Industrial Waste Part-1

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Industrial waste

Industrial waste is a type of wasteproduced by industrial activity, such as that offactories,millsand mines. It has existed since the outset of the industrial revolution.

Much industrial waste is neitherhazardous nortoxic, such as waste fiberproduced by

agriculture and logging.

Toxic wasteand chemical wasteare two designations of industrial waste.

Sewage treatment can be used to clean water tainted with industrial waste.

Waste types

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia(Redirected from Waste type)

Jump to: navigation,search Animal by-products

Biodegradable waste

Biomedical waste

Bulky waste

Business waste

Clinical waste

Coffee wastewater

Commercial waste

Construction and demolition waste (C&D waste) Controlled waste

Composite waste

Domestic waste

Electronic waste (E-waste)

Farm waste

Food waste

Green waste

Grey water

Hazardous waste

Household waste

Human waste

Industrial waste

Inert waste

Kitchen waste

Litter

Liquid waste- any waste in the liquid state of matter

Medical waste
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Mixed waste

Municipal solid waste

Packaging waste

Post-consumer waste

Radioactive waste (nuclear waste)

o Low level wasteo High level waste

o Spent nuclear fuel

o Mixed waste (radioactive/hazardous)

Recyclable waste

Residual waste

Sewage

Sharps waste

Slaughterhouse waste

Special waste - see hazardous waste

Toxic waste

Uncontrolled waste Waste heat

Wastewater

Winery wastewater

Industry

An industry (from Latinindustrius, "diligent, industrious") is the manufacturingof a

good orservice within a category.[1] Although industry is a broad term for any kind of

economic production, in economicsandurban planning industry is a synonym for thesecondary sector, which is a type of economic activity involved in the manufacturingof

raw materials into goods and products.[1]

There are four key industrial economic sectors: theprimary sector, largely raw materialextraction industries such asmining and farming; the secondary sector, involving

refining, construction, and manufacturing; the tertiary sector, which deals with services

(such as law and medicine) and distribution of manufactured goods; and the quaternarysector, a relatively new type of knowledge industry focusing on technological research,

design and development such as computer programming, and biochemistry. A fifth

quinary sectorhas been proposed encompassing nonprofit activities. The economy is also

broadly separated intopublic sectorandprivate sector, with industry generallycategorized as private.

Industry in the sense of manufacturing became a key sector of production in European

andNorth American countries during the Industrial Revolution, which upset previous

mercantile and feudal economies through many successive rapid advances in technology,such as the steel and coal production. It is aided by technological advances, and has

continued to develop into new types and sectors to this day. Industrial countries then
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assumed a capitalist economic policy.Railroads and steam-powered ships began speedily

establishing links with previously unreachable world markets, enabling private

companiesto develop to then-unheard of size and wealth. Following the IndustrialRevolution, perhaps a third of the world's economic output is derived from manufacturing

industriesmore than agriculture's share.

Many developed countries (for example the UK, the U.S., and Canada) and many

developing/semi-developed countries (People's Republic of China, India etc.) dependsignificantly on industry. Industries, the countries they reside in, and the economies of

those countries are interlinked in a complex web of interdependence.

Proto-industry

Main article:Proto-industrialisation

Early industries involved manufacturing goods for trade, including weapons, clothing,

pottery. In medieval Europe, industry became dominated by the guilds in cities and

towns, who mutual support for the member's interests, and maintained standards ofworkmanship and ethical conduct.

[edit] Industrial development

Main article:Industrialisation

The industrial revolutionled to the development of factories for large-scale production,with consequent changes in society. Originally the factories were steam-powered, but

later transitioned to electricity once an electrical grid was developed. The mechanized

assembly line was introduced to assemble parts in a repeatable fashion, with individualworkers performing specific steps during the process. This led to significant increases in

efficiency, lowering the cost of the end process. Laterautomation was increasingly used

to replace human operators. This process has accelerated with the development of the

computerand the robot.

[edit] Declining industries

Main article:Deindustrialisation

Historically certain manufacturing industries have gone into a decline due to various

economic factors, including the development of replacement technology or the loss ofcompetitive advantage. An example of the former is the decline incarriage

manufacturing when the automobile was mass-produced.

A recent trend has been the migration of prosperous, industrialized nations toward apost-

industrial society. This is manifested by an increase in the service sectorat the expense ofmanufacturing, and the development of an information-based economy, the so-called
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informational revolution. In a post-industrial society, manufacturing is relocated to more

economically-favorable locations through a process ofoffshoring.

[edit] Industrial technology

Main article:Industrial technology

There are several branches oftechnology and engineering specialised for industrial

application. This includes mathematical models, patentedinventions and craft skills. See

automation, industrial architecture, industrial design,industrial process, industrial artsand industrial applicability.

[edit] Industry and society

Main article:Industrial society

An industrial society can be defined in many ways. Today, industry is an important part

of most societies and nations. A government must have some kind ofindustrial policy,regulating industrial placement,industrial pollution, financingandindustrial labor.

[edit] Industrial labor

Main article:Industrial labor

Further information: industrial sociology, industrial and organizationalpsychology, industrial district, andindustrial park

In an industrial society, industry employs a major part of the population. This occurs

typically in the manufacturing sector. A labor union is an organization of workers whohave banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages, hours, and

working conditions, forming a cartel of labor. The trade union, through its leadership,bargains with the employer on behalf of union members (rankand file members) and

negotiates labor contracts with employers. This movement first rose among industrialworkers.

[edit] Industry and war

Main article:Industrial warfare

The industrial revolution changed warfare, with mass-produced weaponry and supplies,machine-powered transportation,mobilization, the total warconcept and weapons of

mass destruction. Early instances ofindustrial warfarewere the Crimean Warand the

American Civil War, but its full potential showed during the world wars. See alsomilitary-industrial complex, arms industry,military industry and modern warfare.

[edit] Industry and the environment

Further information:Pollution andIndustrial ecology
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[edit] Organization, management and economics

Main article:Industrial organization

Further information:Industrial loan company

[edit] Economic views of industry

Philosophers and economists have developed many different views of industry. Seephysiocrats, Adam Smith, capitalism, Marxismand Colin Clark's Sector model.

[edit] Industry sectors and classification

Main article:Industrial sector

There are many other different kinds of industries, and they are usually divided intodifferent classes or sectors. Theprimary sector of industry isagriculture,mining and raw

material extraction. The secondary sector of industry ismanufacturing - which is what is

colloquially meant by the word "industry". The tertiary sector of industry is service

production. Sometimes one talks about a quaternary sector of industry, consisting ofintellectual services such as R&D.

light industry - heavy industry

labor-intensive industry - capital-intensive industry

By product: chemical industry,petroleum industry, meatpacking industry,

hospitality industry, food industry,fish industry, software industry,paper

industry,entertainment industry, semiconductor industry, cultural industry,

poverty industry

ISIC

ISIC(rev.4) stands forInternational Standard Industrial Classification of ALL economic

activities, the most complete and systematic industrial classification made by United

Nations Statistics Division. ISIC Rev.4 is a standard classification of economic activities

arranged so that entities can be classified according to the activity they carry out. Thecategories of ISIC at the most detailed level (classes) are delineated according to what is,

in most countries, the customary combination of activities described in statistical units

and considers the relative importance of the activities included in these classes. WhileISIC Rev.4 continues to use criteria such as input, output and use of the products

produced, more emphasis has been given to the character of the production process in

defining and delineating ISIC classes.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when

major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, production, and transportation had a

profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain. The changes
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subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The

onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human society; almost

every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way.

In the later part of the 1700s there occurred a transition in parts ofGreat Britain's

previously manual-labour-based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. Itstarted with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making

techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by theintroduction ofcanals, improved roads and railways. The introduction ofsteam power

fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilization ofwater wheels and powered machinery

(mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in productioncapacity.[2] The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the

19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing

in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe andNorth Americaduring the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this

change on society was enormous.[3]

The First Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, merged into theSecond

Industrial Revolutionaround 1850, when technological and economic progress gainedmomentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways, and later in the 19th

century with the internal combustion engine and electrical power generation.

The period of time covered by the Industrial Revolution varies with different historians.

Eric Hobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830sor 1840s,[4] while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.[5]

Some twentieth century historians such asJohn Clapham andNicholas Crafts have

argued that the process of economic and social change took place gradually and the term

revolutionis not a true description of what took place. This is still a subject of debateamongst historians.[6][7]

GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of

the modern capitalist economy.[8] The Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capitaeconomic growth in capitalist economies.[9] Historians agree that the Industrial

Revolution was one of the most important events in history.[10] The most significant

inventions had their origins in the Western world, primarily Europe and the UnitedStates.[11]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_toolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Ashtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Claphamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Claphamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Craftshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_toolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Ashtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Claphamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Craftshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#cite_note-10


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Contents

[hide]

1 Name history

2 Causes

o 2.1 Causes for occurrence in Europeo 2.2 Causes for occurrence in Britain

2.2.1 Protestant work ethic

3 Innovations

o 3.1 Transfer of knowledge

o 3.2 Technological developments in Britain

3.2.1 Textile manufacture 3.2.2 Metallurgy

3.2.3 Mining

3.2.4 Steam power 3.2.5 Chemicals

3.2.6 Machine tools 3.2.7 Gas lighting

3.2.8 Glass making 3.2.9 Effects on agriculture

o 3.3 Transport in Britain

3.3.1 Coastal sail 3.3.2 Navigable rivers

3.3.3 Canals

3.3.4 Roads 3.3.5 Railways

4 Social effects

o 4.1 Factories and urbanisationo 4.2 Child labour

o 4.3 Housing

o 4.4 Luddites

o 4.5 Organisation of labour

o 4.6 Other effects

5 Continental Europe

o 5.1 Wallonia, Belgium

5.1.1 Demographic effects

5.1.2 Political and social Effects

o 5.2 France

6 United States 7 Japan

8 Second Industrial Revolutions and later evolution

9 Intellectual paradigms and criticism

o 9.1 Capitalism

o 9.2 Marxism

o 9.3 Romanticism

10 See also
http://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Name_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Causeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Causes_for_occurrence_in_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Causes_for_occurrence_in_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Protestant_work_ethichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Innovationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Transfer_of_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Technological_developments_in_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Textile_manufacturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Steam_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Chemicalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Machine_toolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Gas_lightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Glass_makinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Effects_on_agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Transport_in_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Coastal_sailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Navigable_rivershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Canalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Roadshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Railwayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Social_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Factories_and_urbanisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Child_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Housinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Ludditeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Organisation_of_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Other_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Continental_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Wallonia.2C_Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Demographic_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Political_and_social_Effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Second_Industrial_Revolutions_and_later_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Intellectual_paradigms_and_criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Marxismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Romanticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#See_alsohttp://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Name_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Causeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Causes_for_occurrence_in_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Causes_for_occurrence_in_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Protestant_work_ethichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Innovationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Transfer_of_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Technological_developments_in_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Textile_manufacturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Steam_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Chemicalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Machine_toolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Gas_lightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Glass_makinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Effects_on_agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Transport_in_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Coastal_sailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Navigable_rivershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Canalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Roadshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Railwayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Social_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Factories_and_urbanisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Child_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Housinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Ludditeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Organisation_of_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Other_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Continental_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Wallonia.2C_Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Demographic_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Political_and_social_Effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Second_Industrial_Revolutions_and_later_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Intellectual_paradigms_and_criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Marxismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Romanticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Note_and_referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#Sources_and_further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution#External_links


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Name history

The termIndustrial Revolution applied to technological change was common in the

1830s. Louis-Auguste Blanqui in 1837 spoke ofla rvolution industrielle.FriedrichEngels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844spoke of "an industrial

revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society."

In his bookKeywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, Raymond Williams states in

the entry forIndustry: The idea of a new social order based on major industrial changewas clear in Southey andOwen, between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as

Blakein the early 1790s andWordsworth at the turn of the century.

Credit for popularising the term may be given toArnold Toynbee, whose lectures given

in 1881 gave a detailed account of the process.

Causes

Regional GDP/capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial

Revolution. (The empty areas mean no data, not very low levels. There is data for the

years 1, 1000, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1820, 1900, and 2003)

The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate,with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and

institutional changes brought by the end offeudalism in Britainafter the English Civil

Warin the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, the spread of

disease was lessened, thereby preventing the epidemics common in previous times.[12]The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose significantly, leading to a larger

workforce. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolutionmade food

production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the surplus population whocould no longer find employment in agriculture intocottage industry, for example

weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories.[13] The

colonial expansionof the 17th century with the accompanying development ofinternational trade, creation offinancial marketsand accumulation ofcapitalare also

cited as factors, as is thescientific revolution of the 17th century.

Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological

innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technologywas the invention and improvement of thesteam engine.[14]However, recent research into
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the Marketing Erahas challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the

Industrial Revolution.[15]

Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the earlyMiddle Ages, much earlier than most estimates. [16] He explains that the model for

standardised mass production was theprinting press and that "the archetypal model forthe industrial era was the clock". He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time-

keeping, as well as the fact that medievalcities had at their centre a church with bellringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation

necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.

The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver ofthe Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other

nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls

and tariffs on goods traded amongst them.[17]

Governments' grant of limitedmonopolies to inventors under a developingpatent system(the Statute of Monopolies 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of

patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated

in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly

revealing the workings of an invention, the patent system rewarded inventors such asJames Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines,

thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development.

However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which maycounterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and

rewarding inventors.[18] Watt's monopoly may have prevented other inventors, such as

Richard Trevithick, William MurdochorJonathan Hornblower, from introducing

improved steam engines, thereby retarding the industrial revolution by up to 20 years.

[19]

Causes for occurrence in Europe

Further information: Scientific Revolution,Industrial Revolution in China and

Muslim Agricultural Revolution
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A 1623 Dutch East India Companybond.

European 17th century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial

markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported andenabled 18th century industrial growth.

One question of active interest to historians is why the industrial revolution occurred inEurope and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China,India,

and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity[20] or theMiddle Ages.[21]

Numerous factors have been suggested, including ecology, government, and culture.[22]

However, most historians contest the assertion that Europe and China were roughly equal

because modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18thcentury are of roughly 1,500 dollars inpurchasing power parity (and Britain had aper

capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars[23]) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450

dollars. Also, the average interest rate was about 5% in Britain and over 30% in China,which illustrates how capital was much more abundant in Britain; capital that was

available for investment.

Some historians such as David Landes[24] and Max Webercredit the different belief

systems in China and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religionand beliefs of Europe were largely products ofJudaeo-Christianity, and Greek thought.

Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius,Mencius,Han Feizi

(Legalism), Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism). The key difference betweenthese belief systems was that those from Europe focused on the individual, while Chinese

beliefs centred around relationships between people. The family unit was more important

than the individual for the large majority of Chinese history, and this may have played a

role in why the Industrial Revolution took much longer to occur in China.

Regarding India, the Marxist historianRajani Palme Duttsaid: "The capital to finance theIndustrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in

England."[25] In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms, withthe three major ones being the Marathas,Sikhsand the Mughals. In addition, the

economy was highly dependent on two sectorsagriculture of subsistence and cotton,

and technical innovation was non-existent. The vast amounts of wealth were stored away

in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over.

Causes for occurrence in Britain

As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of

other economies
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The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that

Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or

financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profitsfrom the British slave tradebetween Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial

investment. It has been pointed out, however, that slave trade and West Indian plantations

provided only 5% of the British national income during the years of the IndustrialRevolution.[26]

Alternatively, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have

allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments

more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia.Britain emerged from theNapoleonic Warsas the only European nation not ravaged by

financial plunder and economic collapse, and possessing the only merchant fleet of any

useful size (European merchant fleets having been destroyed during the war by the RoyalNavy[27] ). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were

already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in

most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects ofterritorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's

geographical position an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.

Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the

availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its smallgeographical size.Enclosure of common land and the related Agricultural Revolution

made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of

natural resources in theNorth of England, the English Midlands,South Walesand the

Scottish Lowlands. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and waterpower, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry.

Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided idealconditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of thetextiles industry.

The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688, and British society's greater

receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be

factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. In large part due to the Enclosure movement,the peasantry was destroyed as significant source of resistance to industrialisation, and

the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in

removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism.[28] (This point is also made inHilaireBelloc'sThe Servile State.)

Protestant work ethic

Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial

class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.[29] The existence of this classis often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber) and the particular status of

the Baptistsand the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and Presbyterians

that had flourished with the English Civil War. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule
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of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in

Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial

market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England,contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial

ventures.

Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well

as education at England's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were stillfree to study at Scotland'sfour universities). When the restoration of the monarchy took

place and membership in the officialAnglican Church became mandatory due to the Test

Act, they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. TheUnitarians, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting

Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools

such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.

Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with thenature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded

from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to alimited extent, by many in the middle class, such as traditional financiers or other

businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for

the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in thetechnologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century.

Innovations

The only surviving example of a Spinning Mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton

The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of

innovations,[30] made in the second half of the 18th century:

Textiles - Cottonspinning using Richard Arkwright'swater frame, JamesHargreaves'sSpinning Jenny, and Samuel Crompton'sSpinning Mule(a

combination of the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame). This was patented in

1769 and so came out of patent in 1783. The end of the patent was rapidlyfollowed by the erection of manycotton mills. Similar technology was

subsequently applied to spinning worstedyarn for various textiles and flax for

linen.
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Steam power - The improved steam engine invented by James Watt was initially

mainly used for pumping out mines, but from the 1780s was applied to power

machines. This enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated factorieson a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpowerwas not available.

Iron founding - In the Iron industry, coke was finally applied to all stages of iron

smelting, replacing charcoal. This had been achieved much earlier forlead andcopperas well as for producingpig iron in ablast furnace, but the second stage inthe production ofbar irondepended on the use ofpotting and stamping(for which

apatent expired in 1786) orpuddling (patented by Henry Cort in 1783 and 1784).

These represent three 'leading sectors', in which there were key innovations, whichallowed the economic take off by which the Industrial Revolution is usually defined. This

is not to belittle many other inventions, particularly in thetextile industry. Without some

earlier ones, such asspinning jenny and flying shuttle in the textile industry and the

smelting of pig iron with coke, these achievements might have been impossible. Laterinventions such as the powerloomand Richard Trevithick's high pressure steam engine

were also important in the growing industrialisation of Britain. The application of steamengines to powering cotton millsand ironworksenabled these to be built in places thatwere most convenient because other resources were available, rather than where there

was water to power a watermill.

In the textile sector, such mills became the model for the organisation of human labour in

factories, epitomised by Cottonopolis, the name given to the vast collection ofcottonmills, factoriesand administration offices based in Manchester. The assembly line system

greatly improved efficiency, both in this and other industries. With a series of men

trained to do a single task on a product, then having it moved along to the next worker,the number of finished goods also rose significantly.

Also important was the 1756 rediscovery ofconcrete(based onhydraulic lime mortar) by

the British engineerJohn Smeaton, which had been lost for 13 centuries. [31]

Transfer of knowledge

Knowledge of new innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trainedin the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common

method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could.

During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all Europeancountries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France,

even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. Inother countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individualmanufacturers anxious to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as

now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians

of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.
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A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery(ca. 1766)

Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances

Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical

societies, like the Lunar Society ofBirmingham, in which members met to discuss

'natural philosophy' (i.e. science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar

Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, "They were, if youlike, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century

revolutions, the Industrial Revolution".[32] Other such societies published volumes of

proceedings and transactions. For example, the London-based Royal Society of Artspublished an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its

annual Transactions.

There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as Harris'sLexicon

Technicum (1704) and Dr Abraham Rees'sCyclopaedia (1802-1819) contain much ofvalue. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and

technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine

engravings. Foreign printed sources such as theDescriptions des Arts et MtiersandDiderot'sEncyclopdie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.

Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the lastdecade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents.

Foreign periodicals, such as theAnnales des Mines, published accounts of travels madeby French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.

Technological developments in Britain

Textile manufacture

Main article: Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution
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15/47

Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal, Germany. The spinning jenny

was one of the innovations that started the revolution

In the early 18th century, British textile manufacture was based on wool which wasprocessed by individual artisans, doing thespinning and weaving on their own premises.

This system is called a cottage industry. Flax and cotton were also used for fine materials,but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing needed, and thus goods in

these materials made only a small proportion of the output.

Use of the spinning wheeland hand loom restricted the production capacity of the

industry, but incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured

cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19thcentury. India was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods.

Lewis Paul patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbinsystem for

drawing wool to a more even thickness, developed with the help of John Wyatt in

Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rollingmachine powered by a donkey. In 1743, a factory was opened inNorthampton with fifty

spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about 1764. A

similar mill was built by Daniel Bournin Leominster, but this burnt down. Both Lewis

Paul and Daniel Bourn patented cardingmachines in 1748. Using two sets of rollers thattravelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill. Lewis's

invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame

and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule.

Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding,

twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply ofyarnincreased greatly, which fed

a weaving

Documents

Industrial Waste Part-1