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Western civilization, which had begun to penetrate the closed system of the medieval Muslim civilization and to bring the forces of modern civilization to bear upon the life of the Muslims.

The latter condition reflected itself on the philosophical level in the dis- appearance of the once-flourishing ethical and metaphysical writings. Signs of renewed interest in philosophy are observable only to the extent that a secular approach has been adopted with respect to social problems. This interest is manifest in a return to the old Western as well as the indigenous philosophical sources.

INDIAN ETHICS AND SOCIAL PRACTICE

Indian philosophy is not merely a way of thought but also a way of life. Yet, critics say that ethics does not find a place in Indian philosophy or that it finds only a subordinate place. The reasons given by the critics are: ( 1) Indian philosophy is concerned mostly with a discussiori of the nature of reality and the modes of realizing it. ( 2 ) The goal of In- dian philosophy being beyond ethics, distinctions between right and wrong do not apply to one who has achieved or realized perfection.

( 1 ) As for the criticism that ethics does not find a prominent place in Indian metaphysical texts, it must be pointed out that metaphysical texts presuppose a study of moral texts. In fact, moral discipline and purity are conditions precedent to the study of metaphysics. This insistence on moral purity is common to Jainism and Buddhism as well.

(2 ) No doubt, the goal of Indian philosophy-perfection-is beyond good and evil. But this does not mean that perfection is either less than or opposed to morality. What is more cannot be opposed to what is less. Statements that the perfect ones are not defiled by wrong acts are not to be taken literally. They are figurative statements.

Indian philosophy looks beyond ethics, because ethics is concerned with the realm of claims and counterclaims, with relative reality. A study of the answers given to ethical problems, such as those of form versus con- tent or fate versus free will, shows that the answers given are not satisfactory even at the ethical level, let alone at the level of final or complete perfec-

63 T. M. P. MAHADEVAN

tion. The only satisfactory answer is in terms of Self-knowledge-knowl- edge of the Supreme Self-not the ego.

Because Indian philosophy is moksa-oriented, critics say that it is world- and-life-denying. But withdrawal from life is the necessary price for life eternal. The sannyzsin is one "who owns the whole world while disown- ing oneself." Indian philosophy, by its doctrine of dram,as (stages of life), provides for a gradual overcoming of the ego.

Indian negation is significant negation. The Bhagavad GZtz gives a satis- factory solution to the problem of action versus inaction-in terms of dis- interested, but not aimless, activity. Self-purification must be the motive of all action.

The pursuit of moksa is said to be selfish. But moksa can be attained only when there is no selfishness-when the ego is overcome and the Supreme Self attained. Only such a person can serve humanity and work for its welfare. Mere social service without conquest of the ego is not enough. The Hindu doctrine of universal release, the Jaina conception of ford-builders, the Buddhist conception of the bodhisattva (future Buddha) -all these show that concern for the salvation of others is pivoral to In- dian philosophy.

Barring the Cgrvgkas (Indian materialists), who accept only wealth and pleasure of the four values of life, all other schools realize that pursuit of pleasure is self-stultifying. Their ethical codes and disciplines are substan- tially the same.

The great epic, the Mahlbhl~ata, proclaims that where d h ~ r m a (moral law) is, there is victory. Dharma is the essential nature of man-not his superficial nature. The golden rule is: not to do unto others what is dis- agreeable to oneself. The epic boldly commands: Renounce the world for the sake of the Self.

There is inevitably a lag between ethical ideals and social practice. A few individuals may reach the ideal at any given t i m e n o t all. But India has been fortunate, from the earliest times down to the present day, in hav- ing leaders who have been fighting against ills-social and others-in terms of truth and non-violence. India insists on (1) moral discipline in both thought and action, and ( 2 ) the need to realize that one must go beyond morality to spiritual perfection.