have questions answered, potential participants should contact either of the Chief Investigators: Natalie Rose, on email [email protected], or Erica Marr on e-mail [email protected], or the Masters Study Supervisor, Dr Lisa Bradley, on email [email protected].

Concerns If you have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of the project, you can contact the Research Ethics Officer, Company X, on (telephone number withheld to maintain confidentiality).

Please return the survey in the self-addressed stamped envelope enclosed, or alternatively you can complete the survey on-line at: http://www.hrd.companyx.edu.au/recruitselect/jobs/recruitment_survey_intro.htm Thank you very much for your participation in this project.

It is greatly appreciated.

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Recruitment Source This question investigates the sources people use to find jobs to apply for. Please respond by marking one box corresponding with your answer.

1. Where did you first locate the job you most recently applied for?

a. Newspaper

b. Internet

c. Friends/relatives

d. Other (please provide details) _________________________

2. What is the likelihood that you would use each of the following sources to find a job you could apply for? Please mark one box for each source.

Very unlikely

Very likely

Unsure

a. Newspaper 1 2 3 4 5 6

b. Internet 1 2 3 4 5 6

c. Friends/relatives 1 2 3 4 5 6

d. Other (eg. employment agency) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Advertisement Placement/Information The following questions aim to investigate your thoughts about the placement of, and information in, the position advertisement. Please mark one box for each question.

3. How easy was it to find the advertisement?

Extremely difficult Extremely easy 1 2 3 4 5

4. How much impact did each of the following characteristics have on bringing the advertisement to

your attention?

No impact Some impact

High impact

a. Job Title 1 2 3 4 5

b. Advertisement location 1 2 3 4 5

c. Advertisement layout 1 2 3 4 5

5. How easy was it to understand the information contained within the advertisement?

Very difficult Very easy

1 2 3 4 5

6. Did you obtain additional information about the job after first locating the advertisement?

a. Yes

- Please indicate where you obtained this information from?

a. Organisational website

b. Telephone request to organisational employee for duty statement mail-out

c. Other (please specify) __________________

b. No

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Interest in the Job The following question explores what characteristics of a position are of most interest to you when looking for a job. Please mark one box for each question.

7. How important are the following four factors to you when you consider applying for a job? Extremely

un-important

Extremely important

a. Salary 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

b. Opportunity to use my abilities

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

c. Challenging work

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

d. Interesting work

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Perceptions of the Job Itself The following questions explore your thoughts and understanding about the job you have applied for. Please mark one box for each question.

8. Do you believe that the job you have applied for will:

Very unlikely

Very likely

Unsure

a. Provide adequate opportunities for you to use your abilities to your full potential in performing job tasks?

1 2 3 4 5 6

b. Provide you with adequate opportunity to develop and learn new work skills?

1 2 3 4 5 6

c. Provide you with adequate opportunity to show your supervisors effective performance in completing work tasks?

1 2 3 4 5 6

d. Provide you with a variety of work tasks to maintain your interest in the job?

1 2 3 4 5 6

e. Provide you with adequate opportunities for career advancement?

1 2 3 4 5 6

f. Provide you with the freedom to do the job your own way?

1 2 3 4 5 6

g. Provide you with challenging work? 1 2 3 4 5 6

h. Provide you with interesting work? 1 2 3 4 5 6

Perceptions of Compensation/Job Security The following questions explore your thoughts about the salary and benefits linked to the job you have applied for. Please mark one box for each question.

9. Do you believe that Company X will:

Very unlikely

Very likely

Unsure

a. Provide you with a competitive salary?

1 2 3 4 5 6

b. Provide you with strong job 1 2 3 4 5 6

____________________________________________________________

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security?

c. Provide you with competitive non-salary benefits?

1 2 3 4 5 6

d. Provide you with a prestigious job title?

1 2 3 4 5 6

e. Provide you with good career paths?

1 2 3 4 5 6

Perceptions of Work/Company The following questions explore your thoughts and understanding about the organisation, Company X, where the job is located. Please mark one box for each question.

10. How likely is it that Company X will provide each of the following:

Very unlikely

Very likely

Unsure

a. Provide you with access to competent co-workers?

1 2 3 4 5 6

b. Provide you with access to sociable co-workers?

1 2 3 4 5 6

b. Provide access to appropriate training programs?

1 2 3 4 5 6

c. Provide you with a pleasant work environment?

1 2 3 4 5 6

d. Offer you a job that fits with your lifestyle?

1 2 3 4 5 6

e. Provide you with a supervisor that you can work with?

1 2 3 4 5 6

f. A good reputation as an employer? 1 2 3 4 5 6

g. A desirable geographic location? 1 2 3 4 5 6

h. An appropriately sized company for you?

1 2 3 4 5 6

Interest in the Organisation The following statements relate to how much interest you have in working for Company X. Please mark one box for each question. Remember, answers will only be seen by Masters students (authors) and not by anybody who will be involved in the selection process for the job you have applied for. Your answers will in no way influence the job selection panel. Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the following statements.

11. Company X would be a good organisation to work for

Strongly disagree Neither agree or disagree

Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

12. I would like to work for Company X


Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

13. Company X cares about its employees

Strongly disagree Neither agree or Strongly agree

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________128

disagree 1 2 3 4 5

14. I find Company X a very attractive organisation


Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

Intention to Pursue a Job with this Organisation The following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing a job with this organisation (Company X). Please mark one box for each question. 15. I would accept a job offer from Company X

Strongly disagree

Neither agree or disagree

Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

16. I would make Company X one of my first choices as an employer

Strongly disagree


Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

17. If Company X invited me for a job interview I would go

Strongly disagree


Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

18. I would exert a great deal of effort to work for Company X

Strongly disagree


Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5 19. I would recommend Company X to a friend/family member looking for a job

Strongly disagree


Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

Intention to Pursue the Job Applied For The following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing the job that you most recently applied for. Please mark one box for each question. 20. I would accept the job I applied for

Strongly disagree


Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

21. I would make this job one of my first choices

Strongly disagree


Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________129

22. I would exert a great deal of effort to get this job

Strongly disagree


Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

This section asks for demographic information. It is important that you complete this section. Remember that you will not be able to be identified by this information.

What is your sex?

Male

Female

(Please mark the box)

What is your age? ______________ years

What country are you from? ___________________ What is the highest level of education you have completed? (Please mark one box)

1. Up to and including Grade 10 (or equivalent)

2. Grade 12 (or equivalent)

3. Diploma/Certificate from TAFE (or equivalent)

4. Undergraduate degree

5. Honours degree

6. Postgraduate Certificate from University

7. Postgraduate Diploma from University

8. Masters

9. PhD

10. Other

Approximately how many years have you been in the workforce for?

______________ years

What job category is the position you have applied for? (please mark the box of the appropriate category – more than one box can be marked if you have applied for more than one position)

General Staff: ($14,065-$29,434) HEWA1

($15,082-$30,887) HEWA2

($15,807-$35,163) HEWA3

($18,051-$37,983) HEWA4

($39,238-$44,258)

HEWA5

($45,521-$49,288)

HEWA6

($50,224-$54,941)

HEWA7

($56,502-$64,036)

HEWA8

($65,922-$69,061)

HEWA9

($70,632) HEWA10

Academic Staff: Associate Lecturer Lecturer Senior Lecturer Associate Professor Professor

Senior Staff

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________130

What type of position are you applying for (Please mark one of each A and B)

A. Full-time Part-time

B. Ongoing Fixed-term

What is the campus location of the position you are applying for? (please mark one box) Note: Campus locations withheld to maintain confidentiality.

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR

COOPERATION. We greatly appreciate the time you have taken to complete this survey.

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________131

APPENDIX 3

Job Itself Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from

Harris and Fink (1987)

Harris and Fink’s (1987) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations

Challenging/interesting work Provide you with challenging work Provide you with interesting work Opportunities to use abilities Provide you with adequate

opportunities for you to use your abilities to your full potential in performing job tasks

Opportunity to learn Provide you with adequate opportunity to develop and learn new work skills

Opportunity to show superiors effective performance

Provide you with adequate opportunity to show your supervisors effective performance in completing work tasks

Variety of activities Provide you with a variety of work tasks to maintain your interest in the job

Opportunity for rapid advancement Provide you with adequate opportunities for career advancement

Freedom to do the job my own way Provide you with the freedom to do the job your own way

Enjoyable type of work Note: Item deleted from present investigation due to perceived redundancy of the concept with “variety of activities”

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________132

APPENDIX 4

Compensation/Job Security Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from Harris and Fink (1987)


Good salary Provide you with a competitive salary

Job security Provide you with strong job security Good fringe benefits Provide you with competitive non-

salary benefits Prestigious job title Provide you with a prestigious job

title Good career paths Provide you with good career paths

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________133

APPENDIX 5

Work/Company Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from Harris and Fink (1987)


Competent and sociable co-workers Provide you with access to competent co-workers

Provide you with access to sociable co-workers

Training programs available Provide you with appropriate training programs

Pleasant work environment Provide you with a pleasant work environment

Job fits with my lifestyle Offer you a job that fits with your lifestyle

Boss I can work with Provide you with a supervisor that you can work with

Company has good reputation A good reputation as an employer Desirable geographic location A desirable geographic location Appropriately sized company An appropriately sized company for

you

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________134

APPENDIX 6

Interest in the Organisation Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from Aiman-Smith, Bauer and Cable (2001)

Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations

This would be a good company to work for

Company X would be a good organisation to work for

I would like to work for this company I would like to work for Company X This company cares about its employees

Company X cares about its employees

I find this a very attractive company I find Company X a very attractive organisation

I would want a company like this in my community

Note: Item deleted from present investigation due to perceived non relevance to the Australian business context

Note: To maintain confidentiality pertaining to the identity of the test organisation, reference to “Company X” in the above item wording replaces use of the actual organisation’s name contained within this investigation’s survey instrument.

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________135

APPENDIX 7

Interest in the Job Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from Thomas and Wise (1999)

Thomas and Wise’s (1999) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations

Salary Salary Opportunity to use my abilities Opportunity to use my abilities Challenging and interesting work Challenging work Interesting work

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________136

APPENDIX 8

Intention to Pursue a Job with the Organisation Items Adapted from Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar (2003)

Highhouse et al.’s (2003) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations

I would accept a job offer from this company

I would accept a job offer from Company X

I would make this company one of my first choices as an employer

I would make Company X one of my first choices as an employer

If this company invited me for a job interview I would go

If Company X invited me for a job interview I would go

I would exert a great deal of effort to work for this company

I would exert a great deal of effort to work for Company X

I would recommend this company to a friend looking for a job

I would recommend Company X to friends/family members looking for a job


____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________137

APPENDIX 9

Intention to Pursue the Job Applied For Items Adapted from Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar (2003)

Highhouse et al.’s (2003) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations

I would accept a job offer from this company

I would accept a job offer from Company X

I would make this company one of my first choices as an employer

I would make this job one of my first choices

If this company invited me for a job interview I would go

Not utilised in this study

I would exert a great deal of effort to work for this company

I would exert of great deal of offer to get this job

I would recommend this company to a friend looking for a job

Not utilised in this study


____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________138

APPENDIX 10

Results of Test for Gender Effects

T Significance

Job interest -.12180 .092

Organisation interest -.07048 .434

Intention to apply for

job

-.09739 .238

Intention to apply to

organisation

-.04569 .529

Job image -.00481 .891

Pay image -.15979 .584

Work image .02414 .480

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________139

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