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1 6 8

Fill in the Blanks1. The All India Muslim League

was formed in 1906 at ..........2. The Sufi Saint who founded

the Chishti order was .............3. The title given by the British

Government to MahatmaGandhi which, he surrend-ered during the Non Co-operation Movement was..........

4. The Buddhist sect Mahayanaformally came into existenceduring the reign of ..........

5. In Jainism, ‘perfect knowl-edge’ is referred to as ..........

6. A lot of details regarding thevillage administration underthe Cholas is provided by theinscriptions at ..........

7. Asokan inscriptions werefirst deciphered by ..........

8. The first political organi-sation established in India in1838 was known as ..........

9. The Ryotwari Settlement wasintroduced by the British in.........and ......... Presidencies.

10. The foundation of moderneducational system in Indiawas laid by ..........

11. The capital of the kingdom ofMaharaja Ranjit Singh was..........

12. The name of the poetKalidasa is mentioned in the.........inscription of Chandra-gupta II.

13. The word ‘Hindu’ asreference to the people of‘Hind’ (India) was first usedby ..........

14. According to the ‘Mimamsa’system of philosophy,liberation is possible bymeans of ..........

15. The radical wing of theCongress Party, with

Jawaharlal Nehru as one ofits main leaders, founded the‘Independence for IndiaLeague’ in opposition to .........

16. The term ‘Yavanapriya’mentioned in ancientSanskrit texts, denoted .........

17. The Sarabandi (no tax)campaign of 1922 was led by.........

18. Mughal painting reached itszenith under .........

19. Dr. B.R.Ambedkar waselected to the ConstituentAssembly from ..........

20. The Anarchical andRevolutionary Crime Act(1919) was popularly knownas the .........

21. In Medieval India, Mansabdarisystem was introduced mainlyfor .........

22. The head of the militarydepartment under thereorganised central machi-nery of administration duringAkbar’s reign was .........

23. The tribal population inAndaman and NicobarIslands belongs to the .........

24. The Medieval Indian writerwho refers to the discovery ofAmerica is .........

25. The famous dialogue betweenNachiketa and Yama ismentioned in .........

26. The first metal to beextensively used by thepeople in India was ..........

27. The utensils to the IndusValley people were mainlymade of .........

28. The most common animalfigure found at all theHarappan sites is .........

29. The Rig Veda consists of.........hymns.

30. ... . . .. . .veda is renderedmusically.

31. .........was the hero of a famousdrama Malavikagnimitrawritten by Kalidasa.

32. The last Mauryan King was.........

33. When Alexander invadedIndia, Taxila was ruled by.........

34. Buddha delivered his firstsermon at .........

35. The proceedings of the ThirdBuddhist Council led to theissue of .........Edict.

36. The most important Pallavaruler was ...........

37. The capital of Kanishka’sempire was ..........

38. Porus was defeated byAlexander at the Battle of..........

39. ......... was the mother ofVardhamana Mahavira.

40. The city of Pataliputra wasfounded at the junction of theGanges and the .........

41. .........was the first Musliminvader to enter India.

42. The best specimens ofMauryan art are representedby their .........

43. The word ‘Veda’ has beenderived from the root word‘Vid’ which means .........

44. Ashoka has been particularlyinfluenced by the Buddhistmonk .........

45. The Indus Valley Civiliz-ation can be said to belong tothe ......... age.

46. Gautama Buddha as a princewas known as .........

47. The deep, transforming effectthat the Kalinga War had onAshoka has been described in........ edicts.

48. ............. was the first metal tobe discovered and used astools by humans.

49. The Ajanta cave paintingsmostly belong to the period ofthe .........

50. ........... was the founder of theSankhya School ofPhilosophy.

51. The Harappan site that had adock is .........

52. The famous Indo-Greek Kingto embrace Buddhism was.........

53. The original teachings ofMahavira are contained inthe .........

54. The term used to denote agroup of families in the vedicsociety was .........

55. The great Hindu law giverwas .........

56. The fourth Buddhist Councilhad compiled anencyclopedia of Buddhistphilosophy, called .........

57. The Harappan Civilizationwas discovered in the year............

58. The Saka Era started from theyear .........

59. The achievements ofSamudragupta have beenchronicled in the ... . . .. . .inscription.

60. The Chola ruler who hadsubdued the Ganges andobtained the title ‘GangaiKonda Cholan’ was ..............

61. The ancient medical treatise,Charaka Samhita is attributedto Charaka, who was acontemporary of .........

62. The fresco paintings of AjantaCaves illustrate the art of the...........

63. The last Nanda ruler ofMagadha who was overth-rown by ChandraguptaMaurya with the help ofChanakya was .........

64. In medieval India, the statederived the highest incomefrom .........

65. Harihara and Bukka, thefounders of the Empire ofVijayanagar, named theirdynasty as .........

66. The greatest ruler in thehistory of Vijayanagar Empirewas .........

67. Hemu, whom Akbar defeatedin the Second Battle ofPanipat (1556), was theminister of .........

68. The famous Mughal Generalwho conquered Assam,Chittagong, etc., in the north-east was ...........

69. The Sikh Guru executed byAurangazeb after crueltorture was .........

70. The Maratha dominion ofShivaji was known as .........

71. The later Mughal King,popularly known as Shah-i-Bekhabar was ..........

72. The Jat king of Bharatpurwho is known as the ‘Plato ofthe Jat tribe’ and the ‘JatUlysses’ was ----.

73. The capital of Tipu Sultan,where he died while fightingthe fourth Anglo-Mysore warin 1799, was .........

74. The capital of the Sikhkingdom of Ranjit Singh was.........

75. The largest standing army ofthe Delhi Sultanate directlypaid by the State was createdby .........

76. The city of Ajmer wasfounded by .........

77. In India, artillery was firstused by .........

78. The Upanishads weretranslated into Persian by.........

79. Jama Masjid at Delhi was builtby .........

80. .........built by Shah Jahan isone of the unrivalled beautiesof the world.

81. The Peacock throne was builtby .........

82. The ‘Adi Granth’ wascompiled by .........

83. Guru Arjun Dev transferredthe headquarters to .......

84. The Sikh Guru who fought inthe Mughal ranks during thereign of Aurangazeb was.........

85. Guru Govind Singh was theson of .........

86. ‘Jaziya’ was abolished by theMughal ruler ............

87. Babar was originally the rulerof .........

88. Sher Shah was succeeded by.........

89. The Charminar had beenconstructed by .........

90. Token currency had beenintroduced for the first time inIndia by .........

91. The East India Company wasfounded in India during thereign of .........

92. The island of Bombay hadbeen given to the British PrinceCharles II as dowry by the --.........

93. Amir Khusrau’s name isassociated with the inventionof the .........

94. Fatehpur Sikri had beenfounded by .........

95. The ruler of medieval Indiacredited with the constructionof the Grand Trunk Road is.........

96. Chengiz Khan had invadedIndia when the throne wasoccupied by ............

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97. The first Muslim ruler toconquer Southern India was.................

98. Gandhiji gave the title ‘DeenBandhu’ to ..........

99. The Bardoli Satyagraha wasled by ...........

100. The Permanent Settlementintroduced by LordCornwallis in Bengal isknown as .........

101. The main exponent of the“Theory of Drain ofWealth’’ was .........

102. The immediate fore-runnerof the Indian NationalCongress was ...........

103. The first weekly paperpublished by the INC (in1889) was ..............

104. The immediate cause ofsplit in the INC at its Suratsession was .........

105. ........... is regarded as ‘theMother of the IndianRevolution’.

106. The first truly revolutio-nary organisation in Bengalwas ..........

107. The first congress andnationalist leader to facerepeated imprisonmentwas .........

108. The actual name ofDayanand Saraswati, thefounder of the Arya Samajwas .........

109. The first elected IndianPresident of the LegislativeAssembly was ............

110. The most famous womandisciple of Vivekanandawas .........

111. Chandrasekhar Azad wasthe ......... of the HindustanSocialist Republican Army.

112. A day of deliverance andthanks giving, wascelebrated in 1939 by .........

113. The word ‘Pakistan’ wascoined by .........

114. As per ‘August Offer 1940’the Constitution of Indiawould be drawn by .........

115. According to the Regul-ating Act, directors were tobe elected for a periodof ..........

116. The term of office fixed byRegulating Act for Gover-nor General was .................

117. The Rohillas helped theAfghan invaders in 1761 inthe Battle of .........

118. The Non Co-operationMovement under Gandhiwas in full swing during theViceroyality of .........

119. In the interim governmentformed in 1946, the Mini-ster for Education was .........

120. The Shivaji Festival wasinaugurated in 1895 by.........

121. The author of ‘A Nation inthe Making’ was .........

Answers to Fill in the Blanks1. Dhaka2. Khwaja Moinuddin3. Kaiser-e-Hind4. Kanishka5. Kaivalya6. Uttaramerur7. James Princep8. Settlers Association9. Madras, Bombay10. Macaulay’s Minutes of 183511. Lahore12. Hanumakonda13. The Arabs14. Karma15. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact16. Pepper17. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel18. Jahangir19. Bombay Presidency20. Rowlatt Act21. Making recruitment to the army22. Mir Bakshi23. Negroid race

The Rowlatt ActThe Rowlatt Act was a law passed by the British Raj in India inMarch 1919, indefinitely extending “emergency measures” enactedduring the First World War in order to control public unrest androot out conspiracy. Passed on the recommendations of the Rowlattcommission, this act effectively authorized the government toimprison, without trial, any person suspected of terrorism living inthe Raj. The Rowlatt Acts gave British imperial authorities powerto deal with revolutionary activities.Mahatma Gandhi, among other Indian leaders, was extremelycritical of the Act and argued that not everyone should be punishedin response to isolated political crimes. The Act led to indignationfrom Indian leaders and the public, which caused the governmentto implement repressive measures. Gandhi and others found thatconstitutional opposition to the measure was fruitless, so on April6th, a “hartal” was organized where Indians would suspend allbusiness and fast as a sign of their hatred for the legislation.The Rowlatt Act came into effect in March 1919. A protest was heldin Amritsar, which led to the Jallianwala bagh Massacre of 1919.

24. Abul Fazl25. Kathopanishad26. Copper27. clay28. unihorn bull29. 102830. Sama31. Agnimitra32. Brihadratha33. Ambhi34. Sarnath35. Sarnath36. Gondophernes37. Peshawar38. Hydaspes39. Trisala40. Sone41. Mohammed - bin - Qasim42. Pillars43. Knowledge44. Upagupta45. Bronze46. Siddhartha47. Rock48. Copper49. Guptas50. Kapila51. Lothal52. Menander53. Purvas54. Jana55. Manu56. Mahavibhasha Sutra57. 192158. 78AD59. Allahabad Pillar60. Rajendra Chola I61. Kanishka62. Guptas63. Dhanananda64. Land Revenue

65. Sangama66. Krishnadeva Raya67. Muhammad Shah Abdali68. Mir Jumla69. Tegh Bahadur70. Swaraj71. Bahadur Shah72. Suraj Mal73. Srirangapattanam74. Lahore75. Alauddin Khilji76. Ajayaraja77. Babur78. Prince Dara Shikoh79. Shah Jahan80. Taj Mahal81. Shah Jahan82. Guru Arjun Dev

83. Amritsar84. Tegh Bahadur85. Tegh Bahadur86. Akbar87. Kabul88. Islam Shah89. Quli Qutb Shah90. Mohammed bin Tughlaq91. Akbar92. Portuguese93. Sitar94. Akbar95. Sher Shah Suri96. Iltumish97. Alauddin Khilji98. C.F. Andrews99. Vallabhbhai Patel100. Zamindari System

KrishnadevarayaKrishnadevaraya was the most famousking of Vijayanagara empire. He presidedover the empire at its zenith. He is regardedas a hero of people of Kannada and Telugudescent and considered to be one of thegreat kings of India. EmperorKrishnadevaraya also earned the titlesAndhra Bhoja and Kannada Rajya RamaRamana. Much of our information abouthis reign comes from the accounts ofPortuguese travelers Domingos Paes andNuniz. He was assisted in theadministration by the very able primeminister Timmarusu. It was Timmarusu,who was responsible for the coronation ofKrishnadevaraya. Krishnadevarayarevered Timmarusu as a father figure.Krishnadevaraya was the son of NagalaDevi and Tuluva Narasa Nayaka an armycommander under Saluva NarasimhaDeva Raya, who later took control of thereign of the empire to prevent it fromdisintegration. The kings coronation took place on the birthday ofLord Krishna and his earliest inscription is from July 26th. 1509C.E. He built a beautiful suburb near Vijayanagara called Nagalapurain memory of his mother.

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101. Dadabhai Naoroji102. Indian National Conference103. India104. The election of the

President of INC105. Madam Bhikaji Cama106. Abhinav Bharat107. Bal Gangadhar Tilak108. Mula Shankar109. V.J. Patel110. Sister Nivedita111. Commander-in-Chief112. Muslim League113. Rahmat Ali114. Indians115. 4 years116. 5 years117. Panipat118. Lord Reading119. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad120. Bal Gangadhar Tilak121. S.N. Banerjee

One Word Questions1. Who was the governor

general when the 1857 revoltbroke out?

2. Who was the Mughal rulerwho prohibited tobaccosmoking even though theattempt was unsuccessful?

3. Who constructed themonument ‘Kila-KuhnaMosque’ at Delhi?

4. Who built the statue ofGomateswara at Sravanabe-lgola?

5. In the Gandhara sculptures,the preaching mudra which isassociated with the Buddha’sfirst sermon at Sarnath?

6. Who was the first Indian rulerto organize Haj pilgrimage atthe expense of the state?

7. Where did Mahatma Gandhistart the Civil DisobedienceMovement?

8. Who had suggested thewinding up of the IndianNational Congress after Indiaattained independence?

9. Name the organisation whichfirst mooted the idea of aConstituent Assembly toframe a Constitution forIndia.

10. What is ‘Nastaliq’?11. Name the text of ancient India

which allows divorce to awife deserted by her husband.

12. What is ‘Rupaka’?13. ‘The Congress is tottering to

its fall and one of myambitions while in India, isto assist it to a peacefuldemise.” Who made thisstatement?

14. “The king was freed from hispeople and they from theirking”. On whose death didBadaumi comment this?

15. What was the first venture ofGandhi in the All IndiaPolitics?

16. What does the term ‘Aryan’denote?

17. Who was the first writer to use‘Urdu’ as the medium ofpoetic expression?

18. What was the most short livedof all of Britain’s constit-utional experiments in India?

19. Name the Governor - Generalwho followed a spiritual‘forward’ policy towardsAfghanistan?

20. Which Indian nationalistleader looked upon a warbetween Germany andBritain as a God sent oppor-

tunity which would enableIndians to exploit thesituation to their advantage?

21. Name the Congress leaderwho was totally in favour ofCabinet Mission Plan.

22. Who was dismissed by theBritish from the Indian CivilService?

23. While delivering hispresidential address, whichcongress President hadadvocated the introduction ofRoman script for Hindi?

24. Who was the first to introducethe practice of militarygovernership ?

25. What was the brain-child ofLord Mountbatten for thefragmentation of India?

26. “In this instance we could notplay off the Mohammedansagainst the Hindus”. Towhich event did this remarkof Aitchison relate?

Answers to One word questions1. Lord Canning2. Aurangazeb3. Sher Shah4. Chamundaraya5. Dharmachakra6. Feroz Shah Tughlak7. Sabarmati8. M.K. Gandhi9. Swaraj Party10. It is a cess levied by the

Mughal rulers.11. Arthashastra12. It was a silver coin issued by

the Guptas13. Lord Curzon14. Muhammad-bin-Tughlak15. Non Co-operation Movement16. A superior race

17. Amir Khusru18. Indian Councils Act of 190919. Lord Lytton20. Subhash Chandra Bose21. Jawaharlal Nehru22. Surendranath Banerjee23. Jawaharlal Nehru24. The Greeks25. The Balkan Plan26. Revolt of 1857

Short Essays &Short Notes1. What are the major features of

Indus Valley Civilization ?ORBring out the salient featuresof urban culture of IndusValley Civilization?

2. Why is Gupta period calledthe `Golden age’ in IndianHistory?

3. Write notes on the following:(a) Megasthenese, (b) Fa-Hien,(c) Huien-Tsang, (d) I-Tsing,(e) Al-Masudi, (f) Al-Baruni,(g) Maroco polo (h) Ibn-Batuta.

4. What do you know aboutNalanda University?

5. Akbar6. Shivaji and his reforms7. Theosophical Society8. The 19th century Indian

renaissance was both anacceptance and rejection ofwestern values. Do you agree?

9. Narrate the salient features ofGovernment of India Act of1935.

10. Partition of Bengal11 Analyse the role of Gandhiji

in politics12. Permanent Settlement

13. Home Rule Movement.14 What are Vedas and How

many vedas are there?15 Atharva Veda16 Upanishads17 Puranas18 Valmiki19 Vyasa Maharshi20 Selukus Nikator21 Indica22 Persian invasion23 Battle of Jhelum24 Arya Satyas25 Tripitakas26 The Jatakas27 Ethnological Museum28 Numismatics29 The Great Bath30. Bana Bhatta’s Harshacharita31. Amaravati32 Rudradamana33. Arthasastra34. Arab conquest of Sindh35. Battle of Tarain36. Qutub Minar37. Al-Beruni38. Chenghiz Khan39. Balban (1266-86)40. Amir Khusrau41. Timur’s invasion42. Battle of Talikotta43. The Epics44. The Nandas45. Alexander, the Great46. Mauryan Dynasty47. Kanishka48. The Guptas49. The Vardhana Dynasty50. What is Sangam Literature?51. Write about the four ashra-

mas and their aim:

52. What are the importantfeatures of the Gandharaschool of art?

53. Which are the Four Varnas ofthe Vedic Society?

54. Jainism and its mainteachings

55. Buddhism and its mainteachings

56. Ashoka (273-232 B.C.)57. Ashoka's Dharma.58. Chandragupta II (380-414

A.D.)59. Mention two achievements of

Raja Rammohan Roy in Socialfield.

60. The Sufi Movement61. Bhakti Movement62. Qutub-ud-din Aibak63. Tughlaq Dynasty64. Khilji Dynasty65. Lodi Dynasty66. The Cholas67. Vijayanagar Empire68. Mughal Rulers in India69. Subsidiary Alliance System of

Wellesley70. Indian Councils Act 186171. Chauri-Chaura Incident72 What are the main causes

which led to the Civil Disob-edience movement of 1930?

73 Quit India Movement74. The Mountbatten Plan of

194775. Brahmo Samaj76. Prarthana Samaj77. Arya Samaj78. Write notes on the ‘Rock-cut

Kailash Temple at Ellora’ andthe ‘Cave Shrine of Elephanta’.

79. What were the basicweaknesses of the NationalMovement during 1885-1905?

1 7 4

80. First Round Table Conference(1930)

81. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 193182. Second Round Table

Conference (1931)83. Third Round Table

Conference (1932)84. What were the chief aims of

British Administration ofIndia?

85. What were the twodrawbacks of the RegulatingAct?

86. What were the two merits ofthe Permanent Settlement?

87. What was the RyotwariSystem?

88. What was the MahalwariSystem?

89. What do you understand bythe Industrial Revolution andits impact in India?

90. What were the mainprovisions of the Pitt’s IndiaAct?

91. Which were the three pillarsof British administration inIndia?

92. What was Tantya Tope’scontribution to the freedom ofIndia?

93. What was the point ofcontroversy on the Ilbert Bill?

94. Give the names of tworevolutionaries who threw abomb in the CentralAssembly.

95. The Dandi March.96. Why did the people boycott

the Simon Commission?97. Give two suggestions made

in the Nehru Report.98. What were the two chief

recommendations of theCabinet Mission?

99. Policy of Divide & Rule100. Rowlatt Act of 1919101. The Jallianwala Bagh

Tragedy102. The Khilafat Movement103. Non Co-operation Move-

ment104. Renewal of Civil

Disobedience Movement in1932 or Poona Pact

105. Cripps Mission106. Give any two proposals of

the Cripps Mission.107. Why were Cripps proposals

rejected by the Congress?108. The English East India

Company109. The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857110. Minto-Morley Reforms or

the Indian Council Act,1909

111. Government of India Act,1919

112. Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)and the Doctrine of Lapse

Answers to short notes andEssays1. Indus valley civilization, one

of the greatest civilizations inthe world flourished on thebanks of river Indus.Mohenjadaro and Harappa,the primary centres of thiscivilization are now inPakistan. The otherimportant sites of thiscivilization are Lothal(Gujarat), Hastinapur (U.P),Ropar (Punjab), Kalibengan(Rajasthan) and Rangpur(Gujarat). The period of thiscivilization is between 3000-1500 B.C. It is believed thatDravidians were the settlersand Sumerian civilization

also flourished during thisperiod.The striking feature of IndusValley Civilization was itsurban culture. The cities ofHarappa and Mohenjadarowere built with a definite plan.Houses were built with burntbricks. There existed multi-storeyed buildings also. Eachhouse had its own well andbathroom. Town planning inboth Mohenjadaro andHarappa was excellent.Roads were straight and theymet together at particularjunctions. The roads werebuilt with burnt bricks andmortar. Great granaries werethe another major feature ofboth Mohenjadaro andHarappa. The granaries werebuilt in circular platforms.Food materials were suppliedto the people from thesegranaries during calamities.Bullock cart was their chiefvehicle. The drainage systemof Mohenjadaro was veryimpressive. Houses had gooddrainage system. The streetdrains were equipped withmanholes. The remains ofstreets and drains have alsobeen found in Benawali inHaryana.Agriculture was the main jobof the people of Indus Valley.They mainly cultivated

Jewellry of Indus Valley Civilization

wheat, barley, peas, sesameand mustard. In Lothalregion, they cultivated ricealso. They domesticatedanimals like oxen, buffalloes,goats, sheep, pigs, cats, dogsetc. They had also knowledgeon wild animals likeelephant, tiger, crocodile etc.According to the scholars,Harappan culture belongs tothe Bronze Age. The people ofHarappa used many toolsand implements of stone.They had knowledge on allmetals except iron. Smithsmade bronze by mixing tinwith copper. Harappanpeople also used potter’swheel and their pottery wasunique, which was madeglossy and shining.It has been proved that Induscivilization had traderelations within India andoutside India. The port cityLothal is a typical example fortrade affairs. The Harappanshad commercial links withparts of Rajasthan and alsowith Afghanisthan and Iran.They had set up a tradingcolony in northern Afgha-nistan which evidentlyfacilitated trade with centralAsia. They also had tradewith those in the land of Tigrisand the Euphretis.In the case of religion, Indus

people mainly worshippedMatrudevata (Mother God-dess) and Pashupati (LordShiva). Along with this theyalso practised Stone worship,Tree worship and Serpentworship.Remains showed that Induspeople had their own script,which was used both from leftto right and from right to left.Their script primarily waspictographic in nature and tillnow nobody has deciphered it.The urban people of Indusregion used their own weightand measures for trade andother transactions. Numerousarticles used for weights havebeen found. In weighing mostly16 or its multiples were used;for instance 16, 64, 160 etc.This great civilizationdeclined due to two reasons -continuous floods in riverIndus and the Aryaninvasion.

2. The period of the Guptas isconsidered as the Golden Ageof Ancient India. It iscompared with the PericleanAge of Ancient Greece.Hinduism and Sanskritliterature received newimpetus during this period.The country attained politicalunification to a large extentand was also safe fromforeign invasions.

There was all sideddevelopment in the fields ofliterature, science and art. Theestablishment of Hinducolonies in South East Asiastarted. Foreign travellers likeFahien testified the materialprosperity of the people. Allthese factors prove theglorious age of the Guptas.Most of the Gupta rulerspatronised Hinduism andthis resulted in the upliftmentof vedic tradition and ofSanskrit language. Thepresent shape of Hinduismwas also carved out duringthis period. The system ofsacrifices and ritualismdeveloped and idols weremade for various Gods andGoddesses like Siva, Vishnu,Vinayaka, Parvati, Saraswatiand Lakshmi.Sanskrit literature alsoflourished during this time.The Navaratnas of Sanskritliterature are believed to havelived in the court of ChandraGupta-II. Among Navar-atnas, Kalidasa was supremeand Abhijnana Shakuntalahis masterpiece. Literarygiants like Sudraka,

from Gupta Period

from bronze age

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Vishakhadatta, VishnuSharma, Dandin, Harisenaalso lived during this time.Smritis and Puranas wereupdated during the time.There was remarkableprogress in the fields ofastronomy, astrology, mathe-matics and medicine. Aryabhattaand Varahamihira were theprominent astronomers of thetime. Famous mathematicianBrahma Gupta also livedduring this period. We can seetremendous progress in thefields like art and arch-itecture. Rulers renovated somany temples from itsdegeneration.Cave paintings also receivedhigh impetus during this time.Ajanta caves and Bagh cavesare the typical examples ofGupta paintings. A lot of goldcoins were also issued of bythe rulers. Thus in all waysthe Gupta period wascategorically a glorious one orgolden one.

3. (a) Megasthenese (302-298B.C.): An ambassador ofSeleucus Nicator, who visitedthe court of ChandraguptaMaurya. He wrote an interestingbook ‘Indica’ in which he gave avivid account of Chandra-guptaMaurya’s reign.(b) Fa-Hien (405-411 A.D.):He came to India during thereign of Chandragupta II,Vikramaditya. The object ofhis visit was to see the holyplaces of Buddhism and tocollect Buddhist books andrelics. He was the first Chinesepilgrim to visit India.(c) Huien-Tsang (also speltYuan Chwang) (630- 645A.D.): He visited India duringthe reign of HarshaVardhana.

(d) I-Tsing (671-695 A.D.): AChinese traveller, he visitedIndia in connection withBuddhism. His work‘Biographies of EminentMonks', provides us usefulinformation about the social,religious and cultural life ofthe people of this country.(e) Al-Masudi (957 A.D.): AnArab traveller, who has givenan extensive account of Indiain his work Murujul Zahab.(f) Al-Beruni (1024-1030A.D.): His real name was AbuRehan Mahmud and he cameto India along with Mahmudof Ghazni during one of hisIndian raids. He travelled allover India and wrote a bookTarikh-ul-Hind. The bookdealt with the social, religiousand political conditions inIndia.(g) Marco Polo (1292-1294): AVenetian traveller, he visitedSouth India in 1294 A.D. Hiswork ‘The Book of Sir MarcoPolo’ gives an invaluableaccount of the economichistory of India.(h) Ibn Batuta (1333-1347A.D.): A Moorish traveller, hevisited India during the reignof Muhammad- bin-Tughlaq.His book ‘Rehla’ (theTravelogue) throws a lot oflight on the reign ofMuhammad-bin-Tughlaqand the geographical, econ-omic and social conditions inIndia.

4. Located near Rajgriha inBihar, Nalanda University isbelieved to have beenestablished as a Buddhistmonastry by Kumaragupta I(A.D. 414-445). Covering anarea of 1.6 km x 0.8 km, thissix storeyed building housed

1,510 professors and 10,000students. Gaining admissionto this well organiseduniversity was a tough task.Once admitted the studentsgot free education and freeboarding and lodgingfacilities. Kings and wealthycitizens gave cash grants torun the university.The university usedclassroom discussionmethod for teaching. Logic,philosophy, grammar,literature, astronomy,Buddhism and Hinduismwere taught here. TheNalanda University wasdestroyed at the end of the12th century by MuhammadBin Bakhtiyar Khilji, ageneral of Mohammad Ghori.

5. Akbar was born in Amarkotin 1542 A.D. His originalname was JalaluddinMuhammad Akbar. He wasonly 13 when he came to thethrone and his tutor BairamKhan was appointed regent.Akbar won the Second Battleof Panipat. He used diplom-acy and power to subdue theRajputs. He fought againstthe Rajputs from 1572 to 1597but was unable to conquerMewar throughout his life.He also conquered Bengal,Kashmir, Sind and Gujarat.For 40 years, he madeconquests in quick succe-ssion. He decided to end theregency of his powerfulminister Bairam Khan in1560. He made friends withthe Rajputs by establishingmatrimonial relations withimportant Rajput families.He gave a 1ot of responsibleposts to Rajputs. In 1581, hepromulgated the Din-i-Il1ahi.

By introducing this religion,his aim was to propound anew re1igion approved byHindus and accepted byMuslims. He was illiterate butwise. He was a lover of art.The buildings at Agra,Fatehpur Sikri and Delhi givean idea of the architecture ofthose times. Tansen, one of themost lovable musicians of alltimes was his court poet.Akbar was a skillfuladministrator. He dispensedimpartial justice to all. He setup the Mansabdari system.He abolished’ Jaziya’ in 1564.He believed that a ruler wasguardian of his subjects andhad to look after the welfareof his subjects irrespective oftheir sect of creed. He believedin the policy of ‘Sulh-i-Kul’(peace to all).Due to his policy of tolerance,unification of larger areas andable administration Akbar isconsidered as the firstNational King of India.

6. The most powerful of theMaratha chiefs was Shivaji.His father, Shahji, had servedin the Bijapur army. ButShivaji seeing the weaknessof Bijapur, asserted hisindependence. Aurangazebappointed Jai Singh of Amberto deal with Shivaji. In 1665,Purandar Fort in the heart ofShivaji’s territory wasbesieged by Jai Singh and atreaty between the two wassigned. Shivaji visitedAurangazeb’s court in Agrain 1666, where he was madea prisoner but escaped. Hedeclared himself theindependent ruler of theMaratha Kingdom and wascrowned Chhatrapati in 1764

and was determined toharass the Mughals. In thefollowing years, until hisdeath in 1680, he succeededin building a strong Marathastate. Shivaji succeededmainly because Mughalscontrol over Deccan hadweakened. Secondly, theMarathas had worked out arevenue system by which theyobtained a large revenue andcould maintain strongarmies.

7. The society was founded inthe U.S. by Madame H.P.Blavatsky and Colonel H.S.Olcott, who later came to Indiaand founded the headqu-arters at Adyar in Madras in1882. The Theosophicalmovement grew in India as aresult of the leadership givento it by Mrs. Annie Besantwho had come to India in1893. As religious revivalists,the Theosophists were notvery successful. But as amovement led by wester-ners who glorified Indianreligious and philosophicaltradition, it helped Indians’to recover their self - confid-ence.

8. The second half of the 19thcentury was marked by astrong wave of reformingactivities in religion andsociety. These activities arecollectively coined as IndianRenaissance. After a long gap,Indian religion and societysaw rays of hope in Raja RamMohan Roy, Swami Dayan-anda Saraswathi, KeshabChandra Sen, DevendranathTagore, Swami Vivekananda,Iswar Chandra Vidya Sagarand many others.

The impact of western cultureand consciousness of defeatby a foreign power gave birthto a new awakening.Thoughtful and intelligent,Indians began to look into thestrengths and weaknesses oftheir society and for ways andmeans to strengthen thesociety by removing theweakness. While a largenumber of Indians refused tocome with terms to the westand still put their faith intraditional Indian ideas andinstitutions, others graduallycame to accept the elementsof modern western thoughtthat had to be imbibed for theregeneration of their society.They were impressed inparticular by modern scienceand the doctorines of reasonand humanism. Theyimbibed the western ideasand institutions and usedthem in the favour of Indiansociety. They also appreciatedthe Indian values of the past.Raja Ram Mohan Roy hadgreat admiration for thescriptures of christianity. Hepublished the percepts ofJesus. He tried to separate themoral and philosophicalmessage of the NewTestament from its miraclestories. He wanted the moralmessage of Christ to beincorporated into Hinduism.On the other hand,Dayananda Saraswati didnot give importance towestern values. He firmlybelieved that even the latestinventions could be tracedback to the Vedas. Althoughhe fought for the social justiceand believed in education, hisglorification of the Vedas andfounding of the cow protection

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association and the Shuddhimovement antagonised themuslims.Vivekananda criticisedIndians for having lost touchwith the rest of the world. Hesaid motion is the sign of life.He condemned caste systemand the current Hinduemphasis on rituals andsuperstition, and urged thepeople to imbibe the spirit ofliberty, equality and freethinking; the ideas that camefrom the west. KeshabChandra Sen’s Adi BrahmaSamaj primarily emphasiseda casteless community. Thisreaction was more inconsonance with egalitarismof the humanitarian movem-ent in England during the19th century.Annie Besant’s TheosophicalSociety advocated the revivaland strengthening of theancient religions likeHinduism, Zoroastrianismand Buddhism. This suggeststhat even westerners neverforced Indians to follow thewest. But it is a fact that weowed very much to the westin the fields like education,language, science andmaterial well-being.

9. The Government of India Actof 1935 had several features,which were later adopted bythe Constituent Assemblywith slight modifications,while some others werecompletely excluded. One ofthe important features wasestablishment of an All IndiaFederation.The Federation was to bebased on a union of provincesof British India and Princelystates. There was to be abicameral federal legislature

in which the states were giventhe disproportionate represent-ation. Representatives of theprincely states were not to beelected by people, butappointed by the rulers.Resultant voting right wasgiven only to 14 percentpeople of the country. Thecentral legislature was notgiven any real powers andDefence and Foreign affairsremained outside its control.Governer General retainedspecial control over manysubjects. The Governor-General and the Governorswere to be appointed by theBritish Government. Provi-ncial autonomy was anno-unced for the states. Thepowers of state assemblieswere increased and theycould control all thedepartments in the province.But even in the states, theGovernors enjoyed specialpowers and could strikedown any Act of the statelegislature. Individualjudgment and directiongranted to the Governor -General and the Governorsdenied any real power to thepeople and the Act could notsatisfy the aspirations of thenationalist leaders.All political parties includingIndian National Congresscriticised the Act severely forits rigidity, lack of anythingnew to offer and failure toprovide dominion status.Pandit Jawaharlal Nehrusaid that ‘‘The Government ofIndia Act of 1935 is a machinewith strong brakes and noengine.’’

10. The partition of Bengal wasthe watershed in the historyof Indian national movement

which started a chain ofevents which culminated inthe independence of thecountry. Lord Curzon issuedan order dividing theprovince of Bengal into twoparts on the ground ofadministration but theNationalists saw the act ofpartition as a challenge toIndian Nationalism. This wasinfact done to separate theMuslims and the Hindus.They rightly described this actas divide and rule’ policy ofBritish regime.Within Bengal, differentsections of the population-zamindars, merchants,lawyers, students, the urbanpoor and even women-rose upin spontaneous opposition tothe partition of their province.Rabindranath Tagore comp-osed the National Song AmarSonar Bangla’. Demonstra-tions, public meetings andresolutions were someactivities to protest Curzon’sdecision. Swadeshi andBoycott were the next step.Indigenous industries andenterprises were encouragedand foreign goods wereboycotted everywhere inBengal. Tilak gave a cry`Swaraj is our birthright andwe’ll have it.’The cry of Swadeshi andSwaraj was soon taken up byother provinces of India.Partition of Bengal gave thenational leaders a challengeand opportunity to lead apopular struggle against theRaj and to unite the entirecountry in one bond ofcommon sympathy.A new militant leadershipemerged under Tilak, BipinChandra Pal and Aurobindo

Ghosh gave a nationaloutlook to the movement.Ultimately, government hadto quash the decision ofpartition in 1911. Thisincident boosted thenationalists to protest againsttheir rulers in coming years.

11 Gandhiji, Father of ourNation, the super hero ofmillennium registered hisname in modern history withhis simple life and nobledeeds. As a man from soil, heshook the foundation of themighty empire of Britian withhis atomless weapons liketruth and non-violence.Bapu for everyone, came to theforefront of freedom struggleduring the first World War.Before his arrival the politicalplatform in India has beenprepared for him, by themoderate leaders of IndianNational Congress. Gandhijiexperimented philosophy ofAhimsa and Satyagraha inSouth Africa and was wellacquainted with theharshness and brutality ofwhite people there itself.In India, he launched hismission with ChamparanSatyagraha (1917). After itsvictory, he took the leadershipof Ahmedabad Mill Strike(1918) and Kheda Satyagraha(1918). Both were victorious.These incidents highlightedhis ability and soon hebecame the leader of masses.His satyagraha againstRowlatt Act and the rejectionof Kaiser-i-Hind title after theJalianwalla Bagh Tragedyonce again limelighted hisname in media and amongmasses.The historic turn in Gandhiji’slife was the operation of Non-

co-operation Movement.Inspired by his call,thousands of people left theirworking places and joinedthe national struggle. Alongwith this mass struggle, heconducted another crusadeagainst all social evils likeuntouchability, prohibitionetc. He was forced to suspendthe Non Co-operationMovement due to Chauri-Chaura incident (1922). Hefelt that incident was aviolation of his Ahimsaprinciple.After a short gap, Gandhijiagain came into the arena offreedom struggle during1930s by launching CivilDisobedience Movement. Heled this mass movement withutmost vigour and broke thesalt laws. But in 1931, hewithdraw Civil DisobedienceMovement when the Gandhi- Irwin Pact was signed. Heparticipated in the SecondRound Table Conference,which was held at London.Conference was a mock showand he returned to Bombaywith empty hands.After the debacle in 1930s hevociferously questioned theright of Britain in Indiaduring 1940s. His emphaticcall during the Quit IndiaMovement, ‘Do or Die’created percussions all overIndia. Jinna’s demand for aseparate nation for Muslimswas a great blow forGandhiji. He ruthlesslyopposed any kind of divisionof India. But the CalcuttaMassacre of 1946 changedhis mind and ultimately butreluctantly he gave greensignal for the separation ofIndia.

The Mahatma who practisedwhat he preached thusplayed a fine role duringfreedom struggle and becamea model as a sincere servantof a Nation. The universealways will remember hisdoings at every momentbecause he is the real son ofthe soil. As Emerson rightlysaid, ``Generations to comemay scarce believe that sucha one as this ever in flesh andblood walked upon thisearth.’’

12. The Permanent Settlementwas introduced in Bengal andBihar in 1793 by LordCornwallis. According to this,the traditional Zamindars orrevenue collectors were madelandlords and they wereasked to surrender 10/11 of therent derived from thepeasantry while keepingonly 1/11 th for themselves.This payment was fixed andpermanent. The state demandcould not be increased andpayment should be made onthe due date. Failure to payresulted in sale of the land tothe highest bidder.

13. Home Rule Movement (1915-1916):- Annie Besant, the Irishlady, started the Home Rulemovement in India inSeptember 1916. Themovement spread rapidlyand branches of the HomeRule League were establishedall over India. Bal GangadharTilak whole heartedlysupported this movement. Hejoined forces with Dr. AnnieBesant and persuaded theMuslim League to supportthis programme

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14 The word veda meansknowledge. They embodiesthe ancient wisdom of India.There are four vedas namelyRig Veda, Sama Veda, YajurVeda and Atharva Veda.They are the oldest literarywork of India.

15 The Atharva Veda Samhitacontains 760 hymns dividedinto 20 books. It mostly dealswith charms, magic andspells by which one couldovercome demons andenemies, win over friends andgain worldly benefits. It is asource of occult practices.

16 The word Upanishad means`sitting near.’ It relates to thedisciple sitting down at thefeet of his teacher andlearning the secrets of theUniverse. The Upanishadsconsist of philosophicaldiscussions between theteacher and the disciple.There are 108 Upanishadswhich were probably writtenbetween 800 and 500 B.C. TheChandogya, Brihadaranyaka,Mundaka, Kena andTaithiriya Upanishads areprominent among them.

17 The Puranas give a clearpicture of the Aryans. Theyare 18 in number. Theycontain gables, discipline,religious rites, etc. VishnuPurana, Bhagavatha Puranaare two of the importantpuranas.

18 He is considered as Adi-Kavior the first among the Sanskritpoets. Originally a hunter inforests, he was very muchmoved by the sorrow of a birdat the death of her mate. Hissympathies for the crying birdturned him into a great poet.On the suggestion of sageNarada, he wrote Ramayana,

the immortal epic. It is a storyof conflict between Rama andRavana, who represent theAryan and Non-Aryancivilizations. It consists ofseven chapters containing24,000 couplets.

19 Vyasa Maharshi was theauthor of Mahabharata, anepic of 18 volumes consistingof 1,00,000 couplets. TheMahabharata war was foughtbetween Pandavas andKauravas probably in 1000B.C. Vyasa was also theauthor of 18 Puranas and theBhagavad Gita.

20 After the death of Alexander,his commander, SelukusNikator became the ruler ofhis master’s kingdom in theEast. He occupied Bactria andtried to reoccupy the Punjab.He was defeated by Chandra-gupta Maurya in 305 B.C. Heceded Kabul, Khandahar,Herat and Baluchistan toChandragupta and sentMegasthenese as ambassadorto the Mauryan Court.

21 Megasthenese was the GreekAmbassador in the court ofChandragupta Maurya. Herecorded his experiences inhis book `Indica’’. It providesvaluable information aboutthe Mauryan history.Unfortunately, the originalbook is not available at all.Some extracts taken from‘‘Indica’’ were quoted by theGreek authors. Only suchquotations are used by thehistorians while writingMauryan history. Megasth-enese gave elaboratedescription of the royal palaceand the city of Pataliputra.

22. Persian invasion took placein 516 B.C. during the regimeof Darius I of Persia. He sent

a naval expedition underScylax to explore the riverIndus. Scylax occupied Sindhand a portion of the Punjab.The Indian territory formed20th Satrapy of the Persianempire and it remained underPersian rule till the advent ofAlexander’s invasion.

23. It was fought betweenAlexander and Porus in 326B.C. on the banks of the riverJhelum. Alexander stealthilymoved 16 miles northwards,crossed the river at night andmade a surprise attack onPorus. Alexander won thebattle but moved by the valourof Porus, Alexander set himfree and so withdrew himselffrom conquering the Gangeticplain. On his return journeyhe died at Babylon.

24 The four noble truths taughtby Lord Buddha are knownas Arya Satyas. The first truthis the existence of sorrow. Thesecond one is that desire is thecause of sorrow. The thirdtruth is that sorrow can beended by eliminating desires.The fourth one is that desirescan be conquered byfollowing the eight-fold path.

25 Tripitakas are the Buddhistsacred books. They are theVinaya Pitaka, the SuttaPitaka and the AbhidammaPitaka. Upali and Anandawrote these texts in Palilanguage, the language of themass. They contain theteachings of the Buddha andthe rules to be followed by theBuddhist monks.

26 The Jatakas are the storiesabout Lord Buddha. Theydescribe his previous birthsbefore he was born atKapilavastu in the Sakyafamily and his later Avatars’.

27 Ethnology is a study of theraces of mankind. Dr V ASmith describes India as anEthnological Museum.According to Sir HerbertRusley, Indians belong toseven different races. They are: Indo -Aryan, Dravidian,Mongolian, Aryo-Dravidian,Mongolo -Dravidian, Scythio- Dravidian and Turko -Iranian. The foreigners whoinvaded India also mergedwith the native population.

28 It is the study of coins. Thegold and silver coins ofancient times throw light onthe contemporary history. Inthe asbsence of historicalevidences, the coins form thesource of information forwriting a particular history.For instance, the ship-markedcoins of the Satavahanasspeak of their foreign trade.

29 The excavations made atMohenjodaro in the LarkanaDistrict of Sindh revealed thatthere existed a well-built cityduring Indus ValleyCivilization. The town haddrainage facilities also. ‘‘TheGreat Bath’’ was a swimmingpool unearthed at Mohenjo-daro. It was an openquadrangle surrounded byvarandhas (steps) andflanked by rooms on all sides.The bath used to get waterfrom the nearby wells. Itsmeasurements are 30 x 23 x 8feet. It indicates the advancedstate of civilization attainedby the Indus people even atthat time. It also had somereligious significance.

30. Bana Bhatta was a court-poet ofHarsha Vardhana. His bookHarshacharita is a source ofinformation on a study ofHarsha and his times. It

described the ancestors ofHarsha who were the rulersof Thaneswar. It gives a vividdescription of Harsha’smilitary expeditions, anddepicts the social, religiousand political conditions inNorth India during those times.Bana Bhatta excessively praisedthe achievements of Harsha inhis book.

31. Amaravati in Guntur district,was an important seat ofBuddhism in South India. Thegreat Stupa at Amaravati wasprobably built by Asoka. It hasa height of 100 feet and acircumference of 435 feet atthe base. The life of LordBuddha was carvedbeautifully around the stupa.The sculpture of Amaravatihad unique place in theBuddhist scriptures. Mahad-eva a missionary sent byAsoka, made Amaravati hiscentre of activity in SouthIndia. The Amaravati Stupaand its architecture belongs to200 to 100 B.C.

32 Rudradamana was thefamous Saka king of Ujjain.The Junagad Rock inscrip-tion gives information abouthis administration. Hebelongs to the period 130-150A.D. His empire extendedfrom the Lower Indus Valleyto the Western Vindhyas. Heclaimed that he defeated aSatavahana king twice andgave his daughter in marriageto him. He spent his personalmoney for the reconstruction ofthe Sudarshana lake inSaurashtra which was origin-ally built by the Mauryans.

33. Kautilya, the Prime Ministerof Chandra Gupta Mauryawas the author of Artha-sastra. It is a treatise on

Politics, Economics and State-craft. It was rendered intoEnglish by Shyama Sastri in1909. It was the chief sourceof information for a study ofMauryan administration.Kautilya (real name VishnuGupta) was also known asChanakya.

34. In the early years of 8thcentury A.D., the Caliph ofBaghdad asked his PersianGovernor, Hajaj to invadeSindh and destroy theinfidels. The pretext given forthe invasion was that thepirates of Sindh plunderedcertain Arab ships carryingsome valuables from Ceylonto Baghdad. Muhammed - bin- Kasim, a commander ofPersian Governor, invadedSindh, by land route anddefeated Dahir, the HinduKing in the Battle of Rowar in712 A.D. He occupied Alorthe capital of Sindh. Hefurther continued hisexpedition and plundered thecity of Multan. The Arabconquest was limited toSindh only. They could notpenetrate into other parts ofIndia. Mohammed BinQuasim’s dream to establisha Muslim rule in India did notcome true, as Quasim wasmurdered at his early age. Butthe dream was realised byMohammed Ghori. In 1175,Ghori brought Sind under hiscontrol. In 1186, Punjab cameunder his rule. But in 1191,Prithiviraj Chauhan defeatedhim in the First Battle ofTarain. However, his victoryat Kanauj in 1194, paved theway for establishment ofMuslim rule in India.

35. The First Battle of Tarain wasfought between Muhammed

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Ghori and Prithviraj in 1191.Prithviraj, the king of Delhiand Ajmer won the battle anddrove away the invadertriumphantly. But in 1192, inthe Second Battle of TarainPrithviraj was defeated andtaken as a prisoner.Muhammed Ghori occupiedDelhi and appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as viceroy of theconquered territories. Aibakfounded the Slave dynasty onthe throne of Delhi. TheSecond Battle of Tarain was aturning point in the IndianHistory. It paved the path forMuslim rule in India.

36. Qutub Minar is a huge pillarin Delhi built during the timesof Qutub - ud - din Aibak andIltumish. Aibak started itsconstruction in memory ofQwaja Qutub - ud - din, areligious preceptor ofBaghdad. The constructionwas completed by Iltumish.The pillar represents theIslamic architecture of middleages.

37. Al-Beruni was a famous Arabhistorian. He was a scholarin Sanskrit and Arabic. Hiswork Tarikh - ul - Hind givesinformation about theconditions in India at the timeof Mahmud of Ghazni’sinvasion.

38. Chenghiz Khan was aMongol invader. His originalname was Temujin. He overran China and Central Asia.He destroyed the KhwarazmEmpire. Under ChenghizKhan, the Mongols reachedupto the river Indus in 1220.

39. Balban was the greatest of theSlave kings. Iltumishpurchased him as slave andmade him one of the fortyTurkish nobles. He served as

the Chief huntsman underSultana Raziyya. After thedeath of Nasiruddin, Balbanoccupied the throne andestablished a stable admin-istration. He ruthlesslysuppressed the power of theforty Turkish nobles. Heintroduced persian customsin his court. He organised avery efficient spy system andreceived exact information ofthe developments in theKingdom. He suppressedrebellions in Bengal andbrought it under his control.He successfully defended theKingdom against theinvasions of Mongols.

40. Amir Khusrau was the firstpoet of Urdu Literature. Hewas in the Court of AlauddinKhilji and described hisconquests in the book Tarikh- i - Alai. For his sweet poetryhe was known as ‘Parrot ofIndia’. He wrote another bookin which the love story ofKhizr Khan and Deyal Deviwas depicted. He lived till thetime of Ghiyasuddin Tughlakand wrote Tughlake-nama, ahistory of Ghiasuddin. Hewas also a musician.

41. Timur belonged toSamarkhand. After conqu-ering Persia, Iraq andAfghanistan, he invadedIndia in 1398. NasiruddinMuhammed Shah was theruler of Delhi at that time.Timur reached Delhi with10,000 cavalry and 40,000infantry. At the out skirts ofDelhi he routed the army ofNasiruddin and captured thecity. He plundered anddestroyed the city of Delhiand massacred the people inthousands. On his returnjourney he demolishedtemples, and killed Hindus in

Meerut, Haridwar, Kangraand Jammu. As a result ofTimur’s invasion, Tughlaq’sdynasty came to an end atDelhi. The provincialgovernors declared indepe-ndence in Gujarat, Malwaand Jaunpur. Timur appoin-ted Khizr Khan as viceroy ofPunjab and left for Kabul.

42. The Battle of Talikotta in 1565led to the down fall of theVijayanagar empire. It wasfought between AliyaRamaraya of Vijayanagar onone side and Hussain NizamShah of Ahmadnagar on theother side. The Sultans ofGolkanda, Bidar and Bijapuralso joined hands with theSultan of Ahmadnagar. Thewar took place near thevillages of Rakshas andThangadi in the RaichurDoab. Aliya Ramaraya waskilled in the battle field. Thearmies of Vijayanagar werecompletely rooted andmassacred. The enemiesentered the city andplundered it for full sixmonths. The seat ofVijayanagar kingdom wasshifted to Penugonda whereTirumalaraya founded theAravidu dynasty.

43. The available epics are theRamayana and theMahabharatha. The formerwas written by Valmiki andthe latter by Ved Vyas.Bhagavad Gita is a part ofMahabharatha. The Gita isfull of teachings to Arjuna byLord Krishna. The Ramayanawas written much earlierthan the Mahabharatha.

44. When Alexander invadedIndia, the Nandas ruled overMagadha which comprisedof modern Patna and Gaya

districts in Bihar. TheNandas ruled for 100 yearsand there were 9 kings,according to Puranas. HieunTsang mentions about the lastking of the Nandas. TheNanda rule came to an endwith the invasion of ChandraGupta, the founder of Mauryadynasty.

45. Alexander was the son of agreat King of Macedonia, KingPhilip II. Inspired by theteachings of Aristotle whowas his teacher, Alexanderwanted to bring India underhis control so that he couldbecome the Emperor of thewhole world. He came to Indiain 326 BC and defeated Porus.As his army rebelled he wasforced to give up furtherinvasion and decided to return.On his way back he died atBabylon at the age of 33.

46. After defeating Nandas,Chandragupta Maurya esta-blished his kindgom withPataliputra as his capital. Hedefeated Selucus Nikatorwho was the representative ofAlexander. Then Nikator sentMagasthanese as his amba-ssador to Mauryan Court.Indica of Megasthanese is avaluable source of Mauryanhistory. Kautilya, the authorof Arthasastra was Chand-ragupta’s minister. Chandra-gupta was succeeded by hisson Bindusara who was thefather of Ashoka. Asoka ruledbetween 273 B.C and 236 B.C.The only war he waged wasthat of Kalinga. The sufferingsof the people due to that warchanged his whole life. Hebecame a Buddhist andpropagated the ideals ofBuddhism. Mauryan dynasty

came to an end because ofcertain policies of Ashokaagainst Brahminical religion,weak successors of Ashokaand invasion of Sungas.Pushyamitra Sunga theCommander-in-Chief of theMauryas, established theSunga dynasty.

47. Though many petty dynastiesrose and fell in the period afterthe Mauryas, the Kushanadynasty has made indeliblehistory on the Indian soil.Though many theories havebeen forwarded about theorigin of the Kushanas, it canbe well said that they camefrom Central Asia. Of theKushana Kings, Kanishka’sreign is well-known. Thebeginning of Saka era onwhich the Indian calendar isbased coincides withenthronement of Kanishka in78 A.D. Gandhara Art, thefusion of Indo-Greek arts,flourished during the periodof Kushanas. The twobranches of Buddhismemerged under the reign ofKanishka.

48. The Age of Guptas is knownas Golden Age’ in the historyof India for the reasons ofrevival of Hinduism, Art,Literature etc. Kalidasa, theauthor of Sakuntala,Raghuvamsam, Meghdoot;Aryabhatta, the greatmathematician and theastronomer, Amarasimhalived during this age. Fahienvisited the court of ChandraGupta II and stayed in Indiabetween 399 and 417 A.D.Though the period of Guptadynasty is not definitelyknown, we can well say thatChandra Gupta I andSamudra Gupta were well

known great kings. Becauseof his valiant conquests,Samudra Gupta is known as‘Indian Napoleon.’ Harisenawas the poet laureate ofSamudra Gupta.

49. After the Guptas, the wellknown Hindu dynasty in theNorth was Vardhanadynasty of which HarshaVardhana was a famous king.Harsha was a great scholar.Hieun Tsang visited India inthe 7th century A.D. duringHarsha’s period. HieunTsang’s accounts are valuablesource of information onHarsha’s period. NalandaUniversity flourished and twoconferences on Buddhismwere held under Harsha-oneat Kanauj under the religiousleadership of Hieun Tsang. Hewas defeated ultimately byPulikesin-II of Chalukyadynasty. Bana Bhatta, thecourt poet of HarshaVardhana wrote HarshaCharita. Harsha wroteRatanavali. Thus Harsha wasnot only a warrior but ascholar and a goodadministrator also. TheVardhana dynasty was thelast Hindu dynasty in theNorth.

50. Ancient Tamilian poets hadproduced literature which ispopularly referred as SangamLiterature. It earned this namebecause much of thisliterature was written in threesangams or ‘assemblies’ ofTamil poets which had beenheld between the 1st centuryAD to 6th century AD. We canlearn a lot about South Indiafrom these works includingdetailed accounts of greatkings, commercial activities,administration and social,

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economic and religious life inancient South India. It isbelieved that the sangamswere held in Madurai.Examples of Sangam litera-ture include Tiruvalluvar’sclassic Thirukkural and thetwo Tamil epics Silappadi-karam and Manimekalai.These particularly depict lifein ancient Tamil land indetail.

51. The Aryan culture divided aman’s life into four stages,each of which was called anAshram. The BrahmacharyaAshram ranged fromchildhood to 25 years of agewhen a man was engaged inreceiving education. Then hemarried and entered theGrihasthya Ashram, whichcontinued to the age of 50. Inthe Vanaprastha Ashram, hehimself retired from active lifebut guided the life of hisgrown-up children. The stagecontinued up to the age of 75.Finally, in Sanyas Ashram, aman retired from society andwent to the hills, forests orhermitages in order to attainsalvation.

52. First, the life-size statues ofBuddha made by theGandhara artists are in thelikeness of the Greek Gods.This was because thetechniques used and formsapplied were Greek in nature,while the subjects were all ofIndian origin. These statuesare in stone, cement, clay andterracotta. Secondly, this artis realistic in which muchattention was paid to minutedetails like folds and turns ofthe dress. Rich ornamen-tation and refinement can beseen in these art works. TheBuddha statues made by the

Mathura artists are in a purelyIndian style while those madeby the Gandhara artists showa strong Greek influence.

53. The Brahmana, the Kshatriya,the Vaishya and the Sudrasare the four varnas of thevedic society. The Brahmanaswere the priests assigned toperform religious rituals andto educate young people. TheKshatriyas were the rulingand warrior class who werebrave and learned inadministration. The Vaishyawas a class consisting ofagriculturists, industrialistsand traders. The Sudras wereservants, labourers andslaves who worked for theother three classes.

54. Vardhamana Mahavira, the24th and last Tirthankara(saint with divine power),was the founder of Jainismwho first preached it in the6th century B.C. Born to aKshatriya chieftain atKundagrama, near Vaishali,he left his family at the age of30 and set out in search of trueknowledge. At 42, he acquiredthe highest ‘knowledge,kevalyanana, and began to beknown as Mahavira. Hespent the rest of his lifepreaching Jainism. The mainteachings of Jainism are :Ahimsa or non-violence;hard penance and self-sacrifice; no faith in theexistence of God; worship ofthe 24 Tirthankaras;attainment of moksha orsalvation as the main aim oflife; belief in the next life,transmigration of soul and thetheory of karma; no faith inreligious rites and rituals;and equality of humanbeings. The religious texts of

the Jains are known asAngas.

55. Buddhism was founded byLord Buddha, a Sakya princeand the son of the ruler ofKapilavastu. He was born in567 B.C. in the Lumbini, nearKapilavastu. He left his familyin search of enlightenment in537 B.C. In 531 B.C., heattained the higherknowledge at Gaya. He was36 then. The main teachingsof Buddha are: all misery iscaused by desire, and may beput to an end by destroyingdesire; Nirvana, or freedomfrom the cycle of birth andrebirth, may be attained byfollowing the eight- fold pathof right belief, right thought,right speech, right action,right living, right effort, rightrecollection and rightmeditation; ahimsa or thepath of non-violence; no faithin sacrifices and rituals; faithin the equality of men and notin the caste system; belief inkarma and transmigration ofsoul; and emphasis onmorality. The most importantBuddhist scriptures are theTripitakas or ‘the threebaskets’ - the Vinayakapitaka,the Suttapitaka and theAbhidhammapitaka. Thereligious texts of theBuddhists are known as theJatakas. A few centuries afterBuddha’s death, Buddhismwas divided into two sects:Hinayana and Mahayana.

56. The son of Bindusara, ranksas one of the greatest rulers,not only in the annals ofIndian history but also in thatof the world. He endeavouredto do all he could for the good

of his people and, therefore,his reign is considered to beone of the most gloriousperiods in the history of India.By his conquests, he furtheredthe borders of the empirewhich he had inherited fromhis father and grandfather, sothat it became the biggestempire in ancient India.However, after the Kalingawar, in which countlesspeople were killed, before heemerged the victor, he was sodeeply affected by the sight ofbloodshed and suffering thathe underwent a change ofheart and completely gave upthe policy of conquests. Heembraced Buddhism andthereafter gave up all sorts ofviolence. He then turned hisfull attention towardsthe good of the people andgave them an efficientadministration ensuringpeace and prosperity. Manyschools were opened and thearts also flourished under hispatronage. He also workedtirelessly for the propagationof Buddhism in India andabroad.

57. Ashokas’s greatness lies inthe fact that he was perhapsthe first king to conceive somesort of a world religion-Dharma-comprising the goodprinciples of all religions. It’smain principles were respectof elders, good treatment of theyounger people, ahimsa,truthfulness, charity,religious toleration and asimple and virtuous life.

58. Chandragupta-II or Chandra-gupta Vikramaditya, the sonof Samudragupta, was apowerful ruler of Gupta

dynasty. He, was a greatconqueror and added to thevast empire he had inheritedfrom his father andgrandfather. His greatestmilitary achievement waswhen he destroyedcompletely the power of theSakas and drove them out ofMalwa, Gujarat andSaurashtra, thus wipingaway the last trace of foreignrule in India. His empire, thus,touched the Arabian Sea. He,too, was a patron of art andliterature and because of this,he is often identified with therenowned Vikramadityaof Ujjain, who patronagedthe famous ‘Nine Gems’(Navratnas).

59. Raja Rammohan Roy playedan important role in theabolition of the evil custom ofSati. It was because of hisefforts that it was legallybanned by William Bentick in1829. The abolition of Satibrought forth the problem ofwidows, so he stressed uponthe remarriage of widows.

60. Sufi mystic orders arose in the10th century. They laid greatemphasis on love anddevotion as the bond betweenGod and the individual soul.Around this time, the sufiswere organised into 12 ordersor silsilahs and these werebroadly divided into two: Ba-shara (those who followedthe Islamic law) and Be-shara(those who were not bound byIslamic law). The two orderswhich acquired importancein India were the Chisti andSurhawardi silsilahs.

61. Bhakti Movement was acontinuation of the earlierdevotional cult. The Bhakti

teachers taught that therelationship between manand god was based on love,and worshipping god withdevotion was better thanmerely performing anynumbers of religiousceremonies. Bhakti teachersstressed the need for toleranceamong man and religions.They also objected to thedivision of society into castesand the low status given towomen. They encouraged thewomen to join in gatherings.The most significantcontribution of this move-ment during this period camefrom Kabir and Nanak.

62. Qutub Ud din Aibak was aslave purchased by Ghori.After the Second Battle ofTarain in 1192, he wasappointed Governor of Lahoreby Ghori. After the death ofGhori, with the support of thepeople of Lahore, heproclaimed himself as King.His period was between1206’-10. The famous QutubMinar was built by himthough he could not completeit before his death. It wascompleted by Iltumish in 1232.

63. It lasted for about 100 years.The founder of this dynastywas Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.Mohammed Bin Tughlaq iswell-known for hispersonality. He was the kingwho introduced brass andcopper coin system and whochanged his capital fromDelhi to Daulatabad andback to Delhi. Though hisideas were fantastic, theycould not be implemented asthey lacked practicalimagination. He has beendubbed as eccentric and illstarred idealist by Ibn Batuta,

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an African traveller. Theworst part of it was that hechanged not only his capitalbut the entire populace. As ahistorian said, he could havebetter been a Professor than aKing. He was known as thewisest fool.

64. Khilji dynasty was foundedby Malik Firoz in 1290 andassumed the title JalaluddinKhilji (1290-96). AlauddinKhilji, the nephew ofJalaluddin Khilji killed himafter his victory on Devagri in1296. He was the mostfamous ruler of the KhiljiDynasty. Alauddin Khilji iswell known for hisadministration and militarysystem. Akbar’s mansabdarisystem was contemplatedand introduced by AlauddinKhilji.

65. This was the last Muslimdynasty which ruled Delhi.Ibrahim Lodi ruled Delhiwhile Mohammed Lodi wasin Gujarat. Including the ruleof their predecessors, the Lodirule lasted for about 75 yearsbetween 1415 and 1526.Because of fraternal fractionsand rivalries Daulat Lodiinvited Babar to fight with hisbrother Ibrahim Lodi. Itresulted in the First Battle ofPanipat which paved theway for the Mughal rule inIndia.

66. They ruled the very fertiledelta of Cauvery basin whichlie in the modern Trichy andTanjore districts of TamilNadu. Though their rulelasted for about 200 years therule of Raja Raja, the great andhis son, Rajendra Chola aremarked for their adminis-tration and conquests. Raja

Raja ruled between 985 ADand 1014 AD. He built theBrihadeswara temple atTanjore. His was a rule ofdemocracy. He was a staunchHindu. But he practisedreligious tolerance notknown in those days. RajaRaja was succeeded by hisson Rajendra who ruledbetween 1012 A.D. and 1044A.D. During his time, foreigntrade flourished.

67. Vijayanagar Empire wasestablished by Harihara andBukka on the banks ofTunghabadra in Andhra.Krishnadevaraya was afamous king who ruledbetween 1509 A.D. and 1530A.D. He brought under hiscontrol, the modern Raichur,Bijapur, Gulbarga etc., inKarnataka and Kondappalliand Kondaveedu in Orissa.His period witnessed peaceand prosperity. Krishnade-varaya, himself, was ascholar. His court wasadorned by Ashtadiggajas ofwhom Tenaliraman was well- known for his witticism.Because of the weaksuccessors and of the rise ofBahmini Kingdom, Vijayan-agar Empire vanished.

68. Babur: Babur who was drivenout of his own country, wasinvited by Mohammed Lodiin India. After his failurethrice to get backSamarkhand, he lockedhimself in the First Battle ofPanipat in 1526 with IbrahimLodi. It led to theestablishment of Mughal rulein India. Babur ruled for4 years. Hence he could notconsolidate his gains, whenhe was succeeded by a weakson Humayun. Babur

wrote his autobiography‘Babur Nama’.Humayun : Fraternal fract-ions criss - crossed with aweak character of his own,Humayun could not stand fora long time, when he wasdriven out of the country by anative Sher Shah Suri.Humayun tumbled throughhis life and tumbled out of it.After trials and tribulationsand wanderings for manyyears, he could stage a comeback with some of his well-wishers. In the mean timeAkbar was born at Amarkotin 1542.Sher Shah Suri: Sher ShahSuri, worth his name of tiger,could easily defeat the forcesof Humayun at manyengagements. Though hisrule lasted for only six yearsbetween 1539 and 1545, SherShah could pay muchattention on the revenueadministration and organisethe army on scientific lines.During his time the GrandTrunk Road betweenPeshawar and Calcutta wasbuilt. Now it runs fromCalcutta to Amritsar. As hewas succeeded by weakrulers the Suri interrugnumcould linger on only for a fewyears.Akbar : He came to power atthe age of 12. Though he wasilliterate, his vision ofreligious tolerance, revenueadministration and militaryhierarchy had far reachingconsequences. He preachedHindu Muslim unity. Hemarried Rajput ladies. Hefounded a religion; `Din - I-lahi’. Though the religion hada few followers and died soonafter the death of Akbar, we

have to take into account thebroad view Akbar had in thesixteenth century.Jehangir : Akbar wassucceeded by his son,Jehangir. Though noremarkable achievementswere made by Jehangir, theroyal affairs handled and theroyalty dominated by a haremaround his wife Noorjehanare worth mentioning.Jehangir used to consume 24pegs of wine. Religiousintolerance started surfacingand bankruptcy permeated.Shah Jahan : More than hisconquests and administr-ation, his love for Mumtaz, artand architecture needmentioning. Because of lavishspending on art andarchitecture, the Governm-ent’s coffer started drying andexcessive doses of taxationyear after year was the onlyremedy. Thus the peoplegroaned under heavy andunbearable taxes. Taj Mahal,built of white marbles inmemory of his wife Mumtaz,was completed in 1653.Aurangazeb: Alamgir was thename adopted by Auran-gazebwhen he became the Padusha.Aurangazeb is known as 'ZindaPir' or living saint because of hissimple life. He banned musicand dance. He ousted all theartists from his court. He wasthe last great MughalEmperor. His intolerancetowards the Hindus, civilwars and weak successorsresulted in the downfall ofthis empire. Finally thedynasty ended with the deathof Bahadur Shah II in 1826 inMyanmar.

69. Subidiary Alliance system wasused by wellesley to bring

Indian States within the orbitof British political power. Itpaved the way for stationingof British troops in theterritories of native Princes.The Princes have to pay forthe stationing of troops. Inreturn the troops will take careof the defence of the territories.First Indian ruler to join thesubsidiary Alliance wasNizam of Hyderabad.

70. Indian Councils Act 1861brought many administrativechanges. Non-official Indianswere taken in the ExecutiveCouncil, the Governmentdepartments were decentr-alised and the portfoliosystem was introduced. TheAct sought to bridge the gapbetween the rulers and theruled.

71. When Gandhiji’s CivilDisobedience Movement wasin progress, a strong mob inChauri-Chaura, a place inBihar killed some policepersonnel by setting fire to thepolice station. It was againstGandhiji’s non-violentpolicies. Hence he called offthe agitation.

72 The main causes of CivilDisobedience movement of1930 were:a. No Indian was included

in the Simon Commisionwhich was to look intothe matter of responsibleself-government.

b. Nehru's Report, theIndian National leader'sconsti-tutional draft of1928, drew an indifferentresponse from the British.

c. In 1929, viceroy Irwinannounced that theRound Table Conferencewould be called to

discuss the Dominionstatus of India and theframing of a newconstitution for India.However, he refused togive any assurance. Thisled the congress todemand for poornaSwaraj and subsequentlyto start the Civil Disobe-dience movement.

73. In 1942, the Congressdemanded the immediateending of the British rule inIndia. The failure of theCripps Mission was the majorreason for the beginning ofQuit India Movement.Gandhiji along with manyothers were arrested. Violencespread throughout the coun-try, several governmentoffices were destroyed anddamaged, telegraph wireswere cut and communicationparalyzed. The movementwas, however, crushed by thegovernment.

74. Mountbatten's plan was todivide India but retainmaximum unity. The countrywould be partitioned but sowould be Punjab and Bengaland two separate indepe-ndent Dominions of Indiaand Pakistan would emergewith its own Governorgeneral. Mountbatten Plandivided India into Indiandominion and Pakistandominion. Thus Pakistancame into being.

75. Rammohan Roy regarded asmodern India’s first greatleader and was the centralfigure in the awakeningmovements started in Bengal.He sought inspiration fromthe modern sciences of theWest as well as from theancient knowledge of India.

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In 1809, he wrote in Persianhis famous work “Gift toMonotheism’ in which heargued in favour of auniversal religion based onthe principle of one SupremeGod. In 1828, a new societycalled ‘Brahmo Samaj’ wasstarted which discarded idolworship, caste divisions andmany other meaningless ritesand rituals. For this purpose,he published the Bengalitranslation of the Vedas andthe Upanishads and demo-nstrated to the people thatthese texts preached only oneGod and idol worship had noplace there. Later on, theSamaj expanded throughoutthe country.

76. Formed along the lines of theBrahmo Samaj, the PrarthanaSamaj of Bombay wasfounded in 1867. Aneducated middle class hasarisen there too and it soughtthe reform of society andreligion. The real force behindthe Prarthana Samaj wasM.G. Ranade and R. Bhan-darkar. It emphasised moreon social reforms.

77. The Arya Samaj, founded in1875 by Swami DayanandSaraswathi, undertook thetask of reforming Hindureligion in North India. Hebelieved that there was onlyone God who was to beworshipped not in the formof images but as a spirit. Themember of the Arya samajwere guided by “TenPrinciples” of which the firstone was studying the Vedas.The rest were tenets of virtueand morality. There was noroom for caste distinctionsand social inequality. TheArya Samajists opposed child

marriage and encouragedwidow re-marriage. Dayana-nda Saraswati’s emphasis onthe super-natural andinfallible character of theVedas seems to have risenfrom his ardent desire to giveHinduism a definite creedand equip it with a militantcharacter. Similar in nature,was his move for thereconversion of those Hinduswho had been converted toother religions like Islam andChristianity. For this purpose,a purificatory ceremony called‘Shuddhi’ was prescribed.

78. The Rashtrakuta rulers weregreat patrons of art andliterature. Krishna-I built thefamous rock-cut KailashTemple at Ellora in the laterhalf of the 8th century A.D. Itwas constructed in theDravidian style of theChalukyas and elaboratelycarved with fine sculptures.Probably in the second half ofthe eighth century, on anisland near the west coastwas built the cave shrine ofElephanta. It was dedicatedto Shiva, whose image asMahesha (popularly knownas Trimurti) counts amongstthe most magnificent artcreations of India. The threefaces represent Shiva ascreator, preserver anddestroyer.

79. The early phase of the nationalmovement did an importantpioneering work in the fieldsof nationalism, but it had somebasic weaknesses too.Firstly, the national move-ment in its early phase had anarrow social base. It did notpenetrate down to the masses.It was a movement of the feweducated people. In fact the

Congress leaders in the earlyphase wanted first of all tounite the heterogenousIndian society into a nationand then start a massmovement. This was wrongapproach towards themasses. The masses wereassigned a passive role in theearly phase of the nationalmovement against thecolonial rule.Secondly, the Congressleaders in the early phasebelieved in passing resolu-tions after resolution andsubmitting petitions afterpetitions. As the Governmentturned a deaf ear to theirpetitions, these leadersbecame unpopular amongthe masses. Many peoplelaughed at their futile efforts.Their talking of loyalty to theBritish rule was not liked bythe people. They felt thatthese leaders were stooges ofthe Government so they hadno sympathy for them and nofaith in their programmes andpolicies. They wanted actionoriented programmes and notmere speeches. As themoderate leaders were notprepared for the change theycould not attract the massestowards them.

80. In order to tide over the Indiansituation the BritishGovernment called a RoundTable Conference in Londonwhere Congress was alsoinvited. The chief item on theagenda was to discuss the‘Simon Report’. But theCongress boycotted thisconference which failed toachieve its objective as no vitaldecision could be takenwithout the Congress takingpart in it.

81. Non- participation by theCongress in the Round TableConference worried theBritish Government. But, aftersome efforts made by it, anagreement was reached inMarch 1931 betweenMahatma Gandhi and thethen Viceroy Lord Irwin. Thisagreement is popularlyknown as the ‘Gandhi-IrwinPact’ under which Gandhijisuspended his CivilDisobedience Movement andagreed to attend the SecondRound Table Conference. Onthe other side, the govern-ment released all thosearrested in connection withthe Movement.

82. As already stated, thegovernment released all thepolitical detenu that werearrested for taking part in thenon-violent movement inaccordance with the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of 1931 and theCongress also suspended theCivil Disobedience Move-ment. Thereafter, Gandhijiwent to London to representIndia at the Round TableConference. But as thegovernment refused to accedeto the demand of a DominionStatus for India, Gandhijicame back to revive the CivilDisobedience Movement.

83. When the policy of repressionwas at its full swing after theSecond Round TableConference (1931), the BritishGovernment in Englandsummoned the Third RoundTable Conference in 1932 todraw a new constitution forIndia. The Congress was notinvited to this conference.

84. Main aims of the Britishadministration of India wereas under:

(1) Effecting increase inCompany’s profits.(2) To make Indianpossessions of the Companyfruitful for Britain.(3) To strengthen the Britishhold on India.

85. The Regulating Act waspassed in 1773 to regulate theCompany’s administration inIndia. But it had manydrawbacks of which the mostnotable were the following:(1) The four members of the

Gov ernor-Gener a l’ sCouncil had the right toundo his decisions by amajority vote whichcreated many problemsfor Warren Hastings,

(2) Though a Supreme Courtwas set up yet itsrelations with theGovernor-General andhis Council was notspecified.

86. Lord Cornwallis introducedthe system of PermanentSettlement which had manymerits:(1) By conferring ownership

rights on the zamindarsthe Company hadcreated a class of staunchloyalists.

(2) Knowing that they werepermanent master of theland, the zamindars tookinterest in its improve-ment which in turnresulted in an increasedproduction.

87. The English East Companyintroduced many systems ofrevenue settlement. One ofthose was Ryotwari. Underthis system, the Governmentdid not act through anyintermediary or zamindar buthad direct contact with the

ryot or peasants. This systemwas introduced in Madrasand Bombay. Neverthless therents in this system were sohigh that the peasants wereforced to fall in to the clutchesof the money lenders.

88. Mahalwari was a system ofrevenue settlement. Underthis system the Governmentdealt with the representativeof a ‘Mahal’ or village andthey paid ‘rent’ collectivelyon behalf of the whole village.Whatever the mode ofcollection, the rents were quitehigh and the peasants werehard pressed to pay them.

89. By the Industrial Revolutionwe refer to the revolutionarychanges in the mode ofproduction and organisationthat were introduced inEurope during the later halfof the 18th century. Thesechanges were so swift and soeffective that they are referredto as revolution. It gave birthto factory system whichreplaced the old system ofcottage industry where inmanual labour was replacedby machines and smallartisans by capitalistenterprises. The two effects ofthe Industrial Revolution inIndia are: (1) Indian export fellsharply as a result of theIndustrial Revolution inEurope. (2) It also reducedIndia to a colony that suppliedraw materials to the Britishindustries.

90. Pitt’s India Act was passed in1784 with a view to removethe shortcomings of theRegulating Act. Its two chiefprovisions were as under:(1) The number of themembers of the Governor-General’s Council was

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reduced to three so that hecould have his way bywinning support of even onemember.(2) Trade was separated, fromadministration. While theCompany was allowed themonopoly of trade, a Board ofControl of six members wasestablished to guide andcontrol the administration ofBritish India. In this way theauthority of the BritishGovernment was imposed onthe Company’s administ-ration.

91. The British Empire in Indiastood on the following threepillars namely:(1) Civil Service (2) Army and(3) Police. Civil service wasessential for the maintenanceof British rule in India and asforeign rulers they neededarmy and police to keep thepeople under control.

92. Tantya Tope was the loyalservant of Nana Sahib whofought for his martyrdom. Hewas a patriot to the core andbrave like a lion. He was adeptin the art of guerrilla warfare.He defeated GeneralWindham though he himselfwas defeated at the hands ofGeneral Campbell. But evenin defeat he remaineddauntless. He also allied withthe Rani of Jhansi and foughtagainst the English atGwalior on June 18, 1858. Inthis battle the Rani of Jhansiherself met her death andTantya Tope escaped. Hewas, however, caught andhanged to death. It was thesad end of a noble and bravepatriot.

93. Of all the British Governor-Generals and Viceroys there

was none except Lord Ripon(1880-84) who cared for theinterests of the Indian people.He introduced the Ilbert Billso that the Indian judgescould be authorised to hearthe cases involving theEuropeans. The previousCriminal Procedure Code of1873 had a clause that noMagistrate or sessions Judgecould try a European Britishsubject unless he was himselfa European by birth. The billwas so vehemently opposedby the Europeans that it hadto be withdrawn. It, however,proved that the British Indiangovernment’s claim of‘equality before law’ was amere eyewash.

94. The two young revolutio-naries who threw a bomb inthe Central Assembly onApril 8, 1929 were BhagatSingh and B.K. Dutt. ThoughBhagat Singh and his friendswere hanged to death yet theirsacrifice gave fresh mome-ntum to the national struggle.

95. Gandhiji launched his CivilDisobedience Movement withhis famous Dandi March onMarch 12, 1930. He startedthe march from SabarmatiAshram in Gujarat towardsDandi. He was accompaniedby 79 followers. He reachedDandi on April 5, 1930 andthere he broke the Salt Laws.In this way the Dandi Marchbecame a symbol of CivilDisobedience movement.

96. The Indian people boycottedthe Simon Commission as allits members were Englishand there was no Indian torepresent the Indian people.It was during a protest marchagainst the Simon Comm-

ission that Lala Lajpat Raisuffered lathi blows thatproved fatal.

97. Nehru report was put forwardby the Swarajist leader MotilalNehru and the following are thetwo suggestions of the NehruReport:(1) India should immediately

be granted Swaraj.(2) The executive should be

responsible not to theViceroy but to the legislature.

98. The Cabinet Mission came toIndia in 1946. The followingwere its two chief recomm-endations:(1) There should be a

federation of both theBritish Indian Provincesand the Indian States.

(2) A scheme for framing theConstitution of India wasalso suggested and it wasproposed to form aConstituent Assembly forthis purpose.

99. After the uprising of 1857 theBritish were hostile to theMuslims, but the rise ofnationalism forced the Britishto change their ideas andpolicy towards the Muslims.They were now too weak andbackward to revolt so theBritish followed the policy ofDivide and Rule. Theybecame the champions of theMuslims and sowed the seedsof disunity between the twocommunities. They paintedMuslims rulers as tyrantswho terrorised Hindus, andon the other hand, painted theHindu rulers as cruel to theirsubjects. In 1905, theypartitioned Bengal and madea new Muslim majorityprovince to win their support.They supported the

foundation of Muslim Leaguein 1906 to create a wedgebetween the Hindus and theMuslims. In 1909, the Minto -Morley Reforms introducedthe principle of separateelectorates in the legislature.

100. The Indians had renderedmeritorious service duringthe First World War. Theyexpected Home Rule whenthe war ended in 1918. TheBritish passed theMontague - ChelmsfordReforms in 1919 which didnot satisfy the Indians.There was widespreadagitation against thesereforms. In order to crushthese agitations thegovernment passed theRowlatt Act in 1919. It gavethe government power toarrest and to detainsuspected persons withoutwarrant and imprison themwithout a trial. This led towidespread agitationthroughout the country.Mahatma Gandhi came tothe forefront and took thelead of the freedommovement in his hands.Meetings were held all overthe country against thisBlack Act and an All Indiahartal was observed on 6thApril, 1919.

101. As a protest against theRowlatt Act a meeting washeld at Jallianwala Bagh onApril 13, 1919. It was apeaceful meeting. GeneralDyer, to teach the people alesson, arrived atJallianwala Bagh with histroops who were ordered toopen fire on the gatheringwithout a warning. Therewas only one narrow laneto escape which was

blocked by the troops. Themassacre left 1000 dead andmore than two thousandwounded. This shatteredthe faith of Gandhiji in theGovernment and he vowednot to co-operate with theBritish again. Under hisinspiration, the Congress atthe Nagpur session in 1920passed a resolution tolaunch the Non Co-operation Movement.

102. At the end of the First WorldWar, Turkey was a defeatednation. The British and theirallies inflicted punishmentand humiliation on it. Theydivided the country amongthemselves and abolishedthe office of the Caliph. Thisaroused the anger of theMuslims in India. Theystarted a powerful agitationknown as the KhilafatMovement, under theleadership of the AliBrothers (Mohammed Aliand Shaukat Ali) in 1920.Gandhiji supported thismovement and this broughtthe Hindus and Muslimstogether against the British.On June 9,1920 they adop-ted a resolution to launch anon-violent, non co-opera-tion movement and reque-sted Gandhiji to lead it.

103. The Amritsar Tragedy wasa turning point in IndianHistory. The people were notintimidated by theGovernment’s policy andthey jumped into thefreedom struggle with greatvigour and courage. Therewas an upsurge of unitybetween the Hindus andMuslims as never seenbefore. Gandhiji became the

sworn enemy of the BritishRule in India. He vowed notto co-operate with theBritish. He declared that co-operation in any shape orform with the satanicGovernment is sinful, andunder his leadership theCongress passed a resolu-tion in 1920 of launching aNon Co-operation Move-ment against the Govern-ment. Thus the people lostfaith in the British rule andtook to the extremist path ofviolent struggle to get ridof it.

104. Gandhiji came back to Indiaafter attending SecondRound Table Conferenceand renewed the CivilDisobedience Movement in1932. Gandhiji and otherleaders of the Congress wereagain arrested and put intoprison without trial. Over alakh of satyagrahis werearrested and their propertywas confiscated. The policecommitted great atrocitieson the freedom fighters. Topursue the policy of ‘Divideand Rule’ the British Gover-nment gave a ‘CommunalAward’ in 1932, which gaveseparate electorates toHindus and Harijans.Gandhiji observed a ‘fastunto death’ in the Poona jailand to save him, a PoonaPact was signed. Accordingto the Poona pact, the ideaof separate electroate forDepressed classes wasabandoned but seatsreserved for them in theprovisional legislatureswere increased from 71 to147, and in the centrallegislature to 81 percent ofthe total.

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105. Sir Stafford Cripps, a CabinetMinister in the BritishGovernment came to India inMarch 1942. The CrippsMission came to India to solvethe political deadlock inIndia. The Second World Warwas in full swing and theJapanese had over run the farEast, including the Phili-ppines, Indo-china, Indone-sia, Burma and Malaya. Theywere right on India’sdoorstep. To win the co-operation of the Indianleaders the Cripps missioncame to India.

106.(1) Dominion status will begranted to India immedi-ately after the war.

(2) The provinces will be freeto refuse accession to theIndian Union andformulate their ownconstitution which couldhave the same status,powers and functions asthe Union of India. TheIndian states will besimilarly free to adhere tothe new constitution or not.

107. The Congress opposed thembecause they did not grantcomplete independence toIndia in the immediatepresent or in the future. Itrecognised the principle ofthe partition of the countryby proposing the principleof non-accession of theprovinces, and lastly, itignored the interests of thepeople of Indian states.Their representatives wereto be selected by the rulers.

108. In 1600, the Queen Elizabethgranted a charter to certaintraders of England forexclusive rights of tradingin India. The death ofAurangzeb in 1707 brought

disintegration of the Mughalrule. Taking undue advant-ages, the company obtainedthe Diwani rights from theMughal Emperor ShahAlam for Bihar, Bengal andOrissa. The Companybecame a political power in1765, since then, the historyof British sovereignty overIndia begins.

109. The causes of the SepoyMutiny were many but theprinciple behind them wasthe hatred of the Indianpeople against the Britishrule. The Indian nativerulers were annoyedbecause if they had no maleissue to succeed the father,the territory should havebeen merged with the BritishIndian territory (Doctrine ofLapse). Another reason wasthe disparity of salary andbehaviour between theBritish and the Indiansepoys. Another cause wasthe introduction of a newcartridge supposed to begreased with the fat of cowor pig for the use in rifle,which had to be cut withteeth. Protesting against thisintroduction an IndianSepoy named MangalPandey had to give away hislife at the firing squad. Therevolt spread throughout allthe cantonments of Indiastarting at Meerut on 9thMay, 1857. Within a year therevolt was suppressed by themight of the British arms.‘Rani of Jhansi, TantiyaTope and Nana Sahib werethe valliant fighters of therevolt. The failure of therevolt brought India to be aobject of slavery of the Britishrule. The Company’s power

was taken by the BritishCrown.

110. Minto - Morley reforms wasthe most short lived of all theBritain’s constitutionalexperiments in India. Themain provisions of this actwere to increase the size ofthe Council of Governor-General and provincialcouncils. This act recog-nized the separate electo-rates of Mohammedan’sand Indians were allowedfor appointment to theExecutive Councils.

111. Under this Act theprovincial legislatures cameto be constituted with noofficial majority, but theofficial majority wasretained at the centre. Atprovincial level Dyarchywas introduced.

112. According to the Doctorineof Lapse, if the ruler of aprotected state died withouta natural heir, his statecould not pass to anadopted heir, as had beenthe custom, Unless theadoption had beenapproved earlier by theBritish, the state was to beattached to the Britishdomains. Satara (1848),Nagpur (1854) and manyother states were annexedwith the help of thisdoctrine. Dalhousie alsorefused to recognise the titlesof many ex-rulers or paypension, as in the cases ofthe Nawabs of Carnatic andof Surat, the Raja of Tanjoreand Nana Saheb Peshwa.Dalhousie accused NawabWajid Ali Shah ofmisgoverning his state,Awadh, and annexed it in1856.