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INDOOR AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT, AIRBORNE
MICROBIAL IDENTIFICATION, AND PREVALENCE OF
SICK BUILDING SYNDROMES AT SELECTED PRIMARY
SCHOOLS IN PAHANG
BY
MOHD HIZRRI BIN ARIFIN
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the
degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology)
Kulliyyah of Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
JULY 2019
ii
ABSTRACT
In average, children in Malaysia spend six to eight hours of their day time in schools
and may have been exposed to various indoor air pollutants inside classrooms. Children
inhale more air pollutants per kilograms of body weight, thus they are more prone to
illness caused by air pollutants as compared to adults. Therefore, this study was
conducted to assess IAQ characteristics in the classroom of 3 different selected primary
schools in Pahang (SKBB, SKT, SKIM) during two different periods of monsoon
season (Southwest Monsoon, (SW) and Northeast Monsoon, (NE)). Considering also
occupancy effects of the classrooms, the IAQ parameters (temperature, relative
humidity (RH), air velocity, particulate matter (PM), Total Bacteria Count (TBC) and
Total Fungal Count (TFC)) were assessed. This study also aimed to identify airborne
bacteria and fungi species within classrooms environments in those area. Bacteria and
fungi species identifications were done using 16S and 18S rRNA gene sequence
analysis respectively. The parent-assisted questionnaire used in this study was derived
from Industry Code of Practice (ICOP) on Indoor Air Quality, 2010 to measure the
prevalence of SBS among school children. As results, temperature, RH, air velocity and
PM had a significant difference between all schools (p < 0.05). Temperature and RH
always exceeded ICOP 2010 limit at all schools during both season. Indoor to outdoor
ratio (I/O) for most of parameters exceeding 1, while the strongest negative correlation
between parameters was observed between RH and Temperature (r < - 0.853). The
strongest positive correlation between parameters was observed between TSP and
PM10 (r < 0.914). This study also found that Staphylococcus sp. and Bacillus sp. were
predominant bacteria species within the classrooms compound. Aspergillus sp. were
predominant fungi species at all schools. Prevalence of ophthalmic symptoms was
higher than respiratory symptoms and other symptoms at all schools. Occurrence of
“dizziness”, “eyes irritation” and “irritated stuffy nose” had a significant association
with all schools selected in this study (p < 0.05). The findings had revealed that IAQ
parameters in primary schools were affected by the surrounding environments in
accordance with intensities of anthropogenic activities around the school area. The
results also reflected that student presence and activities in the classrooms had
influenced on IAQ parameters. Poor classroom conditions affected thermal comforts of
students, in which subsequently had triggered prevalence of SBS symptoms among the
school children.
iii
خلاصة البحثABSTRACT IN ARABIC
يقضي الأطفال في ماليزيا ست إلى ثماني ساعات في المتوسط من وقتهم اليومي في المدارس
الفصول الدراسية. يستنشق الأطفال وربما يعرضون لملوثات مختلفة للهواء الداخلي داخل
المزيد من ملوثات الهواء الداخلي لكل كيلوغرام من وزن الجسم، وبالتالي هم أكثر عرضة
للأمراض الناجمة عن ملوثات الهواء الداخلي مقارنة بالبالغين. ولذلك أجري هذا البحث
فة دارس ابتدائية مختلجودة الهواء الداخلي في الفصول الدراسية في ثلاثة م لتقييم خصائص
( خلال فترتين مختلفتين من موسم SKBB ،SKT ،SKIMمختارة في ولاية باهانغ )
الرياح الموسمية )الرياح الموسمية الجنوبية الغربية، والرياح الموسمية الشمالية الشرقية(.
ةبعد مراعاة تأثيرات إشغال الفصول الدراسية تم تقييم مؤشرات درجة الحرارة، والرطوب
النسبية، وسرعة الهواء، والجسيمات الجزيئية، وإجمالي عدد البكتيريا، وإجمالي عدد
الفطريات. هدف هذا البحث أيضًا إلى تحديد أنواع البكتيريا والفطريات المحمولة هوائيا في
بيئات الفصول الدراسية في تلك المناطق. أجريت عملية التعرف على أنواع الميكروبات
للبكتيريا و 16Sل تسلسل جينات الأحماض النووية الريبوزية الريبوسومية باستخدام تحلي
18S للفطريات. تم اشتقاق الاستبيان المجاب بمساعدة الوالدين المستخدم في هذه الدراسة
لقياس 2010المتعلق بجودة الهواء الداخلي لعام (ICOP) من قواعد الممارسة الصناعية
لقة بين أطفال المدارس. أظهرت النتائج أن درجات الحرارة، متلازمة المباني المغ انتشار
والرطوبة النسبية، وسرعة الهواء، والجسيمات الجزيئية كان بينها فروق كبيرة بين جميع
ICOP 2010(. وتجاوزت درجة الحرارة والرطوبة النسبية حدود p<0.05المدارس )
الخارج في معظم المؤشرات تجاوزت في جميع المدارس في كلا الموسمين. نسبة الداخل إلى
ودرجة الحرارة ، بينما لوحظ أن أقوى علاقة سلبية بين المعلمات كانت بين الرطوبة النسبية1
(r <-0.853وكان أقوى ارتباط إيجابي بين المؤشرات بين .) TSP و PM10 (r
ة واع السائد(. وجد هذا البحث أيضا أن المكورات العنقودية والعصويات كانت الأن0.914>
للبكتيريا داخل الفصول الدراسية، وكانت الرشاشيات النوع السائد للفطريات في جميع
المدارس. كان معدل انتشار أعراض العيون أعلى من انتشار الأعراض التنفسية والأعراض
الأخرى في جميع المدارس. كان حدوث "الدوخة" و "تهيج العينين" و "انسداد الأنف
(. p > 0.05بطا بشكل كبير مع جميع المدارس المختارة في هذه الدراسة )المتهيج" مرت
كشفت النتائج أن مؤشرات جودة الهواء الداخلي في المدارس الابتدائية تأثرت بالبيئات
المحيطة بها وفقاً لكثافة الأنشطة البشرية في منطقة المدرسة. عكست النتائج أيضًا أن وجود
أثرت ل الدراسية قد أثرت على معايير جودة الهواء الداخلي.الطلاب وأنشطتهم في الفصو
ظروف الفصول الدراسية السيئة على وسائل الراحة الحرارية للطلاب، والتي أدت فيما بعد
.بين أطفال المدارس متلازمة المباني المغلقة إلى انتشار أعراض
iv
APPROVAL PAGE
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology).
…………………………………..
Mohd Shukri bin Mohd Aris
Supervisor
…………………………………..
Mohd Faez bin Mohd Sharif
Co-Supervisor
…………………………………..
Norhidayah binti Abdull
Co-Supervisor
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable
standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis
for the degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology).
…………………………………..
Mardiana binti Mohd Ashaari
Internal Examiner
…………………………………..
Juliana binti Jalaludin
External Examiner
This thesis was submitted to the Department of Biotechnology and is accepted as a
fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology).
…………………………………..
Mardiana binti Mohd Ashaari
Head, Department of Biotechnology
This thesis was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment
of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology).
…………………………………..
Shahbudin bin Saad
Dean, Kulliyyah of Sciences
v
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where
otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted
as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Mohd Hizrri bin Arifin
Signature ...................................................... Date .........................................
vi
COPYRIGHT PAGE
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF
FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
INDOOR AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT, AIRBORNE
MICROBIAL IDENTIFICATION, AND PREVALENCE OF SICK
BUILDING SYNDROMES AT SELECTED PRIMARY
SCHOOLS IN PAHANG
I declare that the copyright holders of this thesis are jointly owned by the student
and IIUM.
Copyright © 2019 Mohd Hizrri bin Arifin and International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights
reserved.
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder
except as provided below
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may
be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print
or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system
and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other
universities and research libraries.
By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM
Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.
Affirmed by Mohd Hizrri bin Arifin
……..……..…………… …………………..
Signature Date PAGE
vii
DEDICATIONS
This thesis is dedicated to Ma, arwah Ayah, Ummi, Abah, and all family members for
endless supports and prayers along this journey.
To my wife, Nur Akmal bt Ismail for never ending encouragement and motivation in
completing this journey. I pass the baton to you.
To Dr Shukri, Kak Mary, Hazrin, and Syida, the honorary members of #teamshukri
for infinite assistance, inspiration, and aid through thick and thin of this roller coaster
ride. We all did it!
To all friends and colleagues who has become a part of this great journey
(Biomed101, Team FYP Ceria, PGKOSS, Team SP (Radicare), and SHE Department
(Medivest)).
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of Allah the Most Beneficent and the Most Merciful, Alhamdulillah, praise
to Allah for His Blessings and Mercy; I would not be able to successfully complete this
thesis on time. I would like to acknowledge people that helped, guided and inspired me
throughout my thesis completion.
I wish to express my deepest appreciation to my supervisor Asst. Prof Dr. Mohd
Shukri bin Mohd Aris for his advices and patiently guiding me to accomplish my thesis
whose help, guidance, knowledge and critiques, I managed to present the thesis
accordingly within the time given. Infinite thanks also to Kak Maryam Zahaba, Hazrin
Hadi, and Shahida Nazri for always being a great and supportive team members.
Not forgotten my heartfelt appreciation to my supportive family, (Ma, Ayah, Ummi,
Abah, and all family members) without them my thesis would not have been possible.
The inspiring words to be a researcher had encouraged me to passionately fulfil my
thesis. Thanks also to my wife, Nur Akmal bt Ismail, it such a great feeling to have a
great people besides me all the time to share my happiness and sadness.
Last but not least, thank to every single person who have provided assistance at
various occasion and help me to complete my research. The shared, fun and difficult
moment will always be treasured. May Allah bless all of you.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .................................................................................................................... ..ii Abstract in Arabic .................................................................................................... ..iii Approval Page .......................................................................................................... ..iv Declaration ............................................................................................................... ..v
Copyright Page ......................................................................................................... ..vi Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. ..viii Table of Contents ..................................................................................................... ..ix List of Tables ........................................................................................................... ..xiii
List of Figures .......................................................................................................... ..xv List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................... ..xvii List of Symbols ........................................................................................................ ..xix
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ................................................................... ..1 1.1 Background of the Study ........................................................................ ..1 1.2 Statement of the Problem........................................................................ ..3
1.3 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................... ..5 1.4 Research Objectives................................................................................ ..5 1.5 Research Questions ................................................................................. ..5
1.6 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................... ..7 1.7 Research Hypotheses .............................................................................. ..8
1.8 Significance of the Study ........................................................................ ..9
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................... ..10 Part One: Introduction of IAQ ...................................................................... ..10
2.1 Brief History On Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and Its Importance ............ ..10 2.2 The Vulnerable Populations ................................................................... ..11 2.3 IAQ Definitions and Standards ............................................................... ..12 2.4 Nature, Sources, and Health Effects of IAQ Pollutants .......................... ..16
2.4.1 Physical Components .................................................................... ..16 2.4.1.1 Air Temperature ............................................................... ..16 2.4.1.2 Relative Humidity (RH) ................................................... ..16 2.4.1.3 Air Velocity ...................................................................... ..17
2.4.2 Chemical Components .................................................................. ..18
2.4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide................................................................. ..18 2.4.2.1.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..18
2.4.2.1.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..18 2.4.2.1.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..18
2.4.2.2 Carbon Monoxide ............................................................. ..19 2.4.2.2.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..19 2.4.2.2.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..19
2.4.2.2.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..19 2.4.2.3 Ozone ................................................................................ ..20
2.4.2.3.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..20
x
2.4.2.3.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..20
2.4.2.3.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..20 2.4.2.4 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) ............................. ..21
2.4.2.4.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..21 2.4.2.4.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..22 2.4.2.4.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..22
2.4.2.5 Formaldehyde ................................................................... ..23 2.4.2.5.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..23
2.4.2.5.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..23 2.4.2.5.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..24
2.4.2.6 Particulate Matter (PM) .................................................... ..24 2.4.2.6.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..24 2.4.2.6.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..25
2.4.2.6.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..25
2.4.3 Biological Components ................................................................. ..26
2.4.3.1 Bacteria ............................................................................. ..26 2.4.3.1.1 Growth Factors and Common Genera ..................... ..26 2.4.3.1.2 Health Effects........................................................... ..26
2.4.3.2 Fungi ................................................................................. ..27
2.4.3.2.1 Growth Factors and Common Genera ..................... ..27 2.4.3.2.2 Health Effects........................................................... ..27
2.5 Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) .............................................................. ..28 Part Two: Indoor Air Quality in Schools ...................................................... ..30 2.6 IAQ Assessments in Schools in Relation to Seasonal Variations .......... ..30
2.7 IAQ Assessments in Schools in Relation to Schools’ Background
Area ........................................................................................................ ..34
2.8 IAQ Assessments in Schools in Malaysia .............................................. ..37 2.9 Common Bacteria and Fungi in Indoor Environment ............................ ..40
2.10 IAQ Impacts on Children’s Health ....................................................... ..42
CHAPTER THREE PHYSICAL IAQ AND PM ASSESSMENT IN THREE
SELECTED SCHOOLS IN PAHANG ................................................................ ..44 3.1 Introduction............................................................................................. ..44 3.2 Materials ................................................................................................. ..44
3.2.1 List of Chemicals .......................................................................... ..44 3.2.2 List of Instruments and Apparatus ................................................ ..45 3.2.3 List of Disposable Items ............................................................... ..45
3.3 Methodology ........................................................................................... ..45 3.3.1 Description of Background Locations .......................................... ..45 3.3.2 Sites and Sampling Point Description ........................................... ..55 3.3.3 Assessment of IAQ Parameters ..................................................... ..57
3.3.3.1 Physical IAQ Parameters Assessment .............................. ..57 3.3.3.2 Assessment of chemical parameters (PM) ........................ ..58 3.3.3.3 Biological IAQ Parameters Assessment ........................... ..58
3.3.3.3.1 Medium Agar and Plate Preparation ........................ ..58 3.3.3.3.2 Airborne Microbial Sampling .................................. ..59 3.3.3.3.3 Bacterial Count and Isolation ................................... ..59
3.3.4 Statistical Analysis ........................................................................ ..60 3.3.5 Quality Assurance/ Quality Control (QA/QC) .............................. ..60
xi
3.4 Results and Discussion ........................................................................... 62
3.4.1 Seasonal Comparisons on IAQ Parameters .................................. 62 3.4.2 Differences of IAQ Parameters in Relation to School
Locations, Buildings Occupancy, and Indoor-Outdoor
Interactions ................................................................................... 66 3.4.3 Correlations between IAQ parameters .......................................... 89
3.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 93
CHAPTER FOUR IDENTIFICATIONS OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI
SPECIES IN SCHOOLS’ ENVIRONMENT ...................................................... 95 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 95 4.2 Materials ................................................................................................. 96
4.2.1 List of Chemicals .......................................................................... 96
4.2.2 List of Instruments and Apparatus ................................................ 97
4.2.3 List of Disposable Items ............................................................... 97
4.3 Methodology ........................................................................................... 98 4.3.1 Description of Microbial Morphology .......................................... 98
4.3.1.1 Colony Morphology ......................................................... 98 4.3.1.2 Microscopic Morphology ................................................. 99
4.3.2 16S Ribosomal RNA Gene Analysis ............................................ 100 4.3.2.1 Genomic DNA Extraction ................................................ 100
4.3.2.2 Agarose Gel Electrophoresis ............................................ 100 4.3.2.3 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) ................................... 101 4.3.2.4 DNA Sequencing and Oligodeoxyribonucleotide
Synthesis .............................................................................. 101 4.3.2.5 Sequence Alignment and Phylogram Construction .......... 102
4.4 Results and Discussions .......................................................................... 102 4.4.1 Identification of Isolated Bacteria and Fungi Species .................. 102
4.4.2 Phylogenetic Tree Analysis and Source of Isolation, and
Pathogenicity of Isolated Microorganisms ................................... 108 4.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 117
CHAPTER FIVE PREVALENCE OF SBS AMONG STUDENTS IN
THREE SELECTED SCHOOLS ......................................................................... 118 5.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 118 5.2 Methodology ........................................................................................... 118
5.2.1 Instrument: Structured Questionnaire and Ethical Approval ........ 118
5.2.2 Study Population and Operational Definition ............................... 118 5.2.3 Sample Size Calculation ............................................................... 119 5.2.4 Sampling Method .......................................................................... 120 5.2.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................ 120
5.2.6 Quality Assurance/ Quality Control (QA/QC) .............................. 95 5.3 Results and Discussions .......................................................................... 122
5.3.1 Characteristics of Respondents ..................................................... 122
5.3.2 Impacts of Classrooms’ Conditions Toward Children. ................. 123 5.3.3 Prevalence of SBS Symptoms Among School Children .............. 126 5.3.4 Prevalence of SBS Between Three Schools .................................. 129
5.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 129
xii
CHAPTER SIX RESEARCH SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 130 6.1 Overall Discussions ................................................................................ 130 6.2 Overall Conclusions................................................................................ 134
6.3 Future Work and Recommendation ........................................................ 136
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 139
APPENDIX A: SAMPLING ACTIVITES AND RESEARCH
EQUIPMENTS ....................................................................................................... 154 APPENDIX B: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS ....................................................... 156 APPENDIX C: PERCENTAGE SIMILARITY OF ISOLATES AND
SOURCE OF ISOLATION (BACTERIA AND FUNGI) .................................. 166
APPENDIX D: ETHICAL APPROVAL ............................................................. 177 APPENDIX E: STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................ 180
APPENDIX F: PUBLISHED ARTICLES AND ACCEPTED
MANUSCRIPT ...................................................................................................... 190
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 The Range and Limit Concentrations for Acceptable IAQ
15
Table 2.2 Classification of Indoor Organic Pollutants (Maroni et al.,
1995)
23
Table 2.3 Summaries on IAQ Studies in Schools in Relation to Seasonal
Variation.
34
Table 3.1 List of Chemicals.
44
Table 3.2 List of Instruments and Apparatus.
45
Table 3.3 List of Disposable Items.
45
Table 3.4 Details on Monitored Parameters, Methods, Sampling
Duration, and Sampling Site.
48
Table 3.5 Overview of the Selected Primary Schools’ Characteristics.
57
Table 3.6 Comparisons of IAQ Parameters according to season of
Sampling.
63
Table 3.7 Statistical Test (Comparisons of IAQ Parameters according to
Schools’ Location).
87
Table 3.8 Occupied/Non-Occupied Ratio of PM Concentrations
between Schools.
88
Table 3.9 Correlation between IAQ Parameters during DS Season
(Occupied).
90
Table 3.10 Correlation between IAQ Parameters during WS Season
(Occupied).
91
Table 4.1 List of Chemicals.
96
Table 4.2 List of Instruments and Apparatus.
97
Table 4.3 List of Disposable Items.
97
Table 4.4 Universal Primer used in the Study.
101
Table 4.5 Example of Isolated Bacteria Colonies across DS and WS. 105
xiv
Table 4.6 Example of Isolated Fungi Colonies and Their Cell
Morphology.
106
Table 4.7 Genera and Species Identification of Isolated Bacteria
Colonies.
107
Table 4.8 Genera and Species Identification of Isolated Fungi Colonies.
108
Table 5.1 Respondents Distribution According to School during Dry
Season (DS).
122
Table 5.2 Respondents Distribution According to School during Wet
Season (WS).
123
Table 5.3 Impacts of Classrooms’ Conditions towards the Children
during Dry Season (DS).
124
Table 5.4 Impacts of Classrooms’ Conditions towards the Children
during Wet Season (WS).
124
Table 5.5 Prevalence of SBS Symptoms during Dry Season (DS).
126
Table 5.6 Prevalence of SBS Symptoms during Wet Season (WS).
127
Table 5.7 Prevalence of SBS during Dry Season (DS).
129
Table 5.8 Prevalence of SBS during Wet Season (WS).
129
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Theoretical Framework of the Study
7
Figure 3.1 Sampling Locations of Three Selected Schools in Pahang.
50
Figure 3.2 Aerial View of SKIM (3°49'07.2"N 103°17'53.0"E).
51
Figure 3.3 Aerial View of SKBB (3°57'37.6"N 103°22'52.3"E).
52
Figure 3.4 Aerial View of SKT (3°58'07.6"N 102°21'03.2"E).
53
Figure 3.5 Research Flowchart.
54
Figure 3.6 Sampling Points at SKIM.
55
Figure 3.7 Sampling Points at SKBB.
56
Figure 3.8 Sampling Points at SKT.
56
Figure 3.9 Mean Air Velocity ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied
and Non-Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).
68
Figure 3.10 Mean Temperature ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied
and Non-Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).
69
Figure 3.11 Mean RH ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and Non-
Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).
70
Figure 3.12 Mean CO2 ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and
Non-Occupied).
71
Figure 3.13 Mean TBC ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and
Non-Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).
74
Figure 3.14 Mean TFC ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and Non-
Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).
75
Figure 3.15 Mean TSP ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and Non-
Occupied Period).
78
Figure 3.16 Mean PM10 ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and
Non-Occupied Period)
79
xvi
Figure 3.17 Mean PM2.5 ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and
Non-Occupied Period).
80
Figure 3.18 Mean PM1 ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and
Non-Occupied Period).
81
Figure 4.1 Molecular Phylogenetic Analysis by Maximum Likelihood
Method.
109
Figure 4.2 Molecular Phylogenetic Analysis by Maximum Likelihood
Method.
114
xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers
BC Before Century
Cd Cadmium
Cr Chromium
CFU Colony-forming Unit
CH4 Methane
CO Carbon monoxide
COHb Carboxyhemoglobin
CO2 Carbon dioxide
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DOE Malaysian Department of Environment
DOSH Department of Safety and Health
DS Dry Season
EMSD Electrical and Mechanical Services Department
EU European Union
Fe Ferum
FeNO Fraction of Exhaled Nitric Oxide
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HKAQO Hong Kong Air Qualities Objectives
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
IAQ Indoor Air Quality
ICOP on IAQ 2010 Industrial Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality 2010
IREC IIUM Research Ethical Committee
NA Nutrient Agar
NaOH Sodium Hydroxide
NE North East
NEA National Environmental Agency
NO Nitrogen oxides
NO2 Nitrogen dioxides
MCL Maximum Composite Likelihood
O2 Oxygen
O3 Ozone
OSHA Occupational, Safety, and Health Act 1994
xviii
PAHs Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
Pb Lead
PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction
PDA Potato Dextrose Agar
PM Particulate Matter
POM Particulate Organic Compound
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
RH Relative Humidity
SAS IAQ Surface Air System Indoor Air Quality
SBS Sick Building Syndrome
SKBB Sekolah Kebangsaan Balok Baru
SKIM Sekolah Kebangsaan Indera Mahkota
SKT Sekolah Kebangsaan Teh
SMACNA Sheet Metal & Air Conditioning Contractors’ National
Association
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
SW South West
SVOCs Semivolatile Organic Compounds
TBC Total Bacterial Count
TFC Total Fungi Count
THI Temperature Humidity index
TSP Total Suspended Particle
TVOCs Total Volatile Organic Compounds
UFP Ultra-fine Particle
USA United States of America
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
UV Ultra Violet
VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds
VVOCs Very Volatile Organic Compounds
WHO World Health Organisation
WS Wet Season
Zn Zinc
xix
LIST OF SYMBOLS
% Percentage
°C Degree Celcius
AM Ante Meridiem
cfm Cubic Feet per Minute
CFUm-3 Colony Forming Unit per Meter Cube
g Gram
m2 Metre Square
m3 Metre Cube
ms-1 Metre per Second
PM Past Meridiem
PPM Part per Million
ugm-3 Micro-Gram per Meter Cube
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Over the past 50 years, there has been rapid interest regarding Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
issues. Buildings such as homes, schools, clinics, hospitals, offices and others private
or public buildings are supposedly built to protect human from extreme outdoor
pollutants. Interestingly, indoor environment is proved to be more polluted as compared
to outdoor environment (Sundell, 2004). Coincidence, development of materials and
products for indoors usage such as televisions and computers, mechanical and electrical
appliances, plastic items, synthetic substances, and scented cleaning agents are made
abundant (Weschler, 2009). These materials release chemicals substances, such as
unreacted monomers, solvents and additives into the indoor environment that later will
be altered by interactions with human activities in indoor environment (Weschler,
2009). Since most of the people spend approximately 90% of time inside those
buildings, pollutants may be trapped or developed inside and become highly
concentrated. Instead of protecting people from outdoor pollutants, current indoor
environment is possessing threats to occupants’ health (Burroughs & Hansen, 2011;
Sundell, 2004).
These problems are the major reasons for ventilation system are being
introduced. Most of discussions on IAQ are closely related to ventilation system of the
buildings that are known to improve poor IAQ (DOSH, 2010). By diluting and
removing the indoor air pollutants generated from the indoor environment, the
ventilation system can produce more comfortable and healthy indoor environment to
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building occupants (Sundell, 2004). Theoretically, indoor air can be defined as air
within a building, including air inside a room and also air that have been removed from
a room by ventilations (DOSH, 2010). According to ASHRAE, (1999), the acceptable
indoor air quality is when air inside the building doesn’t have harmful concentrations
of known contaminants, as determined and declared by competent personnel, and when
80% or more of building occupants are satisfy with the indoor air conditions.
The important IAQ components that are known consist of physical components
(relative humidity (RH), temperature, and air velocity) and chemical components
(benzene, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, (CO), carbon dioxide, (CO2), polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and particulates
matters, (PM)), as well as, biological components such as bacteria and fungi. (DOSH,
2010;WHO, 2010). All IAQ components are important to be assessing because all of
them can cause threat to occupants’ health and comfort. High temperature and RH are
known to effect thermal comfort of buildings occupants (Ismail et al., 2010; WHO,
2010). CO and CO2 can cause headache, nausea and also memory losses to occupants
(USEPA, 1991; WHO, 2010). While other chemical components such as formaldehyde
and VOC may cause eye and respiratory irritation as well as cancer if the occupants are
expose frequently at long period of time (USEPA, 1991; WHO, 2010). PM and
biological components are important to be assess as they can cause several types of
allergic reactions (USEPA, 1996; WHO, 2009).
Furthermore, evidence also suggests that poor IAQ can reduce productivity,
performance and motivation of building occupants. The building owners also may
suffer loss in their business if they have to make major renovation and remediation to
counter IAQ problems in their buildings. Apart from that, it is also responsibility of the
employer or building owner to ensure safe and healthy workplace for their workers or
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building occupants (Weschler, 2009; WHO, 2010). Shockingly, it has been established
that, there are 1.5 million deaths occurred every year that are related to poor IAQ due
to indoor combustions of solid fuels in low-income countries (WHO, 2009). In middle
income countries, it has been suggested that poor IAQ was contributing factor to health
risk. The available data also demonstrated that, women, children and elderly people
were the most susceptible people in this globally emerging problem (WHO, 2009 ;
2010).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
This study focused on IAQ in primary schools as schools are one of the vital social
infrastructures in a community where children spend most of their times. Alves et al.,
(2015), mentioned that learning spaces are the second most important indoor
environments after homes. In Malaysia, children spend average of 6 to 8 hours at
schools (Mohd Sofian & Ismail, 2012). According to USEPA, (2009) the pollutant
levels in indoor school facilities are 2 to 5 times higher than the outdoors. It may rise
respiratory symptoms and illnesses as children are vulnerable to air pollutants due to
relatively greater inhalation of air volume than adults that led to greater fractional
deposition in airways, immature immune system, greater food intake and rapid growth
(Mohd Hussin et al., 2011; Nur Azwani et al., 2015; USEPA, 1995).
The IAQ level in schools may be even worse due to higher occupant density, the
wide and varied range of indoor emission sources (art and science supplies), insufficient
ventilation rates, poor maintenance, increased usage of cleaners or chemically
formulated products (Alves et al., 2013; Franklin, 2007; Pegas et al., 2011). Failure to
overcome the IAQ problems in the schools will accelerate the deterioration of school
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buildings and equipment. Consequently, it will affects both teacher and student’s health,
comfort and performance (Gilliland et al., 2001; Mohai et al., 2011).
Over the past two decades, a rapid increase in urbanization in Malaysia degrades
the level of air quality. Nur Aida et al., (2014) suggested that preschool children in urban
area are highly vulnerable to indoor air particles compared to those from the rural area.
Study at school located in Selangor concluded too that urban area preschools have
higher carbon monoxide, PM10 and PM2.5 as compared to the rural area (Chua et al.,
2015). Most of bacteria in some other school environment are human pathogens. It has
been revealed that the predominant type of culturable bacteria isolated in indoor air is
Gram positive cocci. Study by Hurtado et al., (2014) found that the total amount of
Gram positive bacteria at school area in Mexico is higher than Gram negative bacteria.
This group includes Staphylococcus and Streptococcus, which can be causative agents
of throat and respiratory and air-associated infection (D’Arcy et al., 2012; Hurtado et
al., 2014).
To highlight, studies reporting both indoor and outdoor pollutants behaviour and
its chemical composition in elementary schools are still lacking (Almeida et al., 2011;
Pegas et al., 2011). Researches on the composition of school dust especially bacterial
constituents are insufficient (Liu et al., 2000). The bacterial species in schools must be
investigated to understand their characteristics, behaviour and degree of deadliness. In
addition, Meklin et al., (2005) agreed that the cellular mechanisms of the health effects
and the causative exposing agents are poorly understood. Failure to solve the problems
of IAQ can increase short and long-term health effects among the students, teachers and
school staffs. It later on creates uncomfortable learning environment and induces more
absenteeism in educational settings.
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1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to measure physical IAQ components, biological contaminants and
selected chemical components (TSP, PM10, PM2.5 and PM1)) at three selected schools
in Pahang which are located in different background area (residential, industrial and
rural area). Another purpose of this study is to measure the prevalence of sick building
syndrome (SBS) among primary schools’ children at three selected schools in Pahang.
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Throughout the study, data will be analysed to answer specific objective of this study.
The specific objectives include:
1- To measure IAQ parameters level with acceptable range/limit set by
Industrial Code of Practice on IAQ, 2010 (ICOP on IAQ, 2010).
2- To assess the differences in IAQ parameters level in relation to seasons of
sampling, background area, and the level of occupancy of three selected
school buildings.
3- To isolate and identify airborne bacteria and fungi in schools’ environment.
4- To measure the prevalence of SBS among children in three selected school
buildings.
5- To measure the correlation between IAQ parameters in three selected
primary schools.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Are there IAQ parameters measured that exceeded acceptable limit/range
set by ICOP on IAQ, 2010?