INFLUENCE OF DEFATTED SOY FLOUR AND WHEY PROTEIN CONCENTRATE ON DOUGH RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITY OF INSTANT VERMICELLI

INFLUENCE OF DEFATTED SOY FLOUR AND WHEY PROTEINCONCENTRATE ON DOUGH RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICSAND QUALITY OF INSTANT VERMICELLIjtxs_269 72..80

M.L. SUDHA, G. RAJESWARI and G. VENKATESWARA RAO1

Flour Milling, Baking and Confectionery Technology Department, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore 570 020, CSIR, India

KEYWORDSAmylograph characteristics, farinographcharacteristics, high-protein instant vermicelli,texture profile analysis

1Corresponding author. TEL: 0821-2517730;FAX: 0821-2517233; EMAIL: [email protected]

Accepted for Publication September 26, 2010

doi:10.1111/j.1745-4603.2010.00269.x

ABSTRACT

Defatted soy flour (DSF) and whey protein concentrate (WPC) having proteincontent of 54.1 and 61.9%, respectively, were blended with wheat flour at 0–15%.Incorporation of DSF increased the farinograph water absorption from 59.3 to63.8%, whereas addition of WPC decreased the water absorption to 53.5%. Thedough stability increased from 4.5 to 8.5 min with DSF. The increase in maximumpressure value was greater on addition of DSF. The peak viscosity value decreasedfrom 818 to 657 and 587 BU on addition of DSF & WPC, respectively. Instant vermi-celli prepared by extruding, steaming and frying made the strands tough on additionof DSF or WPC. The moisture content and oil uptake decreased. Combination ofDSF and WPC resulted in acceptable quality instant vermicelli having proteincontent in the range of 15–17% and the in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) in therange of 70–80%.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Market for the instant vermicelli is increasing with the increase in consumerdemand. Instant vermicelli available is just prepared from either refined wheat flour(maida) or semolina (soji). There is a need to have products enriched with protein.Defatted soy flour and whey protein concentrate having protein content in the rangeof 50–55% can function as the sources of protein. Both have been used in the prepa-ration of high-protein vermicelli, which not only reduced the fat content in theproduct, but also had a better in vitro protein digestibility.

INTRODUCTION

Nearly 40% of the wheat is being processed into pasta prod-ucts, which includes noodles (Crosbie 1991). The market forthe instant noodles is growing fast. Instant noodles are widelypreferred by consumers because of the flavor, convenienceand ease of preparation (Wu et al. 1998). The noodles havetypical, flavor and texture because of the unique processingsteps involved. The noodles processed by steaming followedby frying process gelatinize the starch component. The poros-ity created by dehydration of water and replacement by oilhelps in quick hydration during cooking (Hou 2001). Instantnoodles, compared with other types, enable quick servingbecause of the steaming and frying process involved in gov-erning the quality of the product (Kim 1996). Instant noodles

from flours with low protein content have exhibited higher fatabsorption compared with noodles prepared from high-protein flours. This was because of the formation of coarseglobules during steaming and allowing oil to penetrate easily(Moss et al. 1987). However, protein content is not the onlyfactor, but factors like protein quality and starch quality alsohave important roles in the oil pickup on frying, and have alsoshown a significant relationship with the textural propertiesof cooked instant noodles. Wheat flours with protein contentgreater than 13% produced instant noodles with lower fatcontent, higher L* value and firmer texture. Hard wheat flourswith SDS sedimentation value greater than 36 mL hadabsorbed fat content lower than 20% (Park and Baik 2004).Water content has shown an important role in determiningthe visco-elastic properties of the dough. Based on the salts

Journal of Texture Studies ISSN 0022-4901

72 Journal of Texture Studies 42 (2011) 72–80 © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

present in the formulation noodles are classified as salted(white) or alkaline (yellow) noodles. Studies have beencarried out on usage of non-wheat cereal flours in the prepa-ration of instant noodles.Yellow pea, defatted soy protein andgreen beans were added as fortificants at 0–20% levels. Goodquality noodles were produced at 5–10% of legume (Jefferset al. 1979). Addition of rye flour decreased the noodlebrightness (L*) and yellowness (b*). Addition of gum showeda higher influence on the rheological parameters at highermoisture levels (Yu and Ngadi 2006). Increasing the gumcontent, starch and moisture content enhanced the elasticityand extensibility of the cooked noodle (Yu and Ngadi 2004).Starch and protein are the major constituents of any foodsystem. Protein ingredients were added during the prepara-tion of instant noodles to supplement protein quality orquantity to see the effect on fat uptake and textural quality.Wu et al. 2006 used hydrolysates of soy and reported thatprotein quantity and quality negatively correlated with oilcontent, whereas starch quality properties like gel hardness,gumminess and chewiness correlated positively with the oilcontent of the noodles. Casein and soy protein hydrolysateswhen added along with corn starch increased the oil contentbecause of the differences in surface tension and hydropho-bicity of the system being fried.

Very little information is available on the usage of DSF orWPC in the preparation of instant vermicelli. The study wascarried out to see the influence of protein sources on thedough rheological properties of the dough. The present workaims at addition of these protein sources to increase theprotein content of the product and as a guide to compare thequality characteristics of instant vermicelli with respect to oiluptake.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials

Commercial refined wheat flour from aestivum wheat wastaken as the basic raw material for the preparation of instantfried vermicelli. Defatted soy flour (DSF; Raiko Products,Bangalore, India) and whey protein concentrate (WPC;Procon 3700, whey protein 70, Mahaan Proteins, New Delhi,India) were chosen as protein sources. All chemicals were ofanalytical grade unless and otherwise stated. Dry glutenpowder (Burn’s Philip, Pune, India) and emulsifiers like glyc-erol monostearate and sodium dodecyl lactylate from BioconIndia, Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, India were used as additives.

Chemical Characteristics

Refined wheat flour, DSF and WPC were analyzed for mois-ture, ash content, crude protein, crude fat content accordingto standard methods (08-01, 30-25, 44-15A, 46-10) of AACC

(2000) All analysis was carried out in triplicates, expressed asthe mean value and standard deviation was calculated. Blendswere prepared by replacing wheat flour at 0, 5, 10 and 15%levels with DSF and WPC. Dough characteristics of theseblends were carried out in Brabender farinograph accordingto standard American Association of Cereal Chemists(AACC) methods (54-21). Extensible properties were deter-mined using Chopin alveograph according to standard AACCmethod (54-30A, 2000). The maximum over pressure (P),average abscissa at rupture (L), index of swelling (G), curveconfiguration ratio (P/L) and deformation energy of dough(W) were recorded. Pasting characteristics of the blends weredetermined using microvisco-amylograph (Model 803201,Brabender, Germany). A 15 g sample on 14% moisture basis(mb) and 25 mL distilled water (corrected to 14% mb) wereplaced in the microamylograph bowl. Sample pasting charac-teristics was measured with initial equilibrium at 30C andheating at the rate of 7.5C/min to a maximum temperature of95C, holding for 3 min and cooling to 50C at the rate of 7.5C/min. The stirrer speed was 250/min and measuring range was300 cmg. The test parameters like gelatinisation temperature;peak viscosity, hot paste viscosity and cold paste viscositywere determined from the amylograms.

Preparation of Instant Vermicelli

The instant vermicelli was prepared from wheat flour-DSF/WPC blends (0–15%). The dough was mixed in a planetarymixer (Spar Mixer, Spar Food Machinery Mfg. Co., Ltd.,Taiwan) using the formulation 100 g wheat flour-DSF/WPCblend, 1.25% salt, 0.1% alkaline salt (sodium carbonate andpotassium carbonate mixed in 1:1) and water (33–42%).Flour (300 g) was mixed with water containing dissolved saltsthoroughly. The dough was extruded using a laboratorypasta-making machine (Dolly, La Monferrina, Castell’ Alfero,Italy) fitted with vermicelli die. The extruded vermicellistrands were steamed for 5 min at open atmosphere, cooledand fried at 140–145C for 90 s. Fried vermicelli was drained,cooled to room temperature and stored in polypropylenebags for further analysis. Instant vermicelli was prepared byusing combination of DSF (10%) and WPC (5/10%), whereinadditives namely vital gluten powder 1% and GMS 0.5% wereused.

Fat Extraction

Vermicelli samples were uniformly ground and made mois-ture free, by drying in a moisture oven for 105 � 1C for 5–6 h(until constant weight). Moisture free sample was used forestimating the free lipids performed with petroleum etherusing solvent extractor. Three replications were made for eachmeasurement and expressed as the average.

M.L. SUDHA, G. RAJESWARI and G.V. RAO HIGH-PROTEIN INSTANT VERMICELLI

73Journal of Texture Studies 42 (2011) 72–80 © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Vermicelli Cooking

Fried vermicelli (25 g) was added to 250 mL of boiling waterin a 500-mL beaker. The fried instant vermicelli was cooked tothe optimum time (4 min) according to the method of Ohet al. (1983).After cooking the strands were cooled in runningwater for 1 min. The drained vermicelli was stored in plasticcontainer at room temperature. Three replicates were evalu-ated for texture profile analysis (TPA) using a texture analyzer(Lloyds Instruments LR-5 K, Hampshire, U.K.). A set of fivestrands of cooked vermicelli was placed on a flat metal plateand compressed crosswise to 70% of its original height usinga 3.175-mm metal blade at a speed of 1 mm/s. From theforce–time curves of TPA, different parameters like hardness,springiness and cohesiveness were determined as described inPark et al. (2003).

Cooking Quality

Fried vermicelli was cooked for 4 min until the white innercore disappeared. The strands were placed in cold water anddrained. The cooked weight was determined by weighing thedrained vermicelli. The volume of the gruel was measuredand 20 mL of gruel was pipetted out into a pre weighed Petriplates and evaporated to dryness on a water bath. Later thePetri plates were transferred into a hot air oven maintained at105 � 2C and dried to constant weight which was expressedas cooking loss (g/100 g). Color of the cooked vermicelli wasmeasured through glass plate using UV-visible recordingspectrophotometer (model UV 2100, Shimadzu Corpora-tion, Kyoto, Japan).

Sensory Evaluation

Freshly rehydrated vermicelli was subjected to sensory evalu-ation. Coded samples were served and the panelists wereasked to evaluate in terms of color, appearance, firmness(handfeel), texture (mouthfeel), taste and overall qualityusing a 9-point hedonic rating scale (Rathi et al. 2004). Ascorecard describing the desirable (creamish white – color;firm – texture; wholesome sweetish – taste) and undesirable(dull or dark color, soft or hard – texture; unpleasant taste)quality characteristics for color, texture, taste were given tothe panelist. The panelist was asked to assign the scores foreach parameter as against the maximum scores given in theparenthesis.

In Vitro Digestibility

The protein sources and optimized vermicelli samples wereused to determine the in vitro digestibility using pepsin pan-creatin enzymes according to the method described byAkeson and Stahman (1964). The nitrogen content of the

sample and the undigested residue were determined by theMicrokjeldahl method (AACC 2000). The digestible proteinof the sample was calculated by subtracting residual proteinfrom total protein of the sample.

Protein digestability %Digestability crude protein

Total ( ) =

ccrude protein100×

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis of the sensory evaluation data was carriedout using analysis of variance followed by Duncan’s multiplerange test. The statistical significance was at P < 0.05 (Steeland Torrie 1960).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Proximate Composition of Raw Materials

Refined wheat flour used in the study had a moisture contentof 10.9%, 0.49% ash, 0.48% fat content and 9.9% of protein(Table 1). The protein sources namely DSF and WPC hadlower moisture (4.5–4.7%) but higher ash and proteincontent (4.5–6.9%, 54.1–61.9%). DSF and WPC would thusserve as a high-protein source and by replacing wheat flourwith these would enable to increase the protein content of theinstant vermicelli.

Rheological Characteristics

The rheological characteristics of wheat flour blended withDSF or WPC were measured by Brabender farinograph,Chopin alveograph and Brabender microvisco-amylograph.Incorporation of DSF from 0 to 15% increased the waterabsorption significantly from 59.3 to 63.8 % (Fig. 1). Thedough development time and dough stability values alsoincreased from 2.5 to 6.0 min and 4.5 to 8.5 min, respectively,whereas the mixing tolerance index values increased from 5 to30 BU. Incorporation of WPC decreased the water absorp-tion capacity from 59.3 to 53.5% and increased the doughdevelopment time from 2.5 to 8.0 min. Addition of eitherDSF or WPC showed a weakening effect of gluten. Theuniqueness of wheat protein, gluten is to form a matrix,which helps in forming the internal spaghetti network (Irvine

TABLE 1. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF RAW MATERIALS USED INTHE PREPARATION OF INSTANT VERMICELLI

Sample Moisture (%) Ash* (%) Protein* (%) Fat* (%)

Wheat flour 10.9 + 0.07 0.49 + 0.01 9.9 + 0.08 0.48 + 0.04DSF 4.5 + 0.04 6.90 + 0.02 54.1 + 0.5 1.10 + 0.06WPC 4.7 + 0.06 4.50 + 0.01 61.9 + 0.8 0.62 + 0.05

* On dry basis, Values are means � standard deviation (n = 3).DSF – defatted soy flour, WPC – whey protein concentrate.

HIGH-PROTEIN INSTANT VERMICELLI M.L. SUDHA, G. RAJESWARI and G.V. RAO


1971). Addition of non-gluten flours interrupts with thegluten network and weakens the overall structure of spaghetti(Durate et al. 1996). The maximum pressure values (P)increased to a greater extent on addition of DSF when com-pared with WPC. The extensibility values (L) decreased from61 to 22 mm and the dough behaved like stiff dough. Incorpo-ration of either DSF or WPC had a weakening effect on thealveograph characteristics as indicated by the decrease in theswelling index (G) and energy (W) values. Hegazy andFaheiud (1990) cited that dough extensibility decreased as theamount of soybean flour increased. The influence of DSFon dough characteristics may be caused by the presence of

pectins, hemicelluloses, including pentosans along withprotein content (Aykroyd and Doughty, 1982). The gelatini-zation temperature increased with increase in either DSF orWPC from 65 to 67.4C. The lactose present in WPC competeswith the prime starch chains and may be responsible for theraise in the gelatinisation temperature (Kim and Walker(1992). Addition of DSF and WPC from 0 to 15% decreasedthe peak viscosity values from 818 to 657 and 587 BU, respec-tively (Fig. 1). Similarly the hot paste and cold paste viscosi-ties decreased with increase in the level of DSF or WPC. Thebreak down and set back values also decreased with the addi-tion of either of the protein flours indicating that these

FIG. 1. EFFECT OF DSF AND WPC ON THERHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEATFLOUR DOUGHDSF, defatted soy flour; WPC, whey proteinconcentrate; CON, control, 1–5%, 2–10%,3–15%; FWA, farinograph water absorption;DDT, dough development time; P, maximumpressure; L, extensibility; a, control; b, 5%;c, 10%; d, 15%.



sources affected the pasting characteristics. The reduction inpeak viscosity might be caused by the dilution of gluten.

Properties of Cooked Vermicelli

Effect of replacement of wheat flour by DSF and WPC on thequality characteristics of instant vermicelli is presented inTable 2. The water absorption required for the vermicellidough preparation increased on addition of DSF from 37.5 to42.0%, and on addition of WPC, it decreased from 37.5–33.0%. The cooked weight, which was 20.28 g for control,increased to 21.28 g with increase in DSF content in theblend. Addition of WPC from 0 to 15%, the cooked weightdecreased from 20.28 g to 19.80 g. Haber et al. (1978) havereported that the addition of high-protein materials fromeither soybean or cottonseed increased the cooked weightduring cooking. The cooking loss decreased from 8.20 to5.92% with increase in DSF from 0 to 15%, which may bebecause of the lower solubility of DSF. Addition of WPC from0 to 15% increased the cooking loss from 8.20 to 9.12%. Theincrease in cooking loss might be caused by the leaching ofsugars during cooking into the gruel. This is also reflected inthe reduction in peak viscosity values and also reduction inthe breakdown values indicating the fragile nature of thestrands.

Lightness (L*) of instant vermicelli was 48.12 in controland decreased to 41.67 with increase in DSF to 15%. Additionof WPC also decreased the lightness value but to 44.75.Redness/greenness (a*) and yellowness/blueness (b*) ofinstant vermicelli increased with increase in either DSF orWPC content in the blend. The relationship between proteincontent and color value is presented in Fig. 2. Protein contentshowed a negative relationship with L* and b* value of instantvermicelli prepared from DSF. Increase in DSF or WPC pro-duced instant vermicelli with lower fat absorption, lower L*value and lower b* value compared with control. These resultsindicated that protein from non-gluten sources affected thecolor of instant vermicelli, which was prepared by differentprocessing steps like extruding, steaming and frying.

The cooked strands were subjected to TPA (Fig. 3). Hard-ness values increased from 3.51 to 6.75 N with increase in DSFfrom 5 to 15%, whereas with increase in WPC, the increase inhardness values was higher (3.51–8.94). Incorporation ofWPC has shown a higher hardness value. This correlates wellwith the results obtained by Park and Baik (2004), whereinhardness values were higher for samples prepared from hardwheat flours when compared with noodles prepared fromsoft wheat flours. Similarly the springiness, which was 0.91 forcontrol, increased to 1.27 with increase in DSF and to 1.14with increase in WPC. Cohesiveness was also higher for ver-micelli prepared by incorporating either DSF or WPC.Increase in protein content by either addition of DSF andWPC increased the hardness, springiness and cohesiveness. TA

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Moisture and Free Lipid Content

The characteristics of instant noodles as influenced by DSFand WPC are presented in Table 2. The moisture content ofthe instant noodles decreased gradually from 6.3 to 5.9% withincrease in DSF content from 0 to 15%, whereas on additionof WPC, the moisture content increase was marginal. Thesevalues are in the range as reported by Park and Baik (2004).Free lipid content decreased from 8.29 to 6.78–6.91% withincrease in either DSF or WPC, respectively. They alsoreported that instant noodles prepared from flours of higherprotein relatively had lower free lipids than noodles preparedfrom flour having lower protein content, i.e., protein contentnegatively correlated with free lipid content of noodles. Alsothe vermicelli prepared from flours with high protein hadsmooth surface, thereby reducing the fat absorption duringthe frying process.

Sensory Characteristics

The sensory parameters of the cooked vermicelli evaluatedfor different parameters and the results are presented inTable 2. The results showed that addition of 5% DSF or WPCdid not significantly change the scores for color and appear-ance. However, with further increase in DSF, the scores forcolor and appearance decreased as the product was slightlybrownish in color. This may be because of the lower lightnessvalue of the vermicelli compared with the control. The flavorand texture improved on addition of DSF when comparedwith WPC. This shows that enriched instant vermicelli seemto be firmer than the control vermicelli. At 15% of DSF, thevermicelli had light beany taste, whereas with WPC at thesame level, the vermicelli was sweetish in taste.

Effect of DSF and WPC in Combination

Vermicelli was prepared using DSF and WPC together at dif-ferent levels along with some additives like gluten (1%) andglycerol mono stearate (GMS- 0.5%). The moisture contentin the vermicelli was in the range of 6.7–6.9% (Table 3). Thefree lipids reduced for combination vermicelli compared withcontrol vermicelli from 8.29 to 6.5%. The ash content in thevermicelli increased from 1.79 to 2.47% with increase in theprotein sources in the formulation. The cooking characteris-tics of instant vermicelli prepared in combination of DSF andWPC indicated that in both the combinations, there was anincrease in the cooked weight from 202.8 to 224.0% andreduction in cooking loss from 8.2 to 6.5%, respectively.Hardness value, which was 3.515 N for control, increased to6.82N and cohesiveness, also increased from 0.171 to 0.24.Addition of high-protein material, i.e., DSF and WPC in com-bination improved the quality of instant vermicelli. Additionof additives like gluten and GMS in combination has shown TA

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the improvement in the quality of the product. Kim et al.(1989) also reported that addition of gluten showed reduc-tion in cooking loss, increased cutting stress and reducedsurface stickiness. The L* value, which was 48.12 for control,was reduced to 43.12 in the combination vermicelli, whichmay be due to the lower values of added ingredients. Matsuoet al. (1972) reported that higher protein content is requiredto get acceptable quality instant noodles and protein fromother sources can be added for improving the quality charac-teristics. Grant et al. (1993) indicated that addition of mono-glycerides in combination with high temperature dryingdecreased the stickiness of spaghetti. The in vitro proteindigestibility, which was 57.62% for control, increased to75–86.67% for samples where DSF and WPC were used incombination.

CONCLUSION

DSF and WPC having protein content in the range of 54–62%can function as protein sources in the preparation of high-protein vermicelli. Addition of DSF or WPC influenced thedough and pasting characteristics to varying extent. They alsoinfluenced the water absorption during dough preparationand also during cooking. The oil uptake of instant vermicellireduced on incorporation of either DSF or WPC. Thecooking loss reduced on addition of increasing levels of DSFwhereas on addition of WPC the cooking loss increased. TPAanalysis of cooked vermicelli stands indicated that withincrease in either DSF or WPC the texture of vermicelli inrelation to hardness, springiness and cohesiveness increased.Vermicelli prepared in combination of DSF and WPC hadbetter nutritional characteristics as they had higher proteincontent and increased protein digestibility values.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are greatly thankful to Mr. Lokesh, CIFS, CFTRI,Mysore, for his help in carrying out TPA of the instant vermi-celli using texture analyzer.

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INFLUENCE OF DEFATTED SOY FLOUR AND WHEY PROTEIN CONCENTRATE ON DOUGH RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITY OF INSTANT VERMICELLI