Influence of Coaching Behaviors on Athletes’ Achievement Outcomes in Sport Tony Amorose, Ph.D. Illinois State University

Influence of Coaching Influence of Coaching Behaviors on Athletes’ Behaviors on Athletes’ Achievement Outcomes Achievement Outcomes

in Sportin Sport

Tony Amorose, Ph.D.Tony Amorose, Ph.D.

Illinois State UniversityIllinois State University

““Effective” vs. “Ineffective” Effective” vs. “Ineffective” Coaching/LeadershipCoaching/Leadership

What are the outcomes associated with What are the outcomes associated with “effective” leaders/coaches?“effective” leaders/coaches?

How do we evaluate whether a coach or How do we evaluate whether a coach or leader is “effective” or “ineffective”?leader is “effective” or “ineffective”?

Outcomes Associated withOutcomes Associated with “Effective” Coaches/Leaders“Effective” Coaches/Leaders

• high level of personal achievement for high level of personal achievement for the group membersthe group members

• high level of group or team achievementhigh level of group or team achievement

• extensive skill development (physical, extensive skill development (physical, social, psychological)social, psychological)

• positive group interactions (e.g., strong positive group interactions (e.g., strong group cohesion)group cohesion)

• positive affective responses (e.g., positive affective responses (e.g., satisfaction, pride, enjoyment) for the satisfaction, pride, enjoyment) for the individuals, group, and organizationindividuals, group, and organization

• enhanced position of the organization (e.g., enhanced position of the organization (e.g., fan support, financial support)fan support, financial support)

Questions?Questions?Who are these coaches/leaders?Who are these coaches/leaders?

What attributes do these effective What attributes do these effective coaches/leaders posses?coaches/leaders posses?

What types of behavior do these effective What types of behavior do these effective coaches/leaders exhibit?coaches/leaders exhibit?

How do they differ from ineffective How do they differ from ineffective coaches/leaders?coaches/leaders?

Effective Coaches Ineffective Coachesattributes behavior attributes behavior

Questions?Questions?

Are there occasions or situations where Are there occasions or situations where these "effective" attributes and these "effective" attributes and

behaviors are actually "ineffective"?behaviors are actually "ineffective"?

If so, when and under what conditions?If so, when and under what conditions?

Horn’s (2002) Horn’s (2002) Model of Coaching EffectivenessModel of Coaching Effectiveness

• integrates other coaching/leadership models– Multidimensional Model of Leadership – Mediational Model of Leadership

• helps organize research on coaching behavior

Examples of Research on Coaching Examples of Research on Coaching

• feedback and reinforcementfeedback and reinforcement

• general leadership stylesgeneral leadership styles

• expectation effectsexpectation effects

Principles of Reinforcement andPrinciples of Reinforcement and Performance Feedback Performance Feedback

““Behavioral Coaching”Behavioral Coaching”

Basic Premise…Basic Premise…

behavior is heavily influenced by the behavior is heavily influenced by the consequences associated with the behaviorconsequences associated with the behavior

behavior consequence future behavior

if positive if positive consequenceconsequence

max. probability of max. probability of behavior reoccurringbehavior reoccurring

if negative if negative consequenceconsequence

min. probability of min. probability of behavior reoccurringbehavior reoccurring

consequences of behavior involve either the consequences of behavior involve either the presentationpresentation, the , the nonoccurrencenonoccurrence, or the , or the

removalremoval of a of a positivepositive or or aversiveaversive stimulus stimulus

presentpresent removeremove

positive positive stimulistimuli

aversive aversive stimulistimuli



positive reinforcement positive reinforcement ((strengthens behaviorstrengthens behavior))






punishment punishment (suppresses/weakens (suppresses/weakens

behavior)behavior)




extinction extinction

(weakens behavior)(weakens behavior)



behavior)behavior)




extinction extinction

(weakens behavior)(weakens behavior)



behavior)behavior)

negative negative reinforcement reinforcement

(strengthens behavior)(strengthens behavior)

Positive vs. Aversive Control Positive vs. Aversive Control

positive approach (i.e., positive control) positive approach (i.e., positive control) “is designed to strengthen desired behaviors “is designed to strengthen desired behaviors by monitoring players to perform them and by monitoring players to perform them and

by reinforcing them when they occur”by reinforcing them when they occur”

negative approach (i.e., aversive control)negative approach (i.e., aversive control)““involves attempts to eliminate unwanted involves attempts to eliminate unwanted

behaviors through punishment and criticism, behaviors through punishment and criticism, with the main motivation factor being fear”with the main motivation factor being fear”

Important PointImportant Point

The negative approach is a very The negative approach is a very successful at modifying behavior!successful at modifying behavior!

However, there are undesirable However, there are undesirable consequences of this approachconsequences of this approach

fear of failure risk of injury

high anxiety less enjoyment

poor performance lower motivation

Keys to Effective Behavioral Coaching Keys to Effective Behavioral Coaching Using the Positive Approach Using the Positive Approach

1. identify the desired behaviors1. identify the desired behaviors– focus on the behaviors you want, not those you wish to avoidfocus on the behaviors you want, not those you wish to avoid

– focus primarily on “controllable” behaviorsfocus primarily on “controllable” behaviors

e.g., technique vs. outcomee.g., technique vs. outcome

e.g., effort and other desirable behaviorse.g., effort and other desirable behaviors

– be as specific as possiblebe as specific as possible

2. monitor 2. monitor andand reinforce the desired behaviors reinforce the desired behaviors– evaluate behaviors on a regular basisevaluate behaviors on a regular basis

– provide reinforcement provide reinforcement contingentcontingent to behavior to behavior• use self-referenced criteriause self-referenced criteria

• reinforce successful approximations (shaping)reinforce successful approximations (shaping)

– use appropriate schedule of reinforcementuse appropriate schedule of reinforcement

– select “effective” reinforcementsselect “effective” reinforcements

3. evaluate the effectiveness of the 3. evaluate the effectiveness of the behavior modification programbehavior modification program

– determine whether behaviors change determine whether behaviors change overtime (if not, why?)overtime (if not, why?)

– determine how the athletes feel about the determine how the athletes feel about the systemsystem

Coaching Effectiveness Coaching Effectiveness Training Studies Training Studies

• research by Smith, Smoll, and colleaguesresearch by Smith, Smoll, and colleagues

• based on the Mediational Model of Leadershipbased on the Mediational Model of Leadership

Phase 1Phase 1development of the Coaching Behavior development of the Coaching Behavior

Assessment System (CBAS) through Assessment System (CBAS) through systematic observation of youth sport coachessystematic observation of youth sport coaches

Phase IIPhase IIAre specific coaching behaviors are related Are specific coaching behaviors are related

to the athletes’ sport experiences?to the athletes’ sport experiences?

Basic ResultsBasic ResultsBehaviors “positively” related to post-season evaluations…Behaviors “positively” related to post-season evaluations…• reinforcement (for desired behaviors)reinforcement (for desired behaviors)• encouragement (after errors)encouragement (after errors)• technical instruction (after errors)technical instruction (after errors)• general technical instructiongeneral technical instruction

Behaviors “negatively” related to post-season evaluations…Behaviors “negatively” related to post-season evaluations…• non-reinforcement (for desired behaviors)non-reinforcement (for desired behaviors)• punishment with or without technical instructionpunishment with or without technical instruction

Findings used to develop a series of Findings used to develop a series of coaching guidelines labeled the coaching guidelines labeled the

““Positive ApproachPositive Approach” to coaching” to coaching

General GuidelinesGeneral Guidelines• provide encouragement after mistakesprovide encouragement after mistakes• provide lots of instructionprovide lots of instruction• do not respond with negative remarksdo not respond with negative remarks• do not withhold praise for a good do not withhold praise for a good

performanceperformance

Philosophy of Positive Approach Philosophy of Positive Approach

1. 1. Winning isn’t everything, nor is it the only thing.Winning isn’t everything, nor is it the only thing. Young athletes cannot get the most out of sports Young athletes cannot get the most out of sports if they think that the only objective is to beat their if they think that the only objective is to beat their opponents. Although winning is an important opponents. Although winning is an important goal, it is goal, it is notnot the most important objective. the most important objective.

2. 2. Failure is not the same thing as losing.Failure is not the same thing as losing.

It is important that athletes do not view losing as a It is important that athletes do not view losing as a sign of failure or as a threat to their personal value.sign of failure or as a threat to their personal value.

3. 3. Success is not equivalent to winning.Success is not equivalent to winning.

Neither success or failure need depend on the Neither success or failure need depend on the outcome of a contest or on a won-loss record. outcome of a contest or on a won-loss record. Winning and losing pertain to the outcome of a Winning and losing pertain to the outcome of a contest, whereas success and failure do not.contest, whereas success and failure do not.

4. 4. Athletes should be taught that success is found in striving for Athletes should be taught that success is found in striving for victory (i.e., success is related to commitment and effort).victory (i.e., success is related to commitment and effort).

Athletes should be taught that they are never “losers” if they Athletes should be taught that they are never “losers” if they give maximum effort.give maximum effort.

Phase IIIPhase IIIUsed the guidelines of the “Positive Used the guidelines of the “Positive

Approach” to train coachesApproach” to train coaches

Summary of ResultsSummary of ResultsAthletes from trained coaches…Athletes from trained coaches…• reported greater enjoyment over the seasonreported greater enjoyment over the season• evaluated their coach as a better teacherevaluated their coach as a better teacher• reported greater team cohesionreported greater team cohesion• had higher self-esteemhad higher self-esteem• reported lower stress/anxietyreported lower stress/anxiety• reported a greater desire to play again next yearreported a greater desire to play again next year

Important PointImportant Pointusing the positive approach guidelines using the positive approach guidelines generally results in positive outcomesgenerally results in positive outcomes

HoweverHowever……it is not enough to just provide high frequencies it is not enough to just provide high frequencies

of these coaching behaviorsof these coaching behaviors

effective feedback must also be given effective feedback must also be given contingentcontingent and and appropriateappropriate to performance to performance

ContingentContingentwhether the feedback is tied to or given whether the feedback is tied to or given specifically in response to the athletes’ specifically in response to the athletes’

performance or behaviorperformance or behavior

AppropriateAppropriatewhether the feedback is given appropriate for whether the feedback is given appropriate for

the level of performance or behaviorthe level of performance or behavior

Why?Why?

non-contingent and inappropriate non-contingent and inappropriate feedback have been shown to have feedback have been shown to have negative consequences for athletesnegative consequences for athletes

Horn (1985)Horn (1985)• high frequencies of high frequencies of criticismcriticism related to related to

increasesincreases in perceived competence in perceived competence

• high frequencies of high frequencies of praise or reinforcementpraise or reinforcement related to related to decreasesdecreases in perceived competence in perceived competence

Explanation of ResultsExplanation of Results

• praise was often given non-contingently and praise was often given non-contingently and inappropriately to the athletes (e.g., given for inappropriately to the athletes (e.g., given for success at easy tasks or mediocre performances)success at easy tasks or mediocre performances)

• criticism believe to signal low effort as the criticism believe to signal low effort as the cause for failurecause for failure

• criticism consisted of pointing out what was criticism consisted of pointing out what was done incorrectly, and was usually followed with done incorrectly, and was usually followed with technical instructiontechnical instruction

Key PointKey Point

It is not necessarily the It is not necessarily the quantityquantity of of feedback that is important, rather the feedback that is important, rather the

qualityquality of the feedback! of the feedback!

Guidelines for Effective Feedback Guidelines for Effective Feedback

• use the positive approachuse the positive approach

• ““Big Mac attack” or Sandwich ApproachBig Mac attack” or Sandwich Approachpositive positive information information encouragement encouragement

• when in doubt, given information to when in doubt, given information to communicate there is room for improvementcommunicate there is room for improvement

• make sure feedback is contingent and make sure feedback is contingent and appropriateappropriate– positive feedback for good performancespositive feedback for good performances– corrective instruction for poor performancescorrective instruction for poor performances

• reinforce process variables more than reinforce process variables more than performance outcomeperformance outcome

• learn what works for your athleteslearn what works for your athletes

• be consistentbe consistent

General Leadership StylesGeneral Leadership Styles

Price and Weiss (2000)Price and Weiss (2000)

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

• Do coaches who vary in burnout differ in the Do coaches who vary in burnout differ in the behaviors athletes perceive they exhibit?behaviors athletes perceive they exhibit?

• Are coaching behaviors related to athletes’ Are coaching behaviors related to athletes’ psychological responses?psychological responses?

BurnoutBurnoutWhat are possible signs or symptoms of What are possible signs or symptoms of

burnout?burnout?

Burnout DefinedBurnout Defineda psychological syndrome characterized by physical a psychological syndrome characterized by physical

and emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and and emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishmentreduced personal accomplishment

ResultsResults

• coaches’ burnout and behaviorcoaches’ burnout and behavior

• coaching behaviors and athletes’ coaching behaviors and athletes’ psychological responsespsychological responses

How Can We Reduce Burnout?How Can We Reduce Burnout?

1. suggestions by athletes1. suggestions by athletes

2. other suggestions2. other suggestions

• reducing stress and pressurereducing stress and pressure

- - individual strategies (e.g., ↑ coping individual strategies (e.g., ↑ coping resources, ↑ self-confidence)resources, ↑ self-confidence)

- situational strategies (e.g., parent/coach - situational strategies (e.g., parent/coach behaviors, training/travel)behaviors, training/travel)

• increasing enjoymentincreasing enjoyment

• personal control and identity issuespersonal control and identity issues

• addressing unproductive thoughts addressing unproductive thoughts (e.g., perfectionism)(e.g., perfectionism)

Expectation EffectsExpectation Effects

expectations that a coach forms about the expectations that a coach forms about the abilities of an athlete can serve as abilities of an athlete can serve as propheciesprophecies

that dictate or determine the level of that dictate or determine the level of achievement that athlete will ultimately reachachievement that athlete will ultimately reach

Important PointsImportant Points• not all coaches are “pygmalion prone”not all coaches are “pygmalion prone”• effects are not limited to coacheseffects are not limited to coaches

Step 1Step 1coach form expectationscoach form expectations

Person CuesPerson Cues• sexsex• race/ethnicityrace/ethnicity• family backgroundfamily background• body size/typebody size/type• style of dressstyle of dress

Performance CuesPerformance Cues• past achievementspast achievements• feedback from othersfeedback from others• scores on skill testsscores on skill tests• personal observationspersonal observations

Important PointsImportant Points• multiple cues are used to form initial expectationsmultiple cues are used to form initial expectations

• expectations may be accurate or inaccurateexpectations may be accurate or inaccurate

Step 2Step 2coach’s expectations affect his/her behaviorcoach’s expectations affect his/her behavior

Differential treatment of athlete include… Differential treatment of athlete include… 1. the frequency and quality of the coach-athlete 1. the frequency and quality of the coach-athlete

interactionsinteractions

low expectancy athletes tend to…low expectancy athletes tend to…• have less interpersonal contact (social or skill-have less interpersonal contact (social or skill-

related) with their coachrelated) with their coach

• receive less warmth and positive affectreceive less warmth and positive affect

2. the quantity and quality of instruction2. the quantity and quality of instruction

For a low expectancy athlete a coach may…For a low expectancy athlete a coach may…• reduce the amount of material/and or the skills reduce the amount of material/and or the skills

those players are expected to learnthose players are expected to learn

• be less persistent in helping these athletes learn be less persistent in helping these athletes learn difficult skillsdifficult skills

• allow the athlete less time in practice drillsallow the athlete less time in practice drills

3. the type and frequency of verbal feedback3. the type and frequency of verbal feedback

Low expectancy athletes tend to receive…Low expectancy athletes tend to receive…• a lower frequency of praise or reinforcementa lower frequency of praise or reinforcement

• less appropriate feedbackless appropriate feedback

• less informational feedback or mistake-less informational feedback or mistake-contingent instructioncontingent instruction

Important PointsImportant Points

• not essential that coaches treat all not essential that coaches treat all

athletes exactly the same athletes exactly the same

• differential behaviors that are designed differential behaviors that are designed

to and actually facilitate the to and actually facilitate the

achievement of athletes are good!achievement of athletes are good!

Step 3Step 3

coach’s behavior affects the athlete’s coach’s behavior affects the athlete’s performance, behavior, performance, behavior, and and

psychological responsespsychological responses

Step 4Step 4athlete’s performance conforms to the coach’s athlete’s performance conforms to the coach’s

expectationexpectation

confirms the coach’s belief that he/she is a good judge of confirms the coach’s belief that he/she is a good judge of natural ability…which can intensify the whole processnatural ability…which can intensify the whole process

Important PointImportant Point

• not all athletes are susceptible to not all athletes are susceptible to

negative expectation effectsnegative expectation effects

• certain groups particularly at riskcertain groups particularly at risk

– youth sport athletesyouth sport athletes

– groups affected by athletic stereotypes groups affected by athletic stereotypes (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender)(e.g., race/ethnicity, gender)

ConclusionsConclusions

Coaches should…Coaches should…

• recognize that their initial assessment of an recognize that their initial assessment of an athlete’s ability may be inaccurate, and athlete’s ability may be inaccurate, and therefore need to be revised (be flexible)therefore need to be revised (be flexible)

• design instructional activities and provide design instructional activities and provide quality feedback so quality feedback so allall athletes have an athletes have an opportunity to learn and improve their skillsopportunity to learn and improve their skills

Take home MessageTake home Message

coaches can have a significant impact on coaches can have a significant impact on athletes’ behaviors, cognitions, and athletes’ behaviors, cognitions, and

affective responsesaffective responses

““effective” coaching behaviors will effective” coaching behaviors will depend on personal and situational factors, depend on personal and situational factors,

but should be pursued at all costs!but should be pursued at all costs!

Documents

Influence of Coaching Behaviors on Athletes’ Achievement Outcomes in Sport Tony Amorose, Ph.D. Illinois State University