Chandragupta II

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chandragupta II The Great (Vikramaditya)

Gupta Emperor

Coin of the Gupta king Chandragupta II

Reign 375415 CE

Predecessor Ramagupta

Successor Kumara Gupta I

Consort Dhruvuswamini

Royal House Gupta dynasty

Father Samudragupta

Mother Datta Devi

Religious beliefs Hinduism

Chandragupta II The Great (Sanskrit: ; chandragupta vikramditya) was one of the most powerful emperors

of the Gupta empire in northern India. His rule spanned c. 380413/415 CE, during which the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith, art,

architecture, and sculpture flourished, and the cultural development of ancient Indiareached its climax.[1]

The period of prominence

of the Gupta dynasty is very often referred to as the Golden Age of India. Chandragupta II was the son of the previous

ruler,Samudragupta the Great. He attained success by pursuing both a favorable marital alliance and an aggressive expansionist

policy in this which his father and grandfather (Chandragupta I) set the precedent. Samudragupta set the stage for the emergence of

classical art, which occurred under the rule of Chandragupta II. Chandragupta II gave great support to the arts. Artists were so

highly valued under his rule that they were paid for their work a rare phenomenon in ancient civilizations.[2]

From 388 to 409 he subjugated Gujarat, the region north of Mumbai, Saurashtra, in western India, and Malwa, with its capital at

Ujjain.[3]

Culturally, the reign of Chandragupta II marked a Golden Age. This is evidenced by later reports of the presence of a circle

of poets known as the Nine Gems in his court. The greatest among them was Kalidasa, who authored numerous immortal pieces of

literature including Abhijnakuntalam. The others included Sanskrit grammarian Amara Sinha and the astronomer-

mathematicianVarahamihira.[citation needed]

Contents

[hide]

1 Mentions in literature

2 Biography

o 2.1 Early life and coronation

o 2.2 Vakataka-Gupta Age

o 2.3 Visit of Fa-hein

o 2.4 Campaigns against foreign tribes

o 2.5 End of Chandragupta II

3 Religion

4 Coinage

5 Iron pillar of Delhi

6 Vikram-Samvat Calendar

7 Notes

8 References

9 External links

10 See also

[edit]Mentions in literature

Not much is known about the personal details of Chandragupta II. The most widely accepted details have been built upon the plot of

the play Devi-chandraguptam by Vishakadatta. The play is now lost, but fragments have been preserved in other works (such as

Abhinava-bharati, Sringara-prakasha, Natya-darpana, Nataka-lakshana Ratna-kosha). There even exists an Arabic work, written

in Persia near the Indian subcontinent, Mojmal al-tawarikh (12th century CE) which tells a similar tale of a king whose name

appears to be a corruption of 'Vikramaditya'. The name 'Vikramaditya' holds a semi-mythical status in India. India has many

interesting stories about King Vikramaditya, his guru Manva-Patwa and his queens. It is widely believed that the great poet

in Sanskrit, Kalidasa was one of the jewels of Vikramaditya's royal court.

[edit]Biography

[edit]Early life and coronation

Coin of Vikramadytia Chandragupta II with the name of the king in Brahmi script, 380415 CE.

Chandragupta II's mother, Datta Devi, was the chief queen of Samudragupta the Great. After Samudragupta's death his elder

son, Ramagupta, took over the throne and married Chandragupta II's fiance Dhruvaswamini by force. The fragment

from Vishakadatta's "Natya-darpana" mentions the king Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta II, deciding to surrender his

queen Dhruvaswamini to the Saka ruler of the Western KshatrapasRudrasimha III (r. 388 - 395 CE), after a defeat at the Saka ruler's

hands. To avoid the ignominy the Guptas decide to send Madhavasena, a courtesan and a beloved of Chandragupta II, disguised as

the queen Dhruvaswamini. Chandragupta II changes the plan and himself goes to Rudrasimha III disguised as the queen. He then

assassinates Rudrasimha III and later his brother Ramagupta. Dhruvaswamini is then married to Chandragupta II.

Historians still don't know what liberties the author Vishakadatta took with the incidents, but Dhruvadevi was indeed Chandragupta

II's Chief Queen as seen in the Vaisali Terracotta Seal that calls her "Mahadevi" (Chief Queen) Dhruvasvamini. The Bilsad Pillar

Inscription of their son Kumaragupta I (r. 414455 CE) also refers to her as "Mahadevi Dhruvadevi". Certain "Ramagupta" too is

mentioned in inscriptions on Jain figures in the District Archaeological Museum, Vidisha and some copper coins found at Vidisha.

The fact that Chandragupta II and Dhruvadevi are the protagonists of Vishakadatta's play indicates that marrying his widowed

sister-in-law was not given any significance by the playwright. Later Hindus did not view such a marriage with favour and some

censure of the act is found in the Sanjan Copper Plate Inscription of Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I (r. 814-878 CE) and in the

Sangali and Cambay Plates of the Govinda IV (r. 930-936 CE).

[edit]Vakataka-Gupta Age

The Allahabad Pillar Inscription mentions the marriage of Chandragupta II with a Naga princess Kuberanaga. A pillar

from Mathurareferring to Chandragupta II has recently been dated to 388 CE.[4]

Chandragupta II's daughter, Prabhavatigupta, by his Naga queen Kuberanaga was married to the powerful Vakataka dynasty ruler

Rudrasena II (r.380-385 CE).

Gold coins of Chandragupta II the Great. The one on the left is the obverse of a so-called "Chhatra" type of Chandragupta II, while the one on the

right is the obverse of a so-called "Archer" type of Chandragupta II.

His greatest victory was his victory over the Shaka-Kshatrapa dynasty and annexation of their kingdom in Gujarat, by defeating

their last rulerRudrasimha III.

Chandragupta II's son-in-law, the Vakataka ruler Rudrasena II, died fortuitously after a very short reign in 385 CE, following which

Queen Prabhavati Gupta (r. 385-405) ruled the Vakataka kingdom as a regent on behalf of her two sons. During this twenty-year

period the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta empire. The geographical location of the Vakataka kingdom allowed

Chandragupta II to take the opportunity to defeat the Western Kshatrapas once for all. Many historians refer to this period as the

Vakataka-Gupta Age.

Chandragupta II controlled a vast empire, from the mouth of the Gangesto the mouth of the Indus River and from what is now

North Pakistandown to the mouth of the Narmada. Pataliputra continued to be the capital of his huge empire but Ujjain too became

a sort of second capital. The large number of beautiful gold coins issued by the Gupta dynasty are a testament to the imperial

grandeur of that age. Chandragupta II also started producing silver coins in the Saka tradition.

[edit]Visit of Fa-hein

Fa-hein (337 c. 422 CE) was the first of three great Chinese pilgrims who visited India from the fifth to the seventh centuries CE,

in search of knowledge, manuscripts and relics. Faxian arrived during the reign of Chandragupta II and gave a general description of

North India at that time. Among the other things, he reported about the absence of capital punishment, the lack of a poll-tax and

land tax. Most citizens did not consume onions, garlic, meat, and wine.[citation needed]

[edit]Campaigns against foreign tribes

Vikramaditya goes forth to war

4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms,

both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in the East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) proceeded

northwards, subjugated the Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunasand the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys

respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeds across the Himalaya and reduced the Kinnaras,Kiratas etc. and lands into India

proper.[5]

The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiriwriter Kshmendra states, king Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) had "unburdened

the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas,Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating

these sinful Mlecchascompletely".[6][7][8]

[edit]End of Chandragupta II

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini.[9]

[edit]Religion

From Chandragupta II kings of Gupta dynasty are known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas.

The Bhagavata Purana entails the fully developed tenets and philosophy of the Bhagavata tradition wherein Krishna gets fused

withVasudeva and transcends Vedic Vishnu and cosmic Hari to be turned into the ultimate object of bhakti.[10]

[edit]Coinage

Silver coin of Chandragupta II the Great, minted in his Western territories, in the style of the Western Satraps.

Obv:Bust of king, with corrupted Greek legend "OOIHU".[11][12]

Rev: Legend in Brahmi, "Chandragupta Vikramaditya, King of Kings, and a devotee of Vishnu", around Garuda, the mythic eagle and dynastic

symbol of the Guptas.

15mm, 2.1 grams. Mitchiner 4821-4823.

Chandragupta continued issuing most of the gold coin types introduced by his father Samudragupta, such as the Sceptre type (rare

for Chandragupta II), the Archer type, and the Tiger-Slayer type. However, Chandragupta II also introduced several new types, such

as the Horseman type and the Lion-slayer type, both of which were used by his son Kumaragupta I.

In addition, Chandragupta II was the first Gupta king to issue silver coins, such as the one illustrated at right. These coins were

intended to replace the silver coinage of the Western Kshatrapas after Chandragupta II defeated them, and were modeled on the

Kshatrapa coinage. The main difference was to replace the dynastic symbol of the Kshatrapas (the three-arched hill) by the dynastic

symbol of the Guptas (the mythic eagleGaruda). Further, Chandragupta also issued lead coins based on Kshatrapa prototypes and

rare copper coins probably inspired by the coins of another tribe he defeated, the Nagas.

Gold Dinar 7.75g Archer Type

Gold Dinar 7.59g Horseman Type

Gold Dinar 7.8g Chattra (Parasol or Royal Umbrella) Type

[edit]Iron pillar of Delhi

Main article: Iron pillar of Delhi

The iron pillar of Delhi, erected by Chandragupta II the Great

Close to the Qutub Minar is one of Delhi's most curious structures, an iron pillar, dating back to 4th century CE. The pillar bears an

inscription which states that it was erected as a flagstaff in honour of the Hindu god Vishnu, and in the memory of Chandragupta II

(A derivation of "Natya-darpana" by Vishakadata states that the pillar had been put up by Chandragupta II himself after defeating

Vahilakas. And after this great feat, he put up this pillar as a memory of the victory). The pillar also highlights ancient India's

achievements in metallurgy. The pillar is made of 98% wrought iron and has stood more than 1,600 years without rusting or

decomposing. This iron pillar is similar to the pillars of ashoka.

[edit]Vikram-Samvat Calendar

Main article: Vikram Samvat

The next day after the Hindu festival Diwali is called Padwa or Varshapratipada, which marks the coronation of King Vikramaditya.

He was a Hindu king who ruled in first century BCE. The title 'Vikramaditya' was later used by Gupta king Chandragupta II and

16th century Hindu king Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya as well. Vikram-Samvat calendar starts from 57 BCE.

The Hindu Vikram-Samvat calendar is celebrated as New Year's Day in Nepal where Vikram Sambat is the official calendar.

[edit]Notes

1. ^ .

2. ^ AUTHOR ushistory.org TITLE OF PAGE The Gupta Period of India TITLE OF

PROGRAM Ancient Civilizations Online Textbook URL OF

PAGE http://www.ushistory.org/civ/8e.asp DATE OF ACCESS Thursday, November 10,

2011 COPYRIGHT 2011

3. ^ .

4. ^ Falk, Harry. (2004) "The Kanika era in Gupta Records." Silk Road Art and

Archaeology 10. Kamakura: The Institute of Silk Road Studies, pp. 167-176.

5. ^ Raghu Vamsa v 4.6075

6. ^ ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah Mlechchana Kamboja. Yavanan neechan Hunan

Sabarbran Tushara. Parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan hatya

bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate (Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra).

7. ^ Kathasritsagara 18.1.7678

8. ^ Cf:"In the story contained in Kathasarit-sagara, king Vikarmaditya is said to have

destroyed all the barbarous tribes such as the Kambojas, Yavanas, Hunas, Tokharas and the

Persians "(See: Ref: Reappraising the Gupta History, 1992, p 169, B. C. Chhabra, Sri Ram;

Cf also: Vikrama Volume, 1948, p xxv, Vikramditya akri; cf: Anatomii a i fiziologii a

selskokhozi a stvennykh zhivotnykh, 1946, p 264, Arthur John Arberry, Louis Renou, B. K.

Hindse, A. V. Leontovich, National Council of Teachers of English Committee on

Recreational Reading Sanskrit language.

9. ^ Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi:Motilal

Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0592-5, pp.191200

10. ^ Kalyan Kumar Ganguli: (1988). Sraddh njali, Studies in Ancient Indian History: D.C.

Sircar Commemoration: Puranic tradition of Krishna. Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN 81-85067-

10-4.p.36

11. ^ "The conquest is indicated by the issue of the new Gupta silver coinage modelled on the

previous Saka coinage showing on observe the King's head, Greek script, and dates as on

Saka coins" in Early history of Jammu region: pre-historic to 6th century A.D. by Raj

Kumar p.511

12. ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in

his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps...

they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they

substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A

catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli. Most people

now realize that Rapson was mistaken in identifying the central bird as a peacock; rather, it

is the mythic eagle Garuda, the dynastic symbol of the Guptas. For example, A.S. Altekar

says: "... the three-arched hill in the cntre is replaced by Garuda, which was the imperial

insignia of the Guptas. The view of earlier writers ... that the bird is a peacock is clearly

untenable." in Altekar: The Coinage of the Gupta Empire,Varanasi: Banaras Hindu

University, 1957, p. 151.

[edit]References

R. K. Mookerji, The Gupta Empire, 4th edition. Motilal Banarsidass, 1959.

R. C. Majumdar, Ancient India, 6th revised edition. Motilal Banarsidass, 1971.

Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 2nd edition. Rupa and Co,

1991.

[edit]External links

Coins of Chandragupta II

[edit]See also

Vikramditya

List of people known as The Great

Regnal titles

Preceded by

Samudragupta the Great

Gupta Emperor 375414

Succeeded by

Kumara Gupta I

Categories:

410s deaths

Gupta Empire

Indian monarchs

History of Malwa

4th-century monarchs in Asia

5th-century monarchs in Asia

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Ashoka

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Asoka

Maurya Samrat

A "Chakravartin" ruler, 1st century BCE/CE. Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati.

Preserved at Musee Guimet

Reign 268232 BCE

Coronation 268 BCE

Born 304 BCE

Birthplace Pataliputra, Patna

Died 232 BCE (aged 72)

Place of

death

Pataliputra, Patna

Buried Ashes immersed in the GangesRiver, possibly

at Varanasi,Cremated 232 BCE, less than 24 hours after

death

Predecessor Bindusara

Successor Dasaratha

Wives Kaurwaki

Devi

Padmavati

Tishyaraksha

Royal House Mauryan dynasty

Father Bindusara

Mother Maharani Dharma or Shubhadrangi

Children Mahendra, Sanghamitra, Tivala,Kunala,

Jaluka, Charumati

Religious

beliefs

Buddhism

Ashoka Maurya (304232 BCE) commonly known as Ashoka and also as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor

of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from ca. 269 BCE to 232 BCE.[1]

One of India's

greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire

stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan to present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam in

the east, and as far south as northern Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.The empire had Taxila, Ujjain and Pataliputra as its

capital. In about 260 BCE Ashoka waged a bitterly destructive war against the states of Kalinga (modern Odisha).[2]

He

conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors starting from Chandragupta Mauryahad conquered. His reign was

headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar). He embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of

the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. "Ashoka reflected on the war in Kalinga,

which reportedly had resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations."[3]

Ashoka converted gradually to

Buddhism beginning about 263 BCE at the latest.[2]

He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia

and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. "Ashoka regarded

Buddhism as a doctrine that could serve as a cultural foundation for political unity."[4]

Ashoka is often remembered in

history as a philanthropic administrator. In the Kalinga edicts, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions

that as a father he desires their good.

In the history of India, Ashoka is referred to as Samraat Chakravartin Ashoka the "Emperor of Emperors Ashoka." His

name "aoka" means "painless, without sorrow" inSanskrit (the a privativum and oka "pain, distress"). In his edicts, he

is referred to asDevnmpriya (Pali Devnapiya or "The Beloved of the Gods"), and Priyadarin (PaliPiyadas or "He

who regards everyone with affection"). His fondness for his name's connection to the Saraca asoca tree, or the "Asoka

tree" is also referenced in theAshokavadana.

H.G. Wells wrote of Ashoka in A Short History of the World (H. G. Wells):

In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves "Their

Highnesses," "Their Majesties," "Their Exalted Majesties," and so on. They shone for a brief moment, and as quickly

disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day.

Along with the Edicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the later 2nd-centuryAshokavadana ("Narrative of Asoka," a

part of Divyavadana), and in the Sri Lankan textMahavamsa ("Great Chronicle").

Ashoka played a critical role in helping make Buddhism a world religion.[5]

The emblem of the modern Republic of India

is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka.

Contents

[hide]

1 Biography

o 1.1 Early life

o 1.2 Rise to power

o 1.3 Early life as Emperor

2 Conquest of Kalinga

o 2.1 Buddhist conversion

o 2.2 Death and legacy

2.2.1 Buddhist kingship

3 Historical sources

4 Perceptions

o 4.1 Foci of Debate

5 Contributions

o 5.1 Global spread of Buddhism

o 5.2 As administrator

o 5.3 Ashoka Chakra

o 5.4 Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha)

o 5.5 Lion Capital of Asoka (Ashokmudra)

o 5.6 Constructions credited to Ashoka

6 In art, film and literature

7 See also

8 References

9 Works cited

10 External links

[edit]Biography

[edit]Early life

Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and a relatively lower ranked wife of his, Dharm [or Dhamm].

He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of Mauryan dynasty. The Avadana texts mention that his

mother was queen Subhadrang. According to Ashokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of

Champa.[6]:205

Empress Subhadrang was a Brahmin of the Ajivika sect,[7] and was found to be a suitable match for

Emperor Bindusara. Though a palace intrigue kept her away from the emperor, this eventually ended, and she bore a

son. It is from her exclamation "I am now without sorrow," that Ashoka got his name. The Divyvadna tells a similar

story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyn.[8][9]

Ashoka had several elder siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from other wives of Bindusara. He had been given

the royal military training knowledge which was greatly apparent as he was known as a fearsome hunter, and according

to a legend, killed a lion with just a wooden rod. He was very adventurous and a trained fighter, who was known for his

skills with the sword. Because of his reputation as a frightening warrior and a heartless general, he was sent to curb the

riots in the Avanti province of the Mauryan empire.[10]

[edit]Rise to power

Maurya Empire at the age of Ashoka. The empire stretched from Afghanistan to Bangladesh/Assam and from Central Asia

(Afghanistan) to Tamil Nadu/South India.

The Buddhist text Divyavadana describes Ashoka putting down a revolt due to activities of wicked ministers. This may

have been an incident in Bindusara's times. Taranatha's account states that Chanakya, one of Bindusara's great lords,

destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made himself the master of all territory between the eastern and the

western seas. Some historians consider this as an indication of Bindusara's conquest of the Deccan while others

consider it as suppression of a revolt. Following this, Ashoka was stationed at Ujjayini as governor.[9]

Bindusara's death in 273 BCE led to a war over succession. According to Divyavandana, Bindusara wanted his son

Sushim to succeed him but Ashoka was supported by his father's ministers, who found Sushim to be arrogant and

disrespectful towards them.[11]

A minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an important role in Ashoka's rise

to the throne. The Ashokavadana recounts Radhagupta's offering of an old royal elephant to Ashoka for him to ride to

the Garden of the Gold Pavilion where King Bindasura would determine his successor. Ashoka later got rid of the

legitimate heir to the throne by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. Radhagupta, according to the

Ashokavadana, would later be appointed prime minister by Ashoka once he had gained the throne.

The Dipavansa and Mahavansa refer to Ashoka's killing 99 of his brothers, sparing only one, named Tissa,[9]

although

there is no clear proof about this incident (many such accounts are saturated with mythological elements).

The coronation happened in 269 BCE, four years after his succession to the throne.

[edit]Early life as Emperor

An imaginary painting of Asoka's Queen by Abanindranath Tagore (18711951)

Buddhist legends state that Ashoka was of a wicked nature and bad temper. He submitted his ministers to a test of

loyalty and had 500 of them killed. He also kept a harem of around 500 women. When a few of these women insulted

him for his "rough skin" after he fondly compared himself with the beauty of the Asoka tree (which according to the

Ashokavadana, the women defiled by plucking off all of the flowers), he had the whole lot of them burnt to death. He

also built an elaborate torture chamber, deemed the "Paradisal Hell" because of its beautiful exterior contrasted with the

acts carried out inside by his appointed executioner Girikaa,[12]

which earned him the name of "ana Ashoka" or

"Chandaashoka," meaning "Ashoka the Fierce" in Sanskrit. Professor Charles Drekmeier cautions that the Buddhist

legends intend to dramatise the change resulting from the Buddhist change, and therefore, exaggerate Ashoka's past

wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.[13]

Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, from the present-day boundaries and

regions of BurmaBangladesh and the state of Assam in India in the east to the territory of present-day Iran / Persia

and Afghanistan in the west; from the Pamir Knots in the north almost to the peninsular of southern India (i.e. Tamil

Nadu / Andhra Pradesh).[9]

[edit]Conquest of Kalinga

While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's

teachings after his conquest of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day states of Odisha and North

Coastal Andhra Pradesh. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With its monarchical

parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma.

Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and dharma. The

Kalinga War happened eight years after his coronation. From his 13th inscription, we come to know that the battle was

a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000 soldiers and many civilians who rose up in defence; over

150,000 were deported.[14]

When he was walking through the grounds of Kalinga after his conquest, rejoicing in his

victory, he was moved by the number of bodies strewn there and the wails of the kith and kin of the dead.

[edit]Buddhist conversion

A similar four "Indian lion" Lion Capital of Ashoka atop an intact Ashoka Pillar at Wat U Mong near Chiang Mai, Thailand showing

another larger Dharma Chakra / Ashoka Chakra atop the four lions thought to be missing in the Lion Capital of Ashoka atSarnath

Museum which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.

Edict 13 on the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions reflect the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction

of Kalinga:

His Majesty feels remorse on account of the conquest of the Kalingaa because, during the subjugation of a previously

unconquered country, slaughter, death, and taking away captive of the people necesarrily occur, wherest His Majesty

feels profound sorrow and regret.

The Edict goes on to address the even greater degree of sorrow and regret garnered by Ashoka's understanding that

the lives of the friends and families of deceased would cause great living suffering as well, as Ashoka perceived the

overarching misery that resulted from mass slaughter of the Kalinga people.[15]

Legend says that one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt

houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous monologue:[16][dubious discuss]

What have I done? If this is a victory, what's a defeat then? Is this a victory or a defeat? Is this justice or injustice? Is it

gallantry or a rout? Is it valor to kill innocent children and women? Did I do it to widen the empire and for prosperity or to

destroy the other's kingdom and splendor? One has lost her husband, someone else a father, someone a child,

someone an unborn infant.... What's this debris of the corpses? Are these marks of victory or defeat? Are these

vultures, crows, eagles the messengers of death or evil?

The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt Buddhism and place great emphasis on pietyin his Edicts, and he used

his position to propagate the relatively new religion to new heights. He made Buddhism his state religion around 260

BCE, propagating and preaching it within his domain and worldwide from about 250 BCE.[17]

He can be thus credited

with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist policy. Prominent in this cause were his son Mahinda (Mahendra)

and daughter Sanghamitra (whose name means "friend of the Sangha"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri

Lanka).

Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali

[edit]Death and legacy

Ashoka's Major Rock Edict at Junagadhcontains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradamanna

I andSkandagupta.

Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years. After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had

many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time. Mahindra and Sanghamitra were twins born by his

first wife, Devi, in the city of Ujjain. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more

popular across the known and the unknown world. Mahindra and Sanghamitra went into Sri Lanka and converted the

King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism.

In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got

Ashoka's son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila and the heir presumptive to the throne, blinded by a wily stratagem.

The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite

wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka hears Kunala's song, and realises that Kunala's misfortune may have been a

punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself and condemns Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the

court. In the Ashokavadana, Kunala is portrayed as forgiving Tishyaraksha, having obtained enlightenment through

Buddhist practice. While he urges Ashoka to forgive her as well, Ashoka does not respond with the same

forgiveness.[12]

Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati, but his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death.

The reign of Ashoka Mauryan could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, would he not have left

behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars

and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left

behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. The language used for inscription was

the then current spoken form called Prakrit.

In the year 185 BCE, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler,Brhadratha, was assassinated by the

commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces,Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his

forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BCE-78 BCE) and ruled just a fragmented part of the

Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Afghanistan and Northern

Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

In 1992, Ashoka was ranked No. 53 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history. In 2001, a semi-

fictionalized portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture under the title Asoka. King Ashoka, the third

monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, has come to be regarded as one of the most exemplary rulers in world history.

[edit]Buddhist kingship

Main articles: History of Buddhism and History of Buddhism in India

Further information: Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Buddhism in Burma

One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between

Buddhism and the state. Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka

replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this

model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimise his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by

supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's example, kings established

monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers

also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a

conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately lead to a close

association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that

can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a

religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers always governed the people in a moral manner.

Asoka was not non-violent after adopting Buddhism, as evident by a couple of incidents mentioned in the 2nd-century

CE textAshokavadana. In one instance, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing

at the feet of Nirgrantha Jnatiputra (identified with Mahavira, the founder of Jainism). On complaint from a Buddhist

devotee, Asoka issued an order to arrest him, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana.

Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.[6][18]

Sometime later, another

Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Asoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house.[18]

He

also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic.

According to Ashokavadana, as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a

cowherd.[6]

[edit]Historical sources

Main articles: Edicts of Ashoka, Ashokavadana, Mahavamsa, and Dipavamsa

Ashoka was almost forgotten by the historians of the early British India, but James Prinsep contributed in the revelation

of historical sources. Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-

General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests

were Sanchi and Sarnath besides Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and

army engineer and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like

theBharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple; thus, his contribution is recognisable in realms of

historical sources.Mortimer Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially

the Taxila.

Bilingual inscription (in Greek andAramaic) by King Ashoka, discovered atKandahar (National Museum of Afghanistan).

Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In

particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, and the two Pli chronicles of Sri

Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka. Additional

information is contributed by the Edicts of Asoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist

legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarsi 'He who regards

everyone with affection') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya. Architectural remains of his period have been

found at Kumhrar, Patna, which include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall.

Edicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders

and cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty during his reign from 272 to 231 BCE. These

inscriptions are dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible

evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of

one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, Moral precepts,

Religious precepts, Social and animal welfare.[19]

Ashokavadana The Ashokavadana is a 2nd-century CE text related to the legend of the Maurya Emperor Ashoka.

The legend was translated into Chinese by Fa Hien in 300 CE. It is essentially a Hinayana text and its world is that of

Mathura and North-west India. The emphasis of this little known text is on exploring the relationship between the king

and the community of monks (the Sangha) and setting up an ideal of religious life for the laity (the common man) by

telling appealing stories about religious exploits. The most startling feature is that Ashokas conversion has nothing to

do with the Kalinga war, which is not even mentioned, nor is there a word about his belonging to the Maurya dynasty.

Equally surprising is the record of his use of state power to spread Buddhism in an uncompromising fashion. The

legend of Veetashoka provides insights into Ashokas character that are not available in the widely known Pali

records.[12]

Mahavamsa -The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle") is a historical poem written in the Pali language, of the kings of Sri

Lanka. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient Odisha) in 543 BCE to the reign of King

Mahasena (334361). As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India, the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians

who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent. It is very important in dating the

consecration of the Maurya emperor Ashoka.

Dipavamsa -The Dipavamsa, or "Deepavamsa", (i.e., Chronicle of the Island, in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri

Lanka. The chronicle is believe to be compiled from Atthakatha and other sources around the 3rd or 4th century; King

Dhatusena (4th century CE) had ordered that the Dipavamsa be recited at the Mahinda (son to Ashoka) festival held

annually in Anuradhapura.

[edit]Perceptions

The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka,

as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a

primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and

supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source

of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka

was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his

time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are

some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes

members of all the religions would accept.

However, there is strong evidence in the edicts alone that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he

banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance.

Furthermore, there are many edicts expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka",

and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but

did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that

underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. Finally, the ideals he promotes correspond to

the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.[20]

Interestingly, the Ashokavadana presents an alternate view of the faimilar Ashoka; one in which his conversion does not

have anything to do with the Kalinga war or about his descent from the Maurya dynasty. Instead, Ashoka's reason for

adopting non-violence appears much more personal. The Ashokavadana shows that the main source of Ashoka's

conversion and the acts of welfare that followed are rooted instead in intense personal anguish at its core, from a

wellspring inside himself (not so much necessarily spurned by a specific event). It thereby illuminates Ashoka as more

humanly ambitious and passionate, with both greatness and flaws. ThisAshoka is very different from the "shadowy do-

gooder" of later Pali chronicles.[12]

Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks

throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses

his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.[21]

These inscriptions promoted

Buddhist morality and encouraged nonviolence and adherence to dharma (duty or proper behaviour), and they talk of

his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighbouring kingdoms holding up his might. One also gets some primary

information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. The

Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most notable of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit

of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BCE. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which was

adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship

of theBuddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of

the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some actual events ever happened, but the stone

etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered.

[edit]Foci of Debate

Recently scholarly analysis has determined that the three major foci of debate regarding Ashoka involve the nature of

the Maurya empire; the extent and impact of Ashoka's pacifism, and what is referred to in the Inscriptions

as dhamma or dharma, which connotes goodness, virtue, and charity. Some historians[who?]

have argued that Ashoka's

pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire, while others have suggested that the extent and

impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated. The dhammaof the Edicts has been understood as concurrently

a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion," or as an Ashokan innovation. On the

other hand, it has also been interpreted as an essentially political ideology that sought to knit together a vast and

diverse empire. Scholars are still attempting to analyse and both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts

(particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems

and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE

Indian empire. Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions

in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices.[19]

[edit]Contributions

[edit]Global spread of Buddhism

Stupa of Sanchi.

As a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as animals and

plants, so he built a number of stupas, Sangharama, viharas, chaitya, and residences for Buddhist monks all over South

Asia and Central Asia. He gave donations to viharas and mathas. He sent his only daughter Sanghamitra and

son Mahindra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (then known as Tamraparni). Ashoka also sent many prominent

Buddhist monks (bhikshus) Sthaviras like Madhyamik Sthavira to modern Kashmir and Afghanistan; Maharaskshit

Sthavira to Syria, Persia / Iran, Egypt, Greece, Italy and Turkey; Massim Sthavira to Nepal, Bhutan, China and

Mongolia; Sohn Uttar Sthavira to modern Cambodia, Laos, Burma (old name Suvarnabhumi for Burma and Thailand),

Thailand and Vietnam; Mahadhhamarakhhita stahvira to Maharashtra (old name Maharatthha); Maharakhhit Sthavira

and Yavandhammarakhhita Sthavira to South India.

Ashoka also invited Buddhists and non-Buddhists for religious conferences. He inspired the Buddhist monks to

compose the sacred religious texts, and also gave all types of help to that end. Ashoka also helped to develop viharas

(intellectual hubs) such as Nalandaand Taxila. Ashoka helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple. Ashoka also

gave donations to non-Buddhists. As his reign continued his even-handedness was replaced with special inclination

towards Buddhism.[22]

Ashoka helped and respected both Sramans (Buddhists monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks).

Ashoka also helped to organise the Third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE) at Pataliputra (today's Patna). It was conducted

by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.

It is well-known that Ashoka sent dtas or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to

various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to

add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock

Edict: They were meant to spread hisdhammavijaya, which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to

propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through

the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script,

as Achaemenid influence is seem in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us

that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural

ideas beyond his own immediate walls.[23]

In his edicts, Ashoka mentions some of the people living in Hellenic countries as converts to Buddhism, although no

Hellenic historical record of this event remain:

Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by

Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules,

beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among

the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the

Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following

Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people

too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-

Gods, are following it and will continue to do so.

Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict (S. Dhammika)[24]

It is not too farfetched to imagine, however, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the

Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the

presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the dtas sent by Ashoka himself).[23]

The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the

emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks,

active in spreading Buddhism (theMahavamsa, XII[25]

).

[edit]As administrator

Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum.

Ashoka's military power was strong, but after his conversion to Buddhism, he maintained friendly relations with

kingdoms in the South like Cholas, Pandya, Keralaputra, the post Alexandrian empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarnabhumi.

His edicts state that he made provisions for medical treatment of humans and animals in his own kingdom as well as in

these neighbouring states. He also had wells dug and trees planted along the roads for the benefit of the common

people.[21]

Ashoka banned the slaughter and eating of the common cattle, and also imposed restrictions on fishing and fish-

eating.[26]

He also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal

residence.[27]

Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many

holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a

government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents."[28]

[edit]Ashoka Chakra

Main article: Ashoka Chakra

The Ashoka Chakra, "the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)"

The Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashoka) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra (seeDharmacakra) or Dhammachakka

in Pali, the Wheel of Dharma (Sanskrit: Chakra means wheel). The wheel has 24 spokes which represent the 12 Laws

of Dependent Origination and the 12 Laws of Dependent Termination. The Ashoka Chakra has been widely inscribed

on many relics of the Mauryan Emperor, most prominent among which is the Lion Capital ofSarnath and The Ashoka

Pillar. The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the National flag of the Republic of India

(adopted on 22 July 1947), where it is rendered in a Navy-blue color on a White background, by replacing the symbol of

Charkha (Spinning wheel) of the pre-independence versions of the flag. The Ashoka Chakra can also been seen on the

base of Lion Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.

The Ashoka Chakra was built by Ashoka during his reign. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which also means "cycle" or "self-

repeating process." The process it signifies is the cycle of time- as in how the world changes with time.

A few days before India became independent on August 1947, the specially formedConstituent Assembly decided that

the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities.[29]

A flag with three colours, Saffron, White and

Green with the Ashoka Chakra was selected.

[edit]Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha)

Main article: Pillars of Ashoka

The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by

Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only

ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all

the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they

were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi.

The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law, while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed

center and guards against evil. There is no evidence of a swastika, or manji, on the pillars.

The Asokan pillar at Lumbini, Nepal

[edit]Lion Capital of Asoka (Ashokmudra)

Main article: Lion Capital of Asoka

The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four "Indian lions" standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the

Aoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The pillar, sometimes called the Aoka Column is still

in its original location, but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has

been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel "Ashoka Chakra" from its base was placed onto the

center of the National Flag of India.

The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on an abacus, with a frieze

carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked

chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to

be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the "Ashoka Chakra").

The Ashoka Lion capital or the Sarnath lion capital is also known as the national symbol of India. The Sarnath pillar

bears one of the Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division within the Buddhist community, which reads, "No one

shall cause division in the order of monks." The Sarnath pillar is a column surmounted by a capital, which consists of a

canopy representing an inverted bell-shaped lotus flower, a short cylindrical abacus with four 24-spoked Dharma

wheels with four animals (an elephant, a bull, a horse, a lion).

The four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolise different steps of Lord Buddha's life.

The Elephant represents the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen

Maya of a white elephant entering her womb.

The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince.

The Horse represents Buddha's departure from palatial life.

The Lion represents the accomplishment of Buddha.

Besides the religious interpretations, there are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the

Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions symbolise Ashoka's rule over the four directions, the

wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of

India.

[edit]Constructions credited to Ashoka

Mahabodhi Temple, constructed by Ashoka the Great, approximately 250 BCE;restoration by the British and India post independence

The British restoration was done by under guidance from Ven.Weligama Sri Sumangala[citation needed]

Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India

Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India

Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India

Barabar Caves, Bihar, India

Nalanda University (Vishwaviddyalaya), (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar,

India

Taxila University (Vishwaviddyalaya), (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and

Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan

Bhir Mound, (reconstructed), Taxila, Pakistan

Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India

Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India

Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan

Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India: The only known sculptural depiction of Ashoka

[edit]In art, film and literature

One of the most famous figures in modern Hindi literature, Jaishankar Prasad,

composedAshoka ki chinta (in English: Anxiety of Ashoka), a famous Hindi verse.

The poem portrays Ashokas heart during the war of Kalinga.

Uttar-Priyadarshi (The Final Beatitude) a verse-play written by poet Agyeya,

depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director, Ratan

Thiyam and has since been performed in many parts of the world.[30][31]

In Piers Anthonys series of space opera novels, the main character mentions

Asoka as a model for administrators to strive for.

Asoka is a 2001 epic Bollywood historical drama. It is a largely fictional version of

the life of the Indian emperor Ashoka. The film was directed by Santosh Sivan and

stars Shahrukh Khan as Ashoka and Kareena Kapoor as Kaurwaki, a princess of

Kalinga. The film ends with Asoka renouncing the sword and embracing Buddhism.

The final narrative describes how Asoka not only built a large empire, but spread

Buddhism and the winds of peace through it.

The Legend of Kunal is an upcoming film based on the life of Kunal, the son of the

Indian emperor Ashoka. The movie will be directed by Chandraprakash Dwivedi.

In 1973, Amar Chitra Katha released a graphic novel based on the life of Ashoka.

In 2002, Mason Jennings released the song "Emperor Ashoka" on his Living in the

Moment EP. It is based on the life of Ashoka.

[edit]See also

Arthashastra

Ashoka's Major Rock Edict

Ashokavadana

Edicts of Ashoka

Kalinga War

Lion Capital of Ashoka

Magadha

Maurya Empire

Sisupalgarh

Buddhism

[edit]References

1. ^ Thapur (1973), p. 51.

2. ^ a b Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges

in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 44.

3. ^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in

Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 45.

4. ^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in

Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 46.

5. ^ Bruce Rich. To Uphold The World Author Discussion

6. ^ a b c John S. Strong (1989). The Legend of King Aoka: A Study and Translation

of the Aokvadna. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. pp. 232. ISBN 978-81-208-0616-0.

Retrieved 30 October 2012.

7. ^ History And Doctrines of the Ajivikas A Vanished Indian Religion By A. L. Basham

8. ^ K. T. S. Sarao (2007). A text book of the history of Theravda Buddhism (2 ed.).

Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Delhi. p. 89. ISBN 978-81-86700-66-

2.

9. ^ a b c d Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From

the Stone Age to the 12th century. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.

10. ^ Prachin bharoter itihas by Sunil Chatterjee

11. ^ Gyan Swarup Gupta (1 January 1999). India: From Indus Valley Civlization to

Mauryas. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 268. ISBN 978-81-7022-763-2.

Retrieved 30 October 2012.

12. ^ a b c d Pradip Bhattacharya (2002). "The Unknown Ashoka". Boloji.com. Retrieved

30 November 2012.

13. ^ Charles Drekmeier (1962). Kingship and Community in Early India. Stanford

University Press. pp. 173. ISBN 978-0-8047-0114-3. Retrieved 30 October 2012.

14. ^ prachin bharater itihas by sunil chattopadhyay

15. ^ Smith, Vincent A. (1901). Rulers of India: Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India.

Oxford at the Clarendon Press. pp. 130.

16. ^ Kamath, Prabhakar. "How Ashoka the Great Gave Brahmins A Song With Which

They Conquered India". Nirmukta.

17. ^ Buckley, Edmund. Universal Religion. The University Association.

18. ^ a b Beni Madhab Barua (5 May 2010). The Ajivikas. General Books. pp. 68

69. ISBN 978-1-152-74433-2. Retrieved 30 October 2012.

19. ^ a b Upinder Singh (2012). "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy

and Practice in the Edicts of Asoka". South Asian Studies (Routledge) (28.2).

20. ^ Richard Robinson, Willard Johnson, and Thanissaro Bhikkhu,Buddhist Religions,

fifth ed., Wadsworth 2005, page 59.

21. ^ a b The Edicts of King Ashoka, English translation (1993) by Ven. S.

Dhammika. ISBN 955-24-0104-6. Retrieved on: 2009-02-21

22. ^ N.V. Isaeva, Shankara and Indian philosophy. SUNY Press, 1993, page 24.

23. ^ a b Oskar von Hinber (2010). "Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to

Asoka?". Journal of the American Oriental Society(Freiburg) (130.2): 262265.

24. ^ The Edicts of King Asoka: an English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika. Access to

Insight: Readings in Theravda Buddhism. Last accessed 01 Sep 2011.

25. ^ Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII

26. ^ Frederick J. Simoons (15 December 1994). Eat Not This Flesh, 2Nd Edition: Food

Avoidances From Prehistory To The Present. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 108 and

288.ISBN 978-0-299-14254-4. Retrieved 30 October 2012.

27. ^ Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper; Michael A. Meyer; H. McCoubrey

(1998). Reflections on Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws

of War by the Late Professor Colonel G.I.A.D. Draper, Obe. Martinus Nijhoff

Publishers. p. 44.ISBN 978-90-411-0557-8. Retrieved 30 October 2012.

28. ^ Phelps, Norm (2007). The Longest Struggle: Animal Advocacy from Pythagoras

to Peta. Lantern Books.ISBN 1590561066.

29. ^ Heimer, eljko (2 July 2006). "India". Flags of the World.Archived from the

original on 18 October 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-11.

30. ^ Margo Jefferson (27 October 2000). "Next Wave Festival Review; In Stirring

Ritual Steps, Past and Present Unfold".New York Times.

31. ^ Review: Uttarpriyadarshi by Renee Renouf, ballet magazine, December 2000,

[edit]Works cited

Ahir, D. C. (1995). Asoka the Great. Delhi: B. R. Publishing.

Bhandarkar, D.R. (1969). Aoka (4th ed.). Calcutta: Calcutta University Press.

Bongard-Levin, G. M. Mauryan India (Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division May

1986) ISBN 0-86590-826-5

Chauhan, Gian Chand (2004). Origin and Growth of Feudalism in Early India: From

the Mauryas to AD 650. Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi. ISBN 978-81-215-1028-8

Durant, Will (1935). Our Oriental Heritage. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Falk, Harry. Asokan Sites and Artefacts A Source-book with Bibliography (Mainz :

Philipp von Zabern, [2006]) ISBN 978-3-8053-3712-0

Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind (1996). Asoka Maurya (Twayne Publishers) ISBN 978-

0-8290-1735-9

Hultzsch, Eugene (1914). The Date of Asoka, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic

Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Oct. 1914), pp. 943951. Article stable URL.

Keay, John. India: A History (Grove Press; 1 Grove Pr edition 10 May 2001) ISBN

0-8021-3797-0

Mookerji, Radhakumud (1962). Aoka (3rd ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.

Nikam, N. A.; McKeon, Richard (1959). The Edicts of Aoka. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1967). Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Reprint: 1996,

Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1

Singh, Upinder (2012). "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and

Practice in the Edicts of Aoka," South Asian Studies, 28:2 (University of Delhi:

2012), pp. 131145. Article stable URL.

Swearer, Donald. Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia (Chambersburg,

Pennsylvania: Anima Books, 1981) ISBN 0-89012-023-4

Thapar, Romila. (1973). Aoka and the decline of the Mauryas. 2nd Edition. Oxford

University Press, Reprint, 1980. SBN 19-660379 6.

von Hinber, Oskar. (2010). "Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to Aoka?" Journal

of the American Oriental Society, 130:2 (Freiburg: 2010), pp. 261266.

[edit]External links

Wikisource has the text of

the1911 Encyclopdia

Britannicaarticle Asoka.

Ashoka at the Open Directory Project

Media related to Ashoka at Wikimedia Commons

Quotations related to Ashoka at Wikiquote

International Vegetarian Union: King Asoka of India

Reclaiming Ashoka An Iron Age Interfaith Exemplar

The Unknown Ashoka

How Ashoka The Great Gave Brahmins A Song With Which They Conquered India

Ashoka

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Born: 304 BCE Died: 232 BCE

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Bindusara

Mauryan Emperor 272232 BCE

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Chandragupta Maurya From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chandragupta Maurya

Samraat (Emperor)

Titles Samraat Chakravartin

Born 340 BC

Birthplace Pataliputra (Patna), Bihar, India

Died 298 BC

Place of death Sravana Belgola, Karnataka, India[1]

Predecessor Dhanananda of Nanda Dynasty

Successor Bindusara

Consort Durdhara

Offspring Bindusara

Royal House Mauryan dynasty

Mother Mura

Religious beliefs Hinduism, gave up his throne and became a Jain monk

Chandragupta Maurya (340 BC 298 BC) was the founder of the Mauryan Empire and the first emperor to

unify India into one state. He ruled from from 322 BC until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favour of his

son Bindusara in 298 BC.[2][3][4]

Chandragupta Maurya is a pivotal figure in the history of India. Prior to his consolidation of power, most of South

Asia was ruled by small states, while the Nanda Dynasty dominated the Gangetic Plains.[5]

Chandragupta succeeded in

conquering and subjugating almost all of the Indian subcontinent by the end of his reign.[nb 1]

His empire extended

from Bengaland Assam in the east, to Afghanistan and Balochistan, eastern and south-east Iran in the west,

to Kashmir and Nepal in the north, and to the Deccan Plateau in the south. It was the largest empire yet seen in Indian

history.[6][7]

After unifying India, Chandragupta and his chief advisor Chanakya passed a series of major economic and political

reforms. He established a strong central administration patterned after that of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty and

after Chanakyas text on politics, theArthashastra. Mauryan India was characterised by an efficient and highly organised

bureaucratic structure with a large civil service. Due its unified structure, the empire developed a strong economy, with

internal and external trade thriving and agriculture flourishing. In both art and architecture, the Mauryan empire

constitued a landmark. There was a growth in culture which derived its inspiration from the Achaemenids and

theHellenistic world.[8]

Chandragupta's reign was a time of great social and religious reform in India. The religious reform

movements ofBuddhism and Jainism became increasingly prominent.

In foreign Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as Sandrokottos and Androcottus.[9]

He became well

known in the Hellenistic world for conquering Alexander the Great's easternmost satrapies, and for defeating the most

powerful of Alexander's successors, Seleucus I Nicator, in battle. Chandragupta subsequently married Seleucus's

daughter to formalize an alliance and established a policy of friendship with the Hellenistic kingdoms, which stimulated

India's trade and contact with the western world. The Greek diplomat Megasthenes is an important source of Mauryan

history.

Taditionally, Chandragupta, who was a Hindu, was influenced to accept Jainism by the sage Bhadrabahu; he abdicated

his throne to spend his last days at the Shravana Belgola, a famous religious site in southwest India, where he fasted to

death. Along with his grandson, Ashoka, Chandragupta Maurya is one of the most celebrated rulers in the history of

India. He has played a crucial role in shaping the national identity of modern India, and has been lionised as a model

ruler and as a national hero.

Contents

[hide]

1 Early life

2 Foundation of the Maurya Empire

o 2.1 Nanda army

o 2.2 Conquest of the Nanda Empire

o 2.3 Conquest of Macedonian territories in India

3 Expansion

o 3.1 Conquest of Seleucus' eastern territories

o 3.2 Southern conquest

4 Jainism and Sallekhana

5 Successors

6 In popular culture

7 See also

8 References

o 8.1 Notes

o 8.2 Footnotes

9 Further reading

10 External links

[edit]Early life

Very little is known about Chandragupta's youth. What is known is rathered from later classical Sanskrit literature, as

well as classicalGreek and Latin sources which refer to Chandragupta by the names "Sandracottos" or "Andracottus."[10]

Plutarch reports that he met with Alexander the Great, probably around Takshasila in the northwest, and that he viewed

the rulingNanda Empire in a negative light:

Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that

Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of

his baseness and low birth.

Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Life of Alexander 62.9

According to this text, the encounter would have happened around 326 BCE, suggesting a birth date for Chandragupta

around 340 BCE. Plutarch and other Greco-Roman historians appreciated the gravity of Chandragupta Maurya's

conquests. Justin describes the humble origins of Chandragupta, and explains how he later led a popular uprising

against the Nanda king.[11]

Many Indian literary traditions connect him with the Nanda Dynasty in modern day Bihar in eastern India. More than half

a millennium later, the Sanskrit drama Mudrarakshasa calls him a "Nandanvaya" i.e. the descendant of Nanda (Act IV).

Again more than a millennium later, Dhundiraja, a commentator of 18th century on Mudrarakshasa states that

Chandragupta was the son of the Nanda king Sarvarthasiddhi by a wife named Mura, daughter of a Vrishala (Shudra).

Mudrarakshasa uses terms like kula-hina and Vrishala for Chandragupta's lineage. This reinforces Justin's contention

that Chandragupta had a humble origin.[12][13]

On the other hand, the same play describes the Nandas as of Prathita-

kula, i.e. illustrious, lineage. The medieval commentator on the Vishnu Purana informs us that Chandragupta was the

son of a Nanda prince and a Hindi: dasi (English: maid) named Mura. The poets Kshmendra and Somadeva call him

Purvananda-suta, son of the genuine Nanda, as opposed to Yoga-Nanda, i.e. pseudo-Nanda. The Nanda dynasty was

started byMahapadma Nanda, who is considered the first Shudra king of Magadha.[citation needed]

The Buddhist text the Mahavamsa calls Chandragupt a member of a division of the Khattiya (Kshatriya) clan called the

Moriya (Maurya). Divyvadna calls Bindusara, son of Chandragupt, an anointed Kshatriya, Kshatriya

Murdhabhishikata, and in the same work King Ashoka, son of Bindusara, is also styled a Kshatriya.

The Mahaparinibbana Sutta states that the Moriyas (Mauryas) belonged to the Kshatriya community of Pippalivana.

These traditions indicate that Chandragupt came from a Kshatriya lineage. TheMahavamshatika connects him with

the Shakya clan of the Buddha, a clan which also belongs to the race of dityas.[citation needed]

A medieval inscription represents the Maurya clan as belonging to the solar race of Kshatriyas. It is stated that the

Maurya line sprang from Suryavamsi Mandhatri, son of prince Yuvanashva of the solar race.[citation needed]

Chandragupta

was a student of Chanakya.

[edit]Foundation of the Maurya Empire

Further information: Magadha and Maurya Empire

Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.

Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of Chanakya/kautilya, defeated the Magadha king and the army of the

Chandravanshi clan. Following his victory, the defeated generals of Alexander settled in Gandhara

(the Kamboja kingdom), today'sAfghanistan. At the time of Alexander's invasion, Chanakya was a teacher inTakshasila.

The king of Takshasila and Gandhara, Ambhi (also known as Taxiles), made a peace treaty with Alexander. Chanakya,

however, planned to defeat the foreign invasion and sought help from other kings to unite and fight Alexander.

Parvateshwara (Porus), a king of Punjab, was the only local king who was able to challenge Alexander at the Battle of

the Hydaspes River, but he was defeated.

Chanakya then went further east to Magadha, to seek the help of Dhana Nanda, who ruled the vast Nanda

Empire which extended from Bihar and Bengal in the east to Punjab and Sindh in the west,[11]

but Dhana Nanda refused

to help him. After this incident, Chanakya began to persuade his disciple Chandragupta of the need to build an empire

that could protect Indian territories from foreign invasion.

[edit]Nanda army

The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BCE.

Main article: Nanda Dynasty

According to Plutarch, at the time of the Battle of the Hydaspes River, the Nanda Empire's army numbered

200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 7,000 war elephants, which discouraged Alexander's men and

prevented their further progress into India:

"As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further

advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand

infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river

Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while

its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For

they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen,

two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants. And there was no

boasting in these reports. For Androcottus, who reigned there not long afterwards, made a present to Seleucus

of five hundred elephants, and with an army of six hundred thousand men overran and subdued all India."

Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Life of Alexander" 62.1-4

In order to defeat the powerful Nanda army, Chandragupta needed to raise a formidable army of his own.[11]

[edit]Conquest of the Nanda Empire

Further information: Nanda Dynasty

Main article: Nanda War

Chandragupta's empire when he founded it c. 320 BCE, by the time he was about 20 years old.

Chanakya had trained and guided Chandragupta and together they planned the destruction of Dhana Nanda.

The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jainwork Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the

Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus.[14]

It is noted in the Chandraguptakatha that Chandragupta and Chanakya were initially rebuffed by the Nanda forces.

Regardless, in the ensuing war, Chandragupta faced off against Bhadrasala, the commander of Dhana Nanda's armies.

He was eventually able to defeat Bhadrasala and Dhana Nanda in a series of battles, culminating in the siege of the

capital city Pataliputra[11]

and the conquest of the Nanda Empire around 321 BCE,[11]

thus founding the powerful Maurya

Empire in Northern India by the time he was about 20 years old.

[edit]Conquest of Macedonian territories in India

Main article: SeleucidMauryan war

Chandragupta had defeated the remainingMacedonian satrapies in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent by 317 BCE.

After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Chandragupta, turned his attention to Northwestern India (modern Pakistan),

where he defeated the satrapies (described as "prefects" in classical Western sources) left in place by Alexander

(according to Justin), and may have assassinated two of his governors, Nicanor and Philip.[3][11]

The satrapies he fought

may have included Eudemus, ruler in western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE; and Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler

of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE. The Roman historian Justindescribed

how Sandrocottus (Greek version of Chandragupta's name) conquered the northwest:

"Some time after, as he was going to war with the generals of Alexander, a wild elephant of great bulk

presented itself before him of its own accord, and, as if tamed down to gentleness, took him on its back, and

became his guide in the war, and conspicuous in fields of battle. Sandrocottus, having thus acquired a throne,

was in possession of India, when Seleucus was laying the foundations of his future greatness; who, after

making a league with him, and settling his affairs in the east, proceeded to join in the war against Antigonus.

As soon as the forces, therefore, of all the confederates were united, a battle was fought, in which Antigonus

was slain, and his son Demetrius put to flight. "

Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.19

[edit]Expansion

By the time he was only about 20 years old, Chandragupta, who had succeeded in defeating the Macedonian satrapies

in India and conquering the Nanda Empire, had founded a vast empire that extended from the Bay of Bengal in the

east, to the Indus River in the west. In later years he would expand this empire.

[edit]Conquest of Seleucus' eastern territories

Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.

Chandragupta extended the borders of his empire towards Seleucid Persia after his conflict with Seleucus c. 305 BCE.

Seleucus I Nicator, a Macedonian satrap of Alexander, reconquered most of Alexander's former empire and put under

his own authority the eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55),

until in 305 BCE he entered into conflict with Chandragupta:

Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he acquired Mesopotamia,

Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other

adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire

were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to

Seleucus. He crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the

banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. Some

of these exploits were performed before the death of Antigonus and some afterward.

Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55

The exact details of engagement are not known. As noted by scholars such as R. C. Majumdar and D. D. Kosambi,

Seleucus appears to have fared poorly, having ceded large territories west of the Indus to Chandragupta. Due to his

defeat, Seleucus surrendered Arachosia, Gedrosia, Paropamisadae, and Aria.[15]

Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush,

modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistanprovince of Pakistan.[16][17]

Archaeologically, concrete indications of

Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandhahar in southern Afghanistan.

After having made a treaty with him [Sandrakotos] and put in order the Orient situation, Seleucos went to war

against Antigonus.

Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15

It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture,

Chandragupta sent 500 war-elephants,[15][18][19][20][21][22]

a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of

Ipsus in 302 BCE. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and

later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II

Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the

Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[23]

Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such

as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:

And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more

amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the

Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on

the contrary, were to banish love.

Athenaeus of Naucratis, Deipnosophistae, I.32

[edit]Southern conquest

After annexing Seleucus' eastern Persian provinces, Chandragupta had a vast empire extending across the northern

parts of Indian Sub-continent, from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. Chandragupta then began expanding his

empire further south beyond the barrier of the Vindhya Range and into the Deccan Plateau except the Tamil regions

(Pandya, Chera, Chola and Satyaputra) and Kalinga(modern day Odisha).[11]

By the time his conquests were complete,

Chandragupta had succeeded in unifying most of Southern Asia. Megasthenes later recorded the size of

Chandragupta's army as 400,000 soldiers, according to Strabo:

Megasthenes was in the camp of Sandrocottus, which consisted of 400,000 men.

Strabo, Geographica, 15.1.53

On the other hand, Pliny, who also drew from Megasthenes' work, gives even larger numbers of 600,000 infantry,

30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants:

But the Prasii surpass in power and glory every other people, not only in this quarter, but one may say in all India, their

capital Palibothra, a very large and wealthy city, after which some call the people itself the Palibothri,--nay even the

whole tract along the Ganges. Their king has in his pay a standing army of 600,000-foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, and

9,000 elephants: whence may be formed some conjecture as to the vastness of his resources.

Pliny, Natural History VI, 22.4

[edit]Jainism and Sallekhana

Purportedly the mark of Chandragupta's footprints in Karnataka, India, not far from the cave where he starved himself to death in

accordance with Jain beliefs.

Chandragupt gave up his throne in 298 BCE, when he was 42 years old, and became an ascetic under the Jain

saint Acharya Bhadrabahu, migrating south with them and ending his days in "sallekhana" at ravaa Begoa in

present day Karnataka, though fifth-century inscriptions in the area support the concept of a larger southern migration

around that time.[24]

A small temple marks the cave (Bhadrabahu Cave) where he is said to have died by fasting.

There are two hills in ravaa Begoa, Chandragiri (Chikkabetta) and Vindyagiri. The last shruta-kevali, Bhadrabahu

and his pupil Chandragupta Maurya, are believed to have meditate